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;  )   ;   tY jrs' > "' 'A4

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

BY

E. W. GIFFORD AND W. EGBERT SCHENCK

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS IN AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY

AND ETHNOLOGY

Volume 23, No. 1, pp. 1-122, plates 1-34, 1 map

Issued May 14, 1926

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON, ENGLAND

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

BY

E. W. GIFFORD AND W. EGBERT SCHENCK

CONTENTS                                                PAGE
Introduction ............................5
Geography of the San Joaquin valley ............................7
Tulare basin ............................8

Tulare lake ............................9

Buena Vista slough ...........................                                                11
Streams ...........................                                                          12

Mountain passes ...........................                                                  13
Buena Vista basin ...........................                                                     14
Streams ...........................                                                          15

Mountain passes ...........................                                                  15
Climate ...........................                                                              17
Flora ...........................                                                                 17
Fauna ...........................                                                                 18

Historical data ...........................                                                          20

Reports of explorers ...........................                                                 20
Conclusions ...........................                                                           26

Size of population ...........................                                               26

Location of population ...........................                                           26
Composition of population ...........................                                        27
Archaeological sites ...........................                                                      29
Alpaugh region ...........................                                                       29

Northwestern district (site 25) ...........................                                  30
Northeastern district (site 21) ...........................                                  31
Southwestern district ...........................                                            31
Site 12 ...........................                                                           31

Slough region ...........................                                                         32
Site 11 ...........................                                                           33
Site 10 ...........................                                                          33
Site 9 ...........................                                                           34

Mound C ...........................                                                           34
Site 8 ...........................                                                            35

Elk Grove sites (7, 6, 5) ...........................                                        36
Site 17 ...........................                                                          38

Dr. Jones' investigations ...........................                                        38
Site 18 ...........................                                                          38

Adobe Holes (site 19) ...........................                                             39
Miscellaneous sites ...........................                                              39

2         University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

PAGE

Lake region ............................                                 40

Near Buena Vista lake ..........................                      40
Near Kern lake ..........................                             43

Near Kern river, above Bakersfield ..........................         45
Disposal of the dead ........................ ,   ,.. 45
Alpaugh region .....................                                     45
Slough region ........                                                   46
Lake region ........                                                     49
Cranial types ........... . .    .    .    .    .    .         ..    .    . 51

Material culture ....................                         .. 52

Articles of asphaltum .                                                  53
Articles of bone and horn ..................                             53
Antler ..................                                             53

Awls..................... 53
Fishhooks ..................                                          54
Pendants ..................                                           54
Pins ..................                                               54

Tubes ..................                                              54

Whistles ..................                                           54

Articles of clay ..................                                      55

Articles of European make ..................                             56

Paint.                                                                  ;57
Articles of shell ..................                                     57
Beads .............                                                   58

Bushings and inlays ............. 62
Discs .....                                                           62

Pendants .                                                            63

Tubes .....                                                           65
Vessels .....                                                         66

Articles of skin .....                                                   66

Articles of steatite ................                                    66

Arrow-straighteners .................                                 67
Beads and tubes .................                                     68

"Boat-shaped" stones .................                                69
"Charmstones" .................                                       69
Discs .................                                               70

Groove-edged objects .................                                70
"Pencil" .................                                            71

Pendants .................                                            71

Perforated "sinkers" .................                                72
"Perforated stones" .................                                 72
Plugs ....................       .                                    72

Plummet-like stones ....................                              72
Spool- or reel-like objects ....................                      73
"Tomahawk" ....................                                       73

Vessels and sherds ....................                               73
Distribution ......                                                   76
Articles of chipped stone ....................                           78
Materials .....................-.78

Workmanship.....                                                      79
Size .                                                                79

1926]     Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley                                3

PAGE

Form ..........................................                                                 79

Arrowpoints, spearheads, and (or) knives ..........................................             80
Scrapers and (or) knives ..........................................                             85
Perforators or drills ..........................................                                87
Miscellaneous ..........................................                                        87
Summary ..........................................                                              88

Articles of ground stone ..........................................                                 88

Arrow-straighteners ..........................................                                  88
Balls ..........................................                                                88

Beads and tubes ..........................................                                      89
Bowls ..........................................                                                89

Ceremonial stones (miscellaneous) ..........................................                    89
Crescentic stones ..........................................                                    89

Digging-stick weights and (or) "perforated' stones" ........................................    90
Hemispherical stones and discs..                                ........ 90
Mortars and metates                                                           .......................  91
Mullers ..................................                                                      92

Pendants and discs...................                                              ...............  92
Pestles ..................................                                                      92

Pipe or tube ..................................                                                 93

Plummet-like stones and (or) charmstones ..................................                     93
Polishing stones ..................................                                             97
"Snake heads" ..................................                                                98

Articles of unworked stone ..................................                                       98
Anvils .........                                                                                98

Firestones .........                                                                            98

Hammerstones ................................                                                   98
Mica ................................                                                           99

Quartz crystals ................................                                                99

Textiles and cordage ................................                                               99

Cordage and fibers ................................                                             99
Bags of needle-stitched braid ................................                                 102
Bags of soft twined weaving ................................                                   102
Bags of soft twined weaving, asphalted ................................                        104
Cotton cloth ................................                                                 104
Tule mats ................................                                                     105
Nets ................................                                                          106

Netting bag ................................                                                   108
Articles of wood ................................                                                  108
Arrow shaft ................................                                                   109

Painted board ................................                                                 109
Rabbit-stick ................................                                                  109

Summary of material culture ................................                                       109
Miscellaneous aboriginal activities ..........................'.111
Cult indications ..........................111
Fishing .........................                                                                  111

Food offerings .........................                                                           112
Habitations .........................                                                              112

Hair dressing .........................                                                            112
Cultural relations .........................                                                           113

4         University of California Publications, in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

PAGE

Time perspective ...........................................................                       114
Distribution ...........................................................                        114
Incrustation ...........................................................                        115
Patination ...........................................................                          116

Stratification ...........................................................                      116
Preservation ............................................................ 117
Conclusion ...........................................................                          118

Explanations of plates and museum            numbers of specimens ...................................... 119

TABLES

Table 1.     Villages reported by Zalvidea in 1806 ........................................................  22
Table 2.     Principal aboriginal residential sites on the floor of Buena Vista and

Tulare basins ...........................................................            27
Table 3.     Aboriginal sites in the Alpaugh region ........................................................  29
Table 4.     Aboriginal sites in the Slough region ...........................................................  32
Table 5.     Aboriginal sites in the Lake region ...........................................................  40
Table 6.     Burials in the Slough region .                 ..........................................................  47
Table 7.     Arrowpoints, spearheads, and knives in the Alpaugh region .................             82
Table 8.     Arrowpoints, spearheads, and knives in the Lake region ......................           84
Table 9.     Plummet-shaped stones and (or) charmstones in the Alpaugh region..                      97
Table 10. Occurrence of principal artifacts ...........................................................   110

MAPS

Map 1. Map of the southern San Joaquin valley showing aboriginal sites,

facing page 5.

LIST OF PLATES
(Following page 122)
1.   Painted slab of yellow       pine.
2.   Cotton cloth.

3.   String and braid.
4.   Cordage.

5.   Twined tule mats.
6.   Sewed tule mat.

7.   Twined basketry bag.
8.   Twined basketry bag.
9.   Twined basketry bag.

10.   Bag of needle-stitched braid.
11.   Nets.

12.   Netting bag.

13.   Wrapped human bones and eagle skull with abalone ornament.
14.   Objects of bone, shell, clay, steatite, and basketry.
15.   Incised shell beads and tubes.
16.   Pendants and beads.

17.   Perforated stones, discs, and arrow           straighteners.
18.   Articles of steatite.

19.   "Boat-shaped" stones and "snake heads."

20.   Plummet-like stones and (or) "charmstones."

ment 's Topographical and Irrigation Map of the San <>~>%,,

Joaquin Valley, Sheet No. 4, Wm. Ham. Hall, State           |T315     kv',,i  %8><         1  ?

Engineer, 1886.                                                                                    ,

Numbers 1-38 are placed in approxiruate location of'               :%     ,.}       . -x         'l

sites. See pages 29, 32, and 40. The hydrographic                      ;;     >     >         @2

features shown are represented as.-they probably were                           j =v2;]~-

in aboriginal times.                                                            >9     M   s.;     o,d

Scale: Each township is six miles square. There are                    '   >f            w
thirty-six sections (each one mile square) in a township,                   Xsr,<S

which are numbered as in the accompanying diagram.                             Y    2|l

__                                                                          0

MAP OF THE SOUTHERN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY SHOWING ABORIGIN'AL STTES

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

21. Steatite objects, quartz crystals, polishing stones.
22. Plummet-like stones and (or) "charmstones."
23. Spindle-shaped "charmstones."
24. Steatite olla.

25. Steatite sherds showing cutting, drilling, and grooving.

26. Chipped stone objects in the form of "crescents" and "butterflies."
27. Scrapers, hammerstones, crystal, crescent, and bowl.
28. Crescentic stones.

29. Hemispherical stones, arrow straightener, plummet-like and grooved stones.
30. Metate, of granite.
31. Mullers.

32. Egg-shaped "charmstones."

33. Plummet-like stones, buttoned, plain, and nippled.
34. Plain and shouldered plummet-like stones.

FIGURES IN TEXT                         PAGE
Figure 1. Arrowpoints, spearheads, and (or) knives ........................................   80
Figure 2. Asymmetric points from the Lake region ........................................   85

INTRODUCTION

This paper presents the archaeology of the southern portion of the
San Joaquin valley of California.' The area is small and comprises
only the floor of the valley from Tulare lake southward. To make the
culture thoroughly understandable such enduring aspects of the
region as geological and geographical features are presented. The
historical data are summarized to aid in interpreting the archaeolog-
ical material.

The present work is based on a study of the materials gathered by
five University of California parties which visited the region in the
years 1899, 1909, 1923, 1924, and 1925. In addition, local collectors in
the region have generously made their materials available for study; to
wit, Messrs. Samuel Fry and A. F. Mayer of Alpaugh, and Messrs.
W. R. Dumble and W. B. Pryor of Bakersfield. The Fry collection
has been acquired by the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation.

In December, 1899, Dr. Philip Mills Jones headed a University
of California expedition which worked for three weeks in the region
between Buttonwillow and Adobe Holes, Kern county.

1 We follow .the established popular usage in calling our area the Southern
San Joaquin valley. Technically, it is the southernmost portion of the Great
Central valley of California.

5

6        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

In February, 1909, Dr. N. C. Nelson visited the Elk hills at the
northwest corner of Buena Vista lake to obtain for the University a
cache of aboriginal artifacts, chiefly basketry, that had been dis-
covered in a dry arroyo.

The third University party to visit the region comprised the
authors, Mrs. Schenck, W. D. Strong, and Eugene Golomshtok. Three
weeks were spent, largely in making excavations, in the winter of
1923-1924. Much of the success of the excavations was due to the
hospitality of Mr. W. Y. Horner, Jr., at whose ranch the party
camped. The region from Tulare lake to Kern lake was investigated,
thus extending knowledge both to the north and to the south of the
regions examined by the early investigators. To the unflagging interest
of Mr. John B. Stevens, of Fellows, both at the time of the expedition
and since, we owe the location of several important sites.

In the spring of 1924 the authors made a further survey of the
area.

In November, 1924, the University obtained through the gener-
osity of Messrs. T. E. Flowers and L. G. B. MacDowell, of Taft, Cali-
fornia, two additional burials from the Elk hills. Mr. Strong visited
the spot and obtained the specimens. His description of the burials
is given elsewhere in this paper. Messrs W. W. Hill, G. M. Stirling,
and W. L. Warner excavated at Pelican island in December, 1925,
and donated the specimens obtained to the University.

To Miller and Lux Company the University is indebted for per-
mission to examine aboriginal sites on the company's lands and espe-
cially for the privilege of excavating deposits at Elk Grove and Peli-
can island.

For the identification of animals, plants, and inorganic specimens
our thanks are due to the following specialists: Dr. Frank C. Baker
of the University of Illinois; Dr. Barton W. Everman of the California
Academy of Sciences; Miss Edna M. Fisher, Professor E. Fritz, Pro-
fessor N. L. Gardner, Professor Joseph Grinnell, Professor C. B. Lip-
man, Professor George D. Louderback, Miss Anne Swainson, of the
University of California; Mr. Hubert G. Schenck of Leland Stanford
Junior University; Mr. Stuart T. Henshaw of the Tubbs Cordage
Company; Messrs. C. L. Hill and Arthur Koehler of the United States
Forest Service; and Professor A. E. Douglass of the University of
Arizona.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

GEOGRAPHY OF THE SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY

The area with which this paper is concerned lies chiefly between
the center of old Tulare lake on the north and the Tehachapi moun-
tains on the south and is comprised in the counties of Kings, Tulare,
and Kern, California.

The basins of Buena Vista and Tulare lakes are portions of the
San Joaquin valley, which is itself, roughly, the southern half of the
Great Central valley of California. Thus the San Joaquin valley
extends from Stockton in the north (latitude 380 N.) to the base of
the Tehachapi mountains (latitude 350 N.). The general direction is
northwest to southeast. It is forty miles in average width. The eastern
boundary is the Sierra Nevada range which attains an elevation of
14,500 feet. The western boundary is the Mount Diablo range, with
an elevation of 4000 to 5000 feet. The Tehachapi mountains, of about
the same height, connect the two ranges and shut in the valley on the
south. The area of the entire valley is about 11,500 square miles.

This great valley is remarkably flat and uniform. But taking
the San Joaquin river as the longitudinal axis we find that the area
between the river and the Sierra Nevada range forms an eastside
plain of 7700 square miles, while the westside plain between the
river and the Mount Diablo range is 1850 square miles. Each of these
plains has characteristic features. The remainder of the valley, 1950
square miles, was covered anciently by lakes and marshes.

The valley is also divided into three sections transversely. The
most northerly section is from Stockton to the Kings river, about 155
miles up the valley. At this point (about Township 182) the Kings
river on the east and Los Gatos creek on the west have pushed out
alluvial fans which have coalesced into a ridge. To the south of the
ridge the region is so arid that the drainage has been insufficient to
keep a channel cut through the ridge. Accordingly it acts as a dam
forming Tulare lake and its swampy basin. This,is the second section
of the valley and it is some seventy-five miles long. This is one of
the portions of the valley with which the present paper is concerned.
At the southern end of the Tulare basin (about T 31) the Kern river

2 Townships and ranges as referred to herein are respectively south and east
of Mount Diablo. Each township or range is six miles. In citing township,
range, and section the abbreviations T, R, and S will be used.

7

8        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

has pushed its delta clear across the valley until it abuts on the Mc-
Kittrick hills on the west, forming a second dam and a basin extending
thence to the foot of the Tehachapi mountains, a distance of 20 miles.
In this basin lie Kern and Buena Vista lakes. It constitutes the third
section of the valley, and with it this paper is also concerned.

The San Joaquin valley, geologically, is a great structural trough
which has existed as such since Tertiary times. The waters from the
surrounding mountains have filled this great trough with alluvial
debris and the deltas of the streams have spread out to form the flat
valley floor. The high Sierra Nevada range produces large perennial
rivers and hence their deltas have covered by far the greater part of
the valley as is indicated by the east-side plain previously mentioned.
The low, and more arid Mount Diablo mountains produce only short
creeks, mostly dry in summer and with correspondingly small deltas.
The Tehachapi range which limits the valley on the south is one of the
Coast range series and presents the same essential characteristics as
the Mount Diablo range.

The floor of the valley itself rises from sea level near Stockton to
about 300 feet elevation at the southern shore line of Buena Vista lake.
The slope of the east-side plain to the trough of the valley is from
five to ten feet per mile; of the west-side plain, from twenty-five to
forty feet per mile.

The broad conclusion, pertinent to the present topic, is that from
the time of man's first appearance in America to the historical epoch,
the San Joaquin valley has offered a suitable habitat to him and one
which has not essentially changed during this interval.

TULARE BASIN

The tourist traveling in his automobile from Bakersfield north
towards Fresno, or west towards Paso Robles, soon feels that he is
traversing an endless plain. It is as flat and as even as a plate.
Around the rim are hazy mountain ranges. There are no streams or
lakes. Occasional dykes indicate hardly recognizable drainage or irri-
gation ditches. Everything gives evidence of intense aridity-the
baked ground, the absence of vegetation larger than sage or grease-
wood. Even this is very sparse. At intervals of from two to five
miles are isolated farm houses with patches of green and perhaps a
few trees.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Tulare basin has a maximum width of about fifty miles and a length
of about seventy-five miles (T 18 to T 31).  The dominant feature
was Tulare lake (now dry) with its surrounding swamps and sloughs.
Of these latter the most important was the Buena Vista slough.

Tulare Lake

The northern margin of Tulare lake was about at the center line
of Township 20. The region from here to the northern edge of the
basin, about fifteen miles, was subject to inundations from the lake and
from the Kaweah and Kings rivers. In this width this area extends
from R 18 to the mountains. Though properly a portion of the Tulare
basin, and though possessing the common characteristics of the San
Joaquin valley, this district is quite different from that to the south
of the lake. All territory north of Township 22 is excluded from this
paper.

The lake when at the 220-foot level extended from the center
of T 20 to near the southern line of T 25, about thirty miles from north
to south. From east to west its widest extent was also about thirty
miles-R 24 to R 19. The total area covered at this level was about
800 square miles.

Map 1 exhibits the southern portion of the Tulare basin and the
Buena Vista basin with the principal physical features mentioned
herein.

Tulare lake, on account of the flatness of its bed and the inconstancy
of its water supply, has varied tremendously in area. The elevation of
its bed is 175 feet above sea level. Since its northern rim is 214 feet
the lake begins to drain into the San Joaquin river through the Kings
river delta when the water level reaches that point. However, this ele-
vation is not ordinarily attained and for years (e.g., 1883 to 1924) such
water as the lake and basin receive either evaporates or sinks into the
ground. In spite of this the lake has always been a freshwater lake.
At intervals the flood waters will pour down from the mountains in
tremendous volume and carry the lake level several feet higher than
the point of overflow. The highest point known to have been thus at-
tained is 220 feet above sea level. In November, 1883, when the level
was 192 feet the area covered was only 300 square miles. Apparently
the levels between 192 feet and 208 feet were normal. Map 1 offers a
comparison of these areas.

9

10       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

The extent and periodicity of this lake were obviously factors of the
greatest importance to peoples dwelling upon its margin.

The highest known historical level of the lake, 220 feet, was probably the
maximum lake level in prehistoric times. This level of 220 feet was attained
in 1861-3 before either drainage or irrigation projects were of sufficient magni-
tude to have had a retarding effect.

The other extreme is a state of absolute dryness. This is its present (1924)
state and it was also true in 1905; while the water rose to 193 feet in 1907.
Modern irrigation might be supposed to account for this dryness but the
opinion of one of the best authorities on the subject is that, "It is to be pre-
sumed that the history of the lake for many centuries has been like that part
of it which we know directly, i.e., that it has fluctuated in area and depth,
occasionally drying out completely, then filling to the point of overflow.' '3
If this lake dried up it eliminated what is assumed to have been important
sources of aboriginal food, fish, mollusks, and tule. Also such an event would
affect terrestrial forms of life by depriving them of their only available water
supply.

When the lake was entirely dry it would seem that the entire absence of
water would have prevented residence in the region. On the other hand the 220
foot level was probably very unstable. A settlement here would again be
without water if the lake declined. However as th6 lake remained near the
192-foot level for considerable periods, people must have accumulated on its
margin here. But since it was by no means limited to exactly the 192-foot
level almost the entire area between the 192-foot and 220-foot levels was not
only marshy, but was an area in which man could not have resided permanently.
This is an area of 500 square miles. The likelihood of inundation and the desire
to be permanently near a water supply must have tended to congregate people
seeking the district on the high spots near the average lake level. According
to topographical data available the only spot between the 192-foot and 220-
foot levels that rises above 220-feet is a sand ridge, which in 1850 was found
by Lieutenant G. H. Derby, U. S. A., to be "about 100 yards in width and
twelve feet above the level of the lake." This ridge "divides the waters of
the northern or Tache from the bed, now nearly dry, of the southern or Ton
Tache lake."4  The base of this sand ridge was just above the 208-foot level.

This sand ridge or series of dunes is at present known locally as the "Sand
ridge."  It extends along the center of the T 24 from R 21 to 24 (about 18
miles). At its western end it is perhaps 100 yards wide: at the eastern end it
broadens to two or three miles and there it is known as Atwell 's island on
account of having been owned by a Judge Atwell of Visalia. The general
location of the "island" is marked by the village of Alpaugh. Since the top
of this ridge was above the highest flood waters and its base extended along the
lake margin at the 208-foot level it must have offered an exceptionally favored
site for reasonably permanent Indian habitation.

Generally it would seem that in prehistoric times we could not expect to
find permanent places of residence below the 220-foot level of Tulare lake

3W. C. Mendenhall, Preliminary Report on the Ground Waters of San
Joaquin Valley, California, U. S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Paper 222, p. 38, 1908

4 32nd Congress, 1st session, Senate Ex. Doe., No. 110, "Report of the Secy.
of War. . . . communicating .... a report of the Tulare Valley made by Lieut.
Derby," page 6, 1852.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

except on the sand ridge, because of too much water, and only in exceptionally
favored and limited areas on the 220-foot margin, because of not enough water.
This means that the apparent population would appear on account of the
shifting to have been larger than it was in fact. The inference is strong that
the region instead of having any considerable permanent population was simply
frequented by hunting and foraging parties at favorable seasons.

Considering the shores of Tulare lake with reference to human
habita.tion the following conclusions are suggested. The northern
shores of the lake were suitable for permanent residence but are
beyond the limits of this paper. The entire western and southwestern
shores were arid, apparently ill suited for residence and.. no traces
of inhabitants have been reported. The southeastern portion, particu-
larly the Sand ridge or areas made available, by t.he streams of the
Sierra Nevada, offered suitable residential sites and all we know of in
the region were located here.

Buena Vista Slough

Buena Vista slough, is essentially an extension to the south of the
overflowed area surrounding the main Tulare lake. It was through
this passage that the wafers from Buena Vista lake basin and Kern
river reached Tulare lake.

The Buena Vista slough extended from the 220-foot level of Tulare lake
(T 25, R 21-22) forty miles southeasterly to Buena Vista lake (northern part
T 31, R 25). The northern thirty-five miles of the slough had an average width of
from two to three miles. The last five miles to the south included only the
slough proper, some eighty feet to one hundred feet wide, and its immediate
east bank. The banks are higher here where the stream has had to cut through
the Kern river alluvial fan. Generally, the slough itself clings to the sandy
slope of the western hills so that the swamp throughout its course is mostly
to the east. About twelve miles south of the 220-foot level of Tulare lake the
slough formed' a considerable bay towards the east (in T 27, R 22-23). This
bay was in a depression deeper than the adjacent swamp and hence even in
low water usually contained a lake. This still exists and is known today as
Goose lake. Beyond Goose lake to the southeast a slough known as Jerry
slough, or Goose lake slough extended twenty-five to thirty miles to the Kern
river (in T 30, R 27, Sec. 6), about six miles west of Bakersfield.

The fall from Buena Vista lake's point of overflow (295 feet) to Tulare
lake at its maximum (220 feet) is only seventy-five feet in some forty miles,
or less than two feet per mile. The slough proper is much less marked in the
northerly thirty miles after the hills and alluvial fan are left, and the area
has generally the characteristics of the adjacent Tulare lake. When the lake
receded to its 192-foot level the swamp bordering the slough must have dried
up, but the slough itself remained. This was true wheni Lieut. Derby, in 1850,

11

12        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

marched by the southern end of Tulare lake (then at about 210 feet) and
reported "the bed, now nearly dry, of the southern or Ton Tache Lake.'5

Derby continues to the effect that he had to cross the slough proper on rafts
of tule.

At its maximum height we may assume that the waters of the slough
covered the swamps to the width of two to six miles as indicated on the map.
This is the marshy area disclosed by the surveys of 1853.

As indicated, the northern part of the slough probably varied directly as
did Tulare lake. In the south the story was different. The Kern river, which
fed Buena Vista lake, was a perennial stream, so that nearly all the year there
must have been some flow from Buena Vista lake into the slough. During
its first five miles the slough assumes definite stream characteristics. The more
ample supply of water in the region is evidenced by greater tree growth.
Some of the trees along the water courses are quite large. And altogether
even the sparse timber contrasts markedly with the entire absence of trees to
the north and around Tulare lake.

The same conditions applied in an even greater degree to Goose lake and
its slough. This slough was a direct branch of the Kern river, and while it is
probable that it received no water at the lower stages of the river, it is as
likely that it did receive some water for a considerable period each year.
Accordingly Goose lake must have dried up even more rarely than Tulare lake.

The southern twenty to twenty-five miles of Buena Vista slough, Goose
lake, and both ends of Goose lake slough were probably the most favorable
locations in the Tulare basin for aboriginal permanent residence.

Streams

On the east the streams, though meagre compared with the river!
farther north, must have been of direct importance to the inhabitants
of Tulare basin. For in times of drought, or low water, any people
who did not migrate south to the Buena Vista basin could have fol-
lowed these streams into the mountains, unless hostile peoples
prevented.

No stream flowed out on to the floor of Tulare basin south of Township
22. Those that sank into the sands near the foothills were ?mall. On the
west was only Avenal creek. On the east beginning at the first stream north of
Kern river, we have:

Poso creek, drainage 289 square miles, lost in T 26, R 24, S 14.
Rag gulch, lost in T 25, R 2:6, S 6.

5 His report reads: "This last [i.e., the area to the south of the lake at
about the mouth of Buena Vista slough] is little more than a very extensive
swamp covering the plain for fifteen miles in a southerly direction and is
about ten miles in width. It is filled with sloughs and small tule lakes. The
gradual receding of the water is distinctly marked by the ridges of decayed
tule upon its shore, and I was informed and see no reason to disbelieve that
ten years ago it was nearly as extensive a sheet of water as the northern lake"I
(1. c., 7). It must be remembered that here Derby is including that area
between the 210-foot and 220--foot levels of Tulare lake. Buena Vista Slough
swamp would be still further south.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

White river, drainage 90 square miles, lost in T 24, R 26, S 7.

Deer creek, drainage 110 square miles, lost in T 23, R 24, S 26.

Tule river just north of the region being considered was a stream of
more importance.

Mountain Passes

The principal mountain passes, as well as the streams, must have largely
determined any transmontane intercourse of the people.

On the east of the Tulare basin there are no practicable passes across the
Sierra Nevada range within the north and south limits of Tulare basin. Hence
any people who may have inhabited the basin would have had to pass through
other peoples to the north or south in leaving the basin, or would have had to
cross the mountains on the west. Conversely the people across the western
mountains were the only transmontane people who could come into direct
contact with the inhabitants of Tulare basin.

A hardy mountaineer can traverse the mountains of the Coast range at
almost any point. However, the ranges are rugged and the great scarcity of
water makes it probable that there would have been little aboriginal travel
except along the routes through the principal passes.

Leaving the northwest corner of Tulare lake there is a pass via Los Gatos
creek into the San Benito river valley. Keeping more westerly from the head
of Los Gatos creek one descends Lewis creek and San Lorenzo creek to the
Salinas river near Kings city, some eighty-five miles from the lake. After
leaving the lake via Los Gatos creek one can follow one of the southern
branches of that creek (Waltham creek) to the San Lorenzo and thence as
above; or taking Jacalitos creek and crossing over the ridge several creeks
will be found leading to the Salinas river near San Miguel (T 25, R 12). The
distance would be about seventy miles from the lake.

From the southwest corner of the lake (at about the Kings-Kern county
line) a very low pass leads via Cholame creek and Estrella river to the Salinas
river at San Miguel, about fifty miles from the lake. This is the lowest and
easiest natural pass across the Coast ranges south of Carquinez straits.

There is no other marked route to the west until we reach the more favored
portion of Buena Vista slough (twenty-five to thirty miles south of Tulare
lake in T 29, R 23). From here one passes west (near the present McKittrick,
T 30, R 22) over the first range of hills to the Carrizo plains, a flat, very
arid region containing a soda lake on its western edge. A few miles south
of this lake in T 31, R 20, San Luis Obispo county, is a spectacular sandstone
formation known as the Painted Rocks. Here are Indian pictographs, consider-
able evidence of habitation, an amphitheatre adapted for defense, and pot-
holes in the rock which are said to contain sweet water until very late in
all except the driest summers. The earliest settlers here claim that the old Indians
asserted that this was a way station on the route to the coast. Crossing the next
ridge and keeping to the south, the Cuyama river is reached in some twenty
miles. This river flows into the Pacific ocean about fifteen miles south of Pismo.
The maximum elevation reached on this route would not much exceed 2000' feet.
The distances are: Buena Vista slough to Painted Rocks, 35 miles; Painted Rocks
to Cuyama river, 20 miles; down river to ocean, 50 miles; total distance from
basin to sea 105 miles.

13

14       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

After reaching the Cuyama river an alternative route would be to continue
due south across the mountains to the neighborhood of Santa Barbara-about
forty-five miles in an air line, but probably seventy-five miles over the very
rough intervening mountains. Pictographs are reported from this region
similar to the Carrizo ones.

BUENA VISTA BASIN

This basin is entirely in Kern county, and extends from the Mc-
Kittrick (or Elk) hills on the west (T 31, R 24) to the slopes of the
Sierra Nevada foothills (T 32, R 29) on the east. The width is thus
about thirty-two miles. It has an elevation of about 450 feet at either
side and of about 268 feet at its lowest point. From the point of over-
flow of Buena Vista lake on the north (about the line of T 30-31) to
the foot of the Tehachapi mountains on the south is some twenty miles,
and this is the length of the basin. At its northern rim it is about
300 feet.

In this basin lay Buena Vista and Kern lakes, the latter now
drained. At low water these were separate bodies connected by a
slough, but at high water in ancient times they probably formed a
single lake. This single lake had a maximum water level of 295-300
feet. At 295 feet it overflowed into Buena Vista slough. It is shown
at this level on map 1.

Its maximum length was twenty-one miles from northwest to south-
east. The maximum width was six miles, near the western end. The
area covered was about eighty square miles. On the west it lay close
to the foot of the Elk hills. On the south the surrounding slopes were
inclined at some seventy feet to the mile, on the east about fifteen feet
to the mile.

The lowest recorded water stage was in 1879 when the water stood at about
the 282-foot level in Buena Vista lake and 284-foot level in Kern lake. It might
be inferred from this that the low stages in Buena Vista basin did not coincide
exactly with those in Tulare basin, for Tulare lake was lowest, at about this
time, in 1883. This would mean that a people finding no water in Tulare lake
could find it towards the southern end of Buena Vista slough.

At this low stage Buena Vista lake was about seven and a half miles by four
and a half miles, and Kern lake about five by three miles, or about one-half as
large. Connecting them was a slough which being very tortuous was twelve to thir-
teen miles long. This slough had firm banks of tule sod three to five feet
high. On the other hand the margins of the lakes, particularly on the south
and west, were almost unapproachable on account of deep slimy ooze.  To
the north and east the lake margins were firmer and much more sandy.  Here
the river spread over its delta in a perfect maze of channels. In times of
freshet these channels would be more or less filled with silt and sand from the
mountains, the water would change its course, and ridges of sand would be left.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

At the present time a dyke extends across Buena Vista lake along the line
of Ranges 25-26. The Kern river has been diverted by dams and irrigation
canals. Hence Kern lake is entirely dry. Buena Vista lake on the contrary
is used as a reservoir and has never been dry in the historic period. It is
possible that in the past the water level may have fallen below 282 feet, but
it seems almost certain that neither of the lakes was ever dry since they were
fed by the perennial Kern river and could flow from one to the other irrespec-
tive of which the Kern emptied into. The greatest variability, then, would
appear to have been from 300 feet to about 280 feet.

: This lake was essentially different from Tulare lake. It was never dry.
The fluctuations of its margins were never great enough to cause the removal
of a people situated on the 300-foot line. It was able to support a more con-
stant and vigorous flora; and animal life as a source of human food would
never be forced away. In short, it was the most suitable habitat for perma-
nent residence in the southern San Joaquin valley.

On the south and east the shore line of old Kern lake is about as shown on
our map. On the United States Geological Survey quadrangle the line is
marked by Petersdorff Canal. Mr. Hugh S. Allen reports from his survey
that the shore is about one quarter mile south of the canal in some cases, in
most cases less; and that there is about five feet rise in the thousand from the
lake bed to the shore line. On the north we give the shore line as outlined
by Mr. Allen: South of the east quarter corner of 5 12, T 32, R 27 and thence
westerly just north of the center line of S 12, 11 and 10; thence somewhat
more northwesterly to Buena Vista lake.

Along this shore line and in the region north to Bakersfield and thence
along the Kern river to the mountains there is much evidence to indicate a
considerable concentration of aboriginal habitation.

