INTRODUCTION

On July 1, 1948, which date marked the establishment of the
California Archaeological Survey, there became available to the

Department of Anthropology at Berkeley for the first time substantial
funds to execute a program of systematic exploration of California

prehistory. Among the several separate field parties working during
the summer of 1948, one under the direction of Robert F. Heizer took
the form of a regular summer session field training course in archae-

ology and involved the excavation of site Hum-118, located in Patrick's
Point State Park.  The State Park Commission, then under the chairpan-
ship of Mr. J. R. Knowland, authorized the excavation.  The entire

collection of artifacts recovered during the excavation, after being
studied at Berkeley, was returned to Patrick's Point State Park where
it is still held in storage.

In 1949 a field party financed by the California Archaeological
Survey worked during the summer exploring the refuse deposits of site
Hum-169 at Trinidad Bay. This excavation was performed with the per-
mission of Mr. H. B. Hallmark of Eureka, who at that time owned the

archaeological site which is also known as the historic coastal Yurok
village of Tsurai (Heizer and Mills 1952).

Northwestern California was, in 1948, as little known archaeo-

logically as any region in California. The only archaeological inves-
tigation which had been carried out and reported before 1949 was by
L. L. Loud, who dug a trench in a large site (Hum-67) located on
Gunther Island in Humboldt Bay.

Beyond these three investigations, the only other excavation

worthy of mention conducted in the northwestern corner of the state was
the exploration of site DNo-ll, near Crescent City, which was carried

out under the supervision of Dr. Richard A. Gould in the summer of 1964.
Dr. Gould's report is now in press in the University of California
Publications in Anthropology series.

It will thus be seen that in the extreme northwestern corner of
California, in the present area of Humboldt and Del Norte counties,

which was occupied at the beginning of the historic period by the Wiyot,
Yurok, Karok, and Tolowa tribes, very little is known about the prehis-
toric. We have at Berkeley, in the Archaeological Research Facility
site files, records of twenty-four sites in Del Norte County and two
hundred and six sites in Humboldt County.

- 1 -

2

In the penumbra of the two county area mentioned we have some

archaeological information from A. E. Treganza's excavation (1958, 1959)
of sites on the Trinity River about sixty miles east of Eureka; bits of
information from the Chetco and Pistol rivers on the southern Oregon

coast; the interior riverine sites at Gold Hill on the Rogue River in

Takelma territory excavated by Cressman (1933); and the Iron Gate Reser-
voir site excavated by Leonhardy (1961).   All in all, we lack any sub-

stantial body of controlled archaeological information from the coast of
northwestern California since we are limited to four excavated sites.

No significant body of excavation data for the area remains unanalyzed.

One can say that nearly everything yet remains to be done to secure even
the most rudimentary understanding of the history of human occupation of
the northwestern section of the state.

It has been suggested, though without much evidence to support the
proposition, that the northwestern coast of California was the last area
of the state to be permanently settled. This may be true, but it may

also be wrong. The few radiocarbon dates for site levels can be taken as
indicating that the sites of historic villages were first occupied within
the last 1000 years. Peat from the base of the Gunther Island site is
dated at about 900 A.D., and the lowest levels of the Patrick's Point

shellmound date from about 1300 A.D. These are both situated in attrac-
tive locations and if more ancient evidence of occupation does not occur
here, it may be because there are older sites as yet not recognized,

excavated, and dated, or because there was in fact no sedentary occupation
of the coastal edge before a thousand years ago. Newman's review (1959)

of the prehistory of the Oregon coast led him to remark on the lateness of
all known archaeological sites, indicating that the same apparent lack of
time depth prevails along the coast to the north as far as the mouth of
the Columbia River. On present evidence, though this is admittedly

slender., there is general agreement that all of the presently known arch-
aeological sites from Eureka northward along the Oregon coast are very

late in time, and that they contain evidences of a technology and economy
which are, with few exceptions, directly comparable with ethnographic
forms. The presumption is, therefore, that these sites (exception is

reserved, of course, for significantly earlier sites which may be found in
future) are settlement spots of village groups of the same linguistic

units or tribes, who held the area at the opening of this historic period.
We are on fairly firm ground, therefore, in concluding that site Hum-67 on
Gunther Island is a Wiyot site first occupied about 1000 years ago, and
that the Patrick's Point site (Hum-118) is a Coast Yurok village first

occupied about 700 years ago. The Hupa are estimated, by the lexicosta-

tistic method (Hoijer 1956; cf. Hymes 1957), to have been resident on the

lower Trinity River for about 1000 years, and Goldschmidt (1951:523) argues

3

positively for the late crystallization of Hupa and Yurok culture. While
he makes no age estimates, we judge that Goldschmidt would perhaps admit
as much time as a millennium for this process to have occurred. The

Athabascan-speaking Kato are suggested as having linguistically separated
from the Hupa about a thousand years ago (Hymes 1957:292). The Kato are

of special interest since they are physically of the distinctive Yuki type.
Such a shift-presumably one of a Yuki group acquiring a new language-

ought to be traceable archaeologically, and with reasonable success in such
an effort a new linguistic time depth datum could be secured.

Another culture historical problem can be suggested for the north-
western corner of the state. This pertains to the broad problem of

immediate origins of the several Athabascan, Hokan, and Algonkian tribes
who live in fairly small territories, crowded up against each other, and
all sharing to a remarkable degree the same material and social culture

but each retaining its special language forms. While general culture forms
are shared, there are specific differences whose analysis (especially if

carried out diachronically and comparatively) should tell us a great deal

about the details of intertribal culture diffusion. Where and in what way
the distinctive northwestern California culture pattern took specific form
can only be answered by archaeological data, and in the attempt to unravel
these little tribal histories the prehistorian can test several hypotheses
which have been advanced.

The boat-, harpoon-, and dugout canoe-using, gabled plank-dwelling,
salmon and sea mammal eating culture pattern of northwestern Cal-ifornia

must have had its origin farther north in the Northwest Coast culture area
proper, and the southward diffusion of that pattern, which changed as it
spread, may have been along the Pacific shoreline, probably by river-by-

river steps or southward from the Columbia River by way of the Willamette
Valley. There may have been some leap-frogging along the long coast route
as suggested by the fact of small and relatively stabilized territorial

holdings of linguistically differentiated tribes, strung out like beads on
a chain and running south from the Makah along the Washington and Oregon
coasts. Jacobs suggests (1937:61) an alternative to large scale and

relatively rapid migrations to account for the Athabascans in the southern
Oregon-northwestern California region in the form of "processes of village
intermarriage and intercommunication with consequent gradual speech bound-
ary shifts." While Jacobs admits the possibility of "occasional more

rapid populational movements, " it does not seem to us very probable that

the score or so of Athabascan groups settled on the southern Oregon coast
and in northwestern California south of the extended block of Penutian

tribes on the Oregon coast-who in turn are backed up in the interior by

the Penutian Kalapuya of the Willamette Valley-have got to their present

4

locations at the slow speed which we might call the "Jacobs intermarriage
rate."  The first Athabascans, however many there were, probably came as
a unit, speaking Athabascan and moving through western Oregon before it
became Penutian territory. Jacobs (1937:58) proposes that the Coos-

Siuslaw-Alsea Penutian-speakers have lived in their present territories

"during many hundreds if not thousands of years." We are sure Jacobs did

not intend these words to be taken, thirty years later, as estimated dates,
but do assume that he at least meant to indicate his belief that the

Penutian tribes had long been residents of the central Oregon coast. The
special distinctiveness of the northwestern California culture type is a
local subcultural specialization which has existed long enough to flow

northward, as Barnett (1937:159) says, "in an everfading overlay...as far
as the Coos [tribe on the central Oregon coast], there to blend with the
more precise manifestations of North Pacific Coast features." This dis-
persion from what Kroeber (1936) calls the northwestern "hearth" also

apparently diffused upstream into the interior, if we may judge from the
ethnographic culture of the Karok., the archaeological manifestation at

the late prehistoric site in Shasta territory in the Iron Gate Reservoir
area which is radiocarbon dated at 1400-1500 A.D. (Leonhardy 1961), and

the prehistoric site in Takelma territory on the Rogue River at Gold Hill
(Cressman 1933), these last two sites lying some 88 and 82 airline miles
east or northeast of the mouth of the Klamath River. All of these sites
produce material culture forms which are practically indistinguishable

from those we know from the Yurok of recent times as well as from prehis-
toric sites in Yurok territory.

