San Luls I LANGUAGE S OF THE COASTOF CALIFORNIA SOUTH OF SAN FRANCISCO UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY VOL. 2 NO. 2 THE LANGUAGES OF THE COAST OF CALI- FORNIA SOUTH OF SAN FRANCISCO. BY A. L. KROEBER. CONTENTS. PAGE Introductory ............ .................................................. 29 Chumash . ............................................................. 31 Salinan . .............................................................. 43 Relationship of Chumash and Salinan ... . ........................................................ 48 Esselen ...................... .................................. ...................................................... 49 Costanoan .... ............................. 69 Relationship of Esselen and Costanoan . .80 INTRODUCTORY. Through the munificence of Mrs. Phoebe A. Hearst, the Department of Anthropology of the University of California has for several years conducted extensive researches. Among these has been an anthropological in-vestigation of the little known Indians of California, which has recently been organized into an Ethnological anid Archaeological Survey of the State. The pres- ent paper is based on linguistic notes made in the winter of 1901-2 as part of this investigation. One of the languages on which information was desired being now extinct, it was neces- sary to have recourse to older records. Thanks are due to Professor W. H. Holmes, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, for courtesy in granting permission to use several vocabularies containing such material. The coast of California south of San Francisco was formerly inhabited by Indians of six linguistic stocks. These were, in AM. ARCH. ETH. 2, 3. 0University of California Publications. [AM. ARCH. ETH. Powell's terminology, Yuman, Shoshonean, Chumashan, Sali- nan, Esselenian, and Costanoan, in order from south to north. Yuman and Shosholnean, the two southernmost of these six stocks, were extensive. Only a small part of their territory lay within the state of California. The four other stocks were smaller, confined to the coast, and entirely Californian. Only these four are treated in this paper. Throughout the area under consideration, from Santa Bar- bara to San Francisco, there are now very few Indians. Only a fraction of these, mostly older people, still know the native lan- guages. All the Indians speak Spanish. With one exception no continuous texts could be obtained in any of the languages. To gain an idea of the grammatical strpueture it has therefore been necessary to depend on sentences. Owing to this fact and the writer's limited command of Spanish, the investigation of the languages was carried only far enough to obtain an outline of the structure. The results elaborate certain conclusions as to the morphological grouping of the linguistic families in Cali- fornia stated in a paper on the Native Languages of California. The following alphabet has been used. Vowels: a, a a, a e, i, o, u ell, 6, ,u 6, 1, 6, u O, u, o, u a An, en , in, On, Un A, E, I, 0, U a e i o U , e , , o, U7, o, q4, o I o, u as in father, short and long respectively. as in American fat, short and long respectively. short open vowels. long closed vowels. long open vowels. nearly as in German; closed vowels, short and long. English aw. nasalized vowels. obscure vowels. scarcely articulated vowels. peculiar impure vowels. 1 R. B. Dixon and A. L. Kroeber, the Native Languages of California, Amer. Anthr., n.s., V, p. 1, 1903. 30 VOL .2.] Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. Consonants: w, y, h, 1, z s, c L r t' ,Ik , g. , q!, k!, t!, p! g, d, b q G X G& k g x g' n te dj t d Sn p b f v m as in English. English s and sh, but often approaching each other. zh, sonant of c. palatal 1 (tl). trilled. palatal t, k, g, and x, approximating ty, ky, gy, xy. stressed. between surd and sonant. CHUMASH. The following grammatical material on one of the Chumash dialects was obtained at Santa Ynez from Dolores, one of the few Indians there who still know their native language. It appears to differ somewhat from the language of the Lord's Prayer given by Duflot de Mofras as from Santa Ines.! Gatschet gives a few phrases and grammatical notes on the Kasui dialect recorded by Loew,2 and Caballeria y Collell has published several pages of grammatical notes, vocabulary, and religious texts on the language of Siujtu rancheria at Santa Barbara.8 PHONETIC. The following are the sounds of the language. Vowels: a, e, i, o, u; a, e, it o, u; , o (a) o,? 0z, o ,,o,u. 1 Duflot de Mofras, Exploration du Territoire de l'Oregon, 1844, II, 393. 