Streams

Few streams entered the basin, but one of these, the Kern river,
was very important. It has a drainage area of 2345 square miles,
covering part of the highest Sierra. It is consequently perennial.
Debouching from the main mountain gorge some fifteen miles east of
Bakersfield, it flows between high banks until just above that city
(T 29, R 28). There it begins to branch and covers its delta (T 29-31,
R 25-28) with a maze of streams. Of these channels there seem to
have been fiv7e principal ones within historical times. These are noted
on the map. It is probable that at all times the river's mouths were
confined to the area delimited by the southern and northern of these
channels.

Mountain Passes

Leaving the western extremity of Buena Vista lake and passing up Buena
Vista creek on a due westerly course one comes to the Painted Rocks in about
thirty miles. The routes from here to the sea via Cuyama river, or to Santa
Barbara have been described.

15

16       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Going southwest from Buena Vista lake by the present town of Maricopa
the Cuyama river is reached, in about twenty miles, at a point near the mouth
of Santa Barbara creek. This point on the Cuyama river is some twenty miles
upstream from where the Painted Rocks trail reached it. Hence from Buena
Vista lake to the Pacific ocean via Maricopa would be about ninety miles.
This was a comparatively easy route and must have been of importance. More-
over, passing up Santa Barbara creek from the Cuyama river, and crossing
the ridge, one reached the head waters of creeks tributary to the Santa Inez
river just behind Santa Barbara. This distance was about forty to fifty miles.
This route offered the shortest and easiest way from Buena Vista lake to the
Santa Barbara channel and its people, and vice versa. The total distance from
the lake to the channel was sixty to seventy miles.

Going almost due south from Kern lake, at the present time one crosses the
Tehachapi range at an elevation of about 4200 feet via Tejon pass, i. e., via
Grapevine and Castac creeks. In this way the Santa Clara river valley is
reached near C'astac, in some seventy-five miles. Down the river to the
Pacific ocean near Ventura (on the Santa Barbara channel, but twenty-eight
miles east of Santa Barbara) is forty miles. It would seem more probable that
aboriginal travel would have kept due. south from the head of Grapevine
creek and have thus reached the Santa Clara via Piru creek, ten miles nearer
the sea. There is a third alternative. From near the point of discharge of
Grapevine creek on to the Kern lake slopes one finds the mouth of Tejon
creek. Following this over the first and main ridge of the Tehachapi one
reaches the uplands of the Mohave desert in forty to forty-five miles from
Kern lake. From here a route led southeast to Elizabeth lake (3400 feet ele-
vation) and thence across the second Tehachapi ridge via San Francisquito
creek to the Santa Clara river at Saugus. From Saugus to the sea is forty-
five miles. This route is me'ntioned for two reasons. First, it gave access to
the Mohave desert and the Colorado river region. Second, it seems to have
been the trail familiar to the guides of the earliest Spaniards. Summarized,
the distances from Kern lake to the Santa Barbara channel via Tejon pass
and Santa Clara river are: via Piru creek, 100 miles; via Castac creek,
115 miles; via Tejon and San Francisquito creek, 145 miles.

Traveling southeast from Bakersfield, one can cross the Tehachapi moun-
tains via the Tehachapi pass at an elevation of 4000 feet. From Bakersfield to
the summit is thirty-three miles; from  the summit to Mohave is twenty-
nine miles along the route which leads to the Colorado river. An alternate
route led from the summit to Elizabeth, fifty miles. Thence it led to the
Pacific as above mentioned. From Kern lake to the sea via Tehachapi pass
and Elizabeth lake is about 175 miles.

Branching from the Tehachapi route some fifteen miles southeast of Bakers-
field, a route passes over the southernmost Sierra on to the Mohave desert.
This is known as Walker's pass and was used by immigrants who crossed the
American continent in the gold rush to central California.

The Buena Vista basin, then, was accessible by the following principal land
routes:

1. To the Chumash of the Santa Barbara channel via the Cuyama river, or
via Santa Clara river and Tejon pass.

2. To the Shoshonean peoples of southern California via Tejon pass.

3. To the other Shoshonean peoples, to peoples of the Colorado river region,
and to those of the Southwest via Tehachapi and Walker's passes.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

All these routes led through arid country, but offered no serious obstacles
to aboriginal travel. The probable time for the traverse of any of them must
have been from three days to a week. No doubt the great bulk of transmontane
prehistoric travel used those routes into or out of the Buena Vista basin.

Travel in the open valley to the north requires no discussion.

CLIMATE

What is said of climate applies equally to Buena Vista basin and
Tulare basin.

The area is exceedingly arid, the annual average rainfall being
about five inches. The rain is very scant in the spring. In the three
summer months there is none. Most of the rain occurs from November
to April. However, there are two periods of high water in the streams.
The first is the rain-flood of winter which in the Kern river, the
principal stream, is highest from January to March. The second
is the snow-flood of summer, which occurs with the melting of the
snow on the Sierra. In the Kern river this high stage is from May to
July. The lowest water occurs in October.

From June 15 to September 30 is the hottest period and very high
temperatures prevail, 1180 F. being the hottest on record. At this
time also the range of temperature in a given day i.s very great.,
sometimes as much as 400. In winter the temperature is generally
above freezing point though as low as 130 has been known. In summer
there is very low atmospheric humidity; in winter there are fogs.
These are frequently very dense and trying in the lower parts of
the valley. The fact that even the lower foothills may be bathed in
sunshine while one shivers for half a day in a blinding fog on the
lake margin might be expected to exert some influence as to place of
aboriginal residence.

In short the climate was not an inviting one. But it was not un-
healthful, and was far from impossible to Indians except in periods
of drought when dependence upon surface water must have been
absolute.

FLORA

Along the deltas of the eastern streams oaks extend for some little
distance out on to the plain where along the water courses they give
way to an open growth of cottonwoods, sycamores, and willows. Such
growths are particularly noticeable along the Tulare river, down the
Kern river channels and along the northern shore of Kern and Buena
Vista lakes, and along the southern banks of Buena Vista slough.

17

18       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

The lower Tehachapi slopes, the eastern slopes of the Mount Diablo
range, and all the balance of our region was practically treeless.

On the more elevated sandy portions of the valley there was a sparse
growth of sage and greasewood, and a little grass.

The swampy or inundated land was covered in most places by a
dense growth of marsh grass and tule. This tule is the common bul-
rush of California, either Scirpus californicus, or S. tatara.  Such
tules were ten feet to twelve feet high and one to two inches in diam-
eter. They had a bulbous branching root eight to ten inches long and
six to eight inches in diameter. Their growth formed a belt as wide
as two to three miles around the marsh, perhaps even much wider in
the area south of Tulare lake.

We may conclude then that so long as a people was restricted
to the valley floor, their vegetable sources of food supply were limited.
They would have had neither pinenuts nor acorns except by trade.
How many species of shrubs and grasses produced edible seeds is not
known. Doubtless sage seed, at least, was eaten. The pollen, seed,
and root of the tule were eaten and the stem was used for hut con-
struction, and for balsas and rafts.

FAUNA

River mussels (Anodokta oregonensis) seem to have been the only
molluscs of importance as food. They are far more abundant within
the Kern river influence and decrease rapidly as we go north from
Buena Vista lake. Within this region they appear to have formed a
considerable item  of diet.  The freshwater univalves noted were
Planorbis ammon (common), Gonidia angulata (rare), and Physa
humerosa (rare).   Epiphragmophora exarata, a land shell, was
obtained on sites 8 and 11 near Goose lake.

Within recent times ten species of fishes have been identified in
the Tulare-Buena Vista Lakes region, namely:

Suckers: Pantosteus araeopus and Catostomus occidentalis (Sacramento
sucker).

Minnows (Cyprinidae): Orthodon microlepidotus (blackfish), Lavinia exili-
cauda, Mylopharodon conocephalus, Pogonichtys macrolepidotus (split-tail),
Ptychocheilus oregonensis (squawfish), Leuciscus conformis, Luxilinus occidentalis.

Trout: Salmo irideus (rainbow trout).

Of these we must consider the trout as being of moment only in the
running streams, i. e., in our area only in the Kern river channels.

The bird life varies with the vegetation. On the valley floor and
on the western slopes we find mostly the California sage sparrow and

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

the California horned lark. There are also sage and LeConte
thrashers, and the Brewer sage sparrow. Near the lakes we find in
addition large numbers of a great variety of waterfowl. Among these
are the white pelican, Farallon cormorant, avocet, killdeer, snowy
plover, mountain plover, Bonaparte and California gulls, stilt, black-
crowned night heron, great blue heron, Forster and black terns; ruddy,
fulvous tree, pintail, shoveler, red-head, and teal ducks; western
grebe, American bittern, American coot; lesser, white-fronted, Canada
and Hutchins geese; curlew, snipe, and sandpipers. This waterfowl
life constitutes the dominant characteristic of the animal life of our
region in historic times.          #

When we turn to the mammals we find quite a contrast to the
abundance of bird life. Certain species of rats and mice, ground
squirrels, gophers, jackrabbits, and cottontail rabbits are abundant.
Coyotes and kit foxes are frequent. In limited localities shrews, badg-
ers, weasels, skunks, and moles are present in small numbers. This
about exhausts the present list. However, from historical evidence
we know that this was not the whole story prior to the arrival of the
whites. Then antelope and tule elk were present in extraordinarily
large herds. These herds were the wonder of all the early travelers.
Mule deer from the mountains can be added at certain seasons. Appar-
ently, too, there were beaver in Tulare lake. In the Coast range
mountain sheep in limited numbers could be had. Predatory animals
were scarce in the valley, but mountain lions, grizzly bears, wild cats
and raccoons have been identified. From about 1800, horses from
Spanish importation began to run wild in the San Joaquin valley.
Large bands of such horses are mentioned in many early accounts.
These together with stolen cattle must have been a factor in Indian
life subsequent to 1800.

Pleistocene fossil remains from the asphalt deposits near McKit-
trick in the western portion of our area indicate that "conditions
during the Pleistocene might well be considered to have been much
like those now prevailing at Buena Vista lake. "6

The following species have been identified in the osteological remains from
the excavations in aboriginal sites in the area under consideration. It is
likely that some of the rodent remains reached their positions in the mounds
through the burr6wing of the animals. The animals identified by Professor
Grinnell were as follows: Cottontail rabbit, jackrabbit, dwarf elk, Canis
(coyote?), burrowing owl, white fronted goose, mud turtle. Grinnell identified
about one quarter of the bones submitted to him, namely those which were

6 Loye Miller, Fossil Birds from the Pleistocene of McKittrick, California,
Condor, xxiv, 122-125 1922.

19

20       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

most readily recognizable. The absence of antelope bones is interesting and
perhaps indicates that these animals, which inhabited the dry plains rather
than the swampy lowlands, were too wily for the hunters of our area, or that
such antelope as were taken were eaten elsewhere. In short, the absence of
antelope may be evidence of only part time residence in the tule swamps.

HISTORICAL DATA

The written history of man in the San Joaquin valley begins with
the Spanish chronicles.    These have been examined with regard
to aboriginal population, villages, culture, and homogeneity of
population.

First comes an initial period. This ends about 1800. Accounts
of the time show the beginnings of Spanish influence, but more
largely they describe conditions which may be presumed to have
existed for a long, prior period. Second comes the period extending
from 1800 to 1850. During this half century the San Joaquin valley
became a general rendezvous for many peoples of diverse tribes. All
were brought under Spanish pressure and into more or less contact
with Spanish culture, and with that of one another. Information
concerning this possible mixture of cultures is important, since at the
very beginning of archaelogical work the problem is presented of dis-
tinguishing its remains before one can determine whether or not it
succeeds a more uniform and more truly indigenous culture. Third
follows the period subsequent to 1850. In this we see something of
the result of this mixing, and the rapid disappearance of the Indian
from our area. Between 1860 and 1870 the last of the Indian popula-
tion disappeared.

REPORTS OF EXPLORERS

1773: Pedro Fages. In 1773 Commandante Pedro Fages passed through a part
of the valley and saw one of the lakes.

1776: Francisco Garce's. The document which alone covers the period prior
to 1800 is the diary of a missionary priest, Francisco Gare's, who journeyed
in the San Joaquin valley in 1776. He was a seasoned and intelligent traveler
and although his route lay mostly in the foothills east of the valley floor,
still the priority of his visit and the fullness of his report make it especially
valuable. We consider only the data accumbilated by him north of the Teha-
chapi mountains, April 26 to May 12, 1776. We equate Gare's ' proper names
with the Yokuts names given by Kroeber to the same probable places and
peoples.

Garces went eighty miles to the north of the Tehachapi mountains and
eighty miles in his return which was partly by a new road. In this distance
he visited twelve Indian villages or rancherias. In only a few cases is the
population stated by him. It is judged that this is done for the larger villages.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

The total population seen by Garces was probably between 750 and 1000. The
population was located somewhat like this: On the Tehachapi slopes 200;
on the Kern river 250; on Poso creek in the hills 225; on White river in the
hills 275.

Down the slopes of the Tehachapi to the southern end of the Buena Vista-
Kern basin Garces found a Shoshonean or Paiute people (Cuabajay), friendly
with those over the range in the Mohave desert, but unfriendly with their
Yokuts neighbors to the west and north. The principal rancherias which
Garces noted were located near El Tejon-probably Pusin Tinliu (see B. A. E.
Bull. 78, pl. 47).

From Caliente creek and Kern river north to the White river he encountered
what he considered to be a single people-probably the Paleuyami dialectic
division of the Yokuts, with perhaps the Yauelmani also. He visited their
villages of Konoilkin, Altau, Hosehiu, Tsineuhiu. These people he called Noche.

He learned that there were other people to the north of them with whom
they were friendly and whom he even conjectures to be simply villages of the
same people. These were, giving his nomenclature in parenthesis, Bokninuwad
(Paginnoas), Wiikchamni? (Buesanet), Gawia (Coguifa), Choinok (Choinoc).
There was another tribe, the Telamni (Telemoteris), which is "Telam or
Torim," according to Kroeber, who were not friendly to the "Noche," nor
were the people to the west, i. e., those along the shores of Tulare lake, the
Wowol and the Chuinut.

In leaving the valley he came into contact with the Kawaiisu (Cobaji or
Noche Colteches).

From this we may infer that the people along the eastern shores of Tulare
lake could not readily leave the lake for the hills since the hill tribes were
unfriendly. And vice versa the hill tribes could not visit the lake. In other
words the lake people would have been held very closely to the few geograph-
ically suitable locations along its shores.

Garce's' experience shows that very free intercource prevailed among the
peoples. Colorado river Indians came frequently to the coast and to the San
Joaquin valley, even making the journey unarmed. Between the Shoshoneans
and the Yokuts the intercourse was not so free, but there was considerable.
There was trade between the lake peoples arqd the hill people in spite of the
unfriendliness. The White river people considered the sea only four days dis-
tant and were wonderfully well informed as to what took place there, e. g.,
knowing of the Anza-Font expedition. Garc6s found a Yokuts man married
in a Shoshonean 'rancheria, an Indian from the sea in another, two Spanish
soldiers had been killed in another for being "wicked with the women," a
Spaniard was married and had a son in another, from another grown girls
had been stolen by the Telamni. In all he found people from different regions
freely coming and going. In other words in about half of the villages he
visited he was able to observe in one day physical mixtures. It is unlikely
that he observed them all. One intruder in a village may seem to be insigni.
ficant, but ,the largest village Garces reports had only 150 population. The
reports of other explorers, e. g., Zalvidea, would make it likely that many
villages contained not more than thirty.

Some of the material objects of culture which Garces mentions are:

Communal huts made of tule; baskets, knives of flint, Vessels of mother of
pearl (abalone?) like the shell work on the handles of the knives; petticoats
of antelope skin, mantas of fur; sweat houses; wild tobacco; stone mortars
and pestles; women's hair in a top-knot.

21

22       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

From Garc6s' account we infer that the people of the valley floor were
living on unfriendly terms with their neighbors in the foothills to the east and
ioutheast, though there was some trading intercourse between them. We
observe that since they lived near the region of Tulare lake that that lake
must have been in such a state as to have enabled them to cling to its shores
the year round. Since a balance of power was apparently maintained between
the valley and the foothills we judge that there could not have been much of
a numerical disparity in population. Hence the valley population south of the
Tule river would be estimated at 1000 to 1500.

1804: Juan Martin. In this year Fray Juan Martin made a journey through
the central and northeastern portions of the Tulare basin. He was the first white
man who, without doubt, saw Tulare lake. For the entire region he reports a
population of 4000. A large part of this, however, was to the northeast and
north of Tule river in the rancherias of Notono, Tache, and Telame. The
population in our areas was in the rancherias listed below, whose tentative
locations are ours. We have also given what we believe to be the equivalent
Yokuts name.

Rancheria of Bubal. This was eight leagues from timber of any kind and
was probably Sukwutnu, the principal rancheria of the Wowol tribe. It was
situated, most likely, on the Sand ridge on Atwell 's island (T 23, R 23) near
the present A}paugh. It is interesting to note, however, that Martin makes
no mention of its being an island in 1804, so that the lake must have been
below the 210-foot level.

Rancheria of Chumtache. Probably a rancheria of the Chunut who lived on
the eastern shore of Tulare lake.

Wars were rife between the Wowol and their neighbors, which confirms
Garces' previous report. All the tribes had had enough experience with the
Spaniards to hide their women from them. Already the population was badly
affected by venereal disease introduced by the Spaniards.

1806: Zalvidea. In 1806 a Spanish exploring expedition from Santa Barbara,
reported by Fray Zalvidea, came into the valley from the west via Cuyama valley.
It skirted the Buena Vista and Kern lakes to Kern river, then crossed the
Tehachapi, apparently through Fremont 's pass. The data which Zalvidea
recorded north of the Tehachapi are reproduced. The probable Yokuts names
and locations as identified by us have been added in parentheses.

TABLE 1

VILLAGES REPORTED BY ZALVIDEA IN 1806

Rancheria         Huts Men Women Chtl- Total   Location

dren

Malapoa (Hoschiu) . .......................  29  22  8  59  Bitterwater cr.

Buena Vista (Tulamniu) ..............  36  144  38  218  W. end B. V. lake
Sisupistu (Pohalin Tinliu) .......... 28  50-60  ?   E. end.Kern lake
Tupai                                            ?   Tejon ranch

Tacui (Tecuya)                                   23  Tecuya creek
Yaguelame (Loasau or Woilo).. .  92             300  Kern river

Taslupi* .5                          Deserted        Tejon cafion

13 villages of the Pelones (Paleuyami)               N. of Kern river

* Kroeber locates a Chumash village called in Yokuts Tashlibunau at San
Emidio, Kern county. See B. A. E., Bull. 78, pl. 47, 1925.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Zalvidea 's expedition went to all rancherias near their route, not simply
traveling in a straight line. This is not specifically stated in the text, but
the reconnaissance trips described so indicate, as well as general probabilities.7

Hence they would have encountered the bulk of the population in the region.
They found the population concentrated at: a. The shores of the Buena Vista
and Kern lakes, where however, there were only two villages and some 500
inhabitants. b. On the Kern river. c. In the Sierra Nevada foothills.

The percentage of children is remarkably small. This points towards a
decadent population, possibly sterile from diseases introduced by the Spanish.
This is somewhat in accord with Dr. Jones' belief in the indication of syphilis
in the bones excavated by him.

Zalvidea s diary indicates that the people on Buena Vista lake were at
enmity with those on Kern lake. This recalls Garc6s' report which made the
people on the northern foothills of the Tehachapi mountains of Shoshonean
affiliations and those on Buena Vista lake, Yokuts. The people on Kern lake
Zalvidea found harvesting "guala."1 This was also being done by the people
of the Mohave desert.

Zalvidea further notes that the Buena Vista people had balsas on which they
traversed the lake, and bows and arrows.

1806: Moraga.   The year 1806 saw another expedition pass through the
Tulare and Buena Vista basins. This was headed by Moraga. It came from
the north and kept to the foothills of the Sierra Nevada. Of the villages
named only four seem to be within our present limits. These are indicated
below with the probable equivalent Yokuts designations.

Tunctache (Chunotache, i.e., Chunut. East shore of Tulare lake. Also

reported by Martin). Population 250.

Coyehete (Koyeti-village of Chokowisho near Porterville). Population 400.
Tahualamne (Yauelmani-Kern river. Probably reported by Garces and

Zalvidea). Population 200.

Hual (Bubal-Wowoll Southeastern shore of Tulare lake. Reported by

Martin.) Population 400.

1812: Pwo. The Indians of the Tachi (Tulare lake) are reported to have pits
from which they discharge their arrows. They ambushed horsemen in this way.

1813: Espinoza. A Spanish expedition was made to Tachi.

1814: Cabot. A Spanish expedition left San Miguel Oct. 2, 1814. Arrived
that night at the edge of the San Joaquin valley. Next day reached Tulare lake
at the rancheria of Bubal (Sukwutnu) which had a population of 700. Then
nearly a day's march across the tule marsh to the rancheria of Sumtache (of
the Chunut) of 700 population. Bubal and Sumtache were at enmity. To
Kaweah river. To rancheria Guchame which was abandoned. To rancheria

Tache of 1000 population near the Kings river. Returned to San Miguel by a 4
northern route. This Cabot account is the second definite report concerning
Tulare lake.

1815: "Grandes expediciones" were sent from San Francisco and from Santa
Barbara into the San Joaquin valley to capture fugitives from various missions.

7 Our remarks concerning Zalvidea's trip are based on our interpretation
of his account as given in the Santa Barbara Archives, Tom. IV, 1806-1821,
and a careful plotting of his movements on a modern map. This indicates
a route different from that assumed by Bancroft.

23

24       ZUniversity of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

1816: Martinez. He mentions several villages and gives some sketchy data
concerning them.

Buena Vista (Tulamniu)-On the shore where the plain reaches the lake

there is a large grove of poplars growing over more or less sandy soil
about one league in width.

Lucluc-28 leagues from San Luis Obispo. Found 50 Indians with their

families and traded blankets, glass beads and meat for a small boy.
Deserted village-Inhabitants had fled into the marsh at their approach. 10

families and 70 men finally returned.

Gelecto-Of which nothing was left but the graveyard. The village had been

destroyed by the wars.
Telammi (Telamni).

Lihauhilami-300 huts.

Quilhuame-Where the captain, an apostate, had fled to the mountains.

Thuohuala (Sukwutnu)-When six leagues from Telame resolved to return

to Thuohuala which was one league. Called, in Migueleiio, Bubal.
This village was deserted, the people having gone to one called Pusas.
Spanish burned Thuohuala.

Distances given: San Luis Obispo to Lucluc, 28 leagues; to Thuohuala, 9

leagues; to Gelecto, 18 leagues; to Lihauhilami, 19 leagues; to Quil-
huame, 7 leagues on the banks of a great river which flows into the
lakes of Buena Vista, Thuohuala (Tulare), and Gelecto (Goose lake?).
1816: Payeras. Claims some 4000 souls in the Telame district, on the Kaweah
river northeast of our area.

1818: Cabot. Mention is made of numerous runaways all the way from Santa
Barbara to San Miguel. These are reported as being mostly in the following
rancherias in the San Joaquin valley: Telame, Bubal (Sukwutnu), Quiuamine,
Yulumne, Choinoe. In this same year there was a fight between the Spanish and
Mohave at San Buenaventura. The Spanish were much afraid of a general raid
from the Colorado river tribes about this time.

1819: A report says that in the San Joaquin valley all ride, even the women,
and that regular fairs are held for the sale of horses.

1819: Estu&dillo. A Spanish expedition went from Monterey to San Miguel,
via the San Joaquin valley. There was apparently nothing done and no report.

1824: First Expedition. Indians of the Missions of Purisima, Santa Inez,
Santa Barbara, and San Fernando revolted and fled to San Emigdio (south of
Buena Vista lake). It is reported that a Russian was here instructing them
in the use of firearms. On April 9th and 11th battles were fought between
the Spaniards and the refugees, one near San Emigdio and the other near Buena
Vista lake. The casualties were few.

There is a report that at about this time the Indians killed an American in
this district.

1824: Second Expedition. This party, led by Portilla, apparently went from
Santa Barbara via Ventura, Santa Clara river, and Tejon pass to San Emigdio
where it joined the first party which had come in via San M;iguel. The parties
returned via Cuyama valley. Kern lake is mentioned as Lake Misjamin. The
refugees from the missions whom they were seeking were reported at San Emigdio
with plenty of cattle. Mention is made of the rancherias of Tulali (Tulamniu),
and Malapica (Hoschiu).

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

1826: Jedediah Smith. Smith, perhaps the first American to enter the region,
crossed the Great Basin from the Salt Lake region. He then traversed the upper
San Joaquin valley. His visit is important since it marks the coming of the
trappers from the interior of the continent. Doubtless many a trapper subse-
quently visited the region but left no written record. Smith's account of the
region is brief. From San Gabriel, near Los Angeles, he traveled "300 miles in
that direction [northwest] through a country somewhat fertile, in which there
was a great many Indians, mostly naked and destitute of arms, with the excep-
tion of a few bows and arrows, and what is very singular among Indians, they
cut their hair to the length of three inches. They proved to be friendly; their
manner of living is on fish, roots, acorns and grass. "

1830: "Peg-Leg Smith." About this date this American renegade and horse
thief is reported to have made the San Joaquin valley his headquarters.

1830: An American named Ewing Young trapped in the San Joaquin valley.
1833: A terrible pestilence, an intermittent fever often prevalent in milder
form, is reported to have almost depopulated the whole San Joaquin valley.

1834: Walker's pass was discovered by white men who began to enter the
valley via that route.

1837: The San Joaquin valley was headquarters for American trappers who
stole horses and cattle from the eoast settlements and missions. These thieves
Were allied with the San Joaquin valley Indians. The stolen animals were sent
east via New Mexico.

1844-5: Capt. J. C. Fremont. In April, 1844, Fremont traversed the upper
San Joaquin valley, keeping along the eastern side and leaving via Tehachapi
pass. His general report of the country is much the same as might be written
today, the exceptions pertaining to the Indians and game, which he notes. Near
the Kings river he speaks of droves of wild horses, of frequant wolves, and of
numerous antelope. There were flocks of blackbirds near the streams. No other
game is mentioned. Concerning the Indians in about the same district, he says:
" The Indians of the Sierra make frequent descents upon the settlements west
of the Coast range which they keep constantly swept of horses; among them are
many who are called Christian Indians, being refugees from Spanish missions.
The Indians brought otter skins, several kinds of fish, and bread made of acorns
to trade.... They live principally on acorns and roots of the tule of which their
huts are made. "

In his trip of the following year (1845) Fremont speaks of "the Indians of
the horse thief tribes" and of "multitudinous herds of elk, antelope and wild
horses." He also reports that according to the Indians. the Tuolumne river is
the southernmost stream in which salmon are found.

1850: Lieut. G. H. Derby. Derby made a trip from San Miguel through the
region. Twenty-four miles east of the sink of Avenal creek, on May 4th, he
crossed the slough at the southern end of Tulare lake, with the assistance of the
"I Rancheria of Sintache, which we found established at this point. " This crossing
was in the vicinity of the Sand ridge, and, in considering it, it is well to bear in
mind that 1850 was a period of high water and that later, in the Visalia region,
Derby was informed by an old Indian that he had never seen the water so high.
In the Sintache rancheria there were about one hundred inhabitants, mostly
clothed.- "The captain was an old Indian from the San Luis Obispo Mission."
Twelve and a half miles east of this village "we found another small rancheria
called the Tinte Taches [Chumtache of Martin, Moraga and Cabot?] living like

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26       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

the others principally on fish and reptiles and numbering about fifty. The captain
originally belonged to the Mission of San Miguel. He informed me that the
Tache Indians numbered about 800 in all and were settled on the shores of the
great lake, but their principal rancheria, eontaining about 300, is situated
at its northwest extremity." In another fifteen miles they reached Deer creek.

Derby then went south to the Bakersfield neighborhood, thence to the shores
of Buena Vista lake, or Kern lake, whieh he describes as ten miles long by four to
six miles wide, with a heavy growth of willows on its north and east banks. There
were swarms of mosquitoes. Buena Vista and Kern lakes were apparently not
high enough to form a single lake in spite of the extra high water reported in
the north.

Returning up the east side of the valley he explored the Kaweah-Kings-San
Joaquin river region. He reports little game, but many wild horses. He reports
further about seventeen rancherias in this district northeast of the Tulare lake,
with a population of about 3000. His total population for the Tulare-Buena
Vista Basin, is 4000. Many Mission Indians are mentioned as among those seen.
On the west of the slough connecting Tulare lake with the San Joaquin river
he saw no Indians except one village of the Tinte Taches which was on the north-
west extremity of the lake and contained 250-300 inhabitants.

Skirting Tulare lake on the west he returned to Avenal creek and back over
the Coast range to San Miguel.

CONCLUSIONS

Size of Population

From the earliest times to 1850 the population does not seem to
have varied greatly in numbers. The basins south of Tule river
(T 21) probably never had a population in excess of 2000. However
in historical times this number was maintained by an influx from the
coast due to Spanish pressure. The earlier population was largely
reduced by wars and disease, but as the area was in general isolated
and unsuited for whites, it formed a place of refuge' into which the
Indians fled who were driven out of other areas.

Location of Population

It is seen that the population tended to cling to certain spots, such
as the Sand ridge. This historical confirmation of geographical proba-
bilities'makes it reasonable for us to assume that such localities were
also the population foci in prehistoric times. Hence the determination
of. such spots is important. From the historical data a schedule has
been drawn up which indicates the Spanish reported name, the prob-
able Yokuts equivalent according to Kroeber's data, and the probable

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

location in present day nomenclature. This includes only the region
south of the Tule river (T 21), and west of the Sierra Nevada foot-
hills (R 28).

TABLE 2

PRINCIPAL ABORIGINAL RESIDENTIAL SITES ON THE FLOOR OF BUENA VISTA AND

Spanish

name

Malapoa or
Malapica

Buena Vista or
Tulali

Sisupistu

Kroeber's

Yokuts name

TULARE BASINS

Location

Hoschiu      Bitterwater creek, near Cuyama

valley (T 10 N, R 24 W, San
Bernardino Base and Meridian)

Tulamniu     SW end of Buena Vista lake (T 32 S,

R 25 E, Sec. 6)

Pohalin      SE shore of Kern lake (Sec. 17,
Tinliu         19, 30, T 32 S, R 27 E)

or
Loasau

Yaguelame       Loasau

or

Bubal

or

Hubal

or

Thuohuala

Sumtache

or

NE of Kern lake (Sec. 24, T 31 S,

R 27 E)

Ditto

or

Woilo         Near Bakersfield (Secs. 24, 25, 35,

or 36 T 29 S, R 27 E)

Tsineuhiu     Kern river, north side, above

Bakersfield

Konoilkin

Ditto

Sukwutnu    Atwell's island, near Alpaugh

(T 23S, R 23 E)

?        East shore Tulare lake

Walna

Lucluc
Gelecto

Lihuahilame
Quilhuame

West shore Tulare lake

Probably in the area but location uncertain

Western part of basin
Goose lake region (?)

I

On Kern river (?)

1806; 1824
1806; 1824
1806

1776?
1776?

1804;
1814:

1816; 1818
1850?
1814:
1850
1850

1816
1816
1816

1816; 1818

-   Composition of Population

It seems evident that after 1800 the southern San Joaquin valley
was the scene of a great mixing of peoples. In the first twenty-five
years ten recorded Spanish expeditions entered the area. In the
second twenty-five years the records are less exact and official expe-
ditions were fewer. But the unrecorded unofficial visitors must have

Noted in

27

28       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

been greater. Russians, Spaniards, Americans, and French are men-
tioned. In many instances these men were accompanied by camp-
followers. Every report shows that the conduct of all comers was
such as to have left some evidence in posterity.

So much for Caucasians alone. In addition the historical record
is almost a continuous account of the fleeing to the region of coast
peoples. In a generation these must have numbered many hundreds;
for example note the increase in the population of Bubal, which was
reported as 400 in 1806, and as 700 in 1814. In short, a skeleton dug
up on the shore of Buena Vista lake, if buried since 1800, is as likely
to be that of an individual born on the coast as not.

In addition to affecting physical types, this mixing of people must
have caused cultural changes. For example, horses and cattle were
introduced and used. Evidence for other changes is not great in total
amount, but when proportioned with the total evidences of culture
looms large. For example, no evidence is available which makes it
logically possible to say that steatite vessels or sherds were introduced
into the region prior to the influx of the coast people. But this is
better discussed in the archaeological section.

After Derby's time (1850) the Indian seems simply to have faded
away. Overland immigrants began to come through the valley from
Walker's and Tehachapi passes. By 1853 there was a regular road
from Los Angeles to the north along the western shores of Tulare and
Buena Vista lakes. Settlers entered. The Indians were crowded back
into the mountains and became so unimportant that the Indians of the
valley receive little or no mention in the annals from 1860 onward.

Since that time the principal data concerning them have been the
ethnological information collected from the Indians themselves. These
have been set forth by Prof. A. L. Kroeber in his Handbook of the
Indians of California.8

8 B. A. E. Bulletin 78, chapters 32-35.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck-: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

In the winter of 1923-4 excavations were made in nine sites. A
number of surface camp sites were explored and the principal private
collections examined, photographed and described. The material and
data obtained are set forth under suitable headings hereinunder.

