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-                               -I                                                     '?-                                                            4                     -                                     V                -

ARROW RELEASE DISTRIBUTIONS

BY

A. L. KROEBER

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS IN AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY

AND ETHNOLOGY

Volume 23, No. 4, pp. 283-296, 1 map

Issued April 16, 1927

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRBSS

BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON, ENGLAND

ARROW RELEASE DISTRIBUTIONS

BY

A. L. KROEBER

In 1885 the late Edward S. Morse wrote one of the rare mono-
graphs which become classical because they discover and found a
subject of study on an enduring basis: Ancient and Modern Methods
of Arrow-Release.' So exact was the working out of the topic that
when Morse issued a supplementary paper2 nearly forty years later,
he was able to add many new facts but was under no necessity of
revising his ideas.

The matter of arrow "releases" or "looses" is of some intrinsic
and general interest because it lends itself to exact treatment, a fact
due in part to the limited number of possible ways in which a human
hand can effectively manipulate the drawing and letting go of an
arrow. The present examination is an inquiry into what historic
growths or spreads are traceable, and into aspects of the subject that
may have theoretical bearing on the fundamental but still obscure
problem of "invention" or the origins of culture material. With a
few exceptions,3 the data dealt with are Morse's. I suspect that a
thorough review of published literature, photographs, and works of
art might double the cases assembled by Morse. But the accretions
would hardly be notable unless search were systematic, and this would
be a task of magnitude, calling either for cooperation or for prosecu-
tion simultaneously with other researches of world-wide scope.

Five releases are recognized, plus sub-varieties that seem of no
great significance. They are differentiated, under the names origin-
ally given them, in the little table below. The usage of modern
English speech varies between recognizing five fingers or four fingers

1 Bull. Essex Inst., Salem, 17:145-189, 1885.

2 Additional Notes on Arrow Release, Peabody Museum, Salem, 1922, pp. 1-48.
3 Californian data: Maidu, Primary (and pdrhaps Tertiary): Dixon, Bull.
Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 17:204, 1905. Luisenlo, Mediterranean (and Primary for
simple arrows of arrow-weed): Sparkman, Univ. Calif. Publ. Am. Arch. Ethn.,
8:206, 1908. Kato, according to a native informant tested in 1923: transitional
between Mediterranean and Tertiary; the tips of the index and middle fingers
pull the string, the arrow lies between them, the thumb rests on the butt. Com-
pare Andaman modification of Tertiary, Morse, 1922, fig. 22.

284      University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

and a thumb-in which case the middle or third finger of the hand
becomes the second of the four fingers in the more specific sense.
I shall try to avoid ambiguity by using either number designations
of the digits or popular names for the fingers; thus: 1, thumb; 2,
index; 3, middle; 4, ring; 5, little finger.

RELEASE CLASSIFICATION

kn: Knuckle; b: Base

Pull on:     Pull by:      Butt between: Unique in:
Primary      Arrow        1 + 2kn          1 + 2kn  Arrow pull

Secondary    Arrow + string [1+ 2kn] + [3 (+4)] 1+ 2kn  Combination pull
Tertiary     String       2 + 3 (+4)       1+2

Mediterranean String      2 +3 (+4)        2 +3     Thumb not used
Mongolian    String       1 (+ ring)       lb + 2b   Thumb pull

The Primary release is that almost invariably      attempted by
children and uninstructed novices. The pull is administered wholly
on the arrow, whose butt is clasped between the end of the thumb
and the middle knuckle of the index. The pull depends wholly on
friction, there being no engagement unless the butt of the arrow is
thickened into a knob-a device frequently found where this release
is standard. Morse in fact has made several of his determinations
of Primary release from butts alone-a proceeding justified in the
absence of other data. This is the weakest of all releases4 on an
ordinary arrow. The strength of the pull can be increased by knob-
bing, but probably with some impairment of velocity and trueness
of flight. The Primary release has been reported from all continents,
but has a very scattered distribution.