Drucker (1965:177) comments on the distinctive manifestation of
northwestern California culture in the following words: "The whys and
wherefores of this northwestern Californian culture focus, from the

standpoint of areal culture history, remain to be discovered. Many dis-

tinctive features of [Northwest Coast] areal culture were lacking, such as
the potlatch, masked dances, representative art, and the like. But the

local pattern cannot be regarded as a marginal, watered-down manifestation
in the process of diffusion from a higher center far to the north."

It is not clear whether the Oregon and northwestern California

tribes exhibit a maritime culture which has been secondarily adapted to
riverine environments or whether these are originally river-oriented

cultures which have adjusted to the ocean coast.   While the Wiyot, Yurok,
and Tolowa seasonally hunted sea lions on offshore rocks, they were

apparently not maritime in the sense that they ventured into the ocean at
will. Nomland and Kroeber (1936) discuss this situation and state that
"ithe Wiyot had made the pattern of their life attach to still water and

its shores."  The Coast Yurok concentrated their settlements on the shores

5

of the several freshwater lagoons which lay just behind the sand bars;
otherwise they were mainly riverine in their outlook and economic

dependence. Kroeber argued (1925:82-83) that the Yurok canoe and paddle
are designed for river rather than ocean use.

Waterman (1920:10-11) characterized the Yurok dugout canoe as

"exactly what we would expect to find, if a knowledge of navigation and
a specialized industry in canoe-making had become gradually diffused

southward from a center somewhere north of the Columbia River." From
the map one would guess that Humboldt Bay and the lower Klamath River

are the most favored areas of the northwest, and that they may have been
settled first and held longest. A hint that this is so comes from

Kroeber's (1934, 1941) discussion of types of kinship nomenclature of

the Yurok, Wiyot, Tolowa, Hupa, and Karok, where he differentiates the
Wiyot and Yurok from the other three. Since the "separation date" for

Yurok and Wiyot languages is placed by lexicostatistics at slightly over

2000 years ago,1 and similar data for the California Athabascans indicate
more recent separations, the Wiyot and Yurok may be argued as older

residents in the area, a conclusion which Kroeber reached-though with
the proviso that this is .pure inference-from his analysis of kin term
systems in northwestern California. Jacobs (1937) makes a similar

proposition on relative age of Algonkians and Athabascans in California

on different grounds. It must be due to more than mere accident that the
Wiyot and Yurok, who are both Algonkian in speech-family affiliation and
who live next to each other, jointly held the most attractive economic

locales in northwestern California; they seem, in short, to be the groups
which arrived first and staked out the best living areas.

From this welter of opinion one can extract two useful and appar-
ently sound conclusions: first, migrations of Algonkian and Athabascan-

speaking peoples into northwestern California have occurred, a point made
obvious by their geographical separation from the main bodies of speakers
(Kroeber 1917); and second, the two Algonkian-speaking tribes can be

viewed as having entered the area either at the same time, or serially
but at not too great an interval. They were then followed by the Atha-
bascan-speaking group or groups who were forced to take up residence

either in unoccupied territories or, at least, in localities not occupied
by the Wiyot and Yurok.

To bring the several points discussed here together with reference
to suggested procedures to be followed in a program aimed at defining the
prehistory of northwestern California, we propose the following:

1. Concentration of site survey and test excavation on the lower

6

courses of the several rivers which in most cases were held by separate

groups.  These would include, from north to south, the Smith and Klamath
rivers, Redwood Creek, the Mad, Eel, Bear, and Mattole rivers.    In

addition, the lower Trinity and middle course of the Klamath should be
surveyed. For each stream we have locations of named ethnographic

village sites and these total, as a guess, a half thousand locations.

2.  After this initial survey, and excavation results from, say,

twenty sites, the larger drainage areas of each stream could be examined.

This should not require as much time as the initial survey of lower stream
courses since settlement patterns would by now be understood and some

judgments of cultural affiliation of sites could be made on the basis of

the information then in hand. Also, by this time the archaeologist should
quite easily recognize anomalous sites, either as to location or material
remains, and such abnormalities should be a reflection of age differences.

3. Once these two surveys were accomplished, further excavation
for the purpose of throwing light upon duration of occupation, skeletal

types, time of appearance in the sequence of specific artifact forms, and
the like, could proceed at selected spots with the aim of providing

necessary data to determine the exact nature of intra-area diffusion and,
ultimately, to throw light upon extra-regional origins.

I.  THE PATRICK'S POINT SITE (HUM-118)

Unlike the only archaeological site previously reported upon in
northwestern California-Gunther Island in sheltered Humboldt Bay-the

Patrick's Point site is situated on a relatively unprotected rocky bluff
almost directly on the ocean front. According to the U.S. Geological
Survey topographic map (Trinidad Quadrangle, 1952), it is located in

Section 27, T9N, RlE, Humboldt Base and Meridian, at Longitude 1240 4' W,
Latitude 410 8' N. This map shows a small, unnamed point near the center
of the slight coastal indentation formed between Rocky Point, one-half

mile to the north, and Patrick's Point, one-quarter mile to the south of
the site. This point is sometimes referred to as Palmer's Point. A

mimeographed map issued by the California State Division of Beaches and
Parks designates this point of land as Abalone Point. This is the
location of site Hum-118.

This minor confusion in the naming of the geographical point was
partly due to the earlier failure of Waterman (1920) to recognize the

small Abalone Point as an Indian camp spot; he placed the nearest camp

7

known to the Yurok at the mouth of a creek which enters a small cove just
to the south of Hum-118.  This creek is unnamed on major maps, but is

called Penn Creek on the mimeographed map referred to above. Waterman's
site (1920:267) is called o-le" m, translated "where they camp.'t  He
states that "a good deal of confusion exists in my notes between this

place and some large sea rocks lying about a mile offshore." Although

site Hum-118 was doubtless abandoned and covered by heavy ground vegeta-
tion when Waterman was engaged in his field work, it is noteworthy that
historic artifacts in the form of glass trade beads and some metal frag-
ments, probably dating from not long after the mid-nineteenth century,

were found in the midden deposit.   Furthermore, there is today no physical
evidence of a site at the mouth of Penn Creek.   In all, it appears that
Waterman did not visit the locality, and his Yurok Indian informants,

while probably knowing vaguely of the Abalone Point site, simply chose to
describe to him a comparatively unimportant nearby camp spot "at which
sea-lion hunting parties were organized."