The " area " as used by us hereinafter will include the entire valley
floor from the southern line of T 21 south to the Tehachapi mountains.
This floor will be divided into three regions, namely:

Alpaugh region, extending from T 21 to southern line of T 25.

Slough region, extending from T 25 to southern line of T 30; i. e.,
between the Alpaugh region and the Lake region.

Lake region, extending from T 30 to Tehachapi mountains, i. e.,
the Buena Vista and Kern Lake basins; and the Kern river near
Bakersfield.

ALPAUGH REGION

In the Alpaugh region all sites of aboriginal residence which have
been recorded are in the eastern part. Such spots identified by us, or
reported on good authority, are summarized below. Probably finds
have been made in other places of which we have not heard. Certainly
the list would appear more impressive were it possible to locate each
place in the immediate vicinity of Alpaugh village, where valuable
specimens have been collected.

TABLE 3

ABORIGINA-L SITES IN THFE ALPAUGH REGION

Site No.   Location

23   T22, R23, S22

24   T23, R23, S19 (East Y2)
21   T23, R23, S15

25   T23, R23, S28 and

environs

20   T24, R23, S19 and

environs

22   T24, R22, S17

26   T24, R21, S28 approx.
27   T24, IR23, S27 approx.

28   T25, R23, S14 (NW Y4)
12   T25, R22, S13

Remarks

South of Angiola on Santa Fe Ry. sand pit.

Skeletons in railway cut.

Ranch of T. Riley. Surface finds.
Alpaugh-Stoll region. See below.

Alpaugh (probably Sukwutnu, p. 000). Mayer-

Fry collections.

Kings-Tulare Co. line. Surface finds.

La Hacienda Ranch. Artifacts plowed up.
Village in 1850. Lieut. G. H. Derby.

Ditto.

Village in Oct. 1854. Andrew J. Coffee survey.
Westfield Ranch.

29

30       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

From the map it will be noted that the sites are generally above
the 208-foot level and on the high land known as the Sand ridge, and
hence the population indicated by archaeology was grouped about as
we anticipated in our geographical survey and in considering the
historical evidence. This Sand ridge, or Bubal, or Wowol or Suk-
wutnu archaeology, seems to focus in T 23, R 23. Here at the modern
village of Alpaugh we seem to have the center of the aboriginal life,
and hence we have taken the name to cover the region.

The material remains of this culture are well represented by the
two splendid collections of Mr. Samuel Fry and Mr. A. F. Mayer.
Mr. Frank Smith of Angiola has a considerable collection from this
region, but we did not see it. Nor haVe we included in this survey the
collection of Dr. E. H. Smith of Laguna Beach, which is on display
in the Southwestern Museum, Los Angeles. Our consideration of the
region is based almost entirely on the Fry and Mayer collections.

Fry and Mayer came to Alpaugh when it was founded in 1896
and began collecting in 1898. They heard rumors of better Indian
relics having been found before their time. This seems doubtful. They
collected entire articles only and hence some evidence may have been
lost because of its fragmentary form. Practically all their collecting
was done from the surface, or from fields after plowing. All their
material comes from within easy walking distance of their homes in
the center of Alpaugh-probably within a radius of six miles.

Mr. Mayer reports that most of the finds were made to the north-
west, northeast, and southwest of Alpaugh. Collections from each of
these directions possessed characteristic features.

Northwestern District (Site 25)

This is the direction of the greatest slope from the high point (212 feet)
of "Atwell 's island"I to the lake bed. In one and one-half miles there is a
fifteen-foot drop to 197 feet, and in five miles the 192-foot line is reached9
The collecting area was about four miles from town (southwest part of T 23,
R 22). Finds are characterized by very heavy lacustrine incrustations. This
is to be expected as the area must have been frequently below the lake level.
Further, few beads and no steatite sherds have been found. Mr. Mayer reports
large quantities of burnt clay, perhaps due to tule fires during the low stages of
the lake. If the 192-197 foot level of the lake was constant for considerable
periods, a part of the population, centered on the eastern end of the Sand ridge,
would probably move to the northwest with the retreating lake and back again
as the state of the lake changed. This hypothesis explains only the presence of
artifacts and not the characteristic differences between those of this place
and elsewhere.

9The old shore line is shown in map of Homeland Reclamation District No.
780, issued by Max W. Enderlein, engineer, Sept. 1923.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Northeastern District (Site 21)

Three miles northeast of Alpaugh, on the "Sand ridge," towards Stoll station
on the Santa P6 railway, perhaps centering in section 15, the flat surface of the.
ground is sprinkled with mortar and pestle fragments, mullers, and steatite
sherds. This is practically the only region in the vicinity of Alpaugh in which
such sherds were found. The striking difference between the finds here and to
the northwest suggests two hypotheses: (1) That the northeastern region repre-
sents a later culture; on the basis that steatite sherds are usually found on the
surface, rather than in the ground, throughout the area. (2) That the difference
in the artifacts is occupational. The northeastern remains characterize a residen-
tial site. The points, " sinkers, " and plummet-like stones, of the northwest
may represent the occupations of hunting and fishing, and have been lost by people
from the northeastern high area while engaged in these occupations at the north-
western site when it was submerged.

There is a possibility that the northwestern type of objects represents burials
and that bodies were disposed of in this district by people living in the north-
eastern district. However, skeletal data are wanting. If cremation were prac-
tised as in the Yokuts area to the north skeletal remains would be unlikely.

Southwestern District

The most fertile field for artifacts (excepting steatite sherds) was to the
southwest at the Kings-Tulare county line in T 24 (i.e., T 24, R 22, S 24-35 and
T 24, R 23, S 19-30), designated as site 20. Although on the "island" it is not
near the lake and it seems hard to determine why this should have been a chosen
locality unless it was used before the accumulation of the sand dunes in front of
it on the lake side. If this were true the site would be an old one.

A number of specimens were found in the vicinity of'the headquarters build-
ing of La Hacienda ranch (site 22), eight miles southwest of Alpaugh. At
La Hacienda the Sand ridge is not apparent, but spreads out as a low rise of
ground. This ground has been plowed, revealing not only Indian artifacts but
objects of Caucasian manufacture.

Site 12

Site 12 is located just west of the center of S 3, T 25, R 22, on the Westfield
ranch. This is just within the 220-foot level of Tulare lake near its junction
with the Buena Vista Slough marsh land. (See Map 1.) The site is about
seven miles south of the Sand ridge. About five miles east of the site, in S 14,
T 25, R 23, on the 220-foot level, an Indian village of some fifty inhabitants
was in existence when the land survey of 1853 was made.

With the possible exception of the thin pockets of shell fragments and certain
of the s'urface material, the site gives no evidence of having been added to by
human agency. It is a natural accumulation of organic soil upon a calcareous
clay base with only natural stratification.

The site was disclosed to us by a Mr. Buttles, who with his brother had made
excavations in it several years previously, and who had thus discovered burials
and obtained a mortar, but little else.

31

32       Uiniversity of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

In addition to wind-blown hummocks, mounds and burrows of rodents or
other small mammals were numerous here. However, even allowing for these ele-
vations and depressions, other depressions were noted which are probably of human
origin. Eight of these are reasonably obvious and probably the most recent;
others are much less so. The eight referred to appeared to be house-pits. They
are usually roughly circular in form, and range from twelve to fifteen feet
in diameter, and are grouped along the swale bank about the center of the area
in which artifacts were found. The hummocks about seventy yards to the south of
the house-pits constituted the burial ground. The soil here was easily dug, while
that about the house-pits was very difficult to dig.

Our party dug ten pits. The earth removed was 693 cubic feet.

We exhumed five bodies at this site. A few artifacts were found on the sur-
face, including glass beads and potsherds. We concluded that this was a relatively
recent camp site on a slight natural elevation, possibly connected with the
groups reported by Derby and Coffee from the vicinity.

SLOUGH REGION

Evidences of aboriginal life in the Slough region were found
mainly along Buena Vista slough, with concentrations at Goose lake
and along the southern portion of the slough, chiefly from    Button-
willow southward. Neither the historical data nor Kroeber's account
permit the determination of a named focus of population in this
region.

TABLE 4

ABORIGINAL SITIS IN THE SLOUGH REGION

Site No.   Location

....... T26, R22, north

11   T27, R22, Sec. 11

........ T27, R22, Sec. 13(?)

10   T27, R22, Sec. 15
19   T27, R22, Sec. 20,

NE quarter

9   T27, R22, Sec. 26
8   T27, R22, Sec. 26
29   T27, R23, Sec. 34

30   T27, R23, Sec. 31-32
31   T27, R23, Sec. 25-26

7   T29, R23, Sec. 28
6      Ditto
5      Ditto.

18   T29, R23, Sec. 10,

NW quarter

17   T29, R23, Sec. 13

Remarks

"4 or 5 mounds." Reported by Mr. Buttles.
Near Homer's ranch.

"2 mounds." Mr. A. C. Crites. See page 35.
Jones' "Adobe Holes" site.

Porterville Land and Cattle Company.

Cedar post burials reported by Mr. W. R.

Dumble.

Sand dunes reported by Mr. W. R. Dumble.

See below.

Elk Grove ranch.

Ditto.
Ditto.

Jones' Buttonwillow mounds.

Depue ranch, 1 mile NE of Buttonwillow.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin ValZey

Site 11

Site 11 is near the center of S 11, T 27, R 22, just south of the ranch of
W. Y. Horner, Jr. It was about one half mile from the shoreline of Buena
Vista slough where it widened towards the east into the Goose lake marsh.

The site consists of a simple cone. It rises about six feet and is eighty feet
in diameter. The mound, as well as the surrounding country, is a light, fine,
yellowish sand, covered with sparse sage growth. It is inconspicuous, yet obviously
not an ordinary feature of the landscape, there being nothing of even approxi-
mate similarity in the vicinity. The mound is surrounded by a depression about
twenty feet wide by ten inches deep at its deepest point. This depression at
present does not indicate a sufficient volume of earth from which to have built
the mound, but allowing for the wearing down of the mound by erosion and
the consequent filling of the depression, it offers strong evidence of the mound 's
artificiality.

The mound had been excavated to some extent by Mr. Horner 's household
and certain specimens obtained were kindly presented to the University. Other
people had also excavated from time to time.

Our excavations resulted in the recovery of a few artifacts and six badly
disintegrated human skeletons. The mound seems too small for a residential site,
there is a remarkable scarcity of articles to be expected in a kitchen midden, and
it contains a sufficient number of bodies to have warranted its erection for pur-
poses of burial or to account for its accumulation through process of heaped-over
burials.

On the northern or northwestern shores of Kern lake similar sandy mounds and
similar artifacts have been found. The distribution from Kern lake along the
northeastern shore of Goose lake slough to site 11 would be a natural one.

Site 10

Site 10 is in S 15, T 27, R 22, 150 feet west of the 14-15 section line and
one half mile south of the 10-15 section line. This was almost in the center of
the entrance of old Goose lake into Buena Vista slough marsh.

The site contains a single low mound which shades off almost imperceptibly
into the low hummocks of the surrounding country. It is about seventy-five yards
from east to west and forty-five yards from north to south. The slope to the
south is about nine degrees, while the slope to the southeast is only three
degrees; to the north it was even less. The top of the mound is about six feet
above the lowest part of the adjacent swale. Owing to its location it must
have been at times entirely under water.

This mound, as well as the similar mounds which are plentiful in this formerly
inundated portion of the country, are conspicuous on account of the white crust
or "alkaline sweat"I which gives them the appearance of being partially covered
by a light snow.

This mound, like others in the vicinity (8, 9, 19) is composed of blackish organic
soil. No difference between the soil of the mound and of the surrounding country
was observed, and there is no reason to believe that the mound is artificial. The
mound itself has been plowed, and so shallow were the burials, that this plowing
disclosed human bones. In addition to the plowing, this mound had been dug
into at its highest point and many bones scattered around. Nothing but dis-
turbed burials was found by us in excavating. The preservation of the bones
would seem to indicate no great antiquity for the interments.

33

34       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Site 9

Site 9 is in S 26, T 27, R 22, on the northern line of S 26, 1056 feet east of the
line between 5 26 and 27. This places the mound on the southern bank of old
Goose lake near its junction with the Buena Vista slough marsh.

A drainage ditch has been cut through the northern section of the mound, and
it seems obvious that the location was within the high water line of Goose lake.
South and southeast the land rises gently to a sandy plain which extended between
the marsh of old Goose lake and that of Buena Vista slough.

The mound is characteristic of the formerly inundated land of this region.
At one end it merges very gently and almost imperceptibly with the surrounding
country, while at the other, towards the north and west, there is a rather abrupt
drop. Nearby are two mounds (site 8, and mound C). The three should no
doubt be considered a unit for human habitation.

On account of the indeterminate edge of mound 9, probably no two people
would give it the same dimensions. We have taken them as 180 feet from north-
east to southwest and 260 feet from northwest to southeast. The maximum
height is seven feet.

The soil of the surrounding country and of the mound is in general of an
organic nature lying above a highly calcareous clay base. Sites 8, 9, and C are
conspicuous on account of the alkaline white crust. The soil is a dark gray rather
than a deep black, and in all cases becomes much paler in drying. There are
scant traces of mussel shells, very finely broken which appear to increase with
depth to sixty inches. At this depth the dry clay is almost white and of a chalky
character. Hard lumps, probably due to lime, are found throughout the soil
as deep as thirty-six inches. Planorbis ammon shells were found as deep as
forty-eight inches.

Our general conclusion is that site 9 was used as a burial mound only. It is
a natural mound and there is practically no evidence of its having been used for
residential purposes. It may be that articles of utilitarian nature left on the sur-
face were removed by previous excavators, but even then it would seem reasonable
to expect more charcoal than the few traces we found, and something in the nature
of fire places and house pits. It is possible that site 8, on somewhat higher
ground, was the location of the living quarters of the people who used site 9 as
a burial ground.

Mound C

Just 275 'feet west of site 9 lies mound C, of the same general charaeter,
slightly smaller, and four feet high. This mound is worthy of emphasis, since in
appearance it is just as likely a place for burial or residence as site 9, and a more
likely location than site 10. However, investigation shows that it was used for
neither human burial nor habitation. It thus supports our general conclusion
that the many mounds of this nature are natural mounds and that none can be
assumed to have any reference to Indian oecupation unless investigation shows
such to have been the case, a conclusion also reached by Dr. P. M. Jones as a
result of his survey in 1899.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Site 8

Site 8 is in S 26, T 27, R 22, 650 feet south and 275 feet west of site 9.

This mound is just about at the shore line of old Goose lake marsh. It is on
somewhat higher land than site 9, but it seems probable that at highest water
site 8 was inundated as well as site 9. On the other hand site 9 must have been
inundated during times when site 8 was dry.

In its general aspect this mound is the same as site 9. Its slopes are less
abrupt but again steepest to the north and northwest. The long axes of site 8,
of site 9 and of mound C were all in the general direction of the flow of the
waters in Goose lake slough, i.e., southeast to northwest.  Moreover the steep
ends of the mounds were downstream. Hence it seems possible that they were
formed by stream action.

The soil is the same as that of site 9 except that the upper soil is generally
darker, possibly due to the fact that this higher mound furnished a more suitable
habitat for tules and marsh grasses, or to a greater amount of charcoal and ash.

Mr. Crites apparently dug in this mound as well as mound 9 in 1917. One or
more parties had preceded him. After him came Mr. Arling Steinberger who
did some excavating and presented the University with some of the material
recovered.

Our party dug two pits, as near the highest portion of the mound as previous
excavations permitted. Our digging revealed that less is found as the distance
from the highest point increases. Consequently the first excavators must have
found more per cubic foot of soil than we discovered. Further their material seems
to have been richer in quality. We turned 375 cubic feet of material and reached
a maximum depth of fifty-six inches.

We deem site 8 a natural mound altered little if any by man. Forty to fifty
bodies may have been buried here, judging from the appearance of the mound
and the nine bodies we disinterred. Evidence indicates that this mound was
used as a residential site as well as a burial place.

Site 8 was a remarkably good location, being between two sloughs and near
Goose lake, the only likely perennial water supply within a radius of twenty miles.
Both sites 8 and 9 were above ordinary high water and only the most unusual
floods would have inundated site 8. The greater amount of mussel shell at
site 8 would seem to indicate a greater residential use of the site. The soil shows
more evidence of fire. It is definitely blacker and has a different "feel" from that
of site 9. This a soil expert (Professor C. B. Lipman) explains as possibly due to
fine charcoal and ash. More charcoal was found at 8 than at 9, but in neither
case was the amount large enough to indicate many fires. The utter absence
of timber must be borne in mind in this connection. Steatite blackened by fire
was found at site 8 but not at 9. It is reported that more mortars and pestles
have been uncovered at site 8 than at site 9. Further Mr. Steinberger reports
"pottery" there.

From the considerable amount of surface finds reported, from the rather
shallow burials, from the fairly preserved textile fragments and seeds which have
not utterly decomposed in damp soil, we judge that the last occupation of this
mound was not very remote, probably not more than 150 years ago.

35

36        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Elk Grove Sites (7, 6, 5)

Three sites constitute a unit known as the "Elk Grove mounds." They are in
S 28, T 29, R 23, in the vicinity of Buttonwillow or about half way between
Buena Vista lake and Goose lake, near the entrance to the Elk Grove ranch of
Miller and Lux.

This locality on the eastern bank of the present Buena Vista ditch is near the
northern limit of the area which ordinarily received perennial water from Kern
river via the old Buena Vista slough. Here the first natural trees of any size
are noted as one comes from the north. A few large cottonwoods are still present
within a radius of a half mile or so. These are probably the remnant of the
original Elk grove. We have reached an area more congenial to permanent human
habitation.

West of the mounds the land is of sand and gravel, and slopes immediately
though gently upward to the Elk hills. This land was never inundated or swampy.
To the east the land is very flat, is composed of black organic soil, and was
formerly covered with tule marsh, ponds, and small sloughs.

The northernmost mound is site 7. Four-tenths of a mile south is site 6. One-
eighth mile south of site 6 is site 5.

The three sites admirably fit the ordinary conception of mound. They are unex-
pected, they do not seem a normal part of the landscape, and they are distinctly
mounds. They are oval in plan with sides that seem abrupt. The slope actually
varies from 40 to 180. Their white alkaline incrustation is heavy and increases
their conspicuousness. There is no shrubbery on them but a very scant growth of
marsh grass. In sites 7 and 5 the long axis is generally north and south; in site
6 it is northwest and southeast.

The sizes of the mounds as indicated by their major axes are as follows:
Site 7: 80 feet by 60 feet, 4.5 feet high, 60 feet to levee.
Site 6: 160 feet by 70 feet, 6 feet high, 80 feet to levee.
Site 5: 150 feet by 130 feet, 6 feet high at levee.

All these mounds present the same exterior and are presumably much the
same in internal composition. They have been comparatively little abused by
relic hunters. Site 5 was half removed by the ditch builders, disclosing burials.
Sites 6 and 7 each had one pit sunk in them. In all cases burrowing animals
had been active.

Site 6. The top of this mound is a plateau of about 8800 square feet sloping
down gently to the northwest. It is highest at its eastern edge and at the east
its slope is steepest.

At the very eastern rim a pit eight feet square had been dug by previous
excavators. This had been used by a burrowing ma-mmal. Other burrows were
observed particularly at the eastern end where we discovered all of our burials.
It would almost seem that given any choice within an area these burrowers choose
the ground loosened by burials. These burrows were occupied, since paper left
by us was later discovered thirty-six inches below the surface.

The surface of the mound was covered with a heavy white alkaline incrusta-
tion. The soil was quite dark in color and broke rather readily into chunks to
the depth of a couple of inches. This dark color grew gradually lighter until at
fourteen inches there was a noticeable difference. At twenty-four inches the
color was grayish. From there down change was less marked, but at fifty-two
inches the color was a light brownish-gray, which continued unchanged as deep

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

as we dug-sixty-six inches. Here and there in the upper portion were hard
lumps of soil apparently cemented together by lime. All of this soil was very
light in weight and loose in texture, and very calcareous, but this was perhaps most
noticeable in the lower portion. Although everywhere observable, shell fragments
were exceedingly scarce. Apparently the mound consists of a highly calcareous
clay base upon which a constantly increasing amount of organic material has
been imposed.* It appears to form a homogeneous mass, shows no lines of strati-
fication, and offers no evidence of artificial accumulation other than certain
intruded material discussed below.

In this mound we dug five pits, all on the top plateau, but scattered enough
to give some indication of the character of the entire mound. The total earth
turned was about 360 cubic feet.

Pit 1. We dug this pit in the most promising section of the mound, i. e., at
the highest portion, near the edge of the slope. In no other mound were we able
to do this, because of the work of relic hunters. The fact that all diggers operate
on the basis of this location being the most productive is evidence of a considerable
uniformity in the burial methods.

The first skull was encountered at four inches, and between this and twelve
inches eight bodies were distinguished. Bone "skewers" were among the human
bones but in no uniform association. "Charmstones " also were among the
human bones-four in one pocket two feet square. Beads were found level with
and below the skulls, but as many away from the bodies as among them. The
eight bodies were so placed as to suggest simultaneous interment, and it is not
impossible that they may date from an epidemic, perhaps that of 1833.

Below the 6-inch level were charcoal and evidence of fire. Firestones were
especially prevalent from eighteen inches to thirty inches and were about evenly
distributed.

Pit 2. At twenty-four inches, on the level with a skeleton (12-3525) and
twenty inches from the feet, was apparently a fireplace. This consisted, in cross
section, of a thin crescent of charcoal tapering at the ends. In plan it was circular
and about thirteen inches in diameter, and contained some fifty " firestones"
totaling 181 ounces in weight.

In this pit was found a small pocket (twelve inches by twelve inches by one
inch) of broken river-mussel shell (Anodonta oregonensis) at a depth of twenty-
four inches.

The soil attained a pale color at a higher level than in pit 1. The organic
matter from the bodies alone might account for the greater depth of dark soil
in pit 1. At twenty-four inches in pit 2 it is as pale as at fifty-two inches,
while there is a darker soil at thirty-six inches with a shading away both above
and below that level, but hardly a stratum in the ordinary sense.

Pit 3, connecting pit 1 and pit 2, yielded nothing characteristic. There was
under skeleton 12-3535 some indication of a fine gravelly soil such as was found
west of the slough. At 20-22 inches was an accumulation of firestones, and
from 18-28 inches charcoal was found.

Pits 4 and 5. Pit 4 yielded one artifact and pit 5 neither artifact nor skeleton.
However, both yielded a proportionate amount of the usual stone fragments.
Neither pit developed anything new in the way of soil structure. Pit 4 was
twenty feet and pit 5 sixty feet from pit 1, so that the mound to a depth of five
feet may be considered fairly well disclosed.

Conclusion. At sight the Elk Grove mounds appear artificial.  However, the
soil was the same as the surrounding country and no stratification was noted. In
the upper two feet the firestones may be considered as pointing to artificiality,

37

38       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

or they may represent fireplaces in dug holes. Additions to the original heights
were perhaps made by human residence and burials.

The location of the mounds near an ample water supply, near the marshes, and
adjacent to the plains for antelope hunting, is so exceptionally favorable that
one would expect it to be a long used residential site. The only evidence bearing
out such an expectation, however, was a very few shells and the firestones. The
other material found could more reasonably be considered as associated with
burials. Finally there are not enough burials and not evidence enough of super-
posing to indicate long residence. In short, they seem to have been natural
mounds, used for some years perhaps as a place of residence by a few families,
who buried their dead in the mound.

Site 17

In 1921 Mr. J. E. Depue of Bakersfield donated to the University several
articles found on his ranch in the northern half of S 13, T 29, R 23, about five
miles northeast of the Elk Grove mounds. All were found on the surface and
consist almost solely of steatite sherds of the coarse, green, large grained type so
abundant at site 4 on the shore of Buena Vista lake.

Dr. Jones' Investigations

In December, 1899, Dr. Philip Mills Jones of the Department of Anthropology
traversed- the length of old Buena Vista slough and marshes from Buttonwillow
station (center T 29, R 23) to Adobe holes some twenty miles northwest at the
confluence of Goose lake and Buena Vista sloughs (center T 27, R 22).

Dr. Jones reports one hundred to one hundred and fifty mounds, a number of
which were examined by him and he concludes that these are natural mounds.
When we recall that his area must have been inundated frequently and for con-
siderable periods, we may suggest the further probability that these natural
mounds, if and when used by man, were simply temporary camp-sites containing
such bodies as happened to die during the term of the camp.

Dr. Jones brought back skeletal material and artifacts from two locations.
These two should be carefully differentiated since they are twenty miles apart.
One is called the Buttonwillow site (site 18) and the other the Adobe Holes
site (site 19).

Site 18

This group of mounds was in S 10, T 29, R 23, about two miles northwest of
the Depue site and three miles north of the Elk Grove group. Dr. Jones' findings
in the one he excavated may be summarized as follows:

1. Burials at highest point of mound.
2. Burials shallow.

3. No burials or other "extraneous material" below "hard stratum," 18-36
inches deep.

4. No indication of fire.

5. No regularity of burial method.
6. Few artifacts.

7. Skeletal material was found as follows: Number 1, adult; 2-4, adult males;
5, old woman (bone perhaps showing signs of syphilis); 6 and 7, children; 8-10,
fragmentary.

8. A natural mound used temporarily as camp site and burial ground.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Adobe Holes (Site 19)

This site is in S 20, T 27, R 22, three miles southwest of site 11, two wiles
southwest of site 10, and three miles northwest of sites 8 and 9. Hence, it should
more properly be considered with our sites 8, 9, and 10. The Adobe Holes loca-
tion was subject to deep inundations until quite recent times. Hence Dr. Jones'
conclusion that it was but a temporary camp site may be readily endorsed. He
found no burials and few artifacts.

Dr. Jones reports that he examined all the mounds within several miles but
"failed to find burials; " but it will be noted that our sites 8, 9, 10 and 11 were
all within three miles.

Miscellaneous Sites

Mr. A. C. Crites dug in two mounds in 1917, which he describes as follows:
"As nearly as I can locate these mounds by the map, they are on S 13, T 27, R 22.
One of these mounds was about fifty feet aeross, the other about eighty feet. We
did some excavating and found the skeletons of some twenty Indians. Apparently
there must have been either a massacre in this vicinity or an epidemic, for these
skeletons are piled one on top of the other. There were several other mounds
in this vicinity bearing resemblance to the mounds in which we found the skeletons
but we did not dig in them to see if they also were burying mounds. We found
no Indian utensils excepting four little square stones with a hole through the
center. We also found some broken pottery and a broken mortar on top of the
mound. I have been told, however, that the party who originally found these
mounds did considerable excavating and found a number of Indian arrows,
Indian beads and Indian pottery." The skeletal material was sent to the
University.

Porterville Land and Cattle Company. The ground is of sand and gravel and
slopes up from the north side of the Goose lake bottoms. We found a number
of flint artifacts on the surface. In the Coffee survey of 1854 an "Indian
trail" is reported as running from S 33 of T 27 R 33, northwestward to S 6.

Other Sites North of Goose Lake. Messrs. Horner, whose ranch is in T 27,
R 22, S 2 and who have lived there for some thirty years, report many human
bones and artifacts in this general region.

Mr. H. S. Allen of the Kern County Land Company reports "a great number
of camps and one possible burial mound in Townships 24, 25, 26 of Ranges 21-22. "

Sites South of Goose Lake.-Mr. W. R. Dumble, superintendent of the Electrie
Water Company of Bakersfield states that artifacts and bones could be noted
some years ago, in many spots iiT this area. Mr. Dumble is a careful observer
and has been over the ground many times in the course of his work and in
hunting. His parents and grandparents have lived in this region and he has
collected Indians relics. Two sites he particularly mentions:

One is in T 27, R 23, S 31-32, where burials were uncovered that had been
arranged about as follows: A cedar post had been placed in the ground and
bodies buried clear around it with the heads close to the post. Over the bodies a
layer of "cedar bark" had been placed. Then came another layer of bodies and
"cedar bark." This was repeated until three layers of bodies were in place. It
seems likely that the "cedar bark" was tule (see page 50).

The second is in T 27, R 23, S 25-26. In the sand dunes of this region Mr.
Dumble picked up a large number of relies. He thinks that this must have been
a definite camp site.

39

40       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

LAKE REGION

For information concerning this region we are particularly in-
debted to Mr. Hugh S. Allen, chief engineer of the Kern County Land
Company, and Mr. W. R. Dumble of Bakersfield. The professional
duties of both men have led them to acquire an unusual knowledge of
the territory.

TABLE 5

ABORIGINAL SITES IN THrs LAKE REGION

Site No.      Location

Near Buena Vista lake:
33   T32, R25, Sec. 6

15   T31, R24, Sec. 15,

NE corner

14   T31, R24, Sec. 14(?)

4 T31, R25, Sec. 22-23(?)
32   T31, R25, Sec. 14(?)
37   T31, R25, Sec. 18

North shore of Kern lake:
3 T32, R27, Sec. 3

34   T32, R27, Sec. 9-12

38   T31, R27, Sec. 10

East and south shores of I
I and 2 T32, R28, Sec. 17

35 T32, R28, SW part

16   T32, R28, Sec. 29

Remarks

Buena Vista or Tulali or Tulamniu. See tables 1

and 2. Close to center of section 6.
Described by W. D. Strong.
Described by N. C. Nelson.
Pelican island.

Mound north of Pelican island.

Near Bakersfield-Taft road. Reported by W.

W. Hill, G. M. Stirling, W. L. Warner.

Area of much archaeological evidence. Re-

ported by Pryor, Dumble, and Allen. Dumble
collection. In section 9, about one-quarter
mile south of the north quarter corner, is a
shellmound one hundred feet in diameter,
according to Allen. Loasau and Woilo re-
ported by Zalvidea and Kroeber were along
this north shore.

Burial ground on McKittrick ranch, reported by

J. B. Stevens.
KCern lake:

Much archaeological evidence reported by

Dumble and Allen. This is probably the
location of Pohalin Tinliu reported by Zalvi-
dea and Kroeber.

1j2-2 miles S. of site 2. Reported by Hollis

Parker.

Near Kern River above Bakersfield:

13  T28, R28, Sec. 34     Reported by Charles Morrice.

36  T29, R28, Sec. 2-3    Mesa north of river. Reported by H. S. Allen.

Tsineuhiu and Konoilkin reported by Garc6s and

Kroeber could be expected in this vicinity.

Near Buena Vista Lake

Sitf 33 (Tulamniu), according to the report of W. D. Strong who visited it
in January, 1926., is located at the edge of the old lake shore, its upper levels
above high water, its lower shell layers evidently being in the lake when it is

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

high. The hills are immediately behind the camp site, which curves around a
point for half or three-quarters of a mile. The shell, mixed with black earth,
is thicker in some places than others. At the southeastern end the shell layers
are covered with four or five feet of black soil. The shell layer here is about
five feet thick, shelving down into the lake. At the southwestern end the
shell is on the surface and appears to be about six feet deep. The average
width of the camp debris, between lake and hills, is about seventy-five to one
hundred feet. Few artifacts save shell beads appear on the surface. Several
blue glass beads were picked up. Careful search revealed about ten fragmentary
arrowheads, two small stone artifacts, and little else. No steatite was seen on
the surface, but several broken pieces were found on the hills behind the camp
site. A few crumbling human bones have apparently been dug out of the
central part of the shell debris. There are a few blackened firestones on the
surface. No signs of burials in the hills were found, though considerable search
was made.

Elk Hills Sites (14 and 15).-At the northwestern corner of Buena Vista lake
is a range of sandy hills in which two burial places have been discovered.

The first (site 14) was investigated by Mr. N. C. Nelson in 1909 and yielded
a series of skeletal remains and artifacts, the latter being in large part textiles.
Unfortunately Mr. Nelson was unable to map this site definitely. Our party
and Dr. A. L. Kroeber endeavored in vain to locate it on the ground.

Concerning this site, Mr. Strong, who investigated site 15 in November, 1924,
writes: "Site 14 was evidently very close to site 15. The elevation of site 15
was from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet above the lake floor. That
of site 14 was evidently less. Site 14 was slightly north and east of site 15.
There is a broad gully near site 15, answering to Nelson's description. Part of
its southwestern face has slid off and there are some very slight signs of excava-
tion there. I have selected T 31, R 24, S 14 as possibly his exact location, and a
close approximation of his general location.

Site 15. This site, comprising only two burials, which yielded a few artifacts
including textile materials, is located just over the crest of a ridge, on the south
slope-about 330 feet south of the northeast corner of S 15, T 31, R 24. The
University is indebted to Messrs. Flowers and MacDowell of Taft for the oppor-
tunity to examine these interments, which they discovered while surveying.

Site 4 (Pelican Island).-Site 4 is in about S 22-23 of T 31, R 25, north of
Buena Vista lake, between the Old River and New River mouth of Kern river.
At present (1924) the surplus waters of Kern river enter Buena Vista lake in
about S 16-17, T 31, R 25. The exact location depends upon the level of the
lake. A few yards west of this Kern river channel, and generally parallel to it,
is the outlet channel of Buena Vista slough. Both of these channels have been
artificially deepened and straightened. When the stage of the lake rises to about
the 291 foot level, this exit and this entrance move north to about 5 9, and at 295
feet they would be something over a mile still further north in S 4.