2A. S. Gatschet in Wheeler, Rep. U. S. Geogr. Surv., VII, 419, 485, and Rep. Chief of Engineers, 1876, III, 551. 3Rev. Juan Caballeria y Collell (E. Burke, translator), History of the City of Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, 1892. 31 2University of California Publications. [AM. ARCH. ETH. Consonants: q X k x g' tc t n 1 s, c p m W, Y, L The vowels u, o, iu are open sounds and give the impression of impurity. They may be identical with o, U, o, uz. Similar sounds are characteristic of Shoshonean and Yokuts, two adjacent linguistic families.' Both ordinary and velar gutturals occur in Chumash. Sonants seem to be lacking. Palatal L is quite soft, at times difficult to distinguish from 1. R has been found only before q, and is probably an induced rather than an independent sound of the language. All the consonants occur in either first or last position in double combinations, except that y has not been found as the first member of a compound consonant and L not as the second. Combinations of three consonants are rare. Some monosyllabic words that may reasonably be regarded as root-forms begin with double consonants. But none end thus. As compared with the majority of Californian languages, Chumash is rough. A euphonic vowel is much used between words and before consonantal suffixes. It occurs even when one of the two words ends in or begins with a vowel. nai qot'qoti-wun-a bn6rqnerq I I-see-them women ma-k-itetu'n-i k-aqciiyak the-my-son I-like k-isaw5us-i kactapin I-sweated yesterday ma-qo i s-awo' the-my-dog he-white noi moki k-aciin-o-woc I already I-eaten-have k-siniwe-wun-u-woc I-kill-them-did The euphonic vowel is shown in black type. 1 A. S. Gatschet, Rep. Chief of Engineers, 1876, III, p. 557, speaking of Shosh- onean: "0, u, often assume a darker shade by being pronounced surd or by being nasalized. This pronunciation of the three vowels is also peculiar to the Utah, and occurs in many of the Pueblo idioms of New Mexico." 32 VoL. 2.] Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. 33 VERB. Verbs are conjugated by having the following pronominal elements prefixed, generally immediately to the verb-stem. Singular Dual Plural First person k- kis- ki- Second person p- pis- pi- Third person s- sis- si- These prefixes are used alike with transitive and with intran- sitive verbs. They are also used as possessive pronouns with the noun. p-axotiwiL thou-speakest s-axotiwiL-i-was he-speak-did si-cuma-woc they-good k-siniwe-lin I-kill-thee ma-enerq s-eXpUtc the-woman she-sings ini-k-miixiin not-I-hungry The objective pronouns are suffixed to the verb-stem. So far as determined, they are the following: Singular Dual Plural First person -it ? -u? Second person -in ? -6? Third person ? -lun With some verbs, -lit is used instead of -it, and-lin or -win instead of -in. Sometimes -wan occurs for -uln. These variant forms appear to be due to phonetic influences. It will be seen that if the object is in the third person singular, it is not expressed by a pronominal affix. I kill him and I kill are identically expressed, as in a number of other American lan- guages, including Yokuts and Yuki in California. In sentences where subject and object are nouns, these parts of the sentence are expressed over again by means of the sub- jective and objective pronominal affixes in the verb. This fact puts Chumash in a class with those American languages in which the noun-subject and noun-object are regarded as appositions to the holophrastic verb. enerqnerq ci-aqciik-udn ma-ug' ug' uig' women they-like- them the-men. University of California Publications. [AM. ARCH. ETH. The reflexive is expressed by the suffix -caci, which like the object pronouns is appended to the verb stem. p-aqciiyak-caci thou- lovest-self. Sometimes the word koikcii, of unknown meaning, is used with the reflexive verb. k6okcii c-qoti-caci he-sees-self. A past tense, perhaps perfect in meaning, is expressed by the suffix -woc. This suffix follows the objective suffix-pronoun. A future seems to be indicated by the particle ka, placed before the verb. The negative of the verb is expressed by the prefix ini-. This prefix precedes the pronominal prefixes. The interrogative is formed by the final suffix -e. The imperative seems to be identical with the stem of the verb. A desiderative is formed by the prefix sili-. There are several particles used with verbs, some of them quite frequently. They always precede the verb. Their signifi- cance is not clear. The most common one, no, may be a prefix rather than a particle. The following phrases contain examples of the forms men- tioned. kai ka no-c-tiyepi kai ka-no-s-axotiwiL axotiwiL no-p-na'n no ni-k-na'n ini-k-sili-Xalk'inowo'n qolo enerq ini-[s] sili-aqmil-6' noi k-sili-siniwe-lin noi k-cili eXpetc eXpetc k-aqmil-i-was p'-kitwo'n-o-wac-e pi this-one will he-teach this-one will-he-speak speak! thou-goest not-I-go not-I-wish-jump that woman not-she- wishes-drink-? I I-wish-kill-thee I I-wish sing sing! I-drink-did thou-emerge-didst-? thou It will be seen that the foregoing prefixes and suffixes include the pronomiiial prefixes and suffixes between themselves and the 34 VOL. 2.] Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. verb, the pronominal affix being always nearest the verb stem. The only exception is the desiderative prefix sili-, which itself prefixes the pronoun. It is therefore doubtful whether sili- is not to be regarded rather as an auxiliary verb than as a prefix. The following are similar cases: no k-ciitcu I-begin no k-cuitc-i'-aqmil I-begin-drink qolo s-wOL that-one he-shoots k-woL-siniwe I-shoot-kill (I kill by shooting) A verbal noun is denoted by the prefix a'l-. p-olXo 4 thou-stealest a'l-olXo thief. pii p'-a'l-olXo thou thou-thief (thou art a thief) c-ukca # he-(is)-dead' a'l-ak'can (a) dead (one) A habitual agent is also denoted by reduplication. k-aXciLc I-fish ma-a-caX-caXciLc the-fisher xuniowc hunt a-xun-xuniowc hunter The prefix a- in these reduplicated verbal nouns may be a form of a'l-. The stem acuin, eat, is given the meaning food by the pre- fix lam-. k-aciiun I-eat ma-k-lam-aciin the-my-food NOUN. The possessive pronominal elements, as already remarked, are identical with the subjective ones, and like them are prefixed. From this fact, however, it can not be concluded, as has been done in analogous cases in other languages, that verb and noun are not distinguished in Chumash, and that the verb is in reality a noun. Were this the case, we should not find the verbal nouns that have been mentioned. 'A. Taylor, in Powers, Tribes of California, Contr. N. A. Ethn., iii, 564: shuek- shaw, dead. 35 University of California Publications. [AM. ARCH. ETH. Some nouns, when used with the possessive pronoun, have a form different from their simple one. huteu, dog; ma-p-qo, the-thy-dog ma'm, house; ma-ki-ap, the-our-house A word for dog similar to hfutcu occurs in many Californian languages; qo seems to be distinctively Chumash. There is an article, ma. It has wider meaning than the modern European definite articles, inasmuch as it is customarily used with the possessive pronoun. It is a proclitic or prefix, not an independent particle. tsaya basket ma-tsaya the-basket ma-s-q'ap the-its-feathers ma-k-milt the-my-belly (panza) s'-miut his-belly What may be a distributive, to judge from analogies in other American languages, is formed by reduplication. ug' U'ig' man ug" 'ug' u'ig' e'nerq woman enerq'ne'rq XoXau coyote XoXoXau hii'tcu dog hfitc'hfi'tcu ma'm house ma' ma' m caq! turtle caq! ca'q! p'co'c snake p'co'p'co'c tsa'ya basket tsai'ts5'ya It will be seen that this reduplication comes very near being duplication of the entire word. Both animate and inanimate nouns are reduplicated. The following examples make it difficult to determine whether the reduplication denotes a plural, a distributive, or a collective. ickom-a xus two bears ckumu-a XoXau four coyotes ma-XoXoXau the-coyotes ma-ki-tsaya yila the-our-baskets all yila p'co'p'co'c all (the) snakes 36 VOL. 2.] Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. It is remarkable that when a noun to which a possessive pro- noun is prefixed is reduplicated, the pronoun is sometimes redu- plicated with it. Evidently the noun and the pronominal element are regarded as very much a unit. k-itc-antiik, my friend ma-k-its-is, my younger brother ma-k-itc-tu'n, my child k-a-wa, my aunt k'-a-niic, my paternal uncle ma-k'-ap, my house ma-ki-ap, our house ma-k-uwu, my knife ma-s-uwu, his knife ma-ki-uwu, our knife p-itc-p-itc-antiik, thy friends' ma-k-its-k-its-is, my younger brothers ma-k-itc-k-itc-tu'n, my children ma-k-a-k-a-wa, my aunts' ma-p-aX-p-a-wa, thy aunt ma-ki-hax-h-a-wa, our aunts ma-k'-a-k'-a-niuc, my paternal uncles ma-k'-ap-k'-ap, my houses ma-pi-ap-i-ap, your houses ma-k-dX-k-uwu, my knives ma-s-oX-s-uwu, his knives ma-ki-dX-y-uwu, our knives On the other hand reduplication of nouns occurs also without reduplication of the possessive prefix. ma-p-qo, thy dog ma-p-qoX-qo, thy dogs ma-ki-qo, our dog ma-ki-qoX-qo, our dogs ma-k-to, my brother-in-law ma-k-to-to, my brothers-in-law ma-k-pepe, my older brother ma-k-pe-pepe, my older brothers It appears that when a noun commencing with a vowel is reduplicated, the possessive prefix is reduplicated also. When the noun begins with a consonant, the pronoun is not re- duplicated. Reduplication occurs in the verb as well as in the noun, but expresses an iterative or a continuative, not a plural or distrib- utive. The verb may be used with plural subject or object pronoun without being reduplicated. XoXoXau k-uni5-wun coyotes I-seek-them k-aqciik-iin they-like-them 1 In terms of relationship -itc- and -a- are apparently prefixes, perhaps denoting possession or relationship. 