Whether or not Waterman's informants in fact knew of the Abalone

Point site as a living place of their ancestors is another matter, since
it does tend to depart from the pattern of living places evidently pre-
ferred by the historic Yurok. Site Hum-118 is on a fairly steep slope,
and in this respect it is like other sites known to have been important

villages of the coastal Yurok, such as Orick, Rekwoi, and Tsurai (Waterman
1920:226).  Beyond this similarity ceases, for the usual location was one
with a view toward a sandbar, open beach, and lagoon water.   Tsurai is an
exception in this regard, but its sheltered location in Trinidad Bay, near
or on a small stream, perhaps explains why it was a notable Yurok coastal
village. Site Hum-118 is neither sheltered nor conveniently located with
respect to fresh water. Penn Creek is about 200 yards to the southeast

but the walk from the site is precipitous and, today at least, the creek
does not appear to be adequate to supply the water needs of even a small
but concentrated population.   Furthermore, the small beach adjacent to
the site would not easily have accommodated the large canoes of the

historic Yurok, although there is an open, rock-filled passage between
the beach and the open ocean.

Environment

The dense plant cover of the site-which may have prevented its
recognition by Waterman or his informants-was partially the result of

its exposed situation on the windy coast where an extremely dense mass of

low-growing vegetation had taken hold. Some of the plants were "ruderals,"
which have a special affinity for places which have been disturbed or

8

modified by human occupation.   The stinging nettle (Urtica sp.) and the
thistle (Cirsium sp.) are present, and in addition various grasses, the

small blackberry (Rubus sp.), cow parsnip (Heracleum sp.), horsetail rush
(Equisetum sp.), wild cucumber (Marah sp.), and various succulents (e.g.

Mesembryanthemum sp.). These may have served effectively to disguise the
characteristic shell midden soil. On the headland above the site there
is the beginning of a rain forest which includes Douglas fir, hemlock,

pine, and red elder, among others.   The forest trees of the Wiyot terri-
tory (summarized by Loud 1918:394) may be taken as a rough index of the
variety of trees occurring in the general region of Hum-118.

The so-called Humid Transition Life Zone of coastal northern

California (McMinn and Maino 1956:19) includes most of the territory of

the historic Wiyot and Yurok and its characteristic acorn-producing tree
is the tanbark oak (Lithocarpus densiflora). Although we cannot be

certain what species of acorn was utilized by the occupants of Hum-118,
there is evidence, in the form of pestles and hopper mortars, that they
were grinding some kind of seeds at the site. Since the historic Yurok
showed a definite preference for the tanbark oak (Baumhoff 1963:164), it
is probable that the people of Hum-118 also utilized this kind of acorn.

Faunal remains at the site were dominated by molluscan species.

Clams (Saxidomus, Macoma, Protothaca, Hinnites, and Donax sp.), mussels
(Mytilus californicus), and oysters (Ostrea lurida) were the chief food
species, although shells of chitons, barnacles, and sea urchins as well
as those of the small gastropods (Tegula sp. and Thais sp.) were also

found.  Shells which may have been used for ornaments, such as abalone
and Olivella, were probably rare at the site even though the Caucasian
name for the locality is Abalone Point. Of the few burials with accom-
panying artifacts, only one had Olivella beads (two kinds); another
included a mussel shell ornament.

Fish and bird bones recovered in the excavation do not seem to
have formed an important part of the midden deposit. The relatively
small quantities of fish bone can be attributed to causes other than

that of non-exploitation by the inhabitants.   For example, they may have
ground up the fish bones or perhaps made special efforts to dispose of

them by dumping in the ocean (cf. Barnett 1937:167, and Driver 1939:314,

on ritual disposal of salmon bones among Tolowa and Wiyot). In addition,
large numbers of net sinkers were found in the midden deposit, and the
chipped implements of chert recovered would have served admirably for

scaling fish (cf. Kroeber and Barrett 1960:pl. 20). Such specimens lend
credence to the idea that fish may have been more important than would

seem to be indicated by the small collection of fish bones found in the
midden.

9

Of sea mammal bones recovered and identified, those of the Steller
sea lion (Eumetopias jubata) and sea otter (Enhydra lutris) were most

frequent, although the Pribilof or Alaska fur seal (Callorhinus alascanus)
was also occasionally represented. Small quantities of whale bones were
present at all levels in the site, in both modified and unmodified form,

and one bone each of the harbor seal and the porpoise was found.    A crude
index of the importance of sea mammals to the inhabitants of the site was
provided by weighing bones of all species (mainly sea lion but including
seals and otter) recovered in one square (map 1, section 10 L2). This

section is probably representative of the most intensively occupied part
of the site, near its center. The depth levels and bone weights are as

follows:  0-36 inches, 107 pounds; 36-72 inches, 84 pounds; 72-108 inches,
44 pounds; 108-130 inches, 27 pounds.

Remains of several land mammal species were noted, with the

Roosevelt elk (Cervus roosevelti) and deer (Odocoileus sp.) most numerous.
Bones of coyote, raccoon, lynx, and river otter were present in small
numbers. Probably many of the mammal bones were also utilized in the
manufacture of implements or ornaments.

Table 1 shows a selected list of bones which could be identified
with certainty and which occurred frequently enough to suggest that the

hunting of the animals represented was a regular practice at or near the

site. The purpose of this list is to give an idea of the depths at which
the bones were found, not of their relative numbers. It will be seen
that of the important species, only the sea lion (Eumetopias) seems to
have been introduced slightly later than the others. No reason can be

suggested for this possibility unless it was that the early occupants had
not at first developed proper techniques for taking this mammal. Other-
wise, all of the prominent species seem to have been utilized almost
throughout the life of the site.

The observations indicated in Table 1 do not disclose different

food preferences between the prehistoric and historic Yurok residents of
the region. If, as we suspect, the relative lack of fish bones may be

attributed to some cause other than mere non-utilization, then we have a
picture of a group which came to Abalone Point, probably seasonally, in
order to exploit the resources of the region while yields were at their
peak.

10

TABLE 1

Occurrence by Depth of Bones of Some Land and Sea Mammals at Hum-118

Depth   Sea Otter    Sea Lion   |   Elk    |    Deer       Cervus or

(in.) j (Ephydra) | (Eumetopias) | (Cervus) | (Odocoileus) f Odocoileus
0- 12                               x            x             x
12- 24     x            x            x            x             x
24- 36     x            x                         x
36- 48      x                                     x
48- 60      x           x            x            x
60- 72      x           x            x            x

72- 84                  x            x            x            x
84- 96     x                         x            x

96-108     x            x                         x            x
108-120     x                        x             x            x
120-132     x                        x             x
132-144     x                        x

Excavation

The Patrick's Point site (Hum-118) first came to the attention of

the University of California in 1947 when R. F. Heizer and A. E. Treganza
visited it and made some preliminary observations, including the excava-
tion of a small test pit in the center of the midden deposit. In the

summer of 1948 a group consisting of ten University students registered

in a field class under the direction of R. F. Heizer excavated about eighty
per cent of the site.