In January, 1924, this location was two hundred yards from the actual water
of Buena Vista lake. The lake margin was soft mud and it was not possible to
reach the water without going in over one's knees. Beyond, the lake was very
shallow and duck hunters were wading out several hundred yards farther.

To the rear the ground rose possibly ten feet in three miles. This region
was treeless but partially under the plow, and gave some evidences of having been
a tule marsh. The "island" itself supported a scattered growth of very small
willows, some brambles, and some annual plants. Along the lake front were

41

42       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

dense but limited clumps of tule, and along the slough considerable growth of
willows and larger shrubs.

Water fowl 6f many kinds, including ducks, geese, pelicans and waders, were
much in evidence. In ancient times the spot must have been frequented by tre-
mendous numbers of such birds.

When the level of the lake was at 295 feet or thereabouts the island was at
least a mile from the north margin of the lake and a true island. The other
extreme-say a lake level of 282 feet-left the spot quite a distance from the water.
Mr. Hugh S. Allen reports that for some time prior to 1888 the lake level was
so low as to make the "island" dry. In that year the levee was built on the east
side of Buena Vista lake and the water level was raised some four feet, which
at least subjected the southern side of the "island" to wave and wind action
even if it did not make it a complete island.

In all, this was an extraordinarily favorable location. It was among the
perennial channels of the Kern river, adjacent to a lake containing fish and fre-
quented by vast flocks of waterfowl, and high enough to be above all but the
highest floods.

Size and Appearance.-The island is an S-shaped portion of shore line, some
five hundred yards long by some thirty yards wide (at the widest part) and per-
haps seven feet above the land to the north. The "island" is highest near its
center point. It is composed very largely of river-mussel shells and is simply
a large shell heap with mud deposited over its lower slopes on the southern or
lake side.

The island, particularly to the west, is literally covered with steatite sherds,
flint worked and unworked, hammerstones, sandstone mortar fragments, etc. A
wagon load of such material could readily be accumulated, this after collecting
has been done from its surface for years.

Character of the Mou4nd Material.-Over the top to the depth of about three
inches is a stratum consisting largely of sand. Below this is a layer some thirty
inches thick consisting almost entirely of river mussel (Anodonta oregonensis),
broken, but otherwise in its natural state, and a few Physa humerosa and many
Planorbis ammon. There is an admixture of calcined shell in small quantities,
traces of charcoal, some sand, fish, animal, and occasional human bones and some
artifacts. Below this stratum the shell becomes scarcer and a black organic soil
with a large quantity of yellowish sand becomes more noticeable. The shell is
generally disposed in well defined layers of alternating coarser and finer texture,
from three inches to six inches thick. These were not regular throughout the entire
mound. The structure disclosed in our pit 3 may be cited as typical. The fol-
lowing table shows it from top to bottom:

Thickness              Estimated constitution of layers
of layers

4 inches  70% sand: 30% fine shell fragments.
2 inches  30% sand: 70% shell fragments.

4 inches  Sand with small amount of shell.

5 inches  90% shell. Many whole shells at bottom of layer.
8 inches  70% sand: 30% shell. Solidly packed.
5 inches  25% sand: 75% shell.

2 inches  50% sand: 50% fine shell fragments.
6 inches  90% shell.

6 inches  80% sand with many whole shells.

?      Blackish clay with yellowish sand.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Generally in the mound the layers were not horizontal but were tilted upwards
towards the south. The degree of tilting seemed to be about 180 in most walls
examined. Moreover, in some layers the broken shells were disposed vertically
instead of horizontally, as they might have been placed by wave or wind action.

To the north the "island" slopes abruptly and the shell structure gives place
to the soil of the surrounding country. Towards the northwest in our pit 3 at
thirty-six inches depth, layers of river mussel shells, practically whole, were found
in large quantities. Both valves were usually present and joined. They seemed
to indicate a natural, growing habitat. Further to the northwest (fifteen yards)
this same layer of whole shells is found on the present surface of the ground.
These facts suggest that here was an original bed of mussels which was visited
by aboriginal people who gradually accumulated the balance of the heap now
constituting the "island."

To the south, towards the lake, the shells of the "island" became more or less
covered with silt and it is difficult to determine whether or not the "island"
presents as artificial a character as to the north.

We were not able to locate any other shell mounds. Mr. Allen writes us that
"Pelican island is the only extensive shell mound I know of. There were a few
small shell mounds, now plowed up, principally in S 10, T T, R 26. These were,
roughly round, about twelve inches thick and the shells were stacked."

Excavation,s.-On Pelican island we dug four pits turning over about four
hundred cubie feet of material.

Skeletal material.-Several men of the region have told us that human
bones were once plentiful on Pelican island. We saw a few traces but obtained
no specimens. In December, 1925, however, Messrs. W. W. Hill, G. M. Stirling,
and W. L. Warner excavated two skeletons.

Near Kern Lake

North shore of Kern lake.-We feel little doubt that the historical sites of
Loasau and Woilo are in the region described below.

In S 12 to 9, T 32, R 27, the north shore of the lake consists of sand dunes
rising rather abruptly six or ten feet above the lake bottom. This sand is sub-
ject to great wind movement. A district will be uncovered to the depth of several
feet only to be covered again the next season with a shift in the wind. This
movement of the sand has laid bare many skeletons and artifacts which have been
collected and reported to us mainly by Messrs. Allen, Dumble, and Pryor.

Mr. Pryor reports his collection from two villages on the hiigh land just
above the former water line of Kern lake in T 32, R 27. These sites were about
a mile apart and between two of the mouths of Kern river. Mr. Pryor also
reports a "battlefield" south of the lake in T 32, R 28, but has no specimens
from that region.

Messrs. Allen and Dumble have covered the same ground and most of the data
will be set forth in describing Mr. Dumble's collection. Mr. Allen also reports
that in S 9, T 32, R 27, about one-quarter mile south of the north quarter corner,
was a mud fireplace about five feet in diameter, a shell mound one hundred feet
in diameter, broken mortars, human bones, etc. This site was uncovered by the
wind and is now almost if not quite obliterated.

About one mile north of this place is our site 3 in S 3 (NW quarter), T 32, R
27, on the property of the Kern Lake Gun Club. There is no mound. A narrow
sand dune, a few feet high, stretches in a northeast-southwest direction. One

43

44        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

hundred and fifty yards to the southeast is a slight depression where in the
brownish sandy soil is a burial ground apparently rifled, though this appearance
may be partly due to wind action.

One-half mile northeast of this site is a burial mound, according to William
Slay, a Kawaiisu Indian.

Near the corner of S 10, 9, 4, 3, T 32, R 27, interesting burials were found
by Mr. Dumble. An irrigation ditch runs along the western line of S 10 and at
about the corner mentioned is the old shore line marked by rather high dunes
with an abrupt slope covered with a dense growth of greasewood. About 1922
a check gate went out in this ditch above the point, causing excessive wash and
caving of the banks where the ditch cuts through the dunes at the shore line. This
disclosed three skeletons. The lowest one was about six feet deep, the second one
about three feet, and the third one quite near the surface. The cut seemed to
show two camp floors at this point, one about two feet below the present surface
and the other about four feet.

In this same Section (10) after a high wind storm Mr. Dumble observed a
fireplace consisting of a layer of blue, lake clay, about three and one-half feet
in diameter and somewhat concave. Leading from this to the northeast and to
the northwest were narrow paths. In fifteen feet or so these came to circular
clay floors about twelve feet in diameter. A number of artifacts were found
in the vicinity.

South and east shore of Kern lake.-We believe that the archaeological evi-
dence confirms the location of Pohalin Tinliu in T 32, R 28, in the general
territory'of S 17 and 30. This probably includes Mr. Pryor's "battlefield." It
also includes our sites 1 and 2.

Sites 1 and 2.-These are in S 17, about eighteen miles south of Bakersfield,
on the Los Angeles highway, just south of the entrance to a ranch of the Kern
County Land Company. Site 1 is about 250 yards from the highway and is a
circular mound about two and half feet high by fifty feet in diameter. The
mound is of a sandy soil similar to the neighboring land, and is surrounded
by a shallow depression as though the earth for the mound had been dug from
it. The mound has been badly turned over by relic hunters.

Site 2 is one-fourth mile east of site 1 and is elliptilal in shape, one hun-
dred feet northeast to southwest and sixty feet wide. It is about three feet
high and of the same material as the surrounding country.

Mr. Allen reports burials from the same Section (17) which are probably
from these mounds. He says the skeletons were piled, 'without order and that
the orbits were covered with pieces of abalone shell about the size of a dollar.

Site 16 lies in sand dunes a mile and a half to two miles south of site 2
and east of the Los Angeles highway. It is alternately covered and uncovered
by shifting sands. Mr. Hollis Parker has sent the University fragments of
human bones and of soft twined bags from this site.

Some fifteen years ago Mr. Dumble, in what he now thinks was S 20 (i. e.,
about one mile south of site 2), found a place about one hundred feet square
covered with bones and a great quantity of stone, etc., which had been uncov-
ered by a high wind. Mr. Allen has looked for this-find for several years, not
being able to make sure of it because the wind changes the topography. He
found what he considers to be a part of the same location in S 30, about a
mile southwest. He also found evidence of another camp site in the southwest
quarter of S 36, T 32, R 27, another mile southwest. In short, there seems
considerable evidence to locate quite a population in this region, where a
village was reported by the early Spanish explorers, and by Kroeber. 'The

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

region at present is so arid that one finds it difficult to believe that a village
could have existed here. Water could have been secured only from the lake,
the shore line of which is some distance away. However, the Indians may
have found it advisable to move to some distance from the lake on this dry
side to be freed from the mosquito pest. Further, as Mr. Allen has pointed
out, the water situation in aboriginal times was more favorable for the location
of a village here. The Kern river flowing south from the Bakersfield region
entered the lake at about the east side of S 7, T 32, R 28, so that no doubt a
current of fresh water would have flowed past the center of S 19-30 turning
west at about this point.

Near Kern River, above Bakersfield

It seems probable that the historical sites of Tsineuhiu and Konoilkin are
identifiable with the Morrice and Allen sites 13 and 36.

In sending certain specimens to the University on April 23, 1924, Mr.
Morrice writes, "This is the remnant of a collection made some twelve years
ago, of Indian relics from a mound about 100 yards from the Kern river in
T 28, R 28, $ 34. So far as I could learn at the time I made the collection
they belonged to a branch of the Tejon Indians. . . . Many arrowheads, stone
implements, etc., have been taken from the same mound since I was there."

Mr. Allen, on March 4, 1924, wrote: "On sections 2 and 3, T 29, R 28, on
the mesa north of Kern river, is a burial ground and extensive camp site. The
camp relics are buried by two feet of overburden and are found in the bands
of washes, sometimes in places about two feet from the surface."

DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

ALPAUGH REGION

Our information regarding the disposal of the dead in the Alpaugh
region is very limited. Burials have been disclosed in T 22, 24 (site
22), and 25 (site 12). But we are able to present data of the last
named place only.

Whereas the greater number of artifacts were from T 23 not a
single burial is reported from there. This absence of burials may be
due to the fact that cremation was practiced as among the modern
Yokuts further north. However, it seems as likely that it is simply
due to a lack of thorough investigation. Mayer and Fry, to whom
the collections are due, never dug. It might also be conceived that
the site 22 burials were due to Christian influence since articles of
European manufacture were found at this site. Further, site 12
might be taken as more properly belonging to the Slough region.
However, the case for cremation is not strong and not a bit of direct
evidence supports it. The lack of an adequate supply of firewood
(noted by the Spanish traveler Martin in 1804, as well as being a
modern fact) must have militated against the practice.

45

46        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Etln.  [Vol. 23

The data for site 12 follow:

In pit 1, two skeletons were found (U. C. M. A. 12-3514 and 12-3515), one
of a man of forty-five, the other of a woman of forty. Number 12-3514 was
resting partly on its right side with its knees bent in such a manner that the
toes were under the pelvis. Number 12-3515 was lying on its back with its
knees bent in a similar fashion. Both heads were towards the north. The
knees of 12-3514 and 12-3515 were touching. In both cases the remains were
in the same horizontal plane throughout. Both skeletons were generally undis-
turbed. The bones were in good condition, probably due in part to the alka-
line character of the soil. The skull of 12-3514 was ten inches below the sur-
face and 12-3515, 11Y2 inches. We judge these bodies to have been buried at
the same time. One olive shell bead was found closely associated with 12-3514.

In pit 3, were found traces of a skeleton which had been very much scattered
(12-3516), apparently by animals. There was another skeleton somewhat
more complete, though still very fragmentary (12-3517). Apparently it had
been placed with the head towards the west, with the knees drawn up to the
chest. Bones were found which indicated a third even more fragmentary
skeleton (12-3518). No artifacts of any kind were found in the pit with these
skeletons. Pit 3 was sunk in what we have previously described as "hummocks"
(see page 32).

SLOUGH REGION

No direct evidence of cremation was discovered and very few arti-
facts were found on sites which did not disclose burials. It seems
safe to conclude therefore, that burial was the main, if not the sole,
method of disposing of the dead.

All graves recorded were situated in low mounds. The mounds
are natural formations with the possible exception of site 11. In
some cases the height may have been increased by human agency.
Burials were most numerous at the highest parts of the mounds.

This suggests the hypothesis that burials may have been made by
heaping material over the corpse instead of digging a pit into which
the corpse was placed. It does not seem reasonable that burials were
made in the highest parts of mounds to be above high water, for on
the tops of the mounds the differences in elevation are small and in
many cases inconsequential. For example, sites 8 and 10 were entirely
below high water. Further, in doubtful cases, such as sites 9, 7, 6, and
5, there was nearby high ground which was certainly never inundated.
The places of burial were convex as would be expected from a heaped-
over burial and not concave as would be expected from a pit. At
site 6 the bodies were above the firestones of the hearth. This might
be taken as indicative of two periods. But it would also be explained
by the fact that the bodies had been placed on the surface of the
ground lived on and covered with earth. If site 11 is an artificial

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

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48       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

mound it would support a heaped-over burial theory. In many cases
(sites 11, 14 and 15 excepted) the earth below the bodies was such that
it would have been very difficult to dig a pit in it even with steel
tools.  On the other hand the surface material to a depth of three
inches or so could be removed rather easily. The disturbed condition
of many bodies is perhaps to be connected with too shallow burial,
either pit burial or heaped-over burial. The chances for disturbance
through weathering would seem to be greater with the latter method,
however, as there would be no restraining pit walls to prevent the
movement of the bones.

Details of burials noted in the Slough region are recorded in
table 6 and in the following paragraphs.

Skeletal Material in Site 6.-In pit 1, in an area four feet by three feet, and
from four inches to twelve inches deep, were found the following individuals:
Individual           Depth in inches  Individual           Depth in inches
12-3526 .....4                        12-3530 ......8
12-3527 .....6                        12-3531 ......8
12-3528 .....4                        12-3532 .................  10
12-3529 ..................7                 ...........................9...... 9

With the possible exception of 12-3526 there was no positive association
in situ between skulls and bones. The bodies had not been systematically
arranged. Evidently they were simply piled together for burial. At about
eight to twelve inches the hard lumps of clay were apparently more abundant.
This may have been a bed prepared for the bodies or might indicate the one-
time surface of the mound.

Pit 2 contained only skeleton 12-3525, on its back at twenty-four inches.
The knees were bent so that they were but seven inches fromn the surface. The
skull was at fourteen inches. The head was southwest by west. A burrow
had passed directly through the chest, so that the ribs and most of the vertebrae
were missing. Long-bone fragments believed to belong to the body were
found below at forty inches. This body had associated artifacts.

Pit 3. Skeleton 12-3534 was on its right side, facing south, head to west.
Many bones were missing showing disturbance by mammals. No artifacts
were found. Skeleton 12-3535 was also in this pit about five feet west of skele-
ton 12-3534. It was on its back, the knees flexed back and the arms crossed
under the legs. The head was towards the northeast.

Skeleton 12-3540 was between pits 1 and 3. It was on its back; head towards
the north; arms extended at sides; leg bones much mixed up. The knees were
three inches deep; the skull five inches. The bones were in a very crumbly
condition. Grass was growing through the skull. Charcoal was noted under
the skeleton. In the vicinity of the head was found a bone skewer eight inches
deep and a bird bone whistle six inches.

Contemplation of these data suggests the following conclusions. The num-
ber of children is very small. Considering the high infant mortality among
ordinary aborigines this seems extraordinary and may have a bearing on the

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley  49

historical information that sterility was very prevalent. In such an event the
inference would be that we were dealing with a modern or else a transient
population. Except for flexing, there was no regularity of burial method. The
number of accompanying artifacts is extraordinarily scant and implies a very
poor population.

The confused burial of several bodies at site 6 and the state of affairs de-
seribed by Mr. Crites (see page 35) suggest hasty interment. It is possible
these burials actually date from the epidemic of 1833 (see page 25), even
bearing in mind the popular tendency to attribute confused burials to wars
and epidemics.

LAKE REGION

So far as the evidence shows burial was the method of disposal of
the dead in this region.

Site 14.-The burials at site 14 appear to differ from others in the
area as regards location, preservation, cranial type, and associated
artifacts.

These burials appear to have been made in the side walls of a dry arroyo.
The location is not a suitable place of habitation. This may indicate the
custom of burying in the hills some distance from the residences, or it may
be taken to suggest intruders buried, through necessity, in an out of the way
place.

At site 14 an individual's hair, his mink skin head and face covering, tule
mats, cotton cloth, basketry, and wooden articles were well preserved. Similar
perishable materials were not preserved elsewhere except at sites 15 and 16.
The climate is practically identical for the area. The preservation then would
be due to the local situation, or to the fact that the burial was a recent one.

There were five individuals in site 14. Of these, four crania were measur-
able. All were of the Buena Vista cranial type. Only two other Buena Vista
type skulls were found in the entire area. Such a concentration at a single
spot suggests an unusual group.

The principal objects found at site 14 were:

1. An arrow shaft penetrating a human orbit (see present series, xiii, pI.
60, 1923).

2. A painted slab of yellow pine (see pl. 1).

3. A white cotton blanket (see pl. 2; also pl. 72 of B. A. E. Bull. 78).
4. Cordage of vegetable fibers and human hair (see pls. 3 and 4).
5. Three ply cordage (see pl. 4).
6. Tule mats (see pls. 5 and 6).

7. Basketry bags decorated with human hair (see pls. 7, 8, 9, 10; also pl.
63 of B. A. E. Bull. 78).

8. Nets, including hair nets containing human hair (see pls. 11 and 12; also
pl. 72 of B. A. E. Bull. 78).

9. Human hair in pencil-like locks as well as loose (see pl. 72 of B. A. E.
Bull. 78).

10. Abalone ornaments over the orbits of two crania (see pl. 81 of B. A. E.
Bull. 78).

50       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

11. An eagle 's skull with abalone ornaments cemented over the orbits with
asphaltum (see pl. 13).

12. Limbs wrapped with tule fiber, tule stems, and cordage (see pl. 13; also
pl. 41 of B. A. E. Bull. 78).

Attention is called mainly to the inference to be drawn from the lot being
together. Item 1 implies a violent death which Dr. Saxton T. Pope has fully
described.9  Item 2 is from the Sierra Nevada or the mountains south of
our area. The cotton blanket has been identified as of the Pueblo type. The
use of human hair as far as other evidence goes is alien to the area. So is
three ply cordage. The pencils of human hair have not previously been de-
scribed north of the Mohave. In short there are collected here a number of
cultural features which may have been common to the area but which, if so,
are supported by the single instance. The other alternative is that site 14 (and
perhaps site 15) represents the burial of a portion of a group not regularly
of the area. The burial in an out of the way place, the violent death, the
presence of one and possibly more intrusive articles, the unusual crania, the
hair pencils, and the knowledge that parties from other regons did visit the
area make such an assumption not unreasonable. The historical data collected
show a great mixture of peoples here and the preservation of the materials in
this burial might well bring site 14 within historical times, when the possible
confusion indicated by the burial would be naturally explained.

In one burial the feet, ankles, and thighs had been wrapped with cord, be-
neath which on one ankle were some yellowish white vegetable fibers and the
hair of a small rodent. Some of the tissue and skin still cling to these bones. 10
In another skeleton one arm had been wrapped with tule fiber and the other
with tule stems. This is illustrated in our plate 13. This burial gives indica-
tions that the body itself was also wrapped in tule mats, and perhaps in the
cotton cloth, for interment. At site 15 bodies wrapped in mats were definitely
discovered and in site 11 a very thin brown layer suggested a mat. A similar
practice was followed in the Santa Barbara region. 11

Site 15 (as described by Mr. Strong).-The burials were originally covered
by about three feet of soil, and were probably six feet below the crest of
a ridge. The soil is nearly two thirds gypsum, and is superimposed on a bed
of water-worn gravel, which is unusual in the Elk Hills. There is some coarse
sand and a few shells.

There were two bodies (to judge from the fragmentary mastoid processes,
male and female), apparently both flexed, and the female facing the back of
the male. One wrapping nearly three inches thiek enclosed both. On the out-
side this was a heavy layer of loosely woven whole tules, which looked like
bark, and inside, next to the body, a soft twined basketry, in places adhering to
the bones. This wrapping was crumbly and not pliable, save in small pieces.
Its edges had decomposed into a thin brown line of powder, like a line over
the bodies in site 11. Where the material was thicker, it seemed to remain
intact.

The bones were powdery and broke into fragments without any pressure.
The slide which exposed the burials disturbed and broke the bones, and they

9 A study of bows and arrows, present series, XIII, pL. 60, 1923.
10 B. A. E. Bull. 78, pl. 41.

11 Rept. U. S. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Meridian, vii, 37, 1879; Bull. U. S.
Geog. Surv. of the Territories, III, 38, 1877.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

were in place only because of the thick covering of matting. The heads were
pushed down over the shoulder blades and smashed flat.

The female skeleton (12-3819) had no artifacts associated with it. On the
face of the male skeleton (12-3820) and just below it were two Haliotis orna-
ments, which had probably covered the eyes. On top and in back of the head
were a few Olivella disk beads, in the mouth and below the chin were a number
of cylindrical clam shell beads. Around the breast and scattered down to the
pelvis were several arrowheads, all of the unnotched type, mostly of gray
brown flint, but two of black obsidian. Most of them were broken. Midway
down the body, just under the back bone, was a dull black obsidian blade.
In this same region, but above the backbone were a few lumps of pinkish
mineral pigment. Near the face were three small cylindrical bone tubes.

Site 4 (Pelican island) yielded no skeletal material in our excavations. Two
skeletons unearthed by Messrs. Hill, Stirling, and Warner were found one above
the other. "Four feet and four inches from the surface the broken shell
strata ceased and a layer of clay two or three inches thick appeared. Below
this we found skeleton number 1 (12-3851), and just below it we found skeleton
number 2 (12-3852). Skeleton 1 was on its back with legs bent back so the
knees were on the chest and had a large number of Planorbis ammon shells
about it. Skeleton 2 had a perforated coyote (?) tooth with it. From the
appearance of the clay about skeleton 1 it looked like a burial in the clay and
below into the next shell stratum (which went down to seven feet six inches). I

Site 38.-In January, 1926, Mr. Strong was taken to site 38 by Mr. John B.
Stevens who, with a party, had first visited it in 1923 and had unearthed six
skeletons. The bones were very friable, stained dark red, and with a reddish
deposit around them. Two bones had small arrowheads imbedded in them.
Eight other arrowheads were found in the excavation. In 1926 friable bones of
three disarranged skeletons and two arrowheads were unearthed at a depth of
two feet. Shell beads were collected on the surface. The site is a bare sandy
stretch on the plain, perhaps fifty feet in diameter. No eminence is noticeable.
Obviously these were not mound burials, though a passer-by said there were
mounds in the vicinity.

CRANIAL TYPES

In view of the cultural conclusions given later in this paper, the
question of cranial types is of particular interest. However, the data
for the determination of such types, particularly from the point of
view of geographical or regional comparison, are exceedingly scant:
Alpaugh region, 4 crania; Slough region, 27 crania; Lake region, 9
crania. The measurements are presented in another paper.'2    Here it
may be stated that they disclose two types, the San Joaquin subtype
of the Californian type, and the Buena Vista type. The San Joaquin
subtype is relatively short-faced and broad-nosed; the Buena Vista
type, relatively long-faced and narrow-nosed.

12 Californian anthropometry, present series, xxii, 379-382, pls. 49-53, 1926.

51

52        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

The San Joaquin subtype is dominant in the area and the. six
crania which certainly represent the Buena Vista type are perhaps
exceptional, since four of the six   are from   site  14, where
the San Joaquin subtype was not found. The other two are from sites
8 and 9. From the regional viewpoint we have of definite Buena Vista
type crania, four from the Lake region, and two from the Slough
region. In its great size the Buena Vista type suggests the living Mo-
have Indians. These people did frequently visit the area and the
single group at site 14 might represent an intrusion, but the distribu-
tion otherwise rather militates against this interpretation.

The San Joaquin subtype is found to be scarcely distinguishable
from subtypes prevailing from San Francisco to San Diego on the
coast and throughout the San Joaquin valley. Since the relationship
is so close as to render identification of single skulls with one subtype
or the other uncertain, it is obviously impossible to determine from the
cranial data whether autochtones or the intruders of Mission times
are represented by the well preserved crania.

MATERIAL CULTURE

In this discussion we include not only material recovered by our-
selves but also that in private collections, where we are satisfied that
the locality from which the specimen came was known. Such collec-
tions are notably Messrs. Fry's and Mayer's in Alpaugh; and Mr.
W. R. Dumble's in the Lake region. The last named collection origin-
ated almost entirely at site 34, in T 32, R 27, S 9-12.

In order that as many types as possible may be illustrated, we have
endeavored not to reproduce our own photographs, when illustrations
representing the type could be referred to in easily available publica-
tions. For convenience we have further endeavored to confine such
references to the fewest possible works. That to which we most fre-
quently refer is the admirable work by Mr. George G. Heye, entitled,
"Certain Artifacts from San Miguel Island, California." 13 A few
references are also made to illustrations in the papers on the Santa
Barbara culture in the Archaeology volume (vii) of the Wheeler
Survey.14  These references appear as "Putnam, plate or figure -.

13 Indian Notes and Monographs, Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation, VII, No. 4, 1921.

14 Rept. U. S. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Meridian, 1879.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Our main grouping is based on material. Under materials divi-
sions are made according to usage when such is known; otherwise
according to form. Both main divisions and subdivisions are arranged
alphabetically.

ARTICLES OF ASPHALTUM

A mortar in the Lake region had around the edge of its very
shallow hole a quantity of asphaltum which had apparently been used
to fasten a basket hopper to the stone. From site 15 came also asphal-
tum-coated twined basketry.

A lump of asphaltum or of impure rosin was also recovered from
site 13 in this region. Asphaltum was found over the eyes of the
burials at sites 14 and 15.

The clamshell beads from the Slough region, illustrated in plate
15, apparently have asphaltum in the decorative incisions.

Since asphaltum was used in such an ordinary way as the mortar
hopper would imply, it seems likely that the material was well known
in the Lake region at least. The cleaning of pieces by private collec-
tors would eliminate all trace of it from such articles as points and
"charmstones." The low hills bordering the area on the southeast
and west have asphaltum beds on the surface in many places.

ARTICLES OF BONE AND HORN

All bone artifacts recovered were from below the surface. This
may explain their practical absence in the Alpaugh region, since the
Mayer and Fry collections were gathered almost entirely from the
surface. The only bone artifact which they had was a small, flat,
squarish fragment with two edges notched.

Antler

The only piece of horn observed in the entire valley floor was an
antler tip in the Dumble collection. It was from the vicinity of Kern
lake.

Awls

An awl in good condition was found at site 6, Slough region. It
was made from the right radius of a canine animal, probably a coyote.
Hence the awl is hollow. The bevel is clean cut and produces a sharp
strong point (see pl. 14b).

53

54        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Pishhooks

A fragment of a bone fishhook (or possibly spear head) was found
at site 11 in the Slough region (see pl. 14d). Many similar pieces
are found in the Delta region.

Pendants

From the shore of Kern lake, Mr. Dumble secured a bear claw
drilled near its base for use as a pendant. From site 4 (Pelican island)
is reported a coyote tooth similarly perforated. A bear claw neck-
lace has been reported from the Slough region and Mr. T. V. Little
has submitted for inspection a bear claw drilled at the base and
with a chord length 100 millimeters from tip to base. The drilling
is from side to side.

Pins

Six pins were found at site 6 in the Slough region. These range
in length from 175 to 193 millimeters and apparently are identical
in type with the object shown in Heye LVI, a. They are of solid bone,
apparently the cannon bone of a large mammal-elk, cattle, or horse.
They taper more towards one end and this long taper terminates in
a sharper point than the other end. Tool marks on the pins are encir-
cling. Possibly these pins were hair ornaments, possibly they were
used for cooking fish, or yet again they may have served some other
purpose.

Tubes

Site 14, Lake region, yielded four bone tubes-one fragmentary.
These are of mammal bone, perhaps deer, and resemble Heye LvIII,e
All the rims are rounded and slightly bevelled. In one tube both rims
are incised in a decorative manner. In two the inside has been finished
at one end as in Heye figure 17, with the addition that longitudinal
interior striations, perhaps tool marks, are prominent.

Whistles

Whistles found were made of bird bone and are illustrated in
plate 14. The ends are cut off square and the bone is in good condi-
tion. The larger example is made of the ulna of Grus canadensis ().
One specimen (fig. c) was obtained from Adobe Holes (site 19) and
one (fig. a) from site 6-both in the Slough region.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

ARTICLES OF CLAY

Artifacts of clay were scarce and are of six types.

1. A keeled (or convex sided) spindle-whorl shaped disc. Five
specimens were discovered. One is from Alpaugh (Fry collection)
and is of burnt clay with the hole of such even diameter as to appear
moulded. Another (pl. 14k) was found by Mr. Pryor on the shore of
old Kern lake, and is like the first except as to being of unburnt
clay. Three similar discs were found by Mr. Dumble in the same
region. In the J. A. Barr collection in Stockton are three from a spot
eight miles southwest of Tulare. They were found in 1897 in digging
a ditch on the ranch of G. H. Castle.

2. The second type is very similar to the first except that the disc
has flat sides and a biconically drilled hole. It is represented by a
single specimen from Alpaugh (Mayer collection). There is a possi-
bility that this specimen is composed of shale.

3. The third type is represented by a small, crude, grey, unbaked-
clay bowl with a side perforation like a modern tobacco pipe and with
traces of white paint ( ?) on the exterior. It is from the Goose lake
region and is in the D?umble collection.

4. A fragment of burnt clay tube with evidence of smoke within
was found by Mr. Dumble near Kern lake. It may have been part of
a tobacco pipe.

5. This is a small piece of sun-baked clay with a design of punched
indentations. In this respect it resembles some clay objects from the
vicinity of Stockton. The specimen is in the Dumble collection and
was found in S 9-12, T 32, R 27, on the northern shore of old Kern
lake.

6. Pottery was forthcoming in two areas. From the surface of site
12 (southeast of old Tulare lake) we gathered a score of small sherds
(which were all we could find) of gray pottery, without slip, and
about five millimeters thick. Mr. Hollis Parker sends us, apparently
from site 3, on the northern shore of old Kern lake, sixteen small
sherds without slip. Ten of these are similar to the site 12 material,
and six of a thicker ware, dark gray on one side and reddish brown
on the other. On the neighboring, Kern lake site 34, about a mile
from site 3, Mr. Dumble found many sherds with a pale brown slip
showing a dark brown band and black linear design. Moreover, from

55

56       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

this same place Mr. Dumble obtained a complete small vase with a
swastika design, probably of modern manufacture.

The potsherds of both the Alpaugh and Lake regions appear more
like southern Californian than modern Yokuts ware. The potsherds
from the Alpaugh region are scant (it being quite possible for those
found to represent a single vessel) and are all from the surface, so
that it seems unsafe to conclude anything other than that pottery in
this region was probably a post-Caucasian intrusion and no factor in
the ancient culture.

In the Lake region it again seems unlikely that the pottery was
made where it was found. As has been shown in the historical section,
this area in particular was subjected to an influx of people driven in
by the Spaniards from the coast and southern California. Considering
this and the fact that other articles of certain Caucasian origin (Span-
ish coins, glass beads, for example) are found under similar conditions
in the same locality, it seems most likely that pottery was also a late
intrusive factor, of little or no importance.

The large lumps of burnt clay found on the surface of the ground,
particularly in the Alpaugh region, have been mentioned. From site
6, Slough region, comes a lump of unbaked clay (1-24609) with a
negative basketry impression shown positively in wax in plate 14m.

ARTICLES OF EUROPEAN MAKE

At sites like La Hacienda (site 22) where ranch houses existed
upon apparently aboriginal sites, articles of European manufacture
were not collected, since it would be utterly impossible to say when
and how they arrived.