The Secondary is the rarest of the five fundamental releases, and
has been reported beyond doubt from but one continent.      It is the
only release that draws on both arrow and string. The hold on the
arrow is like the Primary one. Simultaneously, the tip of finger 3,
plus sometimes 4, engages the string. The name Secondary was
applied by Morse in the belief that this release was probably an out-
growth of the Primary. It seems simplest to retain the established
name without commitment as to developmental implication.

4 Pope, Univ. Calif. Publ. Am. Arch. Ethn., 13:121, 1918, found that the
pounds he could pull with the several releases were: Primary, 25, with thickened
arrow butt, 35; Secondary, 40; Tertiary, 60; Mediterranean, 80; Mongolian, with
bare thumb, 45, with archer's glove, 55. His training having been in the Medi-
terranean, it seems possible that continued practice in the other releases might
have improved their strength somewhat, particularly the Mongolian, which is the
antithesis of the Mediterranean.

Kroeber: Arrow Belease Distributions

The Tertiary release, like those that follow, draws only or mainly
on the bow string. The arrow is held between the thumb and the
side of the index, chiefly for its guidance. The index knuckles are
unbent sufficiently to allow the tip of the index to join with the tip
of the middle, and sometimes of the ring and perhaps even little
finger, in engaging and pulling the string. Similarity to the Primary
release lies only in the fact that the butt of the arrow lies between
the same fingers-I and 2. The main difference from the Mediter-
ranean release is that the latter puts the arrow between fingers 2 and
3, thus wholly freeing the thumb and enabling the pulling fingers to
engage the string at a right angle. As a matter of fact transitions
occur, as among the Andamanese and the Kato. Morse speaks of the
index being "not bent" in the Tertiary method but this statement is
true only in comparison with the Primary and Secondary releases.
A straight index would lose either the arrow or the string. The palm
tends to turn upward in this release, leading to a frequent diagonal
or horizontal position of the bow. This is another release of wide
and somewhat scattered occurrence.

The Mediterranean release is distinctive in that the thumb is
kept entirely out of the way. The string is engaged by the inner
surfaces of the tips of the index and middle fingers, with or with-
out the ring finger. The engaging finger ends are at right angles to
the'string. They are often protected from the scrape of the cord by
casings, but these never enter integrally into the engagement. This
release is further' unique in not laying the arrow end between some
part of the thumb and index. Instead, the butt rests between the
index and middle fingers, which lightly guide it. This is probably
the most powerful of releases. The name Mediterranean appears to
have been bestowed as an intended synonym of Indo-European, but
is best retained, the earliest record of the release being among a
Hamitic people.

The Mongolian release is the only one in which the engagement
is wholly by the thumb, which is hooked round the cord. The index
finger aids in the pull by being bent over the thumb end to reinforce
the crook of this, but does not touch the string. The arrow butt
rests in the hollow between thumb and index. The three outer fingers
are thus not used at all except that 3 may be clasped over 2 to rein-
force it. In the classical Mongolian release a ring or similar device
is always worn on the thumb, not only to protect this but to give a
sharper engagement without slip. Occurrence of these thumb rings

1927]

285

286     University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

may properly be taken as evidence of the custom of Mlongolian release
when attitude of the hand is unknown. This release is closely but
not necessarily associated with the composite bow; its occurrence is
essentially Asiatic.

The Yahi variety of the Mongolian release differs in that no ring
is used, that the middle instead of the index finger reinforces the
thumb, and that the arrow is held between the distal knuckles or
phalanges of thumb and index, the latter being bent double. Pope,
the discoverer, classes this as a variant of the Mongolian.5  Morse
holds it to be a distinct release, entitled to a name of its own. On
historic grounds he is probably right; but the similarity to the Mon-
golian hold in pure thumb engagement and finger reinforcement is
so fundamental, logically and mechanically, that a joining of the two
methods in one type seems warranted.

I omit from the present consideration releases like the African
Wute one,6 in which the hold is entirely dependent on a manufactured
contrivance, or which like the Temiang Malay release7 are so unnatur-
ally stilted that they could not be employed in hard shooting.

The principal distributional facts assembled by Morse, together
with my few additions, are condensed in the map. In this, modern
or recent occurrences of the five releases are indicated by the symbols
1, 2, 3, E, 0. For ancient occurrences, the same symbols are put in
parentheses. Symbols connected by hyphens stand for co-occurrence
of different releases among the same people.