37 8University of California Publications. [AM. ARCH. 15. ki-mibXiin noi qot'-qoti-wun-a 6n6rqnerq we hunger I I-look-at-them women (habitually) qutl-u-wun enerqnerq I-look-at (the) women no k-tiyepi-o I-teach-ye no k-ti-tiyepi-o I-teach-ye "all the time" As stated previously, a noun-agent implying more or less iteration of action is formed from the verb by reduplication. A few verbs are regularly used in a reduplicated form. wopwiupw hit su-taxtaxsiin frighten (su- = causative) Cases are altogether wanting. A noun is identical as subject and object. The possessive case is expressed, as in so many American languages, by means of the possessive pronoun. ma-c-uc emet the- his- hole ground-squirrel ma-s-uwu k-itcantiik the-his-knife my-friend ma-s-kani clw' the-his-flesh elk The various local and instrumental relations are expressed by separate words, placed before the noun. ksunuwu a Xo'p alapa'ya ma"m mama o" kitca hfi'tcu Iluluki6n ma-tcaiiiya-c with stone on house in water like day in the-basket ADJECTIVE. The adjective seems, like the verb, not to be reduplicated to denote the plural. The following examples show its unchanging use with animate and inanimate nouns and attributively and predicatively. kibna enerq i-s-tcoh6 kie p'o'n o-s-tcoho tcoho tcltce k-tcoho huitcui Awox no qoti-wac a ciwA Awox this wontan she-good this wood it-good (a) good child I-good (a) dog white I-see-did elk white 38 VOL. 2.] Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. ma-qo i s-awo' the-my-dog he-white kena-Xop i s-'awo-wac this-stone it-white-was Just as the adjective is used predicatively, a noun can be used predicatively by prefixion of the pronominal elements. kiku ki-ug'ug'iig we we-men (we are men) pii p-a'l'olxo thou thou-thief (thou art a thief) PRONOUN. To express the ordinary functions of pronouns, the subjective possessive prefix and the objective suffix are generally sufficient. The separate form of the pronoun, used as an independent word, is probably emphatic. The forms of this are: Singutlar Dutal Plural First person noi kicku kiku Second person pii picku piku There is no third person. It will be seen that these forms are nothing but the subjective-possessive prefixes with -i added in the singular and -ku in the dual and plural. In the first person singular noi takes the place of kii. These independent forms of the pronoun stand in the same relation to the verb as a noun, being connected with the verb by the pronominal affix which is part of the verb. Hence there are forms such as: noi k-sili-siniwe-lin I I-wish-kill-thee; corresponding exactly in structure to forms such as: ma-amelikana si-sili-siniwe-lit the-Americans they-wish-kill-me It would not be possible to use noi, I, directly with the verb without k-. On the other hand the prefix k-, denoting I, is often used without noi. DEMONSTRATIVES. The demonstratives are: kai, this one; plural, kaiuwun q6l6, that one; plural, q6l6wun It will be seen that the plural ending -wun is identical with the pronominal suffix denoting the object of the third person plural. 39 University of California Publications. [AM. ARCH. ETH. The following adjectival demonstratives have been found: kibna, this, with animate nouns kie, kia, this, with inanimate nouns qolo, that, with animate nouns The article that has been described is distinct from the demon- stratives both in meaning and in use. NUMERALS. The numerals are as follows: 1. paka 2. ickom 3. masox 4. ckuimu 5. yltipakas 6. yitickom 7. yltimasox 8. malawa 9. ts'pa' 10. tcliya The numbers from 11 to 19 are formed by putting na- before those denoting 1 to 9. Twenty is simply two-ten, ick6Vm-a- tcl'iya, thirty is three-ten, and so on regularly up to ninety. The word for one hundred was not obtained. The forms given above are used in counting. When used with nouns the numerals are followed by -a. ickom-a xuis two bears masox-a enerq'nerq three women This numeral system is decimal. There is no trace of any vigesimal method of counting, and none of a quinary one, unless masox, three, and malawa, eight, contain a common element. The word for four is related to that for two. Five, six, and seven are one, two and three plus the prefix yiti-, of unknown origin but equivalent to four.' 1 Caballeria, op. cit., p. 42, says that the "iti" forming the first part of the numerals five, six, and seven in the Siujtu dialect means "here." 40 VOL. 2.] Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. RADICALS. A number of the words that denote common or natural objects are monosyllabic and apparently irresolvable. cuup tiiiup Xop Xa's land mountain rock sand iik' p'o'n water lake wood ma'm house q si sun nii1 fire tox smoke ya ax arrow bow The following names of animals are monosyllabic: xus bear clw' elk (ciervo) -qo q'ui'n ma' naq slo a' X'oX dog rabbit jackrabbit rat eagle crow heron ceew owl The following may have monosyllabic stems: XoXau coyote p'co'c snake xcap rattlesnake yox caq! qop' q'loq t6q c-Ik' s-tep kt'ui't watersnake turtle toad tadpole grasshopper louse flea spider been formed by reduplication from wawau crane The more important parts of the body are frequently expressed by monosyllabic root-like words. Most of them seem to occur only with the possessive prefixes. noX' tuX tou sa' po' nii muut pul nose eye ear tooth cheek neck back arm, hand U'L leg te'm foot qam wing aL liver paX skin 5c fur Xot' penis se' bone 41 42 University of California Publications. [AM.ARCH.ETH. The following are polysyllabic: oqwo'n a'tsiis usfzi akcun head, hair beard chest, heart belly eleu oXcoL tili eq'wai tongue utrine vagina nail Terms of relationship also show monosyllabic roots in most cases; but the roots are generally either duplicated or preceded by itc- or a-. qo, father tuq, mother pe, elder brother is, younger brother or sister tu'n, son or daughter niic, paternal uncle ta, maternal uncle wa, "aunt " tciiix, "woman's nephew($Y" mus, father-, mother-in-law to, brother-, sister-in-law ne, parent of mother ma, parent of father, ma, "grandchildl" ma-qoqo, my father ma-k-tziq, my mother ma-k-pepe, my elder brother ma-k-its-is, my younger brother ma-k-itc-tu'n, my son k-a-nuc, xmy paternal uncle k-tata, my maternal uncle k-a-wa, my "aunt" k-tciiix, my "nephew" k-mus, my father-in-law ma-k-to, my sister-in-law k-nene, my maternal grandparent ma-k-mama, my paternal grand- parent ma-k-a-ma, my "grandchild" The following do not reduce to monosyllabic roots. ma-k-isiuyix ma-k-tia'lik my husband mty wife ma-k-s-dmep6pe my son- or daughter-in-law [cf. pe, elder brother] k'-6na' my "nephew " ma-k-itc-antiik my friend Verbs for the most part, even if of simple significance, are of two and three syllables. Monosyllabic verbs: wopwuupw hit ikc give na'n we WOL go sleep shoot VOL. 2.] Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. Polysyllabic verbs: qoti aqciik axotiwiL eXp6tc iluik ji lukumil unio xunio siniwe aciin miiXiin see like talk sing sit stand seek hunt kill eat hungry ni'qot break - tiXuan scratch caXciLc fish tiyepi show, teach aLpat run olXo steal aqmil drink kit'wo'n go out, emerge -nowo n Xo-nowo'n fly Xalk! i-nowo'n jump Most adjectives are also of more than one syllable. Pre- positional words are all of some length. There are some words-nouns, adjectives, and verbs-which are reduplicated or duplicated in their normal forms. wopwiunpw hit Xul'Xfil heavy su-taXtaXsiin frighten tcil'tci child XdpXop gravel (Xdp, rock) pepe elder brother mama paternal grandparent nene maternal grandparent Iiiliikiin in tAp'Anp'an kidney SALINAN. In 1861 Shea printed as volume VII of his Library of American Linguistics a Vocabulary of the Language of the San Antonio Mission, California, by Father Buenaventura Sitjar (1739-1808). To the vocabulary Shea has prefixed ten pages of grammatical notes based upon it. These notes serve to give an idea of the grammatical structure of the language. The chief features of the San Antonio language are a strongly developed plural, both in verbs and nouns, formed by the suffixion or the infixion near the end of the word of a very 43 4University of California Publications. [AM. ARCH. ETH. variable element, which generally however contains either 1 or t; the employment of this plural in verbs for both a plural subject and a plural object; the pronominal conjugation of the verb by means chiefly of prefixes for the subject and suffixes for the object, with considerable unexplained variability of forms; a very peculiar combination of the noun with the possessive pronoun; the absence of cases; and the expression of local rela- tions in the noun by means of separate prepositions. Through- out, the language is remarkable for its apparent irregularity. Material