On the other hand a number of European articles which have an
interest have been collected-particularly by Mr. Dumble in the Lake
region. He has a great variety of glass beads, globular and tubular,
and of various colors; a small copper button of antique type with
prongs for fastening it to the garment; a number of Spanish copper
coins, one dated 1816, one of Ferdinand VII(?) dated 1812(?), one
of Charles III dated 1776, and he reported still another dated 1712;
a broken copper knife blade, 910 mm. long; a copper kettle of Russian
design, which casts an interesting light on the Spanish report of 1824
page 24); and fragments of a porcelain doll's arm and a crucifix.
As most of these objects were found in the same general locality as the
balance of the Dumble collection, it would be simple to say that they

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

determine that collection as post-Caucasian. Such a generalization
would be to some extent supported by historical and archaeological
facts which are developed in the course of this paper, but the general
tenor of our discussion makes it obvious that the situation is by no
means so simple.

Owing to shifting sand, particularly in the eastern Lake region, it
cannot be stated whether any of the European articles were associated
with burials. In the Slough we found no such articles but this
fact is obscured by the consideration that other material remains
indicate this to be the backward area where European articles would
be least expected.

Finally it is possible that specimens influenced by European ideas
have been unwittingly included as aboriginal.

Plate 16ad shows a glass bead from Alpaugh.

PAINT

A number of burials furnished traces of red "paint." As we have
no burials from Alpaugh or the major portion of the Lake region no
comparison can be made. The "paint" was the ordinary hydrous
iron oxide used widely in California.

From site 15, however, comes a lump of pink pigment, probably
ocher. From a site on the shores of Kern lake, Mr. Dumble obtained
a lump of yellow pigment.

ARTICLES OF SHELL

We have classified shell artifacts as follows:

I. Discs with a more or less central perforation and less than
seventeen millimeters in diameter we have called "beads."

II. Discs of general circular form, more than seventeen milli-
meters in diameter and with or without perforations, are called
"discs."

III. More or less irregular shaped artifacts with perforations off
center are called "pendants."

IV. Longitudinally perforated objects where the length is several
times the diameter are called "tubes."

57

58       University of California Publiwations in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Beads

The principal objects made from shell were beads. Our own exca-
vations did not produce very many of these, but all private collectors
emphasize their relative abundance. Such collections do not however
show this since all the beads seen are never gathered, and those gath-
ered are frequently given away.

(a) Beads of clamshell.-The clamshell beads were mostly made
from the shell of Tivela crassatelloides. This is a southern species found
notably in the region of Pismo beach and on the Santa Barbara
channel. No claimshell beads found could be considered as made of
Saxidomus nuttallii, the species which furnishes the material for the
beads found in vast quantities in the delta region of the San Joaquin
river.

Heye (pl. cxiv) illustrates typical clamshell beads as found by
us. They range from thin discoidal beads to cylinders with lengths
equal to two diameters. The minimum diameter noted was four milli-
meters, the maximum forty-two inillimeters. The larger ones are dis-
cussed as discs. No globular, ovate, or other forms were found. The
workmanship is fair with some well drilled holes, most of which are
biconical. Neither blanks nor raw material were obtained. The infer-
ence is that these beads were imported in' finished form from the
Channel district. Such beads were found throughout the region
under consideration. (See plate 16ai).

Sixteen clamshell beads (pl. 15) tastefully incised, were collected in
the Slough region by Mr. T. V.- Little of Shafter, California. Traces
of asphaltum (?) in the incisions suggest that originally the incised
designs may have been entirely in black. On the edges of some there
is milling. The beads range from ten to fifteen millimeters in diam-
eter. These specimens reveal more delicate workmanship than the San
Miguel Island specimens figured in Heye, cxv and cxvi.

(b) Beads of Olivetla shell.-Two species of Olivella shells were
used.

1. Olivella boetica or intorta was used only as a whole shell with
the spire ground off, probably because too small to be used otherwise.
(Heye, fig. 33a).

2. Adult as well as young shells of Olivella biplicata were treated
in the same way (Heye, fig. 33c). Beads "a" and "c" were found

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

throughout the area. As collected, they were not over ten per cent as
numerous as the Olivella disc beads.

3. A very rare type of Olivella bead is one in which both the spire
and base are ground off, leaving the barrel-like central portion as the
bead (Heye, fig. 33b). We obtained one from the Lake region (site
4), one from the Slough region (site 8) and the Mayer collection con-
tains two from the Alpaugh region.

4. In the Fry collection was a whole Olivella biplicata with the
aperture side ground off to leave two large holes, one in part the
natural aperture, the other in the second whorl of the spire.

5. The Olivella biplicata half-shells (i.e., the entire side of the
shell, one edge of which forms the lip) were far more abundant in the
Alpaugh region than any other type of bead (pl. 14ef). Some have
punched holes and some drilled holes. The relative abundance of
half-shells and discs (type 7) in the Alpaugh region, is as follows:

Half-shells with punched holes, 1039; Olivella discs with punched
holes (type 7), 17; half-shells with drilled holes, 2; Olivella discs
with drilled holes (type 7), 49.

Both sorts of half-shells were found in the Slough (particularly
at site 6) and Lake (site 4) regions. Half-shells with drilled holes
were scarce, except at site 11 where all had drilled holes.

One hundred and ninety-four Olivella biplicata. half-shell beads
were sent in by Mr. Charles Morrice from the Lake region (site 13).
Nineteen had punched holes, the balance drilled.

Except in the Alpaugh region, Olivella discs existed in many
times the quantity of Olivella half-shells. For example, in the Dumble
collection (Lake region)

Half-shells with punched holes, 25; Olivelta discs, 3224.

Thus the half-shell and disc situation in the Lake region reverses
that in the Alpaugh region.

The drilling in half-shell beads is good, but the thin walls make
it difficult to determine its style. In general it appears biconical.
Some of the beads classified as with punched holes were originally
drilled but have had the holes worn until they appear punched.

It is possible that the Olivella biplicata half-shell beads are not a
finished product, but represent a stage in the manufacture of the disc
beads discussed below.

59

60       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

6. A single half-shell, Olivella biplicata, with the convex side
ground off to leave a large opening was obtained at site 8, Slough
region.

7. Disc beads made of the Olivella biplicata are common to the
entire area. These range from two to fifteen millimeters in diameter.
In thickness they vary with the shells used. Some have an irregular
edge as though blanked out roughly from the shell. Others have the
edge ground smooth and practically circular. No square or rectangular
Olivella beads were found. Discs appear to be made from two portions
of the shell. The great majority, including some of the smallest and
all of the largest, are made from the main wall of the shell near the
lip. The minority, small in diameter, exceptionally thick, and decid-
edly concave-convex are seemingly made from a thick portion of the
shell, near the base of the columella, or where the lip joins the body
whorl.

Our Olivella disc beads are of the type shown in Heye figure 31,
lower nine specimens.

The disc beads with punched holes are so few that it seems prob-
able that these are due to minor fractures in drilling or are drilled
holes worn by use. All drilling appears to be biconical. Holes in
general are centrally placed and are not over two millimeters in diam-
eter, and not under one millimeter. No disc was found containing
more than one hole. A single variant in the Mayer collection has the
hole formed by sawing transversely on the convex surface.

In color these beads are natural except for weather wear and soil
stain. A few gray calcined beads were found at site 4.

Certain specimens, in which the diameter is two millimeters and
the hole one millimeter, are in reality rings which are quite different
from the large discs. Such rings may have been made for inlaying
or bushing, as on the Santa Barbara coast.

As indicated above (under 5) these beads were present in propor-
tionally larger numbers in the Lake region than in the Alpaugh region.

(c) Beads of mussel shell (Mytilus californianus).-A mussel-shell
disc-bead was found in the Slough region, site 8 (Heye, fig. 30b). In
the Dumble collection were nineteen from Kern lake.

(d) Beas of abal one shell.

1. The shell mostly used is the salmon-pink epidermis of the
Haliotis ca2iforniensis. The beads are circular discs ranging from
four to ten millimeters in diameter and from two to four millimeters

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

thick. The thickness of individual beads generally varies, perhaps on
account of the raw material. We collected eight specimens at site 4
and there are thirty-eight in the Dumble collection. The type was
not found in the Alpaugh and Slough regions. Our beads are of the
type illustrated by Heye figure 30c, but our material is HaliotLs.

2. We also found at site 4, Pelican island, a small disc-bead
(1-24755) perhaps made of the epidermis of Haliotis cracherodii. A
fragment of such shell was found at this site and an undoubted
Haliotis cracherodii bead was found on the small knoll a mile north.

3. Another type of bead closely resembled the abalone discs or
pendants except in the matter of size. One was found at site 6 in the
Slough region and two at site 15, Lake region. All are made of the
nacrous portion of the abalone shell, are circular in form, and have
two holes. They resemble modern buttons. The two beads from site
15 are decorated with short incisions entirely around the edge of one
face. See plate 14g-h.

(e) Bead of Natica shell.-A single small, beach-worn Natica shell
with a hole drilled in the broad lower whorl was among the specimens
from site 13 donated by Mr. Morrice.

(f) Bead of cowry shell (Cypraea spadicea).-There is in the
Mayer collection one disc bead made of cowry shell, one edge being
formed by a toothed lip of the shell.

(g) Becads of keyhole limpet shell (Lucapina crenulata).

1. Among the specimens collected by Mr. Morrice at site 13 are
seven ornaments (four complete and three fragmentary) made from
keyhole limpet shells. These are similar to Heye cxix except that
the edgds of our specimens have been ground down, more or less main-
taining the original shape, and no perforations have been made. The
type was found nowhere else.

2. Ornaments consisting of the natural heavy ring around the
central orifice of the keyhole limpet shell were found in the Alpaugh
region (three), in the Slough region (four at site 8, one at site 10),
and in the Lake region at site 13 (three). With the exception of one
Alpaugh specimen, these are of the types shown in Heye cxxi, four
lower left figures, and designated as inlays. The exceptional one is
like the upper left figure. An illustration of the value in which these
were held by aboriginal man is furnished by an imitation in the Mayer
collection made from clam shell (pl. 16am). Beside it is a true key-
hole limpet ring (pl. 16an).

62       University of Californiq Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Bushings and Inlays
See Beads, b7, page 60.

Discs

(a) Discs of clamshell.-Most of the discs obtained were of this
material. In the Alpaugh region were sixteen specimens varying from
seventeen to sixty-five millimeters in diameter. These are all plain
circular discs, relatively thick, say seven to ten millimeters. All have
drilled holes. In four cases the holes are so large compared to the
diameter that the specimens might be termed rings. In all other cases
the holes are relatively small. One has two holes. Another disc in
the Mayer collection is worthy of note because of its unusual perfora-
tion. Instead of being drilled from flat side to flat side it is drilled
from edge to edge through the center, i.e., the length of the hole is
the diameter of the disc   (about twenty-five millimeters).  See
plate 16ag.

Along the Buena Vista slough none were found.

In the Lake region Mr. Dumble obtained four specimens, two
fragmentary. One specimen is notably large, seventy-six millimeters
in diameter. One is forty-two millimeters and another twenty-eight
millimeters. All have central biconically drilled perforations. We
obtained, near site 4, a portion of a perforated disc, forty-two by nine
millimeters, with decorative incisions around the edge (pl. 14i). Mr.
Hollis Parker obtained at site 16, a disc about fifteen millimeters in
diameter with nicking on the rims of the two faces and decorated on
the edge with crossed lines forming diamonds.

(b) Discs of abalone' shell.-These are represented in the Alpaugh
region by a single specimen. This is of the nacrous portion of the
shell, drilled, thirty-three millimeters in diameter, and with shallow
V-shaped notches -entirely around the edge.

Jones secured from site 18, Slough region, a lustrous abalone disc
fifty millimeters in diameter with two drilled holes on either side of
the center and with evidence of a third hole near the edge and in line
with the other two, resembling Heye LXXXIIC.

The Lake region furnished three specimens to the Dumble collec-
tion, two fragmentary, twenty-one and forty millimeters in diameter,
and the third entire and twenty-one in diameter. All are of circular
form and perforated at the center.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Pendants

(a) Pendants of clamshell.-These were found only in the Alpaugh
region.

1. Bar-shaped. These pendants are unusual. They are roughly
square in transverse cross-section. In the Fry collection is a single
specimen, twenty-four by six millimeters. In the Mayer collection
are three specimens, pl. 16n-p. Figures n and o, and the Fry speci-
men, are not only drilled from side to side, but from the end to meet
the transverse hole. The Fry specimen is drilled at one end only, both
the others at both ends, and in both cases the transverse hole does not
extend through the specimens, but only to meet the end hole. Figure
p has no end drilling, but is transversely drilled near both ends. It
is, moreover, notched at both ends, perhaps for holding in position
thread which bound it to some fabric or garment.

2. Broad pendants. In the Fry collection is an irregular, rectang-
ular pendant, fifty-two by twenty-one millimeters. Mayer has seven
shell ornaments, believed to be of clamshell and falling under the
present classification. They are all irregular in outline and vary from
roughly rectangular to roughly circular. All are perforated with a
single hole near an edge. See plate 16a-g. Some are worn very
smooth. Figure d is of a beautiful ivory color.

3. The specimen shown in plate 16g is unusual in being formed of
the hinge portion of a clamshell, drilled at one end.

(b) Pendlant of Arca shell.-Only one example was seen, this being
in the Mayer collection at Alpaugh. It consisted of a complete valve
drilled near the hinge (pl. 16k).

(c) Pendant of Cardium corbis.-Three roughly triangular pen-
dants (maximum dimensions fifty-five millimeters) of this large cockle
shell are in the Mayer collection (pl. 16h-j). These are biconically
drilled near the apex.

No pendants of this type were found elsewhere, though unworked
fragments of Cardium corbis were found at site 6 in the Slough region
and site 4 in the Lake region. A complete valve found at site 6 may
have served as a paint container.

(d) Pendant of Hinnites giganteus.-This type is represented by a
single specimen from the Alpaugh region (pl. 16m). It is made from
the hinge portion of the shell and shows the characteristic purple
coloring.

63

64       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

(e) Pondants of abalone shell.-.-No abalone pendants were noted
from the Alpaugh region.

Pendants of this material may be conveniently divided into two
types.

1. The rim type is made from a portion of the heavy, flat, reflexed
rim of the abalone shell. No complete specimens were seen, but the
fragments indicate articles similar in appearance to Heye LXXVII, a, b,
and d, but not drilled, and to the four right hand pieces Heye LXXVIII.

In the Slough region the type is represented by two fragments:
one is eight by twenty-one millimeters, with four small notches on one
edge (1-24521), from site 9; and another is seven by twenty-three
millimeters (1-24501) with traces of asphaltum (?), from site 11.

There are fragments representing three specimens from the Lake,
region, site 14. The longest piece is a medial fragment seventy-five
by thirteen millimeters. The other fragments are drilled at one end
(Heye LXXVIII.)  The former, and one of the latter pieces, were
thrust almost out of sight into the left nostril of a skull (12-1734),
the other piece being in the right nostril (see A. L. Kroeber, B. A. E.,
Bull. 78, pl. 81). This skull also had a rectangular abalone pendant
over each orbit. Another skull (12-1735) from this same site was
found with its "nose filled with curved pieces of abalone" which were
probably of the same type as those in 12-1734. There are two short
rim-type pendants in the Dumble collection. A drilled rectangular
fragment from site 4 seems to represent an indeterminate pendant of
this type.

2. The broad type includes pendants made from the flatter, lus-
trous portion of the shell. They are generally roughly circular or
rectangular in outline, thin, and of various sizes.

Only two specimens were found in the Slough region: one, a small,
ovate, two-holed specimen (1-24537), from site 8, the other a frag-
ment showing the notched rim of a circular pendant (1-24592).

As mentioned above two fine rectangular specimens were found
over the orbits of skull 12-1734 at site 14. Each has two perforations
near the corners at one end. One piece is notched along the two
sides. The pieces are lustrous on both sides and are so well preserved
as to suggest their being relatively recent. From the same site comes
a bald (?) eagle's skull (12-1738) with a circular abalone pendant
fixed over one orbit by means of asphaltum (pl. 13). This has two
perforations, not far apart, near the circumference, and possesses
the same lustrous qualities and state of preservation as those over the

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

human eyes. From nearby, site 15, have been obtained two large
rectangular specimens, 1-26279 and 1-26280. The largest is forty-
four by sixty-six millimeters. It has two perforations near the cor-
ners of one end. The other specimen seems to have been similar, but
is damaged. Both seem to have been lustrous only on one side origi-
nally, but at present are very badly deteriorated, offering a striking
contrast to the specimens 12-1734 and 12-1738 just cited. Site 4
yielded fragments of a rectangular pendant with notched edges and
two or more holes (1-24636), also one small piece of another speci-
men (1-24756). From Kern lake Dumble had one roughly triangular
piece drilled at the apex and a square one apparently once drilled
near the four corners and at the center of one side. These corner
holes have all had their outer walls broken out so as to give the piece
the appearance of a very short-armed, solid, square-cross. This piece
has five perforations, the maximum number seen.

Tubes

(a) Nose sticks.-In the Fry collection (Alpaugh region) was a
cylindrical artifact apparently of clamshell. This was thirty-six
millimeters in length, five and one-half millimeters in diameter, and
perforated for its entire length with a hole two millimeters in diameter.
This was possibly a nose-stick.  A similar specimen in the Mayer
collection was thirty by five millimeters (pl. 16z). In the Dumble
collection (Lake region) are four pieces apparently of this nature,
about five to six millimeters in diameter, and the longest one forty-
three millimeters in length. Also from Kern lake is a fragment of
the same type (1-25294).

(b) Dentalium tubes.-In the Mayer collection was a Dentalium
tube (pl. 16a?c.) This was the only Dentaium encountered in the
entire area.

(c) Miscellaneous. Other shell tubes were one in the Mayer collee-
tion and six in the Dumble collection. These are as small as four milli-
meters in diameter and nine millimeters in length. One of Dumble's
specimens forms an obtuse angle, but is longitudinally drilled, never-
theless. A transverse cut at the inner angle of the bend probably
facilitated the drilling from each end. Mr. T. V. Little collected in
the Slough region, two slightly curved shell tubes (pl. 15), seventy-
seven and seventy-five millimeters in length, and eleven and eight
millimeters respectively, in diameter.

Plate 16ab shows a split shell tube with the drilled hole revealed.

65

66        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Vessels

In all three regions occasional shells or fragments of shells were
found which had served apparently as containers. In the Alpaugh
region the Mayer collection contained a blackened clam shell frag-
ment, forty millimeters in length, which had apparently been so used
(see pl. 21p). At site 8 (Slough region) we found a small abalone
shell (Haliotis cracherodii) with most of the natural holes therein
plugged with asphaltum (1-24548). This seems to have been done to
adapt it for use as a receptacle or scoop. (See Heye figure 22 and plate
LXXIV.) A Cardiumn corbis valve possibly adapted to the same pur-
pose was found in site 6. It has a yellowish brown incrustation within.
At site 4 was a roughly rectangular piece of abalone shell (1-24637)
which from its poor quality was apparently a rejected piece from a
large shell, the rest of which had been utilized.

ARTICLES OF SKIN

Over the head and face, and partly adhering to the cheek bones
and nose, of one of the skulls (12'-1734) from site 14, was a mass of
mink fur (Mustelal vison). (B. A. E. Bull. 78, pl. 81.) In the present
condition of the specimen it is impossible to state whether this consti-
tutes a cap or other formed article. Its under surface was covered
with red paint.

ARTICLES OF STEATITE15

This material is generally so characteristic as to admit of ready
identification within the limits mentioned below. There appear to
be two types. One is of compact grain, smooth and soft, and generally
of a whitish gray color. The other has a coarse, fibrous grain, is
inclined to be gritty, and is usually characterized by a greenish
color, rarely stained reddish by iron. Both are distinguished by a
greasy luster and feel.

On account of the importance of this material in the neighboring
Santa Barbara channel culture it may be pointed out that steatite is
found in Kern, Tulare, Santa Barbara, Fresno, and Los Angeles
counties (i.e., most of the area surrounding that involved in this
paper) as well as in other parts of the state. Hence the material
itself gives little clue to its point of origin.

15 Hydrous silicate of magnesium, H2Mg,Si4012.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Under the heading of "steatite" we also include serpentine. It is
very similar to steatite though somewhat harder, takes a higher finish,
and is characterized in most of the artifacts by a black color. Serpen-
tine is found throughout the Coast Range. 16

Arrow-straighteners

In the Fry collection, Alpaugh region, was a piece of steatite, oval
in shape, sloping at the two ends, curved on top, and with a flat base,
(eighty by one hundred and twenty millimeters). Transversely across
the top was a deep U-shaped groove (pl. 17o). On either side of the
groove was an area of diagonally incised parallel lines giving a file-
like surface. This may have been for the purpose of ornamentation,
but seems more likely to have been of service in abrading arrows
during the straightening process. Another specimen in the Fry
collection appears to be an unfinished arrow-straightener (pl. 29d).
Mayer had a piece of similar character (fifty by seventy millimeters)
but rhomboidal in shape (pl. 17j). The top was covered with a
roughening diagonal cross-hatching.

No specimens were noted for the Slough region.

From the Lake region Pryor had four of the oval type, at least
one of which had the striated surface near the groove. Pryor had a
further small piece (thirty-six millimeters square) of steatite with the
same type of groove, but which seems on account of the size to have
been better adapted for smoothing than straightening. Dumble had
fragments of three straighteners of the oval, striated type. He also
had what appeared to be an unfinished piece of this kind. The two
others without striations, but one of them with three grooves, are in
Dumble's collection.

In several of the steatite sherds found at site 4, grooves were
observed which might have been used for smoothing, but certainly
they were not so convenient as the articles described above.

All pieces seen were of steatite and gave evidence of much use.
Probably half of them were made of the hard variety of steatite, or
of serpentine.

16 An interesting account of the working and use of steatite, written by Pro-
fessor W. H. Holmes, may be found in the Fifteenth Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 106-133, 1897.

6t7

68       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

A detailed description of their use in the Santa Barbara region is
given in the report of the U. S. Geographical Survey west of the 100th
Meridian.'7 Mason reports their use among the Salinan Indians'5
and Sparkman among the Luisefio. '9

Beads and Tulbes

Mayer has several beads from the Alpaugh region. Two are tubular,
ten by fifteen millimeters, drilled longitudinally (pl. 16w-x). Three
are globular, flattened at the ends (pl. 16aj, ak, al). Specimen ak is
pale green, the other two black. All are highly polished. Mayer also
has four steatite tubular pieces (pl. 16s-v) which were apparently
used as beads. All are longitudinally drilled. One piece (fig. v) is
further characterized by having a transverse notch near the middle,
cut through to the longitudinal hole, and a hole through one side to
the central hole. The other three have grooves worn in the edge at
both ends on the same side, as though cut by the cord of a necklace of
which they formed the lowest part.

From site 11 (Slough region) comes a dark, highly polished
cylindrical bead, seventeen by twenty millimeters. On one side both
ends have been beveled nearly to the center (pl. 14j). At site 19,
Jones obtained a larger bead of the same type, twenty-seven by fifty
millimeters. This was not beveled but showed string wear (pl. 18c).

From site 4 we have nine steatite beads of the disc type (Heye
XXXII, XXXIII c). These range in diameter from four to eight milli-
meters. The same kind of bead was frequent at Kern lake. Pryor
had thirty (from site 34) and Dumble 638. (It is possible that other
stone besides steatite was counted in this 638). An occasional one of
these Kern lake beads has the edge coarsely milled.

Dumble also had eight tubular beads, like those of Mayer, nine
millimeters in diameter and from nine to twenty-three millimeters
long. He reported that he had found steatite tubes, some one hundred
and fifty millimeters long, with longitudinal holes twenty millimeters
in diameter.

17 Report upon United States Geographical Surveys west of the one hundredth
meridian, in charge of Lieutenant Geo. M. Wheeler, vii, Archaeology, 197, 1879.

18 J. Alden Mason, The Ethnology of the Salinan Indians, present series,
x, 140, 1912.

19 Philip Stedman Sparkman, The Culture of the Luiseflo Indians, present
series, VIII, 206, 1908.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Steatite beads of the disc type occur only in the Lake region, and
on the basis of the Dumble collection are about one-fifth as numerous
as Olivella disc beads, whereas the tubular type occurs in all three
regions, but is quite scarce in all.

"Boat-shaped" Stones

In the Alpaugh region only (Mayer collection), were steatite
objects which Holmes 20 classifies as above. These varied from spindle
to boat shape with rather bluntly pointed ends. One side was slightly
convex, the other made more or less concave by a broad longitudinal
groove. Across each end on the convex side only, was at least one
narrow groove. In size the objects range from eighty to one hundred
and fifty millimeters in length and from twenty to forty-five milli-
meters in width. Plate 19a-g shows the seven entire pieces in the
collection, convex side up; h to j show fragments of similar articles;
k showing the reverse of a, displays the longitudinal groove and the
absence of the terminal grooves on the concave side; while 1, a side
view of b, indicates the boat-like appearance of the pieces. It is
possible that a, c, and e are not steatite but some other soft material.
No objects of this type in other than relatively soft stone were found.

Even allowing that these pieces originated on the Santa Barbara
coast where boats were known, it seems to us improbable that they
were intended as representations of boats. Heye pictures (pls. xi-xiii)
stone fishline sinkers which somewhat suggest these.    However,
the Mayer pieces were not circular in cross-section as are Heye 's, and
the transverse grooves do not extend around the pieces as would be
needed for the attachment of a fish line. Considering the concave,
longitudinally grooved side, it seems more likely that they were
intended for binding on to something in the nature of a small cylin-
drical object such as a stick, cord, or fishhook. A composite fishhook
which required a backing of this type was widely used in Oceania.

"Charmstones"

From the entire area comes but a single specimen (pl. 20j) of a
charmstone of steatite. This was in the Mayer collection. It is of a
type found in other materials and discussed more fully on pages 93-97.

20 W. H. Holmes, Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities, Part 1, B. A.
E. Bull. 60, 66, 1919.

69

70       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Discs

All were centrally, biconically drilled. Fry had one steatite disc,
forty-five millimeters in diameter and slightly concavo-convex.
Mayer had a disc of the same type, but one hundred millimeters in
diameter. Another of greenish steatite, ninety millimeters in diameter
had four centrally placed holes so evenly drilled as to barely show
biconical drilling. Of flat discs, Mayer further had eleven specimens
ranging from thirty to sixty millimeters in diameter. Some of these
had small (six-millimeter) holes, while some had larger (twelve milli-
meter) holes, apparently not biconical. Several seem to be sherds
reworked into discs without great care.

There were no discs in the Slough region and only two in the Lake
region. One, in the Dumble collection, was thirty-eight millimeters in
diameter; and one from site 4, twenty-six millimeters in diameter
(1-24773).

Groove-edged Objects

A number of steatite pieces, flat, of irregular form, with the great-
est dimension ranging from forty to eighty-five millimeters were
noted. These were distinguished by a definite groove encircling the
edge of a part thereof. In some cases this was merely a heavy scratch,
in others the groove was a deep V-shaped one (pl. 18g, specimen
1-24779). That these objects were made for a definite purpose and
should be separately classified seems certain. But they shade into
pendants and spool-like objects on the one hand and into sherds on
the other hand in such a manner as to render their probable use
highly speculative. Indeed some of them seem to be only sherds
which have had their edges grooved. Possible uses which suggest
themselves are that some of the grooves may have served as guides
for string or thread, that others may have served for creasing tule
stems preparatory to sewing. This second use is suggested by an
elaborate modern steatite specimen (2-10996) from Oregon which is
reported to have been so used. A further possibility is that they were
used in the manufacture of twine or to consolidate the fibers of cords
somewhat as a shoemaker uses beeswax.

From Alpaugh, Fry and Mayer each had three (pl. 21m-o). There
were none from the Slough region. Four were found at site 4, Lake
region, and Dumble had two.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

"Pencil"

Mayer had a piece of steatite, thirty-five millimeters long, and
rectangular in transverse cross-section. The piece is definitely shaped
and tapered at one end so that it resembles in form a carpenter's
pencil (pl. 21s).

Pendants

The Alpaugh region yielded two steatite pendants, both of the
black, highly polished type. One was rectangular (twenty-two by
thirty-eight millimeters) drilled in the middle of one end. The other,
about the same size, but triangular in shape, contained no less than
ten holes (pl. 16q-r). What is perhaps an unfinished pendant is shown
in plate 21q. At site 12 was obtained a ring, twenty millimeters in
diameter, with a broken, tapering (?) projection from one side (pl.
141, 1-24439). Similar spike-like pieces have been noted from the
Santa Barbara region.

From site 4, Lake region, comes a flattened, pear-shaped object,
thirty-five millimeters long, with a hole near the broad end (pl. 14n,
1-24774). On account of the shape and the hole it is classed as a
pendant. However, on account of a groove encircling the edge it
strongly suggests the reel-like objects described below. From the
vicinity of Kern lake comes a fine circular steatite pendant, seventy-
three millimeters in diameter, with one central perforation and five
other perforations around the central hole, three grouped on one
side, two on the opposite side. This piece is in the Pryor collection.
In the Dumble collection were two steatite discs (twenty-two and
twenty-four millimeters in diameter) which are classed as pendants
only because drilled near the circumference instead of centrally. Mr.
Dumble also had a rectangular pendant (twenty-two by thirty-eight
millimeters) with a cross incised upon one side. The analogy to the
modern cross worn as a pendant suggests the probability that this
cross was due to Christian influence and therefore does not antedate
the year 1770. In the same collection were two thin flat fragments of
steatite, both with drill holes and with one or two edges deeply, and
apparently ornamentally, notched.

71

72       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Perforated "Sinkers"

From the Alpaugh region Mayer had one perforated "sinker"
(pl. 22g), and Fry had one of the same general type, but with an
encircling groove below the hole.

For other perforated "sinkers" see page 94.

"Perforated Stones"

Mayer had one steatite ring of the "perforated stone" type. This
was of hard, dark steatite or serpentine, ninety-five millimeters in
diameter with a twenty-five millimeter hole (Heye xixf). Fry had
a piece of the same general size and character, but of pale steatite and
with a semi-keeled, rather than a rounded edge. Fry had a second
ring which was more elaborate, having the sides beveled to a thin
keeled edge, which was notched all around (fifty-two millimeters
diameter by seventeen millimeter hole. Mayer had half of another
"perforated stone," differing from the above inasmuch as the thick-
ness was as great as the diameter, which was forty-five millimeters
(pl. 17h). A similar,'much larger piece is figured by Putnam, figure
46. For other "perforated stones" see page 90.

Plugs

Discs, undrilled and of a thickness relatively great when compared
with the diameter, we have termed plugs. None was found in the
Alpaugh or Slough regions. At s;te 4 was one, forty millimeters in
diameter by twenty-two millimeters in thickness. The edges and one
face are well finished; the finished face is concave, the other rough,
(pI. 18b, specimen 1-24772). Dumble had seven varying from fif-
teen to thirty-eight millimeters in diameter. Two of these were con-
cave on one face and one was a truncated cone in shape. Another
specimen in the Dumble collection closely resembles a glass stopper
with a flat disc top, sixteen millimeters in diameter, and a tapering
tang sixteen millimeters long. The purpose of these plugs is problem-
atical. Uses as ear plugs and as stoppers have been suggested to us.

Plummet-like stones

A plummet-like stone of steatite, of the "seine needle" type
(WA b2), is in the Mayer collection (pl. 23e). See page 94.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Spool- or Reel-like Objects

Closely related to groove-edged objects are steatite pieces in the
form of rough spools. These may be cylindrical, or they may be flat
with the grooves in opposite ends of the flat side like reels. Fry had
two and Meyer had ten of the flat type (pl. 21b-1). These vary in
symmetry and finish. Most are rather irregular, but some show great
care and a high polish. One specimen has a hole in one side, giving
the piece some resemblance to a rough effigy of a bird's head (fig. k).
They vary from thirty-five to seventy millimeters in greatest
dimension.

Nothing of this class came from the Slough region.

In the Lake region we found at site 4 one of the cylindrical type
(pl. 18d, 1-24777). Dumble had five, more or less fragmentary, of
the flat type.

"Tomahawk"

A perforated, black, highly polished -steatite piece, elliptic-lance-
olate in outline, fifty by one hundred millimeters, was in the Mayer
collection (pl. 17a). This resembles in appearance the double-
pointed stone tomahawks of the Plains Indians, but evidently should
only be regarded as an aberrant form of the perforated stones, page 90
and plate 17. A somewhat similar form is to be seen in a small piece,
seven by twenty-eight millimeters, in the Dumble collection, which
however is not perforated.

Vessels and Sherds

The only steatite vessel complete enough to reveal exact informa-
tion as to form, was a large olla in the Dumble collection (pl. 24).
This was very nearly globular in form (410 mm. greatest diameter by
375 mm. high). The opening was but 178 millimeters in diameter and
without lip or flange. Otherwise this specimen was the same as those
on page 95, Putnam. The walls were about eighteen millimeters thick,
The outside was more or less blackened by fire. The form of this
vessel, reminiscent of the pottery ollas of southern California, suggests
the inter-relationship of the pottery and steatite industries which in
California are geographically exclusive.