In the spring of 1964 A. B. Elsasser visited the site for the purpose
of recovering charcoal to be used for dating the lower levels of Hum-118.
Excavation was carried out near the major face of the 1948 trenching, and
it was possible to identify what seemed to be undisturbed midden deposit
near this face. Charcoal was collected from here and from several other

apparently undisturbed portions of the site. Results of the dating of the

11

samples2 indicate that the earliest date of occupation was around 1310

A.D. Although this date seems recent in view of the great depth of the
deposit, it is not particularly out of line with the few other dates
secured for sites on the northern California-Oregon coast.3

The extent of the 1948 excavation is shown in Map 1. The site

mapping system followed was conventional for excavations in California,

and allowed horizontal locations of important artifacts to be determined
within close limits since square units (5 x 5 ft.) formed a grid system
which could be projected over most of the surface of the site. Where
possible depths of all artifacts were noted, and all were likewise

assigned a definite unit square location.  In order to maintain greater

clarity of tabular presentation., for specimens unassociated with features
or burials depth only is given.

Profile drawings were executed regularly in all excavation units
and are on file at the University of California Archaeological Research
Facility, Berkeley.  Chart 1 gives an impression of the nature of the

deposit. The necessity for excavating in arbitrary levels will be appre-
ciated from an examination of the chart: no definite physical strata of
a continuous nature could be determined in studies of the profiles at 5
foot intervals.  Remains of house floors or pits, and concentrations of
stones which probably represent comparatively intact fireplaces are

indicated. All unusual occurrences or structural elements found through-
out the deposit were labeled "features"; these are summarized in Table 2.

Grid square locations are presented for features and burials, thus
placing them horizontally in the deposit. Use of the grid system is

based upon the arbitrary designation of all 5 x 5 foot squares lying on

and north of the east-west base line (map 1) as "0" squares. Thus Feature
11 is given as occurring partly in square "OLl" in Table 2 and is shown
in Chart 1 as in unit "L-l," along the "5" foot wall of the unit.

Accordingly the "5" squares all lie between 5 and 10 feet north of the
east-west base line, and the system extends north to the "50" squares.
Location of features or burials lying south of the east-west base line
refer to squares beginning with a "-5" designation.

Whatever objections there may be to the assumption that artifacts

found in the lower levels of a site deposit are older than those found in
the upper levels may be thought to be multiplied when the site in question
is located upon sloping terrain. Nevertheless, at Hum-118 there are cer-
tain aspects of the site which argue for the validity of the assumption.
First of all, the habitation area is quite small as such areas go, for

example, in sites in central California.  Since a limited sloping area was

12

Map 1. Site Map of Hum-118

Section X-Y, North of East-West Base Line

Refers to Profile Drawing in Chart 1

13

t

W W

I-W

0.-

l
0
>-I
1

,,

~0
0
0)
".4
CD

0)

o4
co

o
cn

4-i
C;,

to
-j

V.'

/

14

chosen, there could not have been much room to practice effective separa-
tion of families or kin groups which may have been utilizing the site

simultaneously. Accumulated shell and other refuse could be used from
time to time in order to level out an area to accommodate perhaps one

integrated group. Many artifacts were found in the talus on the west and
south sides of the site; these could easily have been swept over the edge
when some kind of crude artificial leveling was attempted, although the

same result could have come about from natural erosion of the central mass.

The two definite house floors noted (features 20, 35, table 2) were
located not more than 15 feet from each other, and in addition the depth
of the midden deposit suggests a concentration of living near the center
and at the southern, or naturally lower, end of the site.   Maximum depths

at which features or artifacts were recovered in selected squares indicate
the approximate depths of deposit at various parts of the site, as follows,
from north to south:  50L3, 40 inches; 3Lh4, 72 inches; 5L5, 156 inches;

-lOL5, 82 inches; -15L3, 40 inches.   Finally, although the various layers
of shell and midden soil show some disconformities of the soil-such as

sloping lenses of pure shell interspersed in mixed masses of dark, sandy
soil-there was remarkably little evidence of disturbance of the soil by
the occupants themselves. There is indeed no positive evidence that the
leveling suggested actually took place. The few burials found were not

elaborate and did not occur in well-defined pits. In any case pits which
were prepared for the burials probably were not very deep.

The two house floors probably represented spots which were used

over a period of years, while the other features encountered seem to sug-
gest something more temporary. These features consisted of nine fairly

definite fireplaces and eight configurations or groupings of rocks which
either may have been fireplaces or defunct storage places, or may have

had some other unknown function. Six of the thirteen concentrations or
caches of artifacts contained a total of 346 notched or grooved stones

identified as net sinkers. Five of these concentrations contained chip-

ping refuse and in one spot there was a cache of chert blades. Of the six
or seven remaining features, all suggested the former presence of some
kind of shelter or impermanent camping place. Whether or not this was
actually the case, it seems fairly certain that the features were all
associated with some positive, deliberate actions on the part of the

occupants, in contrast to many of the other artifacts found at the site

which presumably were accidentally broken or lost in the course of every-
day living.

15

TABLE 2

Features Excavated at Site Hum-118

I                               lI                  I Associated
Feature I                               ILocation I Depth* I Objects,

No.   I         Description           I (Map 1)  I (in.)  I Remarks

1      Configuration of small rocks,

some burnt; set in shell,
fine gravel, bone

2      Cache of 39 notched pebble

sinkers, in heavy shell

layer (12x12x2 in. deep)
3      Upright flat stone

(23x13 in.)

4      Upright f lat stones (cover-

ing area 59x50x24 in. deep)
5      Trenches in subsoil (13 ft.

long, 58 in. wide, 14-18
in. deep)

6      Grouping of small stones

(36x25 in. area)

7      Fire pit (18 in. diam.,

6 in. deep)

8      Rock configuration set in

subsoil (30x12 in. area)
9      Fire pit (54x38xlO in.

deep)

10      Fire pit or oven (68x42x6

in. deep)

11      Stone-lined fire pit (40

in. diam.., 10 in. deep)

12      Circular stone fire pit,

lined with beach gravel
(38x34x8 in. deep)

- 1OL4
- 10L2

18
54

- 1OL3

- 5L3

-15L3,

L5

- 5L3
- 5L1
-10L5

62      No apparent assn.

w/other artifacts
86
40

84      Charcoal and sea

mammal bones

84
82

OL4,
L5

OL5,

L6
OL.1,
5L1

OL.1,
RO

34      Wood charcoal;

no assn. with
house floor
38

27      Possibly below

remnant house
floor

19      12 in. above

portion of Feat.
11. Historical
objects: iron,
glass, china

f rags. near pit

*Vertical depth from surface at find spot

16

TABLE 2 [cont'd.]

lI                                        I       I Associated
Feature                                j Location IDepth* I Objects

No.   f Description                  I (Map 1)  | (in.)  I Remarks

13      Configuration of rocks, possi-

bly fire pit (67x36x18-24 in.
deep)

14      Cache of 19 net sinkers

(14x16 in. area)

15      Configuration of rocks

(55x45 in.)

16      Stone enclosed fire pit

(73x46xl3 in. deep)

17      Configuration of burnt stones

(60x57xl2 in. deep)

18      Concentration of historic

objects with objects of
aboriginal manufacture

above and amid historic

specimens (120x120 in. area)

19      Fire pit (38x21x15 in. deep)
20      Housefloor; packed sand and

dirt., incomplete (ca. 15x15
ft.)

OL6,

L7,
5L7
OL3
OL5

OR2,
R3
OL5

OL1,
RO

5L1,

L2,
RO

OL6

OL8,

L9,

L10,
5L7,

L8,
L9
OL4,

L5,
- 5L4,

L5

9-30    Small pestle, sea

mammal bones; not

much charcoal found
62     One projectile

point fragment

55     Charcoal, under

burnt shell and
sand layer

45     Pestle, scraper,

harpoon point

64     6 notched pebble

sinkers, 1 steatite
dish

3-28    Aboriginal: chert

and obsidian points,
scrapers, blades,
cores, sinkers,

choppers, bone im-
plements. Historic:
iron, glass, china,
powder flask, metal
buttons, pistol
76

36     Hopper mortar, flush

with floor level.