The distributions being most definite for the Mongolian and most
irregular for the Primary release, it will be more satisfactory to con-
sider the five releases in the opposite sequence from that in which
they have been described.

The Mongolian or thumb release is middle Asiatic, from Japan
to Persia and Anatolia. It is not characteristic of anay part of south-
ern Asia, except for an introduction into India, presumably since the
Mohammedan or Mongol periods. Morse is inclined to consider the
thumb rings attributed to India as imported from Persia; the custom
of wearing them almost certainly is so.

The oldest indubitable reference to this release is to the rings
which are its constant accompaniment, and, as might be expected,
comes from China. Morse cites two lines from the Shi-king which

5 Univ. Calif. Publ. Am. Arch. Ethn., 13:120, 1918.

6 Von Luschan, Verh. Berlin Ges. Anthr., 1891, pp. 670-678; Morse, 1922,
pp. 29, 44.

7 Morse, 1885, p. 163, fig. 19.

c         m-4CA

9!s-g W3

0) ~-< Cj

:3

om    _<

0)

0:3 CO r"a

o r-   =  I
o      = I

288      University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

are quite clear. This sixth century compilation, being a collection of
songs then extant, probablv carries the use of thumb rings somewhat
farther back, perhaps to 1000 B.C. It is of course no proof that the
release and ring were first devised in China; for all we know they may
have been imported from central Asia to China long before the date
mentioned; or, they may indeed have spread from China westward.

It is significant that there are three forms of "ring": a simple
cylindrical or polygonal tube; a ring with a sharp flange or "visor";
and a three-fingered glove hardened at the crook of the thumb. The
first is Chinese; the second, west Asiatic and probably central and
north Asiatic also, since it reappears in Korea; the third Japanese.
That Korea goes with the Ural-Altaians rather than with China is
not surprising in the case of an old and simple device like this, used
largely in war. The separateness of Japan is also interesting as one
instance out of hundreds of how the predominantly Chinese higher
civilization of that country has been made over with unusual orig-
inality.

In the west, the Mongolian release seems pretty well established
for Sassanian Persia of about 400. Morse's interpretations of certain
Greek, Scythian, Egyptian XIX dynasty, and Hittite representations
as pictures of Mongolian releases seem more dubious, especially as
they are unsupported by finds of thumb rings. Von Luschan reports
modern thumb rings from the upper Nile and lower Niger, but these
are as yet without data.

In this connection the question of ancient association of thumb
release and the double flexed composite bow of horn, sinew, and wood
becomes important. For the modern period the association is close.
It appears, however, that the composite bow was older than the Mon-
golian release in the Near East. Aramaean eighth-century reliefs from
Sendjirli seem to show it; it may have been represented under the
V dynasty in Egypt. There may be confusion here between the
"compound" bow of two joined horns, and the "composite" one of
layers of wood, horn, and sinew. The compound horn bow is known
from specimens from Egyptian dynasty I, and may prove to be the
ancestor of the composite form. The latter is established for dynasty
XIX, thirteenth century, by a specimen assumed to have been im-
ported into Egypt from Syria.8

The other known extra-Asiatic occurrence of the Mongolian release
is that of the ringless form practiced by the Yahi or southernmost

8 Summary in article Bogen in Reallexicon der Vorgeschichte, 2:49, 1925.

Kroeber: Arrow Release Distributions

Yana in northern California. The life-history of the last survivor of
this group9 precludes his having learned the method from modern
Caucasians or East Asiaties. Also, he knew that other releases, at any
rate the Primary one, had been used by neighbor tribes. While data
for American groups north of the Yahi and for Asiatic ones north
of the Manchu are scant, a glance at the map suggests the improba-
bility of transmission by diffusion. As the sinew-backed bow of
northwestern North America is Fenerally regarded as due to a
diffusion from Asia of a simplified form of the composite bow, we
may have here another case where the spread of this bow type out-
stripped the release.