Steatite sherds were found in varying quantity throughout the
entire area. All sherds were too fragmentary to permit the recon-

73

74        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

struction of the original vessels, but seem to indicate that most vessels
were of the open bowl type rather than of globular form. Some forms
suggested by the sherds are ollas, flat shallow dishes, basin-like bowls,
small bowls or cups, and deep, tubular vases. These vessels seem to
have ranged from a few inches to perhaps two feet in greatest dimen-
sion, and in thickness from seven to thirty-three millimeters.

The sherds show that all kinds of steatite, excepting serpentine,
were used in vessel construction.   However, the coarser-grained
variety was apparently more characteristic of the larger vessels and
of the Lake region.

The sherds may be divided into two classes, i.e., parts of bottoms,
or walls (undrilled, 1-24791, drilled, 1-24792) and rims (undrilled,
1-24789; drilled, 1-24790). The rims are usually beveled or tapered
to a rounded edge which is considerably thinner than the main wall.
But in a few cases flat edges as thick as the wall were noted. These
were all of fine-grained steatite.

Tool marks.-In some cases, particularly in the larger, coarse-
grained material, the tool marks are very evident. A coarse-grained
piece, shown in plate 18a, has vertical tool marks on the convex face,
and none on the concave face; a smooth-grained piece has horizontal
tool marks on both faces (pl. 18e).  These are both fragments of
bowls.

Drilling.-A conspicuous feature of many of the sherds (pl. 25a-
h, p, q) is the presence of one or more holes, sometimes five in the space
of a few centimeters. The average hole tapers from eight to twelve
millimeters in diameter, giving an appearance of deep countersinking.
The maximum diameter noted was seventeen millimeters. Most holes
appear to have been biconically drilled. In the majority of cases the
major part of the drilling seems to have been done from the concave
side, i.e., the inside of the vessel.  This suggests the possibility that
the holes were made after the vessel had been broken. But at times
the hole is drilled on such a slant as to indicate that the difficulty
of working in an awkward position inside a vessel made the slant
necessary.

Grooving.-On some sherds (pl. 25i-k, n-p) grooves are found.
They vary from shallow scratches to broad, deep grooves. In prac-
tically all cases they are on the outer or convex face. Many of the
drilled holes are at the deepest part of a groove (plates 18f and 25p),
suggesting that the grooves were to protect thongs which, passing

1926]  (ifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

through the adjacent holes, were used in repairing broken vessels.
Grooves on the inside as well as outside of certain pieces (1-24790)
would seem to confirm this purpose. Yet, in at least one case, a com-
pleted groove was noted to an unfinished hole, which might indicate
priority of purpose for the groove. In other cases (pl. 25i, n) the even,
shallow depth of the groove and its sweep rather suggest that it was
to prevent the slipping of a cord used in carrying the vessel. In
still other cases the groove suggests that the fragment had been used
as an arrow-smoother. However, the association of the deep, clean-
cut, v-groove with a hole is so constant as to leave little doubt that
they were jointly used for a single purpose-probably repairing.

Cuttirng or sawing.-A number of sherds were noted (p. 25 j, 1,
m, o) where edges showed the cuts by which the material was divided.
These cuts do not show tool marks, but rather appear as one wall of
a deep groove with smooth sides. When this was worked part of the
way through the piece the material was evidently broken off-the
deep groove guiding the break. That such cuts were not accidentally
broken grooves is indicated by the fact that they outline at times
fairly definite blocks of steatite (pl. 25 m). These cuts seem to have
been made from both concave and convex sides of a sherd.

Incising or indenting.-Irregular lines appear on some sherds and
can only be regarded as random scratches (1-24789). In a few cases
these are more regular (pl. 25 k) and may have been intended as
decorative. However, no regular design appears and the pieces are
too small to make a decorative idea at all clear. One piece (1-24421)
from lIa Hacienda showed a series of pittings in a line which would
seem to have been deliberately made and to serve no utilitarian
purpose.

Decorated rim edges.-The edge of the vessel was frequently
shaped. In some cases a further attempt was made to distinguish it
by decoration. 1-24783 shows a row of incised lines and 1-24784 a
series of notches.

Secondary usage.--Consideration of these sherds shows that fre-
quently they were put to secondary uses. We have spoken of arrow-
straighteners, and of squares or blocks which could well have been
pendants and reels in process of construction. The presence of so very
many sherds and only one nearly complete vessel is puzzling and
suggests the possibility that a good percentage of the sherds were
imported as such and were never used or intended for use as vessels

75

76       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

by the Indians of our area. They might have been used as griddles
on which to cook, etc. The holes in this case would be used for draw-
ing the pieces out of the fire when hot, by means of a stick. Such
sherds as well as more elaborate plates were certainly used for this
purpose in the Santa Barbara region (Putnam, p. 99). A further
possible use would be as net-sinkers, although a more probable method
of fishing without nets is described on page 111.

Mr. Dumble has a large thick sherd of smooth grained steatite,
one edge of which has been nicely squared adjacent to a row of drilled
holes. This may have been intended for repairing the original vessel,
but the straightness of the squared edge suggest the possible attach-
ment of a similarly squared and perforated companion piece.

Distribution

Steatite was met with in all three of our regions, though within
each region we found sites where it was entirely absent. It appeared
most plentifully in the Lake region and was most scarce in the Slough
region.

In the Alpaugh region comparatively little steatite was found in
the collections, but there was considerable at site 21, northeast of
Alpaugh. Also we found a number of sherds at La Hacienda, site 22,
and obtained thirty-nine small sherds at site 12. All are of the fine-
grained type, which thus seems to be characteristic of the region.
Several of the pieces from northeast of Alpaugh (e.g., 1-24383) show
a thick calcareous incrustation (see pl. 21 a). Such incrustation was
not found on specimens from elsewhere. It has been formed since
the vessel was broken, since it is over the broken edge in part. While
such an incrustation might have accumulated in a short time it seems
rather to suggest a considerable antiquity.

In the Slough region steatite was noted from site 11 (one serpen-
tine bead), site 8 (three fine-grained sherds), site 6 (one fine-grained
sherd), site 17 (twenty-two fine and coarse-grained sherds). Since
the sherds at each site might well represent but a single vessel, it will
be seen that the occurrence of steatite was extremely rare. Dumble
was also over the region frequently and succeeded in finding but few
steatite artifacts. Perhaps the comparative scarcity was due to the
people of the region not being situated advantageously with reference
to the routes to the Coast, where were presumably the sources of

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

supply. The Alpaugh region had direct access to the coast via San
Miguel and the Lake peoples via the several passes previously
described. On this hypothesis the people of the Slough would be
dependent on Alpaugh or Buena Vista lake for their steatite. To
some extent this theory is confirmed by the finding of fine-grained
steatite (typical of Alpaugh) in the northern part of the Slough
region, and a preponderance of the coarse-grained type (typical of
the Lake region) in the southern part.

At site 4, Lake region, steatite sherds were exceedingly abundant.
Dumble's Kern lake sites yielded few steatite artifacts. Site 3 yielded
a small quantity; site 2 none; and site 1, one sherd. In the region
the coarse-grained type predominated.

Into vertical distribution, practically all steatite was found on the
surface in all three regions. But in the Alpaugh region all artifacts
are from the surface of the ground. Therefore, the surface finds of
steatite lack the stratigraphic significance of those in the Slough
and Lake regions. Moreover, as the calcareous incrustation of steatite
articles in the Alpaugh region is as heavy as the incrustation of articles
of other materials, it seems likely that the use of steatite in that region
has an antiquity as great as that of other stone materials. In none of
the forty-five burials examined was steatite present. This non-associa-
tion would help to explain why other artifacts which were associated
would average greater relative depths. If steatite was not placed in
graves its presence underground would be practically limited to cases
where it had been accidentally covered up in human deposits or
accumulations. But such human deposits were dug by us probably
only at sites 4 and 11. A further, and perhaps the most plausible
explanation, for the finding of nearly all steatite on the surface is
the ascription of it to a relatively recent date. A certain number
of artifacts of the serpentine bead type might have entered in trade,
but the large mass of surface sherds in the Lake region perhaps came
with the influx of coast Indians after the advent of Caucasians, as
discussed in the historical section of this paper.

77

78       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

ARTICLES OF CHIPPED STONE

Materials

As many of the articles of chipped stone had to be inspected in
the field no opportunity was offered for exact identification. This
was rendered further difficult by the fact that many specimens were
still covered by a heavy patina or incrustation. However we make
three groups-articles of obsidian, of schistose or slaty material, and
of flint.

Obsidian is readily and accurately identifiable and is kept separate
throughout this discussion. This seems the more desirable because it
must have been obtained from afar, whereas the other materials used
could be readily obtained in quantity near at hand.

Under schistose are included practically all materials which are
neither obsidian nor flint. An exception is quartz which is included
with flint and which was very rare. The schistose group is quite
homogeneous, being almost all of a dark grey, slaty material.

As herein used the term "flint" includes a wide range of beautiful
chalcedonies of various colors, quartz, silicified wood, chert, flint, and
allied minerals. These minerals occur in considerable quantities in
the mountains bordering the area and there is nothing sufficiently
distinctive about those observed to permit any deductions as to impor-
tation. Emphasis should be placed on the fact that the quality and
color of the material made many of these articles very beautiful
specimens.  It is presumed that the greater part of this material was
obtained in the form of pebbles or nodules. However quite a notice-
able proportion was of the type formed naturally in thin strata with
even thinner layers of white calcareous material deposited upon the
sides thereof. This calcareous deposit was frequently not removed
from the artifact during the process of manufacture and appears upon
the flat sides of the finished product where it should not be confused
with incrustation or patina also noted and hereinafter discussed as a
time index.

We have been able to examine about 2600 specimens of chipped
stone from the entire area, 600 being from Alpaugh, 2000 from the
Lake region. On this basis the raw materials were used in approxi-
mately the following proportions:

Whole area  Alpaugh region  Lake region
Flint ............   63%        70%          61%

Obsidian .............   26%    27%          26%
Schistose ............ 11%       3%          13%

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Workmanship

The technique of the points is the Solutrean style of complete
retouching. It may be generally said that in the manufacture of
chipped stone a very high degree of skill was shown. Forms and pro-
portions are graceful and pleasing. Small and delicate pieces are
found and where thinness seemed desirable it has apparently been
attained without difficulty. Aside from the matter of skill, some of
the pieces made from the stratified flint are extraordinarily thin, and
broad, e.g., 1-24716, of which only the half remains, was some six milli-
meters thick but probably 120 millimeters wide. Our field measure-
ments do not permit us to give details of thicknesses. The general
statement that many of them were beautifully thin will hold. Summar-
izing, it can be said that the chipped stone would appear to disclose
a single cultural level.

Size

There is great variation in size even within the same type. The
pieces most consistently small were the triangular points running
down to six and five-tenths by thirteen millimeters. The largest piece
was a flint blade 165 millimeters long by 55 millimeters wide by 15
millimeters thick. The sides were parallel, the point rounded and the
base straight. Small pieces may predominate because the larger
pieces, being more conspicuous, were more quickly collected and
dissipated by curio hunters. Also large pieces were far more likely
to be broken by cattle and sheep which have grazed for years over
the area.

Form

For the purpose of the description and discussion of these
articles the scheme of classification indicated below has been drawn
up. It is realized that just diversity of opinion can arise as to the
proper classification of some specimens, and that owing to transitional
forms between the various types it is almost impossible to classify
others. With all reservations, however, there seem to exist broad
groupings into which artifacts of this kind may be advantageously
divided.

79

University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Of the 2600 specimens examined for the area, 2023 were classified
and the percentages of frequency of occurrence on these 2023 are:

Group I.
Group II.
Group III.
Group IV.
Group V.

Arrowpoints, spearheads, and (or) knives ............ 94.56%
Scrapers and (or) knives ................................    3.06
Perforators or drills ...............................        1.78
Hammerstones ...............................                   .15
Miscellaneous ...............................  .45

100.00

NA 6,

SA6

343'at

QCo

NAb2

SAc

NAbI

5Ba
Seb,

NBO

SCb1

ABb

SCb3

Fig. 1. Arrowpoints, spearheads, and (or) knives.

Arrowpoints, Spearheads, and (or) Knives

This group has been subdivided into 17 types. The basis for the
division is that adopted by Mr. Thomas Wilson. 21 We have some-
what departed from his scheme, since such a departure seems more
suited to the material with which we had to deal. But it is believed
that the two plans are so nearly the same that the connection between
them will be clear and reference to Mr. Wilson's scholarly discussion
and beautiful, pertinent illustrations permits the minimum of explana-
tion and photographic reproduction here.

21 Report of the U. S. National Museum for the year ending June 30, 1897,
Part 1, 887-944, 1899.

NAo

SA-a
SAco

Li

5Cc,

80

1926.] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Schedule of Classification of Group 1.-For each type distinguished
in the following schedule, a diagrammatic drawing to show its salient
features of form is inserted in text figure 1. It must be emphasized
that these drawings are entirely without reference to size, and make
no attempt to indicate ranges in proportions within a type-they
simply show characteristic outlines.

ARROWPOINTS, SPEARHEADS, AND (OR) KNIVES
N. Not stemmed

A. Leaf-shaped

a. Pointed at both ends
b. Pointed at one end

1. Convex base
2. Straight base
3. Concave base
B. Triangular

a. Straight base
b. Concave base
S. Stemmed

A. Contracting stem

a. Shouldered only

b. Shouldered and barbed

c. Neither shouldered nor barbed (lozenge)
B. Parallel sided stem

a. Shouldered only

b. Shouldered and barbed
C. Expanding stem

a. Shouldered only

1. Convex base
2. Straight base
3. Concave base

b. Shouldered and barbed

1. Convex base
2. Straight base
3. Concave base

In the Alpaugh region, flint and obsidian articles of this group
may be classified according to table 7. On the basis of material the
points of the region can be classified as flint, about sixty-five per cent,
obsidian about thirty-two per cent, and schistose three per cent.

81

82       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  rVol. 23

TABLE 7

ARROWPOINTS, SPEARHEADS, AND KNIvES iN THE ALPAUGH REGION

Part I. Flint

Length        Width

Type     Max.   Min.   Max.   Min.

NAa      160    40
N Abl    135    35
N Ab2    145    45
N Ab3     65    32
N Bb      50    20
S Aa     100    40
S Ab     115    47
S Ac     110    60
S Ba      80    45
S Cal    130    35
S Ca2    115    35
S Ca3     85    30
S Cb      90    65

40
55
55
32
25
42
42
44
45
40
30
35
45

15
20
15
22
10
21
26
25
20
22
20
15
30

Type % of    Type % of
Ratio*               regional       all

Width: Length   Quan-   flint points  regional points
Max.     Min.   tity      (326)        (498)

1:2.2
1:1.4
1:1.5
1:1.4
1:1.6
1:1.6
1:1.6
1:2.4
1:1.5
1:1.5
1:1.1
1:1.4
1:1.6

1:6    41
1:4.8  82
1:4.6  26
1:2.1   7
1:2.5   7
1:4    27
1:2.7  20
1:2.5   2
1:3.5  18
1:3.5  38
1:4.4  28
1:3.3  26
1:2.8   4

326

Part II. Obsidian

N Aa      85    45
NAbl     120    35
N Ab3    135    50
N Ba     1(0    30
N Bb      37

S Aa      85    35
SAc       40

S Ba      80    25
S Cal     80

S Ca2     85    43
S Ca3     90    21
S Cbl     90

S Cb2     70    40
S Cb3     54   32

25
30
40
37
8
32
20
35
32
37
40
35
40
32

16   1:1.7  1:4.2  20
22   1:1.4  1:4.8  17
16   1:1    1:4.5  50
15   1:1.1  1:3.5  20

1:4.5   1
15   1:2.6  1:2.6   5

1:2     2
15   1:1.3  1:2.3   5

1:2.4   4
15   1:1.4  1:2.8   7
20   1:1    1:2.5  15

1:2.5   1
25   1:1.3  1:2.3   7
27   1:1    1:1.8   4

158

12.5
25.0
8.0
2.1
2.1
8.3
6.2

.6
5.5
11.8
8.6
8.0
1.3

100.00%

Type % of

regional

obsidian points

(158)
12.7
10.8
31.7
12.7

.6
3.2
1.2
3.2
2.5
4.4
9.5

.6
4.4
2.5

100.00%

8.2
16.4
5.2
1.4
1.4
5.4
4.0

.4
3.6
7.7
5.6
5.2

.8
65.3

4.00
3.4
10.0
4.

.2
1.0

.4
1.

.8
1.4
3.00

.2
1.4

.8
31.6

* To indicate form; shows relation of width (1) to length in individual pieces.

Schistose specimens are unimportant in the matter of form as in
quantity. Those determined were one each of types NAb2, NAb3,
SAa, SBa, two of type SCa2, and eight of SCa3.

Obsidian blades are scattered over 14 types of which NAb3 is
decidedly the most numerous (31.7%).    If the other leaf-shaped
pieces (NAa and NAbl) are combined with this, the preponderance
of this form is very striking (55.2%). The leaf shaped blade with
one end pointed and one end concave (NAb3) is further distinguished

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

by the fact that, while it is the predominat obsidian type, it hardly
appears at all in flint. Of the "flint" shown in this type half was
quartz. Hence the suggestion is strong that here the type and the
material are correlated and that it was the glassy similarity of the
quartz to obsidian that led to an endeavor to use the former material
for the characteristic obsidian form. This is borne out by the fact that
the obsidian blades show good workmanship, whereas the quartz is
crude. Straight based triangular points (NBa) and expanding
stemmed, concave-based points (SCa3) are the next most popular
forms. Other types seem to trail off rather unimportantly. About
7 per cent of the obsidian blades had very deeply serrate edges. Some
could perhaps be classed as drills, though there was nothing other
than the unusual serration to distinguish them from other points.

In flint, leaf-shaped forms (NA) are again the most numerous
(47.6%); but this time the convex-based form (NAbl) is predomi-
nant (25%). Triangular forms are remarkable for their almost
total absence (2.1%o). Otherwise table 7 shows a rather even division
among the thirteen types represented.

Of these pieces 15 (4.5%o) have deeply serrate edges, of which
thirteen are of type N Aa alone, which does not suggest perforators.

Our own efforts in the Slough region produced very little chipped
stone. Private collections show the same paucity. They may be
briefly summarized. Obsidian: four certain artifacts, namely one
each types S Bb and S Ca3 (site 11), S Ca3 (site 8), N Ab3 (site 18).
Flint: eight pieces in all, namely one each types NAb3 (Poso creek),
N Bb (site 8), N Bb, N Ab3, S Ba (site 18), S Ba (site 11) ; and two
N Abl (site 18). The piece from Poso creek came from the sink of
that creek and is an exceptionally large specimen, i. e., 145 millimeters
long.

Table 8 shows the classification of these objects from the Lake
region. Of the chipped stone artifacts in the region we grouped
1415 as points, but of these we segregated as to type only 1046.

The small proportion of obsidian that was classified (74 out of
519 pieces) must be borne in mind in considering the percentages of
materials for the classified points. However, even if all the obsidian
falls in the point class the schistose points would constitute about
thirteen per cent of all points. This is certainly a radical increase
over the total of three per cent in the Alpaugh region. All the schis-
tose points fall into two types with the same general range of dimen-
sions as those of similar flint types.

83

84       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

TABLE 8

ARROWHEADS, SPEARHEADS, AND KNIVES IN THE LAKE REGION

Part I. Flint

Type % of   Type % of
Ratio              regional     all

Length      Width     Width.: Length  Quan-  flint points regional points
Type    Max. Min. Max. Min.     Max.    Min.   tity    (726)      (1046)

N Aa      62         22          1:2.8            1        .14         .1
N Abl    113    13   40     6.5  1:2.3   1:5    210     28.8        20.

N Ab2    145    60   36    18.   1:2     1:5     11       1.5        1.1
NAb3     100    40   36    27    1:1.5   1:2.8    2        .28         .5
N Bb      77    17    16   10    1:1     1:5    473      65.3       45.

S Aa      85   30    36    14    1:1.4   1:2.1    6        .83        .6
S Ab      67   43    43    29    1:1.5   1:2      3        .41        .3
S Ac      16.2        9.4        1:7              2        .27        .2
S Ba     115    23.5  33    9.5  1:2.2   1:3.4    5        .7         .5
S Ca2     36         31          1:1.1            2        .27        .2
S Ca3     25    14    14    7    1:1.3   1:3     11       1.5        1.1

100.00%       69.6%

Part II. Schistose

N Abl
N Bb

All within the flint limits

Ditto

Part III. Obsidian

N Abl     50     25    25    10
N Ab3     90     60    35    30
N Ba      20           10

N Bb      55     15    35    10
S Ac      55     40    20    17
S Ba      40     17    25    10
S Bb      40     30    30    20
S Ca2     55     50    40    30
S Ca3     30     12    20    10
Asymmetric

1:1.6  1:5

1:1.8  1:2.5
1:2

1:1    1:4

1:2.3  1:2.7
1:1.6  1:3.6
1:1.3  1:1.7
1:1.1  1:1.8
1:1.2  1:2.2

Type % of

regional

schistose points

(246)
116      47.2
130      52.8

100. 00%

Type % of

regional

obsidian points

(74)
13       17.6
3        4.

1        1.4
23      31.2

2        2.7
8       10.8
3        4.

2        2.7
15      20.2
4        5.4

100.00%

Most. (69%o) of the obsidian falls into the same two types as
schistose, plus type S Ca3. Type N Ab3, the most popular in Alpaugh,
is very scantily represented (4%,o). Only nine regular types are
represented. In addition we find at least four asymmetric points.
text-figure 2).

11.

12.4

23.4%

1.2

.3
.1
2.2

.2
.7
.3
.2
1.4

.4

7.0%

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

In flint, as in the preceding materials, we again find types N Bb
(65.3%o) and N Abl (28.8%o) the popular types of the region. Indeed
the total of the other nine types represented is so small (5.9%7O) that
they may almost be said to represent exceptions.

Only one point was observed with a deeply serrate edge.

Fig. 2. Asymmetric points from the Lake region.

Summarry.-Comparing the Alpaugh and the Lake regions, we
distinguish interesting differences. The Lake region favored a tri-
angular type (N Bb) very feebly represented at Alpaugh, where in
turn there was a marked numerical superiority of leaf-like points
(N A). The triangular Lake points (N Bb) are deeply concave at
the base-so deep as to practically form barbs. They rather tend to
divide into two subdivisions, one long, slender and more or less circu-
lar in transverse cross section, the other shorter and quite thin. If
the view of Moorehead and others is true that this type was a war
point, its abundance in the Lake region may be correlated with the
historical information. A large number of unsettled people driven
in from the coast would be likely to engage in thoughts of war and
to manufacture and use arrowpoints. In support of such a suppo-
sition it may be recalled that most of these points came from locations
yielding 18th century Spanish coins, glass beads, and other articles
of European manufacture. The larger leaf-like Alpaugh points
suggest knives and spearheads rather than arrowpoints. No sugges-
tion can be offered as to the greater use of schistose in the south, except
the very speculative one that a condition such as outlined above might
result in a requisitioning of unusual raw materials.

Scrapers and (or) Knives

The term "knife " is again used in this group, but it is not intended
to include thereby the same type of knives as was included in Group
I. The possible knives included here are those, which, although
resembling the forms used as scrapers, might have been used as knives.

85

86        Univer8ity of California Publication8 in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

The small total of articles of this group suggests that a fuller knowl-
edge of actual uses would cause a considerable rearrangement of
Groups I and II.

Articles of Group II have been classified as follows:

R. Without a shaft or handle, i. e., more or less circular.

A. Retouched to an edge all around.

a. Crescent shaped (pl. 26 i-w).
b. Butterfly shaped (pl. 26 a-f).
c. Other shapes.

B. Not retouched to an edge all around (pl. 27 g).

G. With a shaft or handle, i.e., more or less chisel or gouge-like (pl. 27

a-f, h, i).

Ninety per cent of all articles of this group which we observed,
came from Alpaugh; the balance from the Lake region. The
Alpaugh specimens are classified thus:

Made of       Total

Type                Flint  Schistose Quantity
RB ...............................  7               7

RAa ...............................  17     3       20
RAb ...............................  12             12
G ...............................  17               17

The "crescents"   (R  Aa), plate 26 i-w, and the "butterflies"
(R Ab), plate 26 a-f, are generally fine examples of chipped stone
work. Most of them are finished all over and are as thin as Group I
points of the same size. This is in marked contrast to other scrapers
which are usually quite thick. In the "crescents" the convex edge
is sharper than the straight edge which would appear to have pro-
vided the place for a handle or grip to suit the artifact for use as a
curved knife. The "butterflies" might well be taken as wide cres-
cents with a "bite" taken out of the center of the convex side, leaving
a concave (sometimes straight) edge. It should be stated, however, that
this resulting edge is always retouched. One of the specimens made
of green slate was ground down until quite smooth (pl. 26 w). Dr.
E. H. Smith of Laguna, California, has a large number of similar
specimens from the same general locality (southeastern shore of
Tulare lake). The University has a series from Santa Rosa island.

A piece, type G, plate 27h, in the Mayer collection is of flint, 115
by 50 millimeters, and somewhat resembles an adze. The butt end is
quite thick and its side edges have been worn quite smooth, either by
use or intentionally, to form a good hand grip. Two other pieces of

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

type G were observed in the Fry collection. The large size and good
workmanship of these makes them particularly interesting. The
larger one was 165 millimeters long, 56 millimeters wide, and 15 milli-
meters thick in the center.

The specimens in the Lake region are of flint. None are particu-
larly noteworthy. They may be thus classified: Type R Ac, 4; G, 2.

Perforators or Drills

Considering the many evidences of drilling it seems remarkable
that so small a portion (1.787o) of the chipped stone should fall in
this group. It is possible that specimens placed by us in Gro,up I
should be placed here. This is particularly true of points with ser-
rate edges. A deeply serrate edge is a desideratum in a drill. How-
ever serrate edges appeared on too great a variety of shapes to use
them as a criterion in classification.

The feature taken by us to distinguish a perforator or drill is the
bore or pile. All drills must definitely show this pile. It is usually
more or less circular in transverse cross-section and can be distin-
guished from the base. The base varies from a tang-like projection
(giving a file-like appearance to the perforator) to a broad leaf-like
form (giving a fan or leaf appearance). The base types range from
plainly differentiated bases to those merging into the pile and thus
approaching an arrowpoint.

In Alpaugh were twenty-five flint drills. In the Lake region were
eleven, of which six were flint, four schistose, and one obsidian.

Miscellaneous

In both the Alpaugh and Lake region pointed, curved blades of
flint were noted (pl. 26h). In Alpaugh were two complicated flint
pieces, rather suggestive of effigies. Both were broken (pl. 26g).

Four other uncertain forms were grouped under this head.

Summary

At Alpaugh seventy per cent of the chipped stone implements
were formed of flint, twenty-seven per cent of obsidian, three per
cent of schistose; in the Lake region the corresponding figures are
sixty-one for flint, twenty-six for obsidian and thirteen for schistose.

87

88        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Obsidian was equally used in the two regions; while the greater use
of schistose in the Lake region was at the expense of flint. Possibly
the stability of obsidian is due to equal remoteness from sources of
supply (probably Sierra Nevadan). Why the use of schistose should
increase at the expense of the apparently more satisfactory flint is
not clear. Of the three materials, obsidian, flint and schistose, obsidian
is the most easily worked, schistose the most refractory. Upon this
basis a preponderance of obsidian implements, instead of only about
twenty-five per cent, would be expectable. Probably inaccessibility
to supply is the limiting factor.

There were very few chipped implements that would not be classed
as arrowpoints, spearheads, or knives. And of these the non-stemmed
leaf-type was predominant in Alpaugh and the triangular non-
stemmed type in the Lake region. Neither region seems to accord with
Mr. Wilson's conclusion that points of the stemmed, shouldered, not
barbed type "are more numerous than those of any other division. " 22

ARTICLES OF GROUND STONE

Arrow straighteners

A bit of quartz ('?) was noted in Alpaugh with two sides grooved
with the type of groove noted in arrow straighteners. See page .-.'

Balls

Balls of stone of various kinds were noted which had possibly been
collected for raw materials. Practically all were in the Alpaugh
region. In some cases they showed the beginning of a mortar. In
others perforated stones were suggested. In still others a shallow
groove placed them as sinkers. Finally, it is possible that they served
some purpose as balls, though their variation in size, twenty to one
hundred and twenty millimeters, seems to preclude this.

Beads and Tubes

Disc beads of marble, limestone, and slate, similar to the medium
sized shell disc beads, were noted in very limited quantities in Alpaugh.
A bead of unidentified stone was found at site 4 (Lake region).
Steatite beads have been described.

22 Wilson, loc. cit., 917.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Mayer has a cylindrical bead (40x15 mm.) that appears to be of
cream-colored limestone. This bead has a peculiar interest since it
is one of very few specimens of any kind with a decorative design. The
incised design is shown in plate 16y. Two pairs of lines encircle the
tube. Between each pair and the end are zigzag V-shaped figures.

There is a smaller undecorated stone tube (pl. 16aa) and three
spherical stone beads (pl. 16ae, af, ah) in the same collection.

Bowls

Mr. Hill, manager of the Kern County Land Company's Lake
ranch, has a very interesting quartzite bowl from site 1 or 2. It is
four and one quarter inches outside diameter, by three and one-half
inches inside diameter; circumference at rim thirteen and three-
eighths inches; bottom diameter two and one half inches; outside
height two and one quarter inches; inside depth one and five-eighths
inches. The rim is flat, the bottom is rounded into the sides.

A fragment of a bowl of fine sandstone, from the Alpaugh region,
is shown in plate 27o.

Ceremonial Stones (Miscellaneous)

Such articles' as the steatite "pencil" (pl. 21s) and one of impure
limestone (pl. 21t), may represent selection by the white collectors,
but they suggest ceremonial objects.

Crescentic Stones

In Alpaugh, but not elsewhere in the area, were noted seven cres-
centic stones, four very highly polished (pl. 28a-c, e) and three
heavily incrusted (pl. 28d, f, g). One specimen was of marble (e) and
two of diorite or serpentine (a, b). There is a specimen possibly of
sandstone (pl. 27 n), made from a mortar fragment. These speci-
mens suggest the crescentic stone used by the Diegue-no in the girls'
puberty ceremony. They are, however, very small in comparison with
the Dieguenio ekample (1-13747)23 in the University's collection. A
crescentic stone, "found on a ridge between Poso creek and Kern
river," is figured in a paper by Horatio N. Rust.23a

23 T. T. Waterman, The religious practices of the Dieguenio Indians, present
series, viii, 286, pl. 21, 1910.

23a A puberty ceremony of the Mission Indians, Amer. Anthr., N.s., viii, pL. 7,
fig. 3.

89

90       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Digging-stick Weights and (or) "Perforated Stones"

Articles of this class were found only in the Alpaugh region.
These stones are about 100 mm. in diameter and have a large hole
through the center so that they resemble doughnuts (pl. 17b-g).
In outline they are generally circular, though two specimens were
elliptical. The edge varies from thick rounded to sharply keeled
which in three cases had been notched. Of the nineteen specimens
noted three were of steatite. Granite, marble, limestone, and basalt
were also noted. For a detailed discussion the reader is referred
to Putnam. 24

In addition to the pieces with the hole in the middle, eight pieces
were noted where holes had been started on each side, but had not
met (Heye xviii b). Some of these semi-perforated stones were very
highly polished and it seems rather odd that this should be true if
they were indeed only uncompleted "perforated stones."

A single specimen of a somewhat ovoid pebble with the perforation
along the longest axis was also noted (pl. 17h).

A specimen (1-14082) somewhat similar to this is at the Univer-
sity, recorded as from the "Yokuts, Tulare lake." The hole in this
piece, which is of coarse sandstone, is slightly smaller in diameter
than the largest diameter of the average "charmstone." The bore
is quite smooth and countersunk, as could result from using it for
grinding "charnmstones" into shape. It seems possible that this was
the purpose of this type of object.

The utter absence of these stones from the Slough and Lake region
seems remarkable.

Hemispherical Stones and Discs

Twelve stones in the Alpaugh collections were about the size of
mullers and generally of the same material but of quite different
form. These were circular in plan with a flat or concave base and a
decidedly convex top (pl. 29a-c). They are polished all over and the
flat bottom would appear to have been developed by using them as
rubbing stones. The concavity in many bases suggests wet grinding
which probably could not apply to food stuffs. On the other hand the
type of wear would imply rubbing a flat surface at least as wide as
the stone (one hundred millimeters average) and no such polished

24 Plate x, pp. 135-189.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

artifacts are known.  The object shown in plate 29e may be an
unfinished hemispherical stone. Like 29a-c it is of granite material.

Plate 17 k-n reveals four flattish discs more or less worked and
polished. The stone in each case appears to be granitic in character.
Plate 17p-y shows how these worked objects seem to grade off into
unworked pebbles.