Chert flakes, chipped
stone, bone, antler
objects; probably in
post-occupation fill

21      Configuration of upright

flat rocks (in a line 71 in.
long, 15 in. wide)

*Vertical depth from surface at find spot

122

Within a slightly

defined shell-filled
house pit

17

TABLE 2 [cont'd.]

lI                                       I       I Associated
Feature |                             | Location | Depth* | Objects

No.   | Description                 | (Map 1)  | (in.)  | Remarks

22      Cut bank in sterile soil

extending N and S (17 ft. long,
24 in. deep on N end, 18 in.
deep on S end)

23      Stone-lined fire pit

(30x25x8 in. deep)

24      Concentration of chipping

refuse (4x5x5 in. deep)

25      Concentration of primary and

retouched green chert flakes
(4 in. diam., 6 in. deep)

26      Cache of chert flakes

27      Cache of 23 chert blades

(14xllx6 in. deep)

28      Layer of boulders below

Feature 11

29      Concentration of 100 notched

pebble sinkers (40x36 in.
area)

30      Sea lion skull with hole in

parietal, with headless dog(?)
skeleton & sea mammal scapula
associated (cf. Heizer 1951)

5L7,
L8
to
-15L7,

L8
5RO

5L1
ORO
5L5
ORO

OL2
to

ORl,
5L2
to

5R1
OR1

5RO,
ORO
5L1

84(N)
18(S)

Sterile soil
covered with
midden soil

25     1 jasper point,

1 charred har-
poon base

25     Red & yellow

jasper chips.

Red jasper pt.
found in lot

58     In sand level

which was prob-
ably a house
floor

72     No secondary

chipping noted
36     1 hammerstone

above cache.

Blades show only
primary flaking

24     Sea mammal bones;

layer of flaking
refuse within
boulders

64     At bottom of

rubble-filled
pit. Probably

assoc. with net.
87     Sea mammal tooth

Stone maul frag.
Projectile point
Notched sinker
Hammerstone

18

TABLE 2 [ cont'd. ]

I                              I          I        I Associated
Feature I                              ILocation I Depth* I Objects

No.   I Description                  I (Map 1)  I (in.)  | Remarks

31      Fire pit (30x29xlO in. deep)

32      Wall of boulders and smaller

rocks (60x16xl2 in. high)

33      Concentration of chert imple-

ment flaking refuse (24 in.
diam., 1.5 in. thick)

34      Concentration of chert imple-

ment flaking refuse (12 in.
diam., 2 in, deep)

35      House floor with marked fire

pit (floor 12.7 ft. long)

50L3
1OL6
lOL6
1OL7

15L7,
1OL8,
1OL9

lOLl

1OL2,
1OL3

30L4
1OR3

40     Hammers tone, chert

point frag., chert
drill fragment

67     Resting on charcoal

layer
36

84

63     Fire pit 60x44 in,

area; charcoal in-
terspersed with
burnt planking

74     Pelvis at top of

skull
102

62     6 chert flakes

36      Sea mammal skull on clay

layer

37      Cache of 122 notched net

sinkers, 1 grooved sinker
(20x36 in. area)

38      Cache of 41 net sinkers

39      Concentration of 25 notched

pebble sinkers (covering area
30 in. diam., 6 in. deep)

12-18

*Vertical depth from surface at find spot

Data from the small number of burials excavated at Hum-118 (table 3)
accord in tost details with the simple interments (primary inhumation)

noted at the Gunther Island site of Hum-67. The predominant position is
extended (on back?), there are few or no artifacts with the burials, and

19

TABLE 3

Summary of Burials at Site Hum-118

Bur. j Location I Depth I         I  Type of Burial  j     Grave      I

No. | (Map 1)   | (in.) | Sex/Age 1 (primary,secondary) | Accompaniments | Remarks

1      -5RZ
2     -15L3

40    ?/Adult  Prim. inhumation,

no articulation

None

Disturbed

40    ?/Inf.    Ditto

Olivella beads,
(type 3d),

Spire-lopped

Olivella beads

1 circular

mussel shell
ornament

Crushed

3       ORO,

Rl

75    M/Adult  Prim. inhumation,

extended position,
dorsal

Orientation: W

In subsoil,
midden-

filled pit

4      OL3,

5L3

5      OLl,

L2

6       5L2

112    ?/?

Secon. inhumation

1 sea mammal
scapula

102    M/Adult  Prim. inhumation,

extended position,
ventral

Orientation: NE

125    ?/Young  Prim. inhumation,

adult  extended position,

dorsal

Orientation: NW

82    ?/Adult  Secon. inhumation

(skull only
present)

1 ground slate
perfor. object
1 chert point

1 beach pebble
in mouth

1 sea lion scap.
2 bone tools
(pins)

See P1. 9a

On top of
clay sub-
soil of
deposit

Poor con-
dition
Skull
lacks

mandible

7       lOLl

None

20

those objects which were present were evidently not of great value to

the people. The orientation of the Hum-118 skeletons is inconclusive-
the people may have preferred north or west over the other directions

but were not very scrupulous in any case where direction was concerned.

All of these elements could correspond with historic Yurok practices even
though, according to Driver (1939:334) the Yurok utilized cemeteries

close to dwellings.  The site Hum-118 picture, based upon the small num-
ber of i-LAviduals found, could correspond to this only if we further

assume that this site was a special case. Perhaps it was not considered
a main village and therefore was rarely used as a burial spot, possibly
for comparatively unimportant persons who happened to die when engaged

in some seasonal activity at the site and whose remains could not easily
be transported back to the real home village.

The artifacts described in the sections which follow are divided
into two major categories: stone; and bone and antler. The stone arti-
facts are subdivided prihcipally into chipped and ground classes.

Several kinds of stone specimens are treated merely as miscellaneous.

The numbers used to identify certain specimens are field numbers; that is,
the original numbers given the objects. It was not possible to assign

permanent museum numbers from the University of California series as all
specimens were returned to Patrick's Point State Park after the study.

Artifacts Recovered
Chipped Stone Objects

Projectile points: Five of the eight types of projectile points
recovered at Gunther Island site Hum-67 and elsewhere in northwestern

California were found at Hum-118. Following a typology originally devised
in 1949, the points are described below according to their base form. The
Hum-118 points were manufactured chiefly from gray or green chert (140

specimens), with jasper (38 specimens)4 obsidian (4 specimens), quartzite
(3 specimens), and quartz (2 specimens) also represented. Although the

objects are all referred to as projectile points, it is possible to be more
specific in assigning functions to some of them by invoking ethnographic

parallels. Thus Type 1 specimens may alternately be referred to as knives,
most likely of the kind that were provided with wooden handles and used for
a variety of domestic purposes, including the scaling of fish. Types 3 and
4 were almost certainly points for antler harpoons used in hunting sea
mammals, and Type 6 specimens were probably used as arrowpoints.

The following summary of data on the various types of points recov-
ered at site Hum-118 includes brief descriptions of the types which were

21

not found at that site but which are nevertheless part of the north-

western California typology already mentioned. Measurements given are
for length and width only; thickness of all specimens, except where
noted, varied but slightly from a mean of about 7 millimeters.