obtained by the writer at Jolon, upon the dialect of San Miguel, shows this to be a closely related language with the same general characteristics. The independent pronouns of the San Miguel dialect are: Singular Plural First person ke [ek-toyove] kan [kak] Second person mo [mo] mom The words -in brackets are the San Antonio forms according to Shea. The San Miguel verbal forms obtained had these pronominal forms suffixed. In some cases the suffix -leu or -lew seemed to indicate the third person singular. In San Antonio the sub- jective pronominal elements are chiefly prefixed. Demonstratives are na, he, and ho. Na means this; he and ho presumably indicate different distances of that. In San Antonio na means this, pe that. Besides he, heulna is found in San Miguel: he luwai and heuina luwai, that man. Hewat or hiwet seems to be a plural of he. The plural of nouns is formed by the same methods as in San Antonio. The following forms illustrate its variability. Singular Plural man lowai dam woman lene lentsen child sepxa sem'ta old woman teini teintEn house t-am t ama'niL dog huiteai hoste knife t-'cak t cakeL 44 VOL. 2.1 Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. bird dead beautifu saxe cetep smat saxtin cetlip smatel The noun is identical in form whether subject, object, or possessor. The possessive case is expressed by the possessive pronoun. ticxep-o luwai foot-his man he-menen-o lene the-hand-hers woman Local relations in nouns are expressed by independent prepositions. mumt6ke t'a memtbke tfm t6ke tecaan PMmo t'a lemo takat in the water in the house in the basket over, on, above the water on the mountain' The possessive pronoun is fused into one word with the noun. The following are typical cases. The bracketed forms are San Antonio as given by Shea in Spanish orthography. Meaning Word 1 s. 2 s. 3 s. ip. 2 p. 3 p. house t am t-em est melm t'6mo tat'6m taxt6m ('?) t-6mbot Meaning elder brother Word 1 s. kaiye' 2 s. t'umkai' 3 s. akai'y ip. 2p. 3 p. akai'yot 1lbm-6=above, on, lbm=sky. alapa = sky. AM. ARCH. ETH. 2,4. teeth t'ule't t'mu'let t-ule'to tat-u'let t'ule'tot food lamxat t'amlamxat lamxato talamxat bone [ejac] [cimegac] [ejaco] [za ejac] [zug oejac] eye cukanit t omsokanit tacukanit So in Chumash: alapa-ya = above, on, 45 University of California Publications. [AM. ARCH. ETH. Meaning father mother dog Word hutca'i 1 s. tatan' [tili] apai' tl'itco2 2 s. t'embek [cimic] t meebexl tml'itco 3 s. tembeko [ecco] bxo [epjo] ti'itcoo Ip. tabek [za tili] t'aebex Meaning knife hand brother Word tak, tcak 1 s. tEcak menenke [citol] 2 s. t mEcak tumenen [eatsmitol] 3 s. tEcako meneno [citolo] The structure of these pronominal forms is very difficult to understand. Additional cases that were obtained do not make the matter clearer. What contributes largely to the complexity is the initial t- (t, tc, ts, c, s), which occurs in many of the forms and is absent from others. It cannot be regarded as part of the pronominal possessive prefix because it occurs with equal fre- quency as the first sound of many nouns in their simple non- possessive form. Nearly three-fourths of the prefixless names of animals and natural objects begin with t- or one of its variants. It is possible that the initial t is of demonstrative origin, per- haps an article that has become incorporated. It will be remem- bered that in Chumash the article is generally used with the possessive prefix. If this explanation is correct, San Miguel t-m-iitco, thy dog, would be equivalent to Chumash ma-p-qo. Salinan otherwise shows a tendency to use demonstratives before the possessive prefixes.3 1 Sitjar: thy mother, peatzmipeg, matz mipeg, eatzmipeg. 2 Sitjar gives dog as o/tcho in San Antonio, my dog as zi o1tchvo or zi/tchvo. Nest is kiini, my nest zikiin, (his) nest zikiino. Stone house eaxcon, my house chviconov, thy house zimchvicono, his house chviconou. My bed quicheameat, thy bed aquimicheameat, his bed quicheameato. 3 San Miguel: San Antonio: ho t'umpasi thy son peatsmipeg thy mother he meneno lene the woman's hand pea that e t-omenen thy hand na cim-lamay thy right hand na tat-bopik our heads na this na t-umkai thy older brother na t-meeak thy knife na t-ulet, t-ulet my teeth ho t-abek, tabek our father In the Lord's Prayer given by Duflot de Mofras, Expl. du Terr. de l'Oregon, II, 392, and quoted by Shea, na, this, occurs seven times, five of the occurrences being before nouns to which a possessive pronoun is affixed: na zananaol, the our debt; natsmalog, thy will; etc. 46 VOL. 2.] Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. On the other hand the Washo language of the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada shows a peculiarity of structure that may be similar to this one in Salinan. The stems of many nouns and verbs are identieal in Washo. The first person is indicated by the prefixion of the same elements in noun and verb. The same is true of the second person. The third person is indicated in both noun and verb by the absence of pronominal elements. Thus from the root anial are formed l-afaal-i, m-a,nal-i, a,nal-i, I live, you live, he lives, and 1-anial, m-anaal, anial, my house, your house, his house, To form the non-pronominal simple noun, a d- is prefixed to the root. While his house is anaal, house abso- lutely or a house, the house, is d-a,nal. There is thus an appar- ent but unreal formation of the third person possessive by apocope; and there is also a large class of nouns beginning with the element d-. As both these conditions are similar to those in Salinan, it is not impossible that an analogous morphological process has been operative there. The complexity of these pronominal noun-forms is however such that their nature cannot be positively ascertained without extensive study. It is evident that phonetic influences have con- tributed to bring about the irregularity. The following are the numerals: San Miguel San Miguel San Antonio Hale1 Shea 1 d6'i tohi tol 2 halkec kugsu caquiche 3 la'pai tlufbahi lappay 4 g! e'ca kesa quicha 5 oltca"d oldrato ultrao 6 paiate painel 7 tepa queatte 8 sratel shaanel 9 teditrup tetatsoi 10 trupa zoe 1 Trans. Am. Ethn. Soc., II, 126. The marked u in klXgsu and tlltbahi has the quality of English u in but. 47 University of California Publications. [Am. ARCH. ETH. RELATIONSHIP OF CHUMASH AND SALINAN. There are the following lexical similarities between the Chu mashan and the Salinan material obtained. English Chumash Salinan rabbit q! iu'n map! jack rabbit ma' g! ooL rock Xop c-xap sky alapa 1em work talawaxal talxual' younger brother its-is t'-os older sister pepe pe ground squtirrel e'met c-emkom Several of these resemblances are probably only apparent. The similarities found' between other Chumashan and Salinan dialects seem doubtful. There is as yet no reason to consider the two languages genetically related. On the other hand Chumash and Salinan are alike in the following respects: 1. Their general phonetic character, which is not absolutely harsh, but yet less simple and smooth than that of most Cali- fornian languages. 2. The existence of a plural, though this is differently formed in the two languages. 3. The employment of the pronominal elements in the form of affixes instead of independent words; further the prefixion of the subjective and possessive elements and the suffixion of the objective. 4. The use with the possessive pronoun of a prefixed element more or less demonstrative in nature. 5. The close fusion of the pronominal elements with the noun, as evidenced in Chumash by reduplication of the pronoun with the noun and in Saliman by the inability of analysis to separate noun from pronoun with certainty. 6. The absence of both syntactical and local cases. 1 Perhaps Spanish. 2 A. S. Gatschet, Rep. Chief of Engineers, 1876, III, p. 553. 48 VoI.. 2.] Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. 7. The use of independent prepositions to express local rela- tions in nouns. 8. The numeral system, which in both languages is decimal, not quinary, and has the words for four and two derived from the same stem. The latter is the case also in Yokuts and Costanoan. The two languages differ in the following points of structure: 1. The presence of reduplication as a syntactical or formal means in Chumash, and its absence in Salinan. 2. The presence of a plural in verbs in Salinan and its absence in Chumash. Some of the features enumerated are of a general nature and of weight in showing similarity only because most of the neigh- boring languages are different. For instance, while the use of independent prepositional words is in itself not a very specific characteristic, it becomes so in California and the surrounding region, where almost all the less extensive families, as well as the larger Shoshonean, Yuman, Piman, and Sahaptian stocks, employ case-like suffixes in place of prepositions. In general the salient characteristics common to Chumash and Salinan are not found elsewhere in the region, and the two languages must there- fore be regarded as constituting a morphological group.' ESSELEN. The Esselen people and language having become extinct, the author is indebted to the courtesy of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the material on which the following account is based. The extant material belonging to this linguistic stock is very limited and unsatisfactory for grammatical purposes, consisting only of several short vocabularies which include a few phrases.2 There are no texts, not even a Lord's prayer. Two short Esselen vocabularies, one of twenty-two and the other of thirty-one words, were collected before the close of the eighteenth century by la P6rouse and Galiano. These have been I American Anthropologist, n. s. V, p. 1, 1903. 