The Yahi release is thus indicated as an independent invention:
a parallel, or more strictly a convergence, since it is by no means
identical with the Asiatic form. It stands in line with the observa-
tion that analysis generally reveals seeming culture parallels to be
really convergences-similarities and not identities. How the Yahi
manipulation could have originated is puzzling, because while the
Mediterranean release can be derived from the Tertiary, or vice
versa, by relatively slight alterations, the thumb pull sets the Mon-
golian method well apart, muscularly and dynamically, from all other
releases.

In contrast with the compact Mongolian distribution, the Medi-
terranean release is practiced in at least three areas, plus sporadic
occurrences. The largest area stretches from Europe to southeastern
Asia, and was apparently continuous until the introduction of the
Mongolian method in western Asia. The earliest record is Egyptian
in the reign of Usertesen I, dynasty XII, twentieth century B.C.
Assyrian and Greek sculptural evidence is conflicting, but includes
clear Mediterranean instances. Roman, Dacian, Byzantine, eighth-
century Saxon, Medieval, and modern European practice is con-
sistently Mediterranean. Only thickened arrow butts from Denmark
and Schleswig, of the beginning of the Christian era, suggest an early
or barbarian Primary usage in Europe. Morse mentions Arabia
as Mediterranean, without further specification.  For India, the
sculptural and ancient literary evidence uniformly suggests the Medi-
terranean release, which is corroborated by modern Bhil, Korwa, and
Vedda practice. Eastward, occasional occurrences crop out in the
available data as far as Hindu influence penetrated, but no farther:
Andaman, Angkor sculptures in Cambodia, Tinguian and Negrito

9 Univ. Calif. Publ. Am. Arch. Ethn., 13:35-102, 1918 (Waterman), 13:103-
152, 1918 (Pope).

1927]

28S9

290      Universtty of Caltfornia Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

in Luzon. The inclusion of the two Pygmy peoples indicates that the
release was introduced into this area as part of the great cultural
diffusion from India into Indonesia, and has probably no connection
with original racial or speech relationships of the Pygmies. Similarly,
India may have received the release at an earlier time by transmission
from the Near East, rather than as part of the common Indo-European
heritage as Morse inclines to believe.

The second Mediterranean area is that of the Eskimo, for whom
the evidence is definite from Siberia, Alaska, and Baffinland.

The third area includes the Luiseiio of southern California, the
San Carlos Apache of Arizona, and the Seri of Sonora. Consistent
records of other releases to the north make it probable that this area
is not connected historically with the Eskimo. On the other hand,
it is possible that this third or Southwestern area was connected with
Mediterranean occurrences to the south. Aztec pictures, as Morse
states, usually merely indicate the act of shooting without showing
a release, yet there are some that suggest Mediterranean usage. From
Costa Rica, among the Bribri Talamanca, there is an oral report
of MIediterranean usage, although photographs show the Tertiary.
Finally, far in South America there are two independent reports of
Mediterranean release among the Botocudo. As these stand alone
in the continent, no interpretation is warranted. But there are so
few release data of any sort from Mexico south, and so many other
familiar indications of cultural connections over the whole area
between the Southwest and Argentina, that it will be worth while
observing whether new data may not interpret the small but indubi-
table Southwestern area as merely the outpost of a bi-continental
middle American diffusion of the Mediterranean release.

Somewhat similarly, the one recorded African Negro occurrence,
among the Baluba, might prove to be due to cultural penetrations of
the usage of nations on the Mediterranean; but the minimal African
data allow of no present interpretation.

As between the Eur-Asiatic, Eskimo, and Southwestern distribu-
tions, it seems fairly but not unduly conservative to construe these
as cases of separate origins.

The Tertiary release appears on first glance at the map to have
a remarkably irregular release, much as it might have if it repre-
sented a "natural" or expectable development in higher savagery
out of an earlier Primary and Secondary usage in lower savagery,
as Morse seems to believe. However, most of the occurrences prove

1Kroeber: Arrow Release Distribu?tions

to fall in a few areas, which look as if they might represent the usual
sort of culture growths by diffusion or imitation.

The best established of these areas is in central North America,
where it includes Menomini, Sioux, Assiniboin, Blackfeet, Crow,
Omaha, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Comanche, Navaho, Tarahumare. To
the northeast of this tract there are records only of Primary and
Secondary releases; to the southwest it abuts on the Mediterranean
release area. The Kato in California may represent an influence from
the latter or from the central Tertiary area: their release is inter-
mediate in type.