Type 1: Leaf-shaped, convex base with sides gently curving or

nearly straight (pl. la-d). Largest specimen is 73 x 30 mm.; smallest,
23 x 12 mm.; selected average specimen is 42 x 23 mm.

Type 2: Leaf-shaped with pointed base. (Not found at Hum-118.)
Type 3: Triangular, with straight base (pl. le-j). Largest

specimen is 73 x 31 mm.; smallest, 19 x 10 mm.; average specimen, 44 x 33
mm.

Type 4: Triangular, with concave base (pl. lk-s). These points
have variable depths of base concavity but in the majority of specimens

this is quite shallow.  Largest point, 71 x 30 mm.; smallest, 21 x 13 mm.;
average, 45 x 24 mm.

Type 5a: Short, barbed and with rounded or square stem (corner
notched.

Type Sb: Same base form as Type 5a but with long, extended tip.
(Neither Type 5a nor 5b was found at site Hum-118.)

Type 6: Long-barbed with short stem, basal notched (pl. lu-y).

These were the most delicately manufactured points found, and the edges of
four specimens are marked by minute serrations. The short stems were

evidently incomplete on most of the specimens found; hence it is not possi-
ble to designate these as contracting, parallel-sided, or expanded.

Largest specimen measured 54 x 34 mm.; smallest, 23 x 14 mm.; and the

average was 37 x 21 mm. The mean thickness of this type of point is but
4 mm.

Type 7a: Sloping shouldered point.

Type 7b: Shouldered, but developing small pointed stem. (Neither
Type 7a nor 7b was found at Hum-118.)

Type 8: Large side-notched, convex base. One fragment only
found; estimated length 62 mm., width 18 mm.

Table 4 gives the depth distribution of all types of points. The

22

TABLE 4

Depth Distributions of Chipped Stone Projectile Points

from Site Hum-118

Depth              Type     Type   j Type   | Type   | Type

(in.)           I   I    |    3   I    4    |   6    |   8    f Totals
0- 12               1        2         5        4                 12
12- 24               2       10       12         2                 26
24- 36               4        8        8                           20
36- 48              11       12                                    23
48- 60               2        5        6                           13
60- 72                        6        11                          17
72- 84                        4        5         1                 10
84- 96                                 3                            3
96-108               2        1        3         2                  8
108-120                        1        2                            3
120-132                        3        1                            4
132-144                        1        4                            5
No provenience*       2        14       14        1        1        32
Total                24       67        74       10        1       176

*In this table and in depth distribution tables which follow, "no
provenience" refers to specimens which were recovered from uncertain
depths, disturbed areas, or found on the surface of the site.

list indicates that the specimens (types 3 and 4) which have been suggested
as one of the component parts of the sea mammal harpoon are most numerous
and extend to a greater depth in the site than the other types of points.

This could be taken as a reflection of the highly specialized nature of the
site. Since we do not know precisely the function of the so-called knives
(type 1 points), there is little value in attempting to account for their

relatively small number and their virtual concentration in the upper levels

23

of the site. On the other hand, it is not difficult to explain the small

number of Type 6 examples found. If these points were used primarily with
arrows in the hunting of land mammals-for which there is ample evidence
at the site-we can infer that they were occasionally brought in with

chunks of elk or deer flesh, for example.   In any case they appear not to
have been manufactured at the site.

Fragments of 34 additional projectile points were also recovered
but could not be classified according to the typology presented.

Blades: Distinctions between specimens called "knives" and "blades"
are arbitrary in northwestern California. Loud (1918:357, 399) was cer-
tainly not very explicit about what constitutes a blade, and the only

satisfactory criteria suggested are those of size and perhaps workmanship;

that is, a blade is larger and often less crudely made than a knife. These

criteria will be used here with qualifications, and with the further comment
that knives, with their usually narrower bases, should be considered as

objects which could easily be hafted (cf. Kroeber and Barrett 1960:92, pl.
20). The addition of another criterion is desirable because the size

differentiation between the two kinds of specimens is not always consistent.
Thus the largest of the Type 1 points (knives) is larger than the smallest
specimen here designated as a blade. In all, blades should be looked upon
as objects which (1) tend to be larger than knives; (2) are usually not

narrow-based; and (3) do not necessarily have sharp points but in fact may
even be somewhat tabular in form. Obviously these specimens could be used
as hand tools, without hafting. Several blades are illustrated in Plate
2i-1.

Of the 81 blades found at site Hum-118, 44 were of jasper and 37 of
chert. The largest specimen noted is 83 mm. long, 39 mm. wide, and 15 mm.
in thickness; the smallest 30 x 22 x 6 mm.; and a selected average speci-
men, 73 x 42 x 12 mm. Most of the specimens exhibit secondary flaking,
although the 23 blades comprising the cache (feature 27) show primary

flaking only. Specimen No. 481 (pl. 2o) is classified merely as an incom-
pleted blade or blank.

The depth distribution of blades (table 5) is not markedly differ-
end from that of knives (type 1 points) in the sense that by far the

greater number of specimens occur in the upper levels of the site. It

should be noted that the 36 specimens recorded for the 36-48 inch level
include the 23 items from Feature 27.

Miniature obsidian ceremonial blades: Five obsidian specimens

although they accord with the general criteria for blades-deserve special

24

mention. These objects resemble in miniature the larger ceremonial

blades found in both archaeological and ethnographic contexts in the

southern Northwest Coast, but not at site Hum-118. All of the miniature

blades are well made, showing pressure flaking on edges and flat surfaces,
though one (pl. lc') is not completely so flaked. They have either

parallel straight sides or may show some central constriction (cf. pl. 1z),
and all except one have definitely rounded ends.

Two of the miniature blades were made from red obsidian, while the
remaining three are of black obsidian. One of the red obsidian specimens
(pl. la') is rectangular in shape, with rounded ends. It is 46 mm. in

length, 17 mm. in width, and 2 mm. thick.   The second red blade (pl. lb')
is slender, sub-cylindrical in shape, and its termini are more sharply

pointed than those of the other four specimens. Thickness of this blade
is 4 mm., width 9 mm., and length 35 mm.

Of the three black obsidian blades, one (pl. lz) has relatively
pronounced central edge constriction. Maximum width of the specimen is

23 mm., with a center width of 20 mm. Length of this blade is 67 mm., and
thickness is 7 mm. Another specimen (pl. lc') is rectangular in shape,
with gently rounded ends.   It is 47 mm. in length, 16 mm. in width, and

5 mm. thick. Specimen No. 1839 (not illustrated) is also rectangular in
shape, with rounded ends. Its length is 50 un., width 26 mm., and thick-
ness 9 mm.

The miniature blades ranged in depth from 17 to 38 inches.

Drill: The 14 specimens designated drills on the basis of the

ovate or quadrangular cross section of their "working" tips were manufac-
tured from chert, except for two examples of jasper. Two types can be

distinguished among the drills, using the shapes of their bases as criteria.
One of these, Type 1, with "expanded base" (pl. lt, d'), was represented
by seven specimens, while only three specimens of Type 2 "nail-shaped"

(pl. 8a, b) were found. Four of the remaining specimens were recognizable
as drills but were fragmentary, and these could not be positively assigned
to either of the two types. The lowest depth occurrence of the nail-shaped
variety was at 60-72 inches, while that of the expanded base type was from
48-60 inches. In Table 5 there is no breakdown of drills according to
type, and four of the specimens included are unidentified as to type.