2 The total number of words and phrases in all of the vocabularies is over three hundred, but there are little more than two hundred different words. 49 University of California Publications. [AM. ARCH. ETH. reprinted once or twice.' Duflot de Mofras gives a set of Esselen numerals under the heading Carmelo.' The Franciscan mission- ary Arroyo de la Cuesta, from whom we have a Mutsun grammar and phrase-book, wrote in 1821 a manuscript entitled "Idiomas Californios," containing brief material from a dozen Californian languages and dialects, one of which is Esselen. He gives some fifty words and phrases. A copy of this manuscript, then in Santa Barbara, California, was made in 1878 by Mr. E. T. Murray for the Bureau of American Ethnology. In 1888 Mr. H. W. Henshaw, then investigating the languages of California south of San Francisco on behalf of the Bureau, obtained one hundred and ten words and sixty-eight phrases of Esselen, in part from a man named Pacifico, but mainly from an old woman at Monterey, named Eulalia, who has since died.' Neither de la Cuesta's nor Henshaw's vocabularies have been printed. They constitute the material which has been put at the author's disposal by the Bureau of Ethnology.' In 1902 the writer attempted to obtain Esselen material at Monterey, but found only an old Costanoan woman who after considerable effort succeeded in remembering half a dozen Esselen words. As the extant Esselen material is not likely to be increased, and as most of it has never been printed, it is here given entire and unchanged from the originals. 1 Neither the original account of the voyage of la PNrouse, nor Galiano's Rela- cion del viage hecho por las Goletas Sutil y Mexicana, 1802, have been accessi- ble. The la Perouse vocabulary, taken by Lamanon, was reprinted in the English translation published in London in 1799, and this has been available. La Pdrouse's vocabulary was also reprinted by A. S. Taylor in the California Farmer, October 17, 1862. These two la Perouse vocabularies show discrepancies in regard to six words, of which one is an omission by Taylor. Of Galiano's vocabulary a manuscript copy from the Bureau of Ethnology has been available. Galiano's vocabulary has been reprinted in the Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, II, 137, and by A. S. Taylor in the California Farmer, April 20, 1860. Of these two reprints the former shows nine variations and one omission, and the latter seven variations, from the Bureau manuscript copy. 2 Duflot de Mofras, Expl. du Terr. de l'Oregon, 1844, II, p. 401. 3In the American Anthropologist, III, 45-49, 1890, under the title "A New Linguistic Family in California," Henshaw gives an account of the obtaining of his Esselen material. 4De la Cuesta's vocabulary is in Spanish orthography, while Henshaw used the Bureau of Ethnology alphabet. Galiano's spelling is Spanish, that of la Perouse and de Mofras French. 50 VOLe. 2.] Kroeber.-Languages of the Coast of California. 51 W t. C6 eq o 9 z 0 ce ce 1-4 ce 4 ce 0 Ca PS 0 g d 4 ce 4w P$ 4 %-4 C) 4,4 05 Ca a) ce 4-4 (:) Ca 0 0 Ca 44 (1) U 0 4-4 ce v lw 0 bD Cd C5 A 4D 4D 0 0 0 ce 0 0 Ca 0 CB 14 E-4 %4 0 Ca -4 Ca Ca ce I 4 0, ce 93 ce CB Ps Cs l--q 4 m g C3 Ca Ca 'ce C3 ce Ca 4a c 4516 Ca -, N PI ce Ca 0Ps --4 co 7? I;i Ca Ps ce 0 Ca C, Ca 0 0 g Cs El 0 D - 'A 0 0 0 0 0 Ca qi, o 14 14 sm, slf W -W M co Pt 4Q. --40 CB ce 0 ce --I 0 Cd 4-4 P-4 C3 ceo (D 0 ce ce 0 d r,% - 0 0 4 Ca W ,,, Ca -.4 IV ko 11 1.4 v Ca 0 Ca CB CJ Ca ID 0 0 QU --4 , 4 ;S pi Ca 0 ;S CB M 4v C) A 0 P* P4 I (D CS Ca .0 M 4- Cs 00 oo r..q P4 $4 ce ce ot v $4 - $a, 0 0 0 X +?, W 4Q 5 F?4 -o ;- 4 co .44 11 114 E-4 Otz,(, o 4) 0 E--i Itl "Cs P-r-2 CH +2 Cs" 9 ?4 Cd Ca -v LQ 0? eq Q University of Califormia Publications. [AM. ARCH. ETH. m 0 ,.0 A4 0 P0 0 :: a 4 A t2 co *_l ._s _ 4, - Ca 4a 4X2 N 0 0* aH P o -4. -4 .1. * c X 0 4 -4 0 P4 4 4.a Gs 4a 0 ew H~~~~ PU > cE cz r ) -R P @ -4 v 0 H + c O ) . C oH .O c . 4 4 d 4 c -dS0 0 0 -4- 4 4 4 C a aW - . Qj If d3 . - IC Ca o I O 43 . I CB 4 4 .W 0 4 14 .t .-q -P OD OQ m 3 0 44 At a w 4 m > t fi $t