Mortars and Metates

In the Alpaugh region, although a number of artifacts were noted
which had been made of mortar fragments, only four mortars were
seen. Two of these were from four miles northwest of Alpaugh. One
was a small irregular, sandstone mortar (125 mm. diameter). The
other was a basaltic pebble 315 by 240 by 155 millimeters (last dimen-
sion is height), with a hole therein 185 by 165 by 55 millimeters (last
dimension is depth). The third specimen, from two miles southwest
of Alpaugh, was of sandstone, finished inside and out, and tapering
(maximum diameter 320 mm., maximum height 260 mm; depth of
hole 160 mm.). The fourth specimen was from site 22 and was an
irregular basaltic boulder with a bowl diameter of two hundred
millimeters. This scarcity of mortars is certainly not to be expected
and we can only suppose that the collections are not representative,
or that wooden mortars were used as on the north shore of Tulare
lake. Only one metate was found, although we found an abundance
of mullers. This metate is of granite, 405 millimeters long, and has
been deeply worn on both sides (pl. 30). Some remarkably even
slabs of sandstone were observed at site 22, but they did not exhibit
the wear one would expect in metates.

In the Slough region two mortars and one metate were noted.
One mortar, from site 10, was a granite pebble, 205 millimeters in
diameter by 130 millimeters in height, with a hole 120 by 30 milli-
meters. The other, from the surface of site 6, was of gray sandstone,
fashioned inside and out, and 320 millimeters in diameter. The metate
was of slaty material and from site 17. A flat sandstone slab was
also found at site 5.

Mortars were markedly more numerous in the Lake region. Five
were of sandstone, internally and externally fashioned, five of granite
pebbles and two of basalt, internally and externally fashioned. In
addition there were in the collection of Mr. J. F. Morris, who lived
eight miles south of Bakersfield, some two hundred specimens, most of

91

92        University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

which belonged in this region. Owing, however, to Mr. Morris' death
these cannot be given locations, and inferences drawn from them
would be uncertain.

Under this heading may also be noted fragments from Alpaugh
and Pelican island (Lake region) of nicely worked sandstone pieces
that suggest small bowls rather than mortars.

Mullers

Closely associated with the smaller pestles, from which it is often
difficult to distinguish them, are the rubbing stones or mullers. These
are ovoid pebbles about one hundred millimeters long, the sides and
one or both faces of which have been worn smooth by use (pl. 31).
They are generally made of granite. In the Alpaugh region were
seventy-nine, in the Slough region one, and in the Lake region none.
This utter absence in the last named region is remarkable, especially
when pestles which might be supposed to replace them are likewise
scarce. The first thought is that the collections are not representative.
Still, fragments of various sorts practically littered the ground at
site 4 and yet among them we did not find a single muller. The one
specimen found in the Slough region came from a depth of twenty-
five inches (site 9). As the data stand, the inference must be that
seed foods requiring no grinding played a greater part in the diet of
the Alpaugh people than of the Lake people.

Pendants and Discs

Articles of this nature made of various kinds of stone were very
scarce and were found in the Lake and Alpaugh regions. Those of
steatite have been described (pages 70, 71). Marble and limestone
were the principal other materials used (see pl. 161). Such artifacts
present no characteristics different from similar shell articles.

Pestles

From Alpaugh forty-seven pestles and four fragments were ob-
served, from the Slough region one, and from the Lake region twenty-
two specimens and eleven fragments. No difference in type can be
correlated with difference in locality.

The pestles tend to fall into two types. One is tapering (Heye
ix a, c). The other is more nearly cylindrical, generally shorter and

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

usually rounded by use at both ends (Heye x d). No ornamental,
knobbed, or specialized ends were observed. The largest specimen
was 410 by 70 millimeters.

Granite appears to have been the favorite material, though one
pestle of petrified wood was noted and a number of sandstone. Some
of these latter were apparently fragments of mortars.

A small granite, cylinder with rounded ends, perhaps used as a
paint pestle, is shown in plate 17i. A pestle-like object shown in
plate 22p may be an unfinished plummet-like stone.

Pipe or Tube

Fry (Alpaugh) had a tube of uncertain stone material, which
was heavily incrusted. The piece is about eighty-five millimeters long,
more or less tapering (end diameters twenty-five and thirty milli-
meters) and with convex sides. It is bored longitudinally by a hole
seventeen to twenty-three millimeters in diameter. Heye Lxxvina
has the same form. This was possibly a pipe, although there is no
evidence of its having been used as such, and it would be the only
example from the entire area.

The absence of stone tobacco pipes is probably not to be regarded
as indicating the non-use of tobacco, but rather the use of wooden
pipes.

Plummet-like Stones and (or) Charmstones

Material.-A very wide range of materials appears in these
articles. From steatite, soft shale, and an argillaceous limestone
almost as soft as indurated clay, all degrees of hardness are
met with up to granite, marble, quartz, and silicified wood. In select-
ing the raw material great care and artistic judgment were exercised,
for the deep solid colors on the one hand and the striking grained
effects on the other are really quite wonderful. Some pieces appear
to be made of petrified wood. Specimens of this raw material exist
in the area.

Workmanship.-It might be expected that soft materials would
have been the first used, and that the oldest specimens would appear
in them. However, the soft materials do not exhibit cruder workman-
ship as should be the case if this were true. These articles represent
a skill which cannot be too highly praised. The symmetry, the form,
the polish unite to produce a true work of art. Combined with the
choice of materials they exhibit the highest aesthetic sense in the area.

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94       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Most of the specimens found in the Alpaugh region were covered
with a heavy white incrustation when found. When left on the
specimen it completely obliterates all indications of material or finish.
In the majority of cases it has been removed and the pieces repolished
by the collectors. This repolishing possibly makes us exaggerate the
excellence of the original finish.

Size.-There is great variation in size. The longest specimen noted
was 230 millimeters in length, the shortest forty-two. The diameters
range from fifty-two to twenty-four millimeters, the smaller diameters
as frequently as not belonging to the longer pieces.

Form   and usage.-An attempt has been made to classify these
artifacts according to form. It might be desirable to make the classi-
fication on the basis of usage, especially since the form variation is so
great as to strongly suggest different uses. However, so little is known
of the uses to which these stones were put that such a classification
would be entirely too controversial.

PLUMMET-LIKE STONES AND (OR) CHARMSTONES

D. Perforated (pl. 22 a-rn)
W. Not perforated

A. No pile (i.e., no secondary curves at end)

a. Spherical or egg-shaped (length not more than twice width)

1. With longitudinal groove (pl. 32 a-h; pl. 29 g-i)
2. With notched ends (pl. 32k)

3. Neither grooved nor notched (pl. 32 i, j, r, s)
b. Spindle-shaped (length more than twice width)

1. With transverse groove (pl. 22o)

2. With notched ends (pl. 23 a-f; pl. 32o)

3. Neither grooved nor notched (pl. 32 1-n, p, q)
B. With pile (i.e., end or ends with secondary curves)

a. Pile at one end

1. With transverse groove (pl. 22n)
2. Plain (pl. 22 s-u; pl. 33 i-n)

b. Pile at both ends. One end always plain and the other end-

1. Plain (pl. 22q, r; pl. 23g; pl. 34 a-q)
2. With shoulder (pl. 20a; pl. 34r-ab)
3. With button (pl. 33 a-i, o)

4. With nipple (pl. 20 b-n; pl. 33 p-aa)
5. Notched (pl. 23 h-j)
C. Special

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southlern San Joaquin Valley

The perforated pieces (D) are not only clearly separated from the
rest but bear a strong resemblance to one another. They are all
biconically drilled near one end, are somewhat cruder in workmanship
and altogether present a rather utilitarian appearance. One would
probably not be far off in regarding them as sinkers for fishing.

The second feature used by us as a criterion for division is the
presence or absence of a clearly differentiated point or file. The simple
forms (WA) entirely lack this. Beginning with the egg-shaped
forms (WAa) they grade into the simple stone balls on the one hand
and range into long, delicate spindles (WAb) on the other hand.

Type WAal is encircled longitudinally by a broad, shallow groove,
such as would be useful in keeping a cord in place. The hole in type
D is recalled and sinkers are again suggested.

Type WAa2 is a radical departure from the above. It differs from
Type WAb2 only in the relation between width and length and so far
as usage was concerned the two must have constituted a single type.

Type WAa3 is similar to WAa2 except that it does not have the
notches in the ends. It agrees with Type WAb3 except for being
relatively thicker. One is inclined to suppose that all four types
(WAa2, WAa3, WAb2, WAb3) constitute a single group character-
ized by notched ends. In this case WAa3 and WAb3 would represent
unfinished pieces in which the notches had not yet been cut. The
objections to this are the high degree of finish shown by the WAa3
and WAb3 pieces and the fact that they appear in larger quantities
than the notched types. These notches are small cuts in the extreme
ends. They are too small to hold cords. The pieces vary too much
in size to suggest their use for a standardized operation-such as net
making. (We have heard the pieces spoken of as "seine needles".)
In fact many of the specimens are so long and delicate as to banish
all utilitarian ideas. It might further be noted that somewhat similar
notches appear in rare specimens that have the other end differently
specialized.

Some of the pieces (WB) have a pile at one end only while others
have it at both ends. In a single case (WBal) there is an encircling
groove near one end which would have accommodated a cord. Those
with plain ends (WBa2) generally have a smooth, spherical base
which gives the pieces a bulbous appearance. The long slender pieces
might have been used as paint or tobacco pestles, but such usage seems
unlikely for the almost spherical specimens.

95

96       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Types WBb, pieces with more or less of a point at both ends, are
decidedly dominant, and among them those with both points plain
predominate (WBbl). The end which becomes differentiated is usually
that nearest the center of gravity. The change from the plain end
(WBbl) to the shouldered end (WBb2) is gradual, and intermediate
forms are found. A few shouldered forms show an incipient nipple,
but generally both nipples and buttons are on unshouldered pieces.
The button of type WBb3 would serve to hold a cord fastened to the
pieces but since otherwise similar forms apparently had no need for a
cord it seems more likely that such was not the use of the button. No
utilitarian purpose can be imagined for the nippled ends (WBb4).
It has been suggested that they have a phallic implication but no
evidence supports the theory. The notched ends (WBb5) suggest
relationship with the pieces with both ends notched (WAa2, WAb2).
In WBb5 the notched end is somewhat swollen to form a slight knob.
In two instances this notched knob appears on otherwise specialized
pieces, e.g., a fine, symmetrical specimen in the Mayor collection (pl.
20f) has one end fully nippled and the other end swollen and notched.
A similar piece in the Fry collection is still further differentiated by a
keel around the middle.

In no type is the position of the center of gravity or the relation
between length and diameter constant. This variation indicates that
the use for which they were intended did not require a nice standardi-
zation of form. This suggests that the further differentiation into
different styles of ends did not denote different usages.

From the viewpoint of usage it seems that the pieces might fall
into three classes. First are the sinkers, type D and the simpler
forms of WA. Then come the double notched pieces, or at least
symmetrically ended pieces of the same general appearance, which
constitute class WA. Finally there is the third class WB, of highly
specialized forms. These most strongly suggest ceremonial usage.
However, the term "charmstone" with its ordinary connotation seems
in its origin and application too strongly suggestive of mediaeval
"thunderbolts"' to justify its scientific adoption or use.

Kroeber reports "cylindrical stones, 6 to 8 inches long, pointed
at one end" used as charms for producing rain by the historic Yokuts
weather shamans of our area. 25

25 B. A. E., Bull 78, p. 518.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Distribution.-Table 9 shows the details of the various types
found in the Alpaugh district. It will be noted that 162 specimens
were observed.

Turning to the Slough and Lake regions we are struck by the
scarcity of this highly developed cultural feature. From the Slough
we noted ten specimens: WBa2, 1; WBb3, 1; WBb4, 6; too frag-
mentary for identification, 2.

From the Lake region we saw twelve specimens, one each of types
WAb3, WBa2, WBbl, WBb2, and eight specimens too broken for
classification.

This great difference in the relative abundance of plummet-like
stones in the three regions seems to mark a cultural difference. In
the Lake region where a number of indications suggest recency these
articles are scarce. Their abundance in Alpaugh might suggest a
more ancien!t culture.     The fact that supernatural qualities are
attributed to these stones by modern Indians, who do not make them
tends to bear out the fact that they belong to an older era.

TABLE 9

PLUMMET-SHAPED STONES AND (OR) CHARMST'ONES IN THE, ALPAUGH REGION

Type         Length      Width        Ratio*    Quantity  Type % of

Max. Min. Max. Min.    Max.    Min.            Total

D ..............   90   42    40   25    1:1.5  1:2.5    16       9.9

WAa1 ..............   70  57  54   40    1:1.2  1:1.7    8        4.9
WAa2 ..............   81  80  50   46    1:1.6  1:1.7     2       1.2
WAa3 ..............   75  40  50   32    1:1.1  1:1.7    11       6.8
WAbl ..............   101  100  47  37   1:2.1  1:2.7     2       1.2
WAb2 ..............   230  81  45  26    1:2.2  1:8.8     9       5.6
WAb3 ..............   135  70  47  24    1:2.6  1:4.4    11       6.8
WBa1 ..............   102     40         1:2.5            1        .6
WBa2 ..............   125  65  47  37    1:1.5  1:3.2    13       8.0
WBb1 ..           170   63    52   29    1:1.3  1:5.8    39      24.1
WBb2 ..............   150  105  44  36   1:2.3  1:3.8    11       6.8
WBb3 ..............   175  115  40  31   1:3    1:5.5    12       8.0
WBb4 ..............   168  83  47  31    1:2    1:5.4    21      13.0
WBb5 ..............   175  100  37  26   1:2.8  1:6.2     5       3.1

* See table 7.                                       162     100.00%

Polishing Stones

Three examples of supposed polishing stones are in the Mayer
collection from Alpaugh (pl. 21w-y). The first is of very fine-grained
cream-colored sandstone and is definitely shaped, though broken off
at one end. The other two are of marble.

97

98       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

"Snake Heads"

In the Alpaugh collections were twenty-seven artificially shaped
stones of various kinds that resemble snakes' heads as much as any-
thing else (pl. 19m-af). The characteristic shape, the small varia-
tion in size (45-60 millimeters in length by 15-20 millimeters in
diameter), the pointed ends, and their polish all point to human manu-
facture or at least to human selection. It is possible that they were
fetiches or ceremonial stones.

A number of stones of about the same size (pl. l9ag-aj) were
also polished and pointed, but were more cylindrical. These sug-
gested tubes or "snake heads" in course of preparation.

Reference may be made here to the presence of a piece similar to
Heye xxx 1, m, n which he terms "grooved beads." The piece we
noted was not the same at both ends, but one end tapered to a button
so that the piece bears a striking resemblance to the rattles of a rattle-
snake (pl. 21r). This conclusion suggested itself also to Dr. Abbott.26

ARTICLES OF UNWORKED STONE

Anvils

A few stones which had apparently been used for anvils were
noted. Two examples from Alpaugh are shown in plate 29j, k.

Firestones

Pebbles and fragments of stones used as firestones are not likely
to be gathered by private collectors. They were noted below burials at
site 6 and scattered about the surface at site 4. Doubtless they existed
throughout the area.

What may well have been a small earth oven was found in site 6
and is described on page 37.

Hammerstones

Some pebbles and fragments which had apparently been used for
hammerstones were noted. Three such nodules of chalcedony are
shown in plate 27j-1. They are in the Mayer collection at Alpaugh.

26Putnam, p. 211.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley

Mica

Flakes of mica were found on the surface of site 16. This is the
only example from anywhere in our area.

Quartz Crystals

Complete or fragmentary quartz crystals, perhaps the possessions
of ancient shamans, were found in all three regions: three in the
Alpaugh region (see pls. 21 u, v and 27 in), one at site 6 in the
Slough region, and three in the Lake region.

TEXTILES AND CORDAGE

No textile indications whatsoever were secured in the Alpaugh
region.

From the Slough region we have a little evidence. At site 11 textile
impressions on reddish material were noted and there also appeared
decayed remains of fiber-fragmentary, but still discernable. The
first appeared to indicate a two-strand, soft, twined textile-possibly
a small bag or pouch. The fibrous remains might have been tule mats
used in burying the dead. Probably the "cedar bark" mentioned by
Mr. Dumble (see page 39) as covering burials in this same vicinity
was in reality tule mats. Aside from the absence of cedar within
many miles decayed tule mats might be mistaken for bark. At site
8, two-ply, soft twiiied textile fragments of bast fiber were
noted. These were associated with skeletons and one contained black
seed. At site 6 a clay mould showing a twined basketry fragment
negative impression was discovered. This is shown positively in
plate 14m.

In the Lake region we have a number of textile and cordage speci-
mens from sites 14, 15, and 16. The specimens from sites 15 and 16
are very much decomposed. Those from site 14 are fragmentary, but
are in a fair state of preservation. The specimens described belowv
are from site 14 unless otherwise stated.

Cordage and Fibers

Fiber of tule.-Specimen 1-14597 consists of a mass of tule fiber
which gives no evidence of having been twisted. It may have been
intended as wrappings for the limbs of the dead as in one of the
burials, 12-1732 (pl. 13).

99

100      University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Cordage of tule stems.-Specimen 1-14588 (pl. 4d) consists of
tule stems loosely twisted upon one another, with new stems fre-
quently introduced, so that the piece looks spliced. It is two-ply
with the twist to the right. Each ply is composed of from two to six
tule stems. Apparently very thin tules or only the outer coverings
of tule stems were used. Its length is six and one-half feet and it is
incomplete. The diameter is twenty to twenty-five millimeters.

Specimen 1-14586 (pl. 4b), more tightly twisted than 1-14588,
ten to fifteen millimeters in diameter, illustrates a method of securing
the end by wrapping about with a hit of the tule skin, the ends of
which are inserted in the twist of the rope to prevent untying (see
lower part of illustration). This tule skin is apparently not part of
the rope. The plate also shows the ends of pieces of tule projecting
from the twist, thus indicating where pieces have ended and new
pieces have been inserted. This rope was folded and tied about the
middle with one end. Two medial loops (not visible in the plate)
appear as though they had been fastened around something which
chafed off the outer skin of the tule, thus exposing the fiber. The
entire specimen consists really of two pieces tied together with a
granny knot. The two ends so tied are kept from ravelling by each
being tied with a simple overhand knot formed of the end of one piece
of the twisted tule that forms the rope (not shown in illustration).
This tied piece then continues on to form with the other fibers the
end of the rope. This rope has at least one tule stem in each ply and
perhaps two or three stems in parts. The total length of the two tied
pieces is about twenty feet. The two pieces show a marked uniformity
in diameter. The rope is two-ply and the twist to the right.

Specimen 1-14587 (pl. 4c), similar to 1-14586, lacks knots and
terminal fastenings. It is about eight feet long.

Three-ply rope.-Specimen 1-14585, illustrated in plate 4a, is
comprised of two short pieces of three-ply rope, composed perhaps
of yucca or agave fiber, but of neither sisal nor Manila hemp, accord-
ing to S. T. Henshaw, a cordage expert, the whole left-twisted. One
piece tapers from ten millimeters to two millimeters in diameter, the
tapering being abrupt. This piece has a simple knot tied near the tap-
ered end, perhaps to prevent ravelling. The second piece, ten to thir-
teen millimeters in diameter forks into two three-ply cords at one end.
The base of the fork is tightly and neatly wrapped with a small portion
of the fibers which are worked in under the binding so that no end
appears.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley  101

String.-Fourteen two-ply cords ranging from two to four milli-
meters in diameter constitute specimen 1-14583.  They are all of
plant fibers, apparently of two sorts. These cords comprise three
pieces of right twist and eleven pieces of left twist. Some pieces
definitely taper. One example of right twist and three of left twist
are shown in plate 3a. A string, diameter about one millimeter, is
wound about the piece of tule braid shown in plate 3d. The twist
of this string is to the right. Among the string fragments from site
15 are two examples of 2-ply cord of twisted tule fiber, two milli-
meters in diameter.

A piece of two-ply hair cord thirty-three inches long (1-14584), is
figured in pl. 3c. The diameter is two to three millimeters, the twist to
the left. The hair is apparently human, probably originally black,
but faded to a dark ruddy brown. A piece of considerably smaller
diameter, very short and fragile, was found in the mass of human
hair and mink skin which capped skull 12-1734. This fragment is
tied in a double bow knot and may have been part of the binding
that held the mink-skin head covering in place. A piece of thicker
2-ply cord made of coarse vegetable fiber was also included in the
mass. A fragment of 2-ply hair string containing a netting knot is
recorded from site 15.

Human hair string plays an extensive part in the decorative
designs of the soft basketry bags from site 14 (see pls. 7-10, 12).

Braid.-A three-strand braid of tule skin is illustrated in plate
3d. It is 280 millimeters long and about nine millimeters in breadth.
Tule braid is used by the modern Yokuts for edging tule mats, and tule
beds of cradles.

Twelve pieces of flat six-strand braid constitute specimen 1-14582.
Two of these are shown in plate 3b. The longest is seven feet in
length. The average width is seven millimeters. The string used
to make the braid has a right twist, and is two-ply. One piece twenty-
eight inches long has its ends tied and forms a loop that exactly fits
the authors' heads and suggests that it may have formed a head band.
It is tied with a granny knot with one end of the braid tucked into
the knot and the other hanging pendant five or six inches. It is pos-
sible that all of the flat six-strand braid represents material for head
bands.

102      University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Bags of Needle-stitched Braid

Plate 10 shows one of the two examples of work in needle-stitched
braid forthcoming from our area. It is a fragmentary, closely worked
bag of thick vegetable-fiber string from site 14. The bag is made of
bands of needle-stitched braid (built by stitchery similar to buttonhole
stitchery). These bands of braid, which are in two-ply bast-fiber
string, are joined together with ball stitchery of two-ply human hair
string. The bands of braided material vary from twenty-five to fifty-
five millimeters in width, while the portion forming the bottom of the
bag is composed of a dise 140 millimeters in diameter. The broadest
band has stitched in and out along its middle a two-ply human hair
string. The edge of the bag is encircled by a two-ply, right twisted
string, which is tied into the bag at regular intervals and perhaps
served to hold a puckering-string. The bag has the same appearance
inside as outside. From site 15 comes a rotted fragment of finer
material in the same technique.

The household arts department of the University of California
possesses a Pomo tule mat made in the same technique as the above
described bag.

Bags of Soft Twined Weaving

The collection from site 14 contains four tightly twined basketry
bags of string. Both warp and woof are of vegetable fiber string,
with ornamental courses of human hair string introduced for decora-
tive effect. Most of the string is right twisted, but here and there a
left twisted piece is discernible. Three of the bags are illustrated in
plates 7 to 9. All four bags have the two twining-elements twisted
to the left.

Specimen 1-14570 is illustrated in plate 63 of the Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology Bulletin 78. The warp elements are strings of quite
stiff fiber, while the woof elements are of string of a finer, softer fiber.
This was a large piece, measuring from center to edge thirty-two
inches. In its present dilapidated condition it suggests a circular rug
rather than a bag. The technique is two-strand twining which makes
the pattern on both sides identical. The pattern is in black human
hair string, pink string and olive brown string. For example, the
seven outermost courses are of pink and natural gray strings, produc-
ing a vertically striped effect alternating pink and gray. In the same
way the black hair and the gray fiber string are alternated in three

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley  103

broad concentric bands of decoration. The pink string seems to be
composed of the same fine fiber as the gray string and suggests there-
fore that it is dyed. An examination of the illustration will show
an Olivella disc bead sewed upon this specimen with human hair
string.

The three remaining bags are of a rougher and coarser pale brown
vegetable fiber, warp and woof alike. The patterns are revealed in
plates 7 to 9, and in every case contain human hair string.

Bag 1-14573 (pl. 9) has an encircling cord sewed into the edge
of the basket about every fifty millimeters, perhaps as a guide for a
puckering-string. The five upper courses of twining, measuring five
millimeters in width, are pink in color, suggesting the pink courses in
1-14570. The ravelling of the pink string makes it obvious that it
was dyed, for internal portions are of the natural yellowish-brown
color, and that the process of dyeing took place after the string was
made, but presumably before it was incorporated in the basket. The
original size of this specimen is indicated by the fact that from the
rim,edge to the lowermost circle of ornamentation the distance is
255 millimeters.

Specimen 1-14574 (pl. 8) is exceedingly fragmentary. It is 750
millimeters from near the original center to near the original edge.
Seven courses of red twining form the edge of the bag and directly
above is the black pattern of human hair string.

Number 1-14571 (pl. 7) is somewhat more finely woven than the
two preceding. Nine upper courses are dyed pink. The radius from
the pink edge to what is probably the center of the bag is 675 milli-
meters. The center was started with a bundle of human hair string, as
was also the case with 1-14570.

Numerous fragments of twined basketry bags, all soft and flex-
ible, like those described from site 14, were found in the wrappings of
the burials at site 15. They show a greater range of texture than the
more complete specimens from site 14. Pattern is lacking in the frag-
ments, although a few shreds of pink-dyed fiber are discernible. With
these soft twined fragments was also found a trace of reddish powder
which may possibly be the substance used as coloring matter.

Yet another type of soft twined basketry was yielded by site 15.
It consists of very fragile openwork material with interstices of about
two millimeters. In this specimen, of which we have only a very small
fragment, the two warp elements are alternately separated to combine
with each course of twining.

104      University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Bags of Soft Twined Weaving, Asphalted

From site 15 comes a number of fragments of asphaltum-coated
basketry bags. The basketry itself is of the soft, twined technique
hitherto described. These fragments suggest one of the types of
asphaltum-coated baskets of the Chumash region. The presence of both
asphaltum and tule in the border region of the Yokuts and Chumash
areas leaves the decision in doubt as to which people may have been
inventors of this practice. It should also be borne in mind in this con-
nection that the coating of baskets with pine pitch is a widespread
Arizona, Great Basin and Tehachapi custom. Doubtless the respective
uses of pitch and asphaltum are but local variations of a single generic
process.

From site 13 and 16 come lumps of either pitch or asphaltum
which may very well represent the raw material used for basket
coating.

Cotton Cloth

An obviously intrusive article (1-14575) found with the wealth of
textile materials at site 14 is a rectangular, uncolored, thin, cotton
cloth, illustrated in pl. 72 of Bulletin 78 of the Bureau of American
Ethnology and in pl. 2 of this paper. The width of this cloth was fifty-
eight inches. Its length is indeterminable because of one ragged edge.
This blanket is probably of Pueblo origin, so both Drs. Walter Hough
and A. V. Kidder affirm. Dr. Kidder writes: "The textile fragment
would have caused me no surprise had I found it in a cliff-house. In
other words it is regular Southwestern cotton cloth with typical multi-
strand rolling side-selvage (the end-selvage is missing). I compared
it with specimens from Pueblo Bonito, Pecos, and the Mesa Verde.
It is fairly late stuff, i.e., not Basket Maker, as both selvage and
material are foreign to Basket Maker textiles. I would think that
cloth of this sort might have had a very wide trade distribution. How
late this sort of cloth might be I have no idea. It might not be over
a century or two old, for I have found practically identical material
in 18th century rooms at Pecos. Modern IHopi cottons, however, are
much coarser than this piece."

Miss Anne Swainson, Associate in Textiles, University of Cali-
fornia, states that it is tabby woven from handspun cotton yarn. The
cord at the selvage indicates that the specimen was woven on a crude

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley  105

hand loom. It was not possible to use the reed in making this as on
the characteristic modern Hopi loom. At the time of the Spanish
conquests in America, the looms of Europe were arranged to produce
better fabric (with compacted warp selvage) than that of the specimen
under discussion. The peculiarity of the selvage edge is fairly illus-
trated in plate 2.

The presence of this cloth, which is clearly not of Californian
manufacture, had led certain of our colleagues to regard all of the
textile materials from site 14 as perhaps intrusive. This view, how-
ever, seems unwarranted, as evidence of soft, twined textiles' is
forthcoming from other sites, notably 15, 16, 8 and 11.

Two holes cut in the specimen might be arm holes. They have
been unskillfully cut, leaving ragged edges. When the cloth is folded
longitudinally they coincide and apparently were cut through the
two thicknesses at one time. These holes perhaps represent a crude
attempt to adapt it for use as a garment. On the other hand the piece
may have been used as a shroud and the holes may have been cut at
that time.

Several rents in the cloth have been repaired by darning. This
darning was done with bast fiber, thus confirming the intrusive nature
of the cloth. On one darned place are sewed two Olivella disc beads
of the bushing type.

Tule Mats

Mat 1-14591, plate 6, is sewed instead of twined. It is fourteen
inches in width by nineteen in length and is not complete. The lower
end is quite frayed so that the fiber of the tule is very apparent.
Whether this freeing of the fibers from the tule stems was intentional
is not clear. Neither is the purpose of the mat clear; whether it was
used for bedding or flooring, clothing, or house covering, is uncertain.
That it may have formed part of the outer covering of a hut is sug-
gested by the fact that it is sewed instead of twined. Barrett states
for the Klamath Lake region that such sewed mats are used as exterior
house coverings because of their water shedding qualities, there being
no twining to interfere with the run-off.27  The sewing is done with
two-millimeter, two-ply string in courses sixty-five to seventy milli-
meters apart. The string with which the sewing is done is a vegetable
fiber and is twisted to the right. This mat has no definitely finished
edge.

27 Present series v, 290, 1910.

106       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Another type of mat with twined binding of tules is
1-14589 (pl. 5 b). It is twined to the right. The method of binding
is by plain twining. The twining passes around each stem or around
two or three stems so tightly compressed as to appear like one. The
distance between the parallel courses of twining is from 85 to 110
millimeters. The top and bottom of this piece have no finished edge.
One side of the piece, however, has a distinct finish formed by a
number of stems of tule, at least three being bound with a spiral wind-
ing of tule as shown in plate 5b. This spiral winding which consists of
a single strand of tule is really a continuation of one of the twining
elements in the uppermost or first course of twining. This fact would
seem to indicate that the upper edge of the mat, which consists of
short, projecting, tule stems is really complete. The second of the two
twining elements of the first course of twining is turned down and
bound into the thick spirally wound side. The second, fourth and
sixth course of twining form loops over the edge of the mat. The
third and fifth courses, like the first, furnish binding material for
the edge of the mat. This alternation suggests that the opposite edge
of the mat which is missing would have shown a similar alternation.

Specimen 1-14590 (pl. 5 a) is composed of parallel tule stems
bound together by simple twining to the right with right-twisted two-
ply fiber string about one and one-half millimeters in diameter. The
courses of twining are sixty millimeters apart. No definite edges are
discernible. Traces of twined tule mats with tule warp and woof form
part of the wrappings of burials at site 15.

Nets

Nets from site 14 vary from very large mesh nets, which may
have been utilized for snaring birds or carrying burdens, to quite
fine meshed hair nets. Of the former type is specimen 1-14579, about
five feet in length. It may have been originally of considerable
greater extent for the specimen is very ragged. Stretched tight, the
maximum length from knot to knot of the mesh is one hundred and
thirty millimeters. The two-ply string of which the net is made is of
vegetable fiber, and is twisted to the right. The diameter of the
string is one millimeter.

A small and well-preserved net is number 1-14581, which when
stretched tight, has a maximum length of fifty-three inches and a
maximum width of thirty-seven inches. The stretched length of the

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley  107

mesh, from knot to knot, is one hundred and twenty millimeters. This
specimen is in much better condition than the preceding one. It is
illustrated in part in plate lla. It is in such a fine state of preserva-
tion that it takes quite a hard pull to break the string. The string
of which it is composed is two-ply, perhaps of milkweed fiber, and is
twisted to the right. The diameter of the string is one millimeter.

Illustrated also in plate llb is net 1-14580 which is made of
slightly finer string than the preceding, but like the preceding has no
definite edges. The length of this piece is forty-seven inches stretched
and the width about seventeen inches. From knot to knot the meshes
stretch one hundred and ten millimeters. The string of which the
net is made is two-ply, twisted to the right and appears to be of
different material from the string of 1-14581. It is quite gray in
appearance.

Specimen 1-14578 (pl. lle) seems to give some clue to the manner
in which nets such as those just described were used. This net was
fastened to a rather stout left twisted cord of vegetable fiber, three to
four millimeters in diameter. The net itself has a mesh, which,
stretched from knot to knot, measured 125 millimeters. The string
of which the mesh is made is of vegetable fiber and right twisted. Its
diameter is about one half millimeter. The portion of the end of the
net bound together by the thick cord appears to represent its complete
width.

Specimen 1-14577 illustrated in Kroeber 's Handbook of the
Indians of California, plate 72, is without question a hair net, for it is
found around a number of pencil-like locks of hair evidently formed
by gumming. This net is made of very fine right-twisted string which
stretches from knot to knot thirty-seven millimeters. The diameter
of the string is slightly less than one half millimeter. It is impossible
to determine the exact length and breadth of this net without damag-
ing the specimen. One of the pencil-like locks of hair has a piece of
right-twisted, two-ply string about one millimeter in diameter wound
tightly around it, one end of the cord being inserted under the winding
end, the other end of the cord being turned under the last wind and
projecting outward from it. Presumably this string was attached to
one end of the net and would seem to indicate that the net was
attached to the head by thus winding around one of the pencil-like
locks of hair. As shown by the illustration, both ends of the hair net
are bunched together and wound around a series of pencil-like hair
locks, which may represent the locks on two sides of the head. Pre-

108       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

sumably the body of the net between the two ends covered the head
of the wearer. This type of hair net is central Californian, whereas
the style of wearing the hair in long pencil-like strings is limited
among living Indians to men of the Colorado river.