The nail-shaped drills average about 37 mm. in length, 7 mm. in

width at their base ends, and 4 mm. in width or diameter near the center of
the shank. The specimens which represent this type are delicately chipped
and sharp-pointed. It seems possible that these objects were hafted while

25

the expanded base drills were held between the thumb and forefinger of

the user. The expanded base type has a larger average size than the nail-
shaped specimens, being about 54 mm. in length and with a width at the

base of about 19 mm. The width or diameter of the shank center is about

8 mm. It will be noted that about half of the total length of these drills
is taken up by the expanded base, while the length of the base of the nail-
shaped drills is practically negligible.

Choppers: Choppers are probably the simplest of the chipped stone

tools found at site Hum-118 in the sense that less attention was evidently
paid to their manufacture than to any other class of tool. They were

manufactured from a variety of beach cobbles or pebbles, mostly of hard
metamorphic rocks such as quartzite. Most of the choppers have a crude

cutting edge which was produced by breaking a pebble in half, for example,
and then removing a few flakes by percussion from one side of the specimen
only. The chopper shown in Plate 2p is a good example of one with a

straight cutting edge, while those of the other specimens illustrated

(pl. 2q-s) are more jagged or curving. Although some of the choppers show
bifacial flaking, it is likely that occasionally flakes were removed

during use of the tool from the side opposite that from which flakes were
intentionally struck. Occasionally the primary removal of flakes was

evidently done in a careful way, thus producing a fairly symmetrically
shaped implement.

The ordinary appearance of the chopper is that of a crude, uni-
facially chipped tool about 8 cm. long, 7 or 8 cm. wide, and 4 or 5 cm.
thick. Table 5 indicates that choppers were recovered from practically

all levels and that one specimen occurred at a greater depth than any other
chipped stone object. Choppers may have been used for woodworking, or

they could also have been utilized in butchering the numerous sea mammals
which were brought to the site.

Saws: Seven chert specimens, all showing serration on one or both
lateral edges, were recovered from above the 72-84 inch level of the

midden deposit (table 5). Since there is already some overlapping of

nomenclature involving knives and blades, adoption of the term "saw"' for

small flake tools with serrations seems justified. The object illustrated
in Plate 8c is a good example of this type of tool. The flake from which
it was manufactured is flat on one side and has a center ridge on the

other. One end is rounded, the other straight. The specimen measures 32
mm. long, 7 mm. wide, and has a thickness of 3 mm. There is no evidence
that these implements were hafted, but it may be assumed that they could
have been used effectively-for cutting small sticks or bones, for
example-hafted or not.

26

TABLE 5

Depth Distributions of Some Chipped Stone Specimens

from Site Hum-118

I       I Miniature   I    I         I     I
Depth       I       I obsidian I       I Cobble  I     I

(in.)       I Blades I  blades  I Drills I choppers I Saws | Scrapers

10-12
12-24
24-36
36-48
48-60
60-72
72-84
84-96

96-108
108-120
120-132
132-144
144-156
156-168
168-170

8
5
9

6

2
1
1

36

3
3

2
1

3
2
1
2
2
1

22

6
6

1
1
1
2

29
30
23
36
13
11

4
9
8
6
5
5
5

1

8
5
5
3

1

1

10

1

1

No provenience

13

1

3

29

1       141

Total              81         5        14        122        7      306

Scrapers: These were by far the most numerous type of chipped

stone artifact found at site Hum-118, and must have been used for a great
variety of purposes. The large number recovered (306 specimens) probably
indicates that the scrapers were not greatly valued as tools by the inhab-
itants. Analysis shows that 132 of the scrapers recovered were simply

primary flakes with a minimum of retouching; that is, they must represent
tools which perhaps were used once or twice for some such purpose as

27

scraping hides or as knives for cutting, and were then thrown away. The
other 174 specimens show retouched edges, and here, as with the pebble

choppers, unifacial flaking is predominant, though occasionally bifacial
flaking is noted.

Chert was the most frequently used material for scrapers (198
specimens), with jasper (87 specimens) next in common use. The few

remaining specimens are of quartzite and other metamorphic rocks. Though
eight scrapers were made from small beach pebbles and thus resemble small
choppers, the great majority were manufactured from angular fragments of
stone (see pl. 2m, n) with long side(s) or end(s) chosen for retouching.
Average size specimens measure approximately 73 mm. in length, 43 mm. in
width, and 13 mm. in thickness.

Ground or Pecked Stone Obiects

Stone vessels: Judging from the number of pestles found of the

size and type used by the historic Yurok, and from the presence also of

Yurok-type hopper mortars (e.g. in feature 20, table 2), it would appear
that portable mortars of the bowl variety were not used for grinding

acorns or other foods at site Hum-118. Bowls or dishes of soft steatite

are not suitable for grinding foods, and in any case the use by the Yurok
of steatite vessels for collecting salmon grease by placing the vessel
under salmon being dried or smoked over a fire is recorded by Driver

(1939:324, 388). This use may be assigned to the steatite vessels recov-
ered at Hum-118 and probably to most of the vessels manufactured from
sandstone or other materials.

Of the 12 non-steatite specimens recovered, two (Nos. 329, 1848)

may be described as possible mortars.   These items are both of sandstone,

with cup-shaped pits. Specimen No. 1848 has a lined depression around the
inner lips of the side walls of the cup which may have been intended to
accommodate a basket hopper.

Another vessel (No. 330) is a circular sandstone boulder only

partially worked, with rounded shoulders (lower part of the outside walls)
and a flat bottom. The process of hollowing the basin had been started

and is marked by the presence of a circular ring 150 mm. in diameter pecked
out to form. Part of the surface within this ring had also been pecked out.
It is not possible to be certain whether this specimen was to be used as a
mortar or as a grease dish.

Seven vessels of material other than steatite, but apparently

designed to serve as grease-catching dishes, include two complete and three

28

partially broken specimens as well as two large fragments. On one of the
complete specimens (pl. 4a) the ends are patterned to a shape resembling

the bow and stern of a wooden Yurok canoe. This dish is made of sandstone
and has a flat bottom. Its basin is ground to a semi-smooth texture, and
its side wall surfaces, both inside and out, show a carbon deposit result-
ing from fire.

The other complete specimen (pl. 3d) is also of sandstone. It has
a shallow basin and is trapezoidal in shape. The bottom of this specimen
is flattened, but the shoulder portion is rounded rather than angular.

The outer walls had been roughly pecked to shape, but the inner walls were
more carefully ground.   Only one side wall showed evidence of burning, and
clinging to the burned portion of the vessel is a layer of organic residue
about one millimeter in thickness.

The three incomplete specimens in this group of seven are of sand-
stone or of a fine-grained schistose material, with all or parts of the

side walls missing. These specimens resemble the complete ones in shape
in having relatively shallow basins and in showing irregularly burnt por-
tions on the rims and sides. One vessel in this category (No. 1924) had
segments broken off both of its sides, but continued use after the break
is indicated by evidence of burning on the broken edges. Organic residue
also was found clinging to these edges.

Neither of the two large dish fragments-one of sandstone and one
of the schistose material mentioned above-showed any traces of burning.
They are large enough to suggest that the original vessels had rounded
shoulders and flat bottoms, and except for the lack of burning, look as
though they were parts of the kinds of dishes already described.