From Mexico south, records are again very scattered: Aztecs,
probably, on the basis of their inadequate pictures; Talamanca of
Costa Rica, according to photographs; Arawak, Carib, Galibi, and
Bush Negroes of Guiana, though Surinam arrow butts indicate
Primary; the Bororo in Brazil, though von den Steinen's description
-"thumb not used at all" -suggests Mediterranean; Ona of Tierra
del Fuego, Primary and Tertiary. All these cases are either doubt-
ful or conflicting. Yet the fact that every known American record
or indication south of Sonora, except for the Botocudo, points at least
in part to a Tertiary release, suggests that this method enjoyed a
wide vogue.

For Europe and the Near East, there are only some cases of
ancient Greek and Egyptian representations.

In Africa the Basonge and Bakuba of the Congo use the Tertiary
release.

Between India and Melanesia there are eight recorded Tertiary
cases. These suggest a connection in their history, although this
history has evidently become intertwined in the area with both Pri-
mary and Mediterranean developments. The instances are: Kader
of western India; Burma; Siam; Andamans; Java; Luzon Negrito;
Papua; Santa Cruz Island. The distribution of the three types sug-
gests an origin, or at least centering, of the Mediterranean release
in India; of the Tertiary in or near Indo-China or Malaysia; of the
Primary along the eastern or Pacific edge of the area.

The Secondary is the least widespread of the releases. Apart from
some doubtful constructions of ancient Assyrian and Indian repre-
sentations, and an Andaman description, the method has been re-
ported only from North America: Seneca Iroquois, Ottawa, Ojibwa,
Zufni, Tarahumare. These tribes are marginal to the large Tertiary
group.

1927]

291

292     University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

The Primary release has the most irregular distribution. Some
of the records of its occurrence must be taken with reserve, since they
may have been obtained from novice or otherwise inadequate bow-
men. It is only when several representatives of a tribe consistently
exhibit this release that it can be accepted as standard for their
group, either as the sole or as one of several recognized releases.
But, with all allowance for this factor, it is clear that most of the
reported Primary releases occur either among tribes whose techno-
logical and general cultural habits are simple, or among groups to
whom the bow is a relatively unimportant weapon. The distribution
is thus evidently the result of two separate factors: persistence of
originally "primitive" or simple methods; and secondary acquisition
of simplicity through degeneration or retrogression. With the Pri-
mary release the product of two sets of causes as different as these,
its unusual irregularity of distribution becomes expectable, although
the history of most of its occurrences remains to be accounted for
in detail.

Northeastern North America shows one area of relatively back-
ward culture in which only the Primary release has been found: the
New England-Nova Scotia area of the Penobscot and Micmac. Im-
mediately adjoining on the west is a definite Secondary area. This
extends to the Ojibwa, whose usage is both Primary and Secondary;
beyond them, southwesterly, lies the large area of Tertiary release in
the center of the continent.

Beyond this Tertiary area the Primary method reappears among
the Navaho and the Maidu and Luisefio of California, and is inferred
for the Ute and, from butts, for the Tlingit. The latter possibly
represent separate history; but the three or four Southwest-California
cases support one another and link with Secondary instances in the
same part of the continent. While the data are none too full, it
therefore looks as if we had here a distribution of the "central and
marginal" type: the more effective and sophisticated Tertiary release
in the middle, the weaker and more spontaneous Secondary and Pri-
mary in one or perhaps two surrounding belts, continuous or inter-
rupted. Such distributions being normally interpretable as indica-
tions of a later origin of the centrally occurring trait, it seems that,
unless future data confuse the picture, Morse 's derivation of the
Tertiary release from the Secondary, and of this from the Primary,
is likely to be confirmed as an actual sequence on North American
soil.

Kroeber: Arrow Release Distributions

South America offers three cases: Surinam, Demerara, Ona, two
of them with accompanying Tertiary practice. Interpretation would
be premature.

So as to Africa, where the release occurs on the west in the Senegal
and on the east in the.Albert Nyanza region.