Another hair net, badly deteriorated (1-14598) stretches about
twenty-seven millimeters from knot to knot. Its string is slightly
finer than that of the preceding hair net. Along with the net is some
of the hair and scalp of its probable wearer. Mingled with the black
hair are a number of gray ones. The hair in this case gives no evi-
dence of having been gummed together in pencil-like strings or locks.

No examples of nets were found with the burials at site 15, unless
we accept the single fragments of human hair string tied with a net-
ting knot.

Netting Bag

Netting bag 1-14576 (pl. 12) has the upper edge provided with a
series of long loops which stretched tight measured about forty-
seven millimeters from the top of the loop to the two knots which
border its lower end. A heavy two-ply left-twisted vegetable fiber
cord, doubled and right-twisted on itself, ran through these loops and
made it possible to completely pucker the top of the bag. The cord
of two to three millimeters diameter, of which the bag is composed is
exceedingly rough and bristles with projecting fibers. The stretched
meshes measure from knot to knot about twenty-five millimeters.
The bag had at least six ornamental concentric bands of black human
hair string, two-ply, right twisted in some cases, left twisted in others.
This human hair string is in some cases slightly smaller, in other
cases fully as thick as the fiber string. All encircling bands of human
hair mesh are right twisted, except the second. In no case do the
bands of human hair form a complete diamond mesh in themselves,
but only two sides. The total length of the edge of this specimen,
stretched to about half its maximum length, is about thirty-six inches,
indicating that it must have been a bag of very considerable capacity.

ARTICLES OF WOOD

Only two articles of wood were recovered from the area, both from
site 14. The preservation of such articles in good condition again
suggests recency.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southert San Joaquin Valley  109

Arrow Shaft

In the orbit of skeleton 12-1731 was a portion of an arrow shaft.
It is about five inches in length, consisting of the greater portion of a
foreshaft of hardwood, and the spliced joint of the shaft. This shaft
and the death which it dealt have been most vividly described and
pictured by Dr. Pope. 28

Painted Board

A board-like piece (pl. 1) of yellow pine was among the artifacts
from site 14. The surface shown in the picture has the two ends
painted red and each bordered by a black transverse stripe on the
inner side as indicated by the difference in shading in the photograph.
A certain amount of rotting has taken place in the piece in question,
but whether from exposure or age could not be ascertained.

As to the use of this piece of wood we can say nothing definite.
It may have been a marker for a grave like those reported from the
Santa Barbara region.29

Rabbit-stick

A curved throwing stick, such as is commonly used in southern
California, was obtained from a grave on the south side of Kern and
Buena Vista lakes by Mr. J. H. Jones. The specimen was identified
as a rabbit stick by Professor G. G. MacCurdy of Yale University.
This object was buried with a skeleton which still possessed an abun-
dance of hair which hung straight down all around the head. Over
the chest and forearms was a net. As no curved throwing sticks have
hitherto been reported from central California, it seems a fair assump-
tion that this article is intrusive.

SUMMARY OF MATERIAL CULTURE

In every case except in articles of bone, the Slough region presents
by far the smallest quantity of material. This suggests that it was a
marginal or backward area. Moreover it would seem that in the
northern portion of the region there was a similarity to Alpaugh

28 Saxton T. Pope, A Study of Bows and Arrows, present series, xiii, pl. 60,
1923.

29 H. C. Yarrow, Rep. U. S. Geog. Sur. W. of 100th Meridian, vii, 38, 1879.

110      University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

articles and in the southern portion to the Lake region artifacts.
Recalling what was said about the probable undesirability as a place
of residence of most of this region, it would seem safe to follow the
material culture evidences so far as to consider the Slough an inter-
mediate, perhaps somewhat backward region with either a smaller
population than the other two regions or with a population consisting
of seasonal hunting and fishing parties from those regions.

The material cultures in the Alpaugh and Lake regions offer as
marked differences as might be expected from two such simple cul-
tures. Leaving aside minor differences as too vague for discussion
some of the major ones may be tabulated.

TABLE 10

OCCURRENCE OF PRINCIPAL ARTiFACTS

Alpaugh Region
(Pottery)   At site 12 only (rare)

Very little abalone

Very few olivella disc beads

ite         No disc beads

"Boat-shaped" stones
No plugs

Few sherds

(Chipped)  Very few in schistose material

Leaf-like points predominate
(Ground)   Crescentic stones

Perforated stones

-    Plummet-like stones very

Textiles

plentiful

"Snake heads"
None preserved

Lake Region
At site 3 only

Abalone relatively plentiful

Olivella disc beads relatively

plentiful
Disc beads

No "boat-shaped" stones
Plugs

Sherds exceedingly plentiful
Schistose material definite

Triangular points predominate
No crescentic stones
No perforated stones

Plummet-like stones scarce
No "snake heads"

Woven, braided, twined

The greater abundance of pottery, abalone, Olivella disc beads and
the greater bulk of steatite in the Lake region might be taken to imply
a more definite and constant intercourse with the Santa Barbara
coast the probable source of such items (except pottery). Such an
assumption is strengthened by geographical considerations, the Lake
region being nearer that part of the coast.

The ensemble of what we have in the Lake region could possibly
be safely dated after 1800. But when individual factors or specimens
are considered the story is different. Artifacts from both the Lake
and Alpaugh regions have their counterparts in the Santa Barbara
area, in the northern San Joaquih valley, and elsewhere in California.

Clay (
Shell

Steati
Stone

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley  111

MISCELLANEOUS ABORIGINAL ACTIVITIES

CULT INDICATIONS

Spiritual suggestions are speculative. The number of possible
ceremonial stones (including charmstones) has been noted, and if
these were indeed of a ceremonial nature the conclusion must be that
spiritual affairs played considerable part in the life of the people.
No indication of their specific expression is given except by the cres-
centic stones. If these have been correctly identified they enable us
to postulate for Alpaugh at least a puberty ceremony akin to the
"roasting of the girls" practiced in southern California and in which,
at least among the Dieguefio, a crescentic stone was used. 30

The treatment of the eagle in the burial at site 14 (pl. 13) indicates
that the bird was held in great respect. This suggests the eagle cere-
mony practiced by the Diegueno 31 and like it is probably a manifes-
tation of the bird cult of California south of the latitude of San
Francisco.

FISHING

Two accounts of fishing for our area have been recorded. Powers
says that on Tulare lake they fished from tule balsas.32

From Kern and Buena Vista lakes Mr. W. R. Dumble has given
us the following account of what was observed by his grandparents
who settled in the Bakersfield region in 1850. At that time there
were still many Indians living on the shores of the lakes. Diverging
wings (fences) of wickerwork (twining perhaps) were set up in the
lake, forming a funnel-like approach to a satisfactory shallow stretch
of water along the shore. However, the funnel was not very narrow
and the narrow end was the shore line itself. The group of Indians
would then proceed into the water and advance towards the funnel,
splashing and making as much noise as possible. This would drive
the fish into the shallow water where they would be prevented from
escaping to either side by the wings. In shallow water they would be
caught by placing a "wicker" (twined probably) hopper over them

30 T. T. Waterman, The Religious Practices of the Diegueiio Indians, present
series, viii, 286, pl. 21, 1910.

31 Ibid., 314-320.

32 Stephen Powers, Tribes of California, Contributions to North American
Ethnology, III, 376, 1877.

112      University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

and reaching through the small end and grasping the fish. Such
methods may help account for the absence of fishhooks and net sinkers
in the Lake region.

FOOD OFFERINGS

The only evidence which seems to indicate food offerings consists
of the beaks and claws of perhaps.a dozen red-winged blackbirds
(Agelaius phoe&niceus) found with skeleton 12-3523 at a depth of sixty-
nine inches in site 11 in the Slough region. Professor Joseph Grinnell
who identified these remains, says that he knows of no predatory
burrowing animal that would have been likely to have carried them
down into the mound. It seems possible therefore that they were
buried with the deceased with whom was found also a bone fishhook.

HABITATIONS

The only trace of aboriginal habitations observed in the entire area
consisted of the supposed house pits at site 12 in the Alpaugh region.
These were circular in outline, thus indicating one of the known types
of aboriginal houses of Yokuts Indians.

HAIR DRESSING

From site 14 in the Lake region evidence is forthcoming as to
aboriginal hair dress. One skeleton, 12-1734, was accompanied by
long loose hair more or less tucked under a covering of mink fur.
Hair of a second individual was in long, gummed, pencil-like locks,
similar to those worn by men among the modern lower Colorado river
tribes. These locks, however, were accompanied by a hair net of
central Californian type (pl. 72, Bulletin 78, B. A. E.). This suggests
that in our region the two methods of hair dressing may have been
in vogue for men or that one method is intrusive. Hair of a third
individual is accompanied by a net, but is not in gummed locks.

In a burial south of Kern and Buena Vista lakes the abundant
hair was intact and hung straight down all around the head.

8S A. L. Kroeber, Handbook of the Indians of California, B. A. E., Bull. 78,
p. 522, 1925.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley  113

CULTURAL RELATIONS

The archaeology of most of the immediately adjacent areas has
not been described. Such data. as exist indicate a generic resemblance
between the culture of our area and that of the Santa Barbara area.
The extent of such resemblance is in part revealed by the number of
instances in which we have been able to cite Heye's San Miguel illus-
trations as applying also to the upper San Joaquin valley artifacts.
In addition to these common similarities, the Alpa.ugh and Lake regions
have certain mutually exclusive traits which are nevertheless in both
cases sha.red with the Santa Barbara region, implying independent
lines of transmission between Santa Barbara and these regions. In
discussing Articles of Chipped Stone the possibility of Alpaugh cul-
ture being of an earlier date than that of the Lake region was brought
out. If this were true the Alpaugh and Lake cultures would in part
represent different periods of the Santa Barbara culture.

The wealth of types of stone artifacts yielded by the Alpaugh
region seems to indicate it as a culture center. This culture differs
somewhat from that of the nearest known culture center to the north,
the rich delta region of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers. Cer-
tain of the Alpaugh types absent in the Lake region, but identical with
those of Santa Barbara, are "perforated stones," "butterfly" and
crescent flints, drilled stone discs, and crescentic stones. The Lake
region, many miles nearer the Santa Barbara region than Alpaugh,
shows far fewer resemblances in stone artifacts. However, an exam-
ination of Salinan culture as set forth by J. Alden Mason 34 reveals
no such wealth of stone objects as the Alpaugh region has yielded
and thus makes it seem unlikely that the Salinan were the medium of
an interchange between Santa Barbara and the San Joaquin valley.
That the diffusion of the traits in question was the result of direct
contact of Tulare lake dwellers and Santa Barbara people seems the
most likely explanation. The scanty evidence available indicates that
the type of material culture revealed at Alpaugh extended north-
eastward into the Sierra Nevada foothills.

In the Lake region the abundance of steatite, the presence of soft
twined basketry, the use of asphalt on basketry, and the practice of

34 The Ethnology of the Salinan Indians, present series, x, 97-240, 1912.

114      University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

interment all suggest Santa Barbara culture. Resemblances with
neighboring regions to the eastward would probably be forthcoming
were more material available. At any rate the practice of interment,
of coating baskets with pitch, and pottery in the southern Sierra
Nevada and Great Basin regions may be cited. Farther eastward, the
non-contemporaneous Basket-maker culture of southeastern Utah, as
set forth in Nusbaum's paper35 has certain features in common with
the Lake region culture, notably (1) soft twined basketry bags, (2)
human hair string employed for patterns therein, (3) three-ply
cordage.

From adjacent southern California across the Tehachapi moun-
tains we have nothing for comparison. Resemblances with farther
southern California are suggested by (1) a Dieguenio soft twined
basketry bag, apparently similar to the Lake region specimens, from
Mesa Grande, San Diego county;36 (2) the bags or wallets of bean
and other fibers woven by the Mohave ;37 (3) ceremonial use of human
hair cordage and the association of hair with the human soul among
the Luiseino; (4) pottery; (5) ground crescentic stones for girls'
puberty ceremonies.

TIME PERSPECTIVE

DISTRIBUTION

Deposits examined were too shallow to yield much information as
to cultural change with the passage of time. Perhaps the only cultural
feature whose vertical distribution seems to indicate change is steatite,
which was largely limited to the surface of sites. Its non-occurence
below the surface of mounds in the Slough and Lake regions would
seem to indicate recency. The complete or near absence of steatite
on many sites in these regions possibly implies that the sites were
abandoned before the use of steatite became general; or that its use
never became general.

s5 Jesse L. Nusbaum, A Basket-maker Cave in Kane County, Utah. With
Notes on the Artifacts by A. V. Kidder and S. J. Guernsey. Indian Notes and
Monographs, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, 1922.

36 Otis Tufton Mason, Aboriginal American Basketry; Studies in a Textile
Art Without Machinery, Rep. U. S. N. M. 1902, p. 487, pl. 203, 1904; also Con-
stance Goddard Du Bois, The Religion of the Luiseno Indians of Southern Cali-
fornia, present series, viii, 170, 1908.

37 A. L. Kroeber, Handbook of the Indians of California, B. A. E., Bull. 78.,
738, 1925.

38 Ibid; 665.

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley  115

In the Alpaugh region steatite articles, like all others, are from the
surface of the ground. Therefore, the surface finds of steatite lack
the significance of those in the Slough and Lake regions. Moreover,
as the calcareous incrustation of some of the steatite articles in the
Alpaugh region is as heavy as the maximum incrustation of articles
of other materials it seems likely that the use of steatite in that
region has an antiquity as great as that of other stone materials. It
should again be mentioned that the Alpaugh steatite is all fine grained.

Possibly controverting the above hypothesis of the antiquity of the
use of steatite in the Alpaugh region is the fact that only one of the
large series of charmstones from the Alpaugh region is of steatite.
The remainder are of harder stones. Steatite charmstones are known
from other parts of California, but nowhere are they common. It is
entirely possible that the use of the charmstone, or the sentiments
entertained about it, militated against its being made of steatite. If
such were the case, the absence of steatite charmstones in the Alpaugh
region would not controvert the theory of the antiquity of the use
of steatite there.

Potsherds, like steatite sherds, were limited to the surface in the
two sites (3 and 12) where found and seem to be relatively recent
in origin.

INCRUSTATION

Most of the stone articles, including some of the obsidian and
steatite which Messrs. Fry and Mayer have found, especially in the
northwestern part of the Alpaugh section, are heavily incrusted with
what appears to be a calcareous deposit from water in which they
may have lain. On some of the charmstones, for example, this attains
a thickness of about two millimeters. When this is removed the sur-
face of the stone below is found to have retained its original polish.
Unless it is removed no idea can be formed as to the character of the
stone. In these collections this incrustation has generally been
removed. It probably indicates a considerable time interval, but so
long as we do not know the varying strength of the solution and
whether or not each object was immersed continuously or only at long
intervals as the lake rose and fell we can form no estimate as to what
this interval was. Geologists will pass no opinion.

116      U University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

PATINATION

Flint originally deposited in a stratified state is interlarded or
overlain with thin strips of white and such deposit may not be entirely
removed in the manufacture of a point. Certain types of flint appear
however, upon exposure to the air, sunlight, and (or) water, to have
turned white. We find entire artifacts that have turned white. If
these are broken open it will be found that the change has occurred
only on the surface (see pl. 26s). The depth to which the change has
reached would appear to depend on the time of exposure. In a broken
point (1-26277) it is between one and two millimeters thick, extending
evenly over the entire point. In addition this piece shows traces of
the above mentioned original white deposit which was not flaked
off when the implement was manufactured. In a broken "crescent"
(1-26276) the depth of the color change is not more than half as
thick. This "crescent" is of a light, greenish-gray opal, while the
point referred to above is of a chocola.te-brown Monterey opal. That
the patination has occurred in each case after the artifact was made
is evident. In another case the fractured end of a point has turned
white as well as the rest of the point, showing that patination took
place after breakage. From site 11 comes a charmstone (1-24486) of
Monterey limestone with marked patination, which has altered the
color of the stone inward for two to four millimeters. Professor
Louderback, geologist, states that it took a "long time" for the altera-
tion to take place. This particular "charmstone" would therefore
seem to be quite ancient, and being found in mound 11 would seem
to indicate that as quite ancient. However, the possibility that it
was brought to site 11 after patination was well advanced must not
be overlooked.

STRATIFICATION

The only mounds exa'mined which had burials at more than one
level were sites 11, 9, and 8 in the Slough region, and 4 in the Lake
region. The few inches difference in level in sites 8 and 9 (see table 6)
suggest-no grea.t lapse of time. Site 11 suggests a longer interval but
the evidence is inconclusive.

In the Alpaugh region Mayer found a charmstone four feet
underground, also an arrowpoint and another charmstone several
feet below the surface. Considering these finds and the fact that many

1926] Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern StLn Joaquin Valley  117

other artifacts were turned up in plowing, it would seem reasonable
to suppose that for a considerable depth the earth would yield arti-
facts-thus evincing a very respectable antiquity for the human habi-
tation of the entire region. The desirability of further evidence on
this point was appreciated, but to excavate in order to obtain it would
have taken more time than we could devote to the work, for there are
no mounds, no higher spots that would appear likely places in which
to excavate. Mr. Mayer says that there never have been such spots
to his knowledge. These exceptional finds present no appreciable
difference from the surface material.

PRESERVATION

The state of preservation of bones would appear at first thought
to be a clear indication of relative antiquity of various burials.
Actually, character of soil, slope of surface, amount of moisture, and
probably other factors affect the rate of decomposition. Thus, adobe
soil and alkali preserve bones longer than sandy soil, so Mr. Louis R.
Sullivan informed us. This means that probably in some cases, poorly
preserved bones from sand mounds are no older than better preserved
bones from black soil alkali mounds. In spite of this factor we believe
nevertheless, that the burials in the sand mound site 11 in the Slough
region are of greater antiquity than those in the neighboring black
soil mounds (8, 9, 10). So exceedingly deteriorated were the bones
in site 11 that they went to pieces in the mere process of handling.
Site 11 is the mound we have specifically referred to as being appar-
ently heaped up by excavating the surrounding soil. It seems possible,
therefore that the use of this type of mound is older than the use of
the presumably natural black-soil mounds.

In sites 14 and 15 (Lake region) under apparently identical
conditions, two lots of burials were uncovered. One lot contained
well preserved bones and artifacts of textile materials and wood. The
other lot contained badly deteriorated bones and fragmentary rotted
textile wrappings. Probably these cases represent two periods in the
history of the culture of the region. The presence of similar soft
textiles in each indicates a stability of culture over a considerable
period of time.

118      University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

CONCLUSION

In no aboriginal sites excavated by our party were animal bones
found in abundance. Indeed, when compared with the prevalence of
animal bones in San Francisco Bay shellmounds, this paucity, with its
corollary of scarcity of artifacts, probably indicates a short time resi-
dence of aborigines at the excavated sites. It is even possible that some
sites were burial sites only and were never used for residence. If
such were the case animal bones in the deposit would hardly be
expectable.

To conclude, then, there is evidence of the relative antiquity of
certain of our specimens and of the relative recency of others. Never-
theless, the only discernible change in, or addition to, the culture is
represented by steatite in the Slough and Lake regions.

There appears to be no geographical reason why men could not
have inhabited the area from the most remote times, but the material
culture recovered would seem to be as readily assignable to the last
century as to the last millenium.

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley  119

EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES AND MUSEUM NUMBERS OF SPECIMENS

Unless otherwise stated, the numbers refer to the catalogue of the

University of California Museum of Anthropology.

Plate 1. Painted slab of yellow pine. X .30. 1-14593. Pp. 49, 109.
Plate 2. Cotton cloth. X .50. 1-14575. Pp. 49, 104, 105.

Plate 3. String and braid. X .50. a, vegetable-fiber cords, 1-14583; b, six-
strand braid, 1-14582; c, human-hair string, 1-14584; d, tule braid, 1-14592.
Pp. 49, 101.

Plate 4. Cordage. X .39. a, thiee-ply rope, 1-14585; b-d, two-ply rope of
tule stems, 1-14586 to 1-14588. P. 100.

Plate 5. Twined tule mats. X .32. a, 1-14590; b, 1-14589. Pp. 49, 106
Plate 6. Sewed tule mat. X .26. 1-14591. Pp. 49, 105.

Plate 7. Twined basketry bag. X .25. 1-14571. Pp. 49, 101, 102, 103.
Plate 8. Twined basketry bag. X .10. 1-14574. Pp. 49, 101, 102, 103.
Plate 9. Twined basketry bag. X .28. 1-14573. P. 49, 101, 102, 103.

Plate 10. Bag of needle-stitched braid. X .32. 1-14572. Pp. 49, 101, 102.
Plate 11. Nets. X .33. a, 1-14581; b, 1-14580; c, 1-14578. Pp. 49, 107.
Plate 12. Netting bag. X .31. 1-14576. Pp. 49, 101, 108.

Plate 13. Wrapped human bones and eagle skull with abalone ornament.
X .31. a, c, 12-1732; b, 12-1738. Pp. 50, 64, 99.

Plate 14. Objects of bone, shell, clay, steatite, and basketry.  X  .50.
a, bone whistle, 1-24589 (p. 54); b, bone awl, 1-24627 (p. 53); c, bone whistle,
1-4401 (p. 54); d, fragment of bone fish hook, 1-24507 (p. 54); e, olivella half-
shell bead with punched hole, 1-24752 (p. 59); f, olivella half-shell bead with
drilled hole, 1-24497 (p. 59); g, abalone bead, 1-14595 (p. 61); h, abalone bead,
1-14594 (p. 61); i, clam shell disc, 1-24808 (p. 62); j, serpentine bead, 1-24487
(p. 68); k, perforated whorl of clay, 1-25300 (p. 55); 1, ring of steatite, 1-24439
(p. 71); m, wax positive impression of negative impression in clay of basketry
fragment, 1-24609 (pp. 56, 99) ;n, steatite pendant, 1-24774 (p. 71).

Plate 15. Incised shell beads and tubes. X .66. In collection of T. V.
Little, Shafter, California. Pp. 53, 58, 65.

Plates 16 and 17 (except o), objects in collection of A. F. Mayer, Alpaugh,
California. o is in collection of Samuel Fry, Alpaugh, California.

Plate 16. Pendants and beads. X .50. a-g, clam shell pendants (p. 63);
4-j, pendants of Cardium corbis shell (p. 63); k, pendant of whole valve of Area
(p. 63); 1, pendant of marble (p. 92); m, pendant of shell of Hinnites gigamteus
(p. 63); m-p, bar-shaped pendants of shell (p. 63); q-r, black steatite pendants
(p. 71); s-x, steatite tubes and beads (p. 68); y, tube of limestone or chalk with
incised design (p. 89); z, shell "nose-stick" (p. 65); aa, stone tube (p. 89);
ab, split shell tube showing drilling (p. 65); ac, dentalium shell (p. 65); ad, barrel-
shaped bead of porcelain-like material (p. 57); ae-af, marble beads-the first is
drilled from one side only (p. 89); ag, shell bead drilled diametrically (p. 62);

120       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

ah, limestone bead (p. 89); ai, clam-shell bead (p. 58); aj-al, stone beads-aj,
and al black, highly polished; akc of light green steatite (p. 68); am, imitation
keyhole limpet ring made of clam shell (p. 61); an, keyhole limpet ring (p. 61).

Plate 17. Perforated stones, discs, and arrow straighteners. X .42, except
o, which is X .20. a, black steatite piece resembling tomahawk head (p. 73);
b-h, perforated stones, complete and fragmentary (p. 90, h, also p. 72); i, small
granite pestle(?) (p. 93; j, arrow straightener (p. 67); k-n, p, discs of granitic
stone (p. 91); o, arrow straightener (p. 67); q-y, natural flattish pebbles (p. 91).

Plate 18. Articles of steatite.  X .35. a, coarse-grained potsherd showing
tool marks on exterior, 1-23247 (p. 74); b, plug or disc, 1-24772 (p. 72) ; c,
steatite tube, 1-4423 (p. 68); d, spool-like object, 1-24777 (p. 73); e, fine-grained
steatite potsherd showing tool marks on interior, 1-24272 (p. 74); f, sherd showing
drilling and grooving, 1-24788 (p. 74); g, groove-edged object, 1-24779 (p. 70).

Plates 19 to 23, inclusive, collection of A. F. Mayer, Alpaugh, California.

Plate 19. " Boat-shaped"I stones and "snake heads. "  X .42, except k and 1,
which are X .20. a-i, "boat-shaped stones" (p. 69); m-af, "snake heads'"
(p. 98); ag-aj, perhaps incipient "snake heads" (p. 98).

Plate 20. Plummet-like stones and (or) "charmstones." X .42. a, shouldered
"charmstone" (p. 94); b-rn, nippled "charmstones" (p. 94; f also p. 96, j also
p. 69).

Plate 21. Steatite  objects, quartz  crystals, polishing  stones.  X  .43.
a, flattish steatite sherd showing calcareous incrustation over a surface apparently
blackened by fire (p. 76); b-i, spool-like and reel-like objects of steatite (p. 73);
m-o, groove-edged steatite sherds (p. 70); p, calcined fragment of clam-shell
vessel(s) (p. 66); q, steatite object with incised lines, perhaps an undrilled pend-
ant (p. 71); r, steatite object, perhaps representing a rattlesnake's rattle (p. 98);
s, pencil-shaped object of steatite (pp. 71, 89); t, pencil-like object of limestone
(p. 89); u-v, quartz crystals--second has been blackened and partly fused by fire
(p. 99); w, polishing stone of fine-grained sandstone (p. 97); x-y, polishing
stones(?) of marble (p. 97).

Plate 22. Plummet-like stones and (or) "charmstones."  X .41. a-m, per-
forated plummet-like stones, all biconically drilled and finely polished-a, c, e are
of marble, b is of granite, d is heavily incrusted, f is of schistose material, Jq is of
black steatite, h of heavily incrusted quartz or marble, i-j of marble, k of whitish
limestone, I heavily incrusted, m of quartz (p. 94, also g on p. 72); n, plummet-
like stone of limestone with pile and transverse groove (p. 94); o, spindle shaped
plummet-like stone of highly polished, cream-colored limestone with transverse
groove (p. 94); p, pestle-like object of basaltic stone (p. 93); q-r, plain plummet-
like stones with pile at both ends-q is heavily inerusted, r may be of marble
(p. 94); s-u, plain plummet-shaped stones with pile at one end-s is of black
basaltic stone, t is of granitic stone, u is of schistose (p. 94).

Plate 23. Spindle-shaped  "charmstones."    X  .42.  a-f, spindle-shaped
" charmstones" with notched ends-a of fine greenish sandstone, b of same
material as a but darker, with handsome graining, c of dark gray fine sandstone
with black streaks, found 18 inches underground, d white marble or quartz, e of
steatite, f of fine grained sandstone with black streaks (p. 94, also p. 72 for e);
g, plain plummet-like stone with pile at both ends, of brownish limestone.(),
depressions on side which might be finger holds (p. 94); h-j, plummet-like stones
with pile at both ends and notch at one end-h of dark green basaltic stone, i-j of
dark gray schistose (p. 94).

1926]  Gifford-Schenck: Archaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley  121

Plate 24. Steatite olla. X .20. In collection of W. R. Dumble, Bakersfield,
California (p. 73). This specimen is broken and was bound together with a
modern strap for photographing.

Plate 25. Steatite sherds showing cutting, drilling, and grooving. X .34.
a, 1-24792; b, 1-24790; c, 1-24786; d, 1-24696; e, 1-24692; f-g, 1-24790; h,
1-24792; i, 1-24788; j-m, 1-24787; n, 1-24788; o, 1-24787; p, 1-24788; q,
1-24792. Pp. 74, 75.

Plates 26 and 27, collection of A. F. Mayer, Alpaugh, California.

Plate 26. Chipped stone objects in the form of "crescents" and "butter-
flies. "  X  .42. a-f, " butterflies, " all of chalcedony (p. 86); g, effigy-like
scraper(?) of chalcedony (p. 87); h, portion of curved chalcedony blade (p. 87);
i-w, "crescents," all with sharp convex edges and all of chalcedony except j, U.,
which are of schistose, w which is of greenish slate and is not only chipped but
also ground, and v, s, which are heavily incrusted (note broken end of s) (p. 86).

Plate 27. Scrapers, hammerstones, crystal, crescent, and bowl.   X  .41.
a-i, scraper and (or) knives, all of chaleedony-h is unusual in that the sides
have been worn down, perhaps intentionally to afford a hand grip, or perhaps
as a result of wear (p. 86); j-l, chalcedony nodules probably used as hammer-
stones (p. 98) ; m, quartz crystal, very clear, broken (p. 99); n, crescentic stone,
made from piece of sandstone mortar, inner surface of mortar plainly visible
in picture, but crescentic shape not apparent (p. 89); o, fragment of bowl, of fine
sandstone (p. 89).

Plate 28. Crescentic stones. a-c, X .26, collection of A. F. Mayer; d-g,
X .50, collection of Samuel Fry, Alpaugh, California. a, of very smooth, highly
polished, black stone; b, similar, but more greenish; c, of gray schistose; d, of
granitic stone, incrusted; e, of very smooth, polished marble(?), containing spark-
ling bits like mica; f-g, of sandstone. P. 89.

Plates 29 and 30, collection of Samuel Fry, Alpaugh, California.

Plate 2f9. Hemispherical stones, arrow straightener, plummet-like and
grooved stones.  X  .50. a-c, e, hemispherical biscuit-shaped granitic stones,
polished all over, with flat sides exceptionally smooth and slightly concave-a with
flat side up, b-c with rounded side up, e unfinished (pp. 90, 91); d, uncompleted
arrow straightener(?) (p. 67); f, probably an uncompleted perforated plummet-
like stone of granitic material; g-i, plummet-like stones with longitudinal
groove-g is of quartz and grooved on two sides, h is an egg-shaped stone with a
longitudinal encircling groove, of granite, i a cylindrical stone with broad longi-
tudinal encircling groove, of granite (p. 94); j-k, probably anvils (p. 98).

Plate 30. Metate, of granite. X .42.  This specimen is unusual in having
been used on both sides, there being a similar depression on the reverse side to
that shown in the plate. P. 91.

Plates 31 to 33, inclusive, collection of A. F. Mayer, Alpaugh, California.
Plate 31. Mullers. X .41. All are of granitic material. P. 92.

Plate 32. Egg-shaped "charmstones."   X. 38. a-f, of granitic stone; g, of
quartz; h, of mineral ore, very heavy; i-j, granitic; k, granitic; 1, of soft shale;
m, of brown limestone; n, of marble; o, of white quartz; p-q, of granitic(?)
stone; r, of basalt, perhaps unfinished; s, of granatic material, probably
unfinished. P. 94.

122       University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn.  [Vol. 23

Plate 33. Plummet-like stones, buttoned, plain, and nippled. X .20. Collec-
tion of A. F. Mayer (a-n) and Samuel Fry (o-aa), Alpaugh, California.
a-i, o, with incipient, to fully developed button; j-a, plain, with pile at one end
only; p-aa, with nipple; a, black and white granite, not incrusted originally;
b-c, f, of "petrified wood"; d-e, g, of brownish limestone (S), more or less
banded; h, of black, highly polished, hard basaltic(t) stone; i, of very fine-
grained sandstone, a beautiful shaded brown; j, of gray shale(t) k, of "petrified
wood"; 1, of dark cream-colored limestone; m, of brown limestone; n, of brownish-
green basaltic (1) material; o, of schistose; p, t, of "petrified wood"; q, tip of
a "charmstone" similar in shape to r, presumably; r, of greenish basaltic stone,
highly polished; s, of reddish brown, speckled stone; u-v, of gray stratified lime-
stone; w, y, aa, of "petrified" wood; x, of schistose; z, of grayish-green basaltic
stone. P. 94. (Note.-o-aa were all heavily incrusted originally and were cleaned
by the collector, Samuel Fry.)

Plate 34. Plain and shouldered plummet-like stones.   X .19.   a-q, plain
plummet-like stones with pile at both ends; r-ab, shouldered plummet-like stones
with pile at both ends; a, of "petrified wood"; b, of black "petrified wood,"
flat on two sides; c, of gray schistose; d, of fine-grained cream-colored limestone;
e, of brownish-gray limestone; f, of cream-colored limestone with brown graining;
g, of " petrified wood"; h, of shale with cream-colored and brown graining;
i, k, m, of cream-colored limestone; j, similar to h, but with vertical graining;
, of "petrified wood"; n, like h, but with vertical graining; o, of fine-grained,
gray sandstone; p, of very dark brown fine-grained sandstone; q, s, t, of light
brown limestone; r, of black and white granite, found four feet underground, not
incrusted when found; u, of light brown limestone; v, of light and dark gray
stratified limestone (s); w, of black and white granite; x-y, of "petrified wood";
z, of dark cream-colored limestone; aa-ab, covered with a heavy white incrus-
tation. This is the condition in which most of the plummet-like stones were found,
the incrustation being removed by the collectors Mayer and Fry. P. 94.

UNIV. CALIF. PUBL. AM. ARCH. & ETHN. VOL. 23

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