In the area of Occidental civilization, there are some representa-
tive indications for Egypt, Assyria, and possibly Greece. These
should be cited with caution. The Primary release may have been
occasionally used in these countries without being standard; or the
artists may not have been archers; or their depiction is sometimes
misinterpretable by us. The established existence of the Mediter-
ranean release and composite bow show that archery had reached
an advanced development in this part of the world as early as the
second millenium B.C. Any authenticated Primary occurrences may
therefore be construable as temporary regressions or local survivals,
and must certainly be considered with specific reference to the long
archery history of this area as a whole, rather than as indications of
a stage in a consistently regular development.

The case is rather better for the Primary release inferred from the
thickened arrow butts of the Danish peninsula in the incipient Chris-
tian era, because of the definite cultural backwardness of remote
Scandinavia at that period.

The remaining known instances of Primary release fall in the
region of southeastern Asia and western Oceania and may therefore
represent a true historical unit, although if so this has certainly come
into relations of some complexity with the Tertiary and Mediter-
ranean methods that also obtain in the area, and with the Mongolian
to the north. The instances are Ainu; Formosa; Bagobo of Mindanao;
Andamans; Solomons. In the main, these Primary occurrences con-
stitute an easterly fringe of the area in question, suggesting a
marginal though interrupted survival indicative of a former more
central extension.

It is interesting that both the Pygmy peoples from whom there
are data, the Andamanese and the Luzon Negritos, certainly practice
the Primary alongside the Mediterranean release, and that the former
in addition use a form of the Tertiary and possibly the Secondary
and Mongolian methods. This circumstance, like so many others,
points to the heterogeneousness of the Negrito cultures. These cul-
tures are "primitive"y in the sense that they have incorporated and
retained an unusually small sum total of culture elements. Their
characteristic tendency is toward economy of cultural means. This

1927]

293

294     University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

tendency toward economy may well be a survival from a truly ancient
and primitive condition. In specific content, the Pygmy cultures are
far from primitive, in fact possess a surprisingly high proportion of
elements of advanced and late origin-pottery, occasionally iron,
musical instruments, perhaps the bow itself. To infer, from   this
primitiveness of cultural form or organization, the primitiveness or
antiquity of any included element of culture substance, is likely
to lead to erroneous conclusions. Interpretation of the age of traits
on the basis of mechanical consideration of their presence or absence
becomes unusually misleading in Pygmy culture.

The apparent irregularity of arrow release distributions thus
resolves itself into a seemingly limited number of normal growth or
spread distributions, plus several probabilities of independent origins.
The simplicity and definiteness of the subject make it unusually
favorable for further investigation. On the whole, the specific his-
torical conclusions inferable in the present state of knowledge tally
rather well with the conclusions derived from culture material of
broader range. The same may be said as to the processes discernible,
such as diffusion, continuity, degeneration, and convergence, all of
which appear.

The most important areas from which additional data on releases
are desirable are: all of Africa; all of Latin America; in North
America, the southeast, the Pacific coast, and northern Canada; in
Asia, the whole sub-Arctic region, ancient southern China, Indo-
China, and the East Indies inclusive of Melanesia.

Shortly after the above was written, there appeared a new book
by Wissler,10 in which he devotes a section of his first chapter to
Arrow  Release.  Wissler 's volume is an attempt to examine and
exemplify the method of working with distributions. Most of his
inferences as to release agree with mine. These conclusions may
therefore be considered as corroborated to the extent that two workers
have independently arrived at them. At some points Wissler reaches
interpretations different from mine. These interpretations will now
be examined.

Wissler considers Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary closely related
typologically, whereas Mediterranean and Mongolian stand apart.
His schematic classification is therefore into an extended "Primary"
or Primitive, a Mediterranean, and a Mongolian type. Within his

10 The Relation of Nature to Man in Aboriginal America (New York, Oxford
University Press, 1926); section on Arrow Release, pp. 30-40, figs. 16-19.

1Kroeber: Arrow  Release Distributions

Primitive, he considers the transition from Primary to Secondary
less easy than from Primary to Tertiary. I cannot agree to the first
point and am dubious on the second. The Tertiary and Mediter-
ranean releases are both essential string pulls, as contrasted to the
pure arrow pull of the Primary. There are actual transitional re-
leases between Tertiary and Mediterranean, as mentioned above. In
type, these are just as intermediate as Secondary is between Primary
and Tertiary, although they have not been given a name. If this
consideration holds, Wissler's schematic plotting of releases in con-
centric world-wide areas of Mongolian, Mediterranean, and Primitive,
suffers from a dubiously valid compounding of his Primitive.

On the basis of restricted distribution, the method developed by
Wissler leads him to infer that Secondary is of recent origin, although
he adds that the "total distribution" of Mongolian in central position
is more consistent with its recency than that of Secondary. Having
perhaps a more timid faith in developmental inferences from con-
centric distributions, I applied this method not to the relation of
Primary-Tertiary, Mediterranean, and Mongolian the world over, as
does Wissler, but to the relation of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary
in North America alone. At that Wissler's point is valid, that the very
limited occurrence of Secondary carries a possibility of coihparative
recency, and is not necessarily the result of survival marginal to
Tertiary. Secondary might then prove to be a localized specializa-
tion, or historical hybrid, an imperfect attempt perhaps of Primary
archers to adopt the Tertiary method with which they had come in
contact.

The schematic distribution of Wissler's three fundamental release
types"1 seems precarious, apart from the doubt whether Tertiary
deserves to be included with Primary and contrasted with Mediter-
ranean. Northern Asia is so complete a blank on the actual dis-
tribution map that its use as a link between the Eur-Asiatic and the
Eskimo occurrences of the Mediterranean release is hazardous. With
this link removed, the distribution of Mediterranean is left so broken
up, and so largely unrelated to Mongolian distribution, that the grand
sequential scheme becomes shaky except for Eur-Asia and perhaps
Africa. Within this central area of the eastern hemisphere, how-
ever, the concentric distribution inference method, which I also
accepted in principle, does seem applicable in this case; and credit
is due Wissler for having applied it consistently and without hesita-
tion. The documentary evidence, though it does not reach back to

11 Fig. 19, p. 39.

1927]

295

296      University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

beginnings, confirms him so far as it goes. As pointed out above,
the earliest recorded occurrence of the Mediterranean release in Egypt
is at least a thousand years earlier than the earliest record of the
Mongolian in China.

What this situation indubitably shows is the need of more
complete data if the distribution method or any other method of
historical induction is to lead to conclusions of higher probability.
Conceivably the picture and its story may then be more complex;
but the outlines will at any rate be more certain.

Wissler also shows imagination in connecting the sporadic Cali-
fornian occurrence of the Yahi form of the Mongolian release with
the somewhat wider California-Southwest occurrence of Mediter-
ranean, the two together being engulfed in a much larger area of
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary. HIe goes on to raise the question
whether "there may not be something in the nature of the mechanisms
involved which predetermines this order of invention"- that is, from
"Primitive" to Mediterranean to Mongolian, as deducible from the
parallel distributions and inferred sequences in the Old and New
Worlds. He does not hesitate to refer to predispositions, grooves, and
more or less inevitable appearances in fixed order, although, as he
says, it has of late become orthodox to shy away even from consider-
ation of such possibilities.

With his willingness to consider such possibilities, and consider
them specifically, no issue can be taken, for they would be of the
greatest importance if substantiable. But in the present state of
knowledge, arrow releases in western North America seem to furnish
a slender basis of evidence on which to reopen a problem of the mag-
nitude of this one. A few considerations will suffice. The Yahi release
is so far a wholly isolated occurrence. It is an aberrant variant of
Old World Maongolian. It is not central to the known distribution
of Southwestern Mediterranean, but external to it, even separated.
This area of Mediterranean release may itself be merely a periphery
of a larger distribution centering far away in Middle America, as
suggested above. It is clear from these discrepancies that even the
tentative reconstruction of a predetermined parallel sequence in
releases is too speculative to give serious support to a theory of such
import.

On other matters which we both touch, Wissler and I seem to
have come to the same conclusions. Where we differ in construal of
the evidence, I wish to acknowledge his breadth of view and readiness
to confront fundamental problems.

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