Dimensions of these seven vessels or fragments indicate average
measurements about as follows: length, 17 cm.; width, 13 cm.; height,

5 cm.; length of basin, 13 cm.; width of basin, 12 cm.; depth of basin,

2.4 cm.; wall thickness, 3.1 cm. Table 6 shows that non-steatite vessels
possibly were used in about equal number with steatite examples below the
60 inch level, but were later surpassed in popularity by the latter.

Six steatite vessels complete enough to be measured were recovered,
plus 27 fragments ranging from 64 to 180 mn. in length. Seventeen of the
fragments have evidence of burning and residues of burnt organic material
upon them. The six almost complete vessels all had one or more segments
broken off the side walls. One of these (pl. 4h) was in a manufacturing
stage before rejection. Its side surfaces are partially ground smooth,

but its bottom is roughened and unworked.   Pecking to hollow the basin had
barely begun on the upper surface.

29

Specimen No. 159 is rectangular-shaped and has a rounded, shallow
basin. It is about three-quarters complete. One end is missing, while
the other projects 13 mm. above the upper edges of the side walls.

Burned areas with organic residue clinging to them are present on the

interior and exterior parts of the walls. An almost rectangular-shaped
bowl (pl. 3c) was reconstructed from 17 fragments recovered. The

shoulders of this specimen are round and the bottom flat. Organic resi-
due on burned areas is present on one side wall. Another vessel of the

same approximate shape (pl. 3a), also reconstructed from 17 fragments, is

marked by rounded shoulders and a flat bottom. Both interior and exterior
surfaces of the dish are covered with burned areas to which organic
residue adheres.

Vessels No. 746 (p1. 3b) and No. 1489 are barrel-shaped bowls.
The former is the smallest vessel in the steatite vessel collection,

measuring 10.1 cm. in length and 8.5 cm. in diameter. A small segment
had been broken off the rim, otherwise it is complete. The bottom is

rounded, the side walls straight, and each end rises to a rounded peak.

The surface of the basin is marked by a multitude of scratches. No evi-
dence of burning is present. Specimen No. 1489 was reconstructed from
six fragments. Its length and width are about twice those of No. 746.

Shoulders of this bowl are rounded and the bottom flat. Organic residue
still clings to the burned sections of the interior and exterior wall
surfaces.

The mean measurements of steatite vessels, not including the last

two specimens described, are as follows: length, 29 cm.; width, 14.5 cm.;

height, 7.2 cm.; length of basin, 25.5 cm.; width of basin, 13.2 cm.; depth
of basin, 3 cm.; wall thickness, 2.1 cm.

Mortars and pestles: The recovery of an almost equal number of

mortars and pestles in California archaeological sites is a rare occurrence
and Hum-118 follows the usual trend in this matter. While 36 complete or

fragmentary pestles were recovered, only three complete and two fragmentary
mortars were found in addition to the questionable specimens already des-
cribed. The fragmentary examples were half of a small pebble mortar, and
one other piece. Neither of these could be identified as having been
designed for use with a basketry hopper.

The three complete mortars were virtually identical slabs and almost
certainly were used with hoppers in the manner of the historic Yurok. It
will be recalled that one of the complete specimens was imbedded in the
floor of a house pit (feature 20, table 2), as if placed there for semi-

permanent use.5  The other two slabs or boulders were not apparently asso-
ciated with house floors. The mean measurements of the complete specimens

30

are as follows:   slab, 42 cm. long, 25 cm. wide, 12 cm. thick; depression,
11 cm. diameter, 3.5 cm. deep. Depth data (above the 36 inch level) were
available for but two mortar specimens.

Pestles recovered were, like the mortars, manufactured from fine
grained hard sandstone or some metamorphic rock approaching quartzite,

and fall into two types: ringed or flanged; and simple (unflanged). Only
three flanged specimens were found and two of these are fragmentary. The
complete specimen (pl. 4e) is 37.7 cm. long, 6.1 cm. in central diameter,
and its flange rises 5 mm. around the main sides of the pestle. The sur-
face had been roughly pecked and the pounding end shows little wear.

Accompanying this specimen was No. 1924, a flanged pestle with the proximal
end missing. The sides of the latter are semi-smooth and the pounding end

is worn. It has a body diameter of 5.2 cm. and the flange rises 4 mm. from
the sides. The pestle illustrated in Plate 5h has a well-worn pounding
end and the body surface is ground smooth. It has the most pronounced

flange of the three Type 1 examples, the ring rising 9 mm. from the side

surface. The side of the flange toward the distal end is gradually incur-
vated, and that toward the missing proximal end is sharp-shouldered. The
main diameter of the specimen is 3.4 cm.

Thirteen complete and 20 broken specimens of the simple or unflanged
subtype were recovered (pls. 4d; 5f, g). Complete specimens average 22 cm.
in length, the longest being 31.5 cm., the shortest 15.5 cm.    The diameter
average is 7.4 cm., the largest measuring 13 cm. and the shortest 3.3 cm.
Occurrence of these specimens varied in depth from surface level to 98

inches and were scattered throughout the site, hence no specific correlation
could be drawn concerning depth and size grouping. Pecked surfaces were
present on 27 of the simple pestles and 6 were used in their natural

(cobble-like) state. Those that had been pecked to form are sub-cylindrical
in shape.

Only one pestle (No. 1624) was found with a tarred and burned distal
end. Three specimens were recovered which had been in the process of

manufacture before being discarded. Three-quarters of the body surface of
specimen No. 43 (pl. 4d) had been pecked to shape but the distal end is

missing and may have been broken off in the process of working it to shape,
thus causing the pestle to be rejected. The central surface of specimen
No. 1900 had been partially pecked, and No. 1362 was worked on one side
only.

Both flanged and unflanged types of pestle were utilized by the

historic Yurok (Kroeber 1925:pl. 16) and both types were found at Gunther
Island site Hum-67 (Loud 1918:pl. 16).

31

Mauls: Although mauls in some respects resemble pestles, their
specialized form (bell or pear-shaped with flattened, battered distal
ends) and their recorded use among the ethnographic Yurok (Kroeber

1925:pl. 19; Driver 1939:326) make it virtually certain that they were
used at site Hum-118 for driving wedges of antler for the purpose of
splitting wood, probably to secure planks for houses.

Eleven mauls were recovered, of which only three were complete.
Material is predominantly sandstone, although one specimen (pl. 5j) is

of a granitoid rock. In spite of the fragmentary nature of the remainder
of the mauls, it is possible to offer the following mean measurements,

probably representing an average for the type:   length, 15.9 cm.; maximum
diameter (distal); 8.5 cm.; minimum diameter (proximal), 5.1 cm.; pound-
ing surface diameter, 7.8 cm.; flange diameter (proximal), 5.9 cm.

The relatively small number of mauls recovered and their irregular
depth distribution in the midden deposit indicate that these specimens,
in contrast to ordinary hamerstones, either were not commonly used at
the site or were perhaps a more valued implement and hence were not
casually left lying about or frequently lost.

Hammerstones: These comparatively unspecialized implements were
found in much larger numbers than were mauls. Of 105 specimens, mostly

made of fine-grained sandstone and quartzite or schistose rocks, 37 show
use on all sides. The remainder have the characteristic pounded or

battered surfaces on the proximal or distal ends. Shapes range from
spherical to sub-cylindrical (e.g. No. 2267, pl. 9i), with average

spherical specimens having diameters of about 5 cm. and 3.5 cm. The

average sub-cylindrical specimens are about 10 cm. long, 6.8 cm. wide,

and 4.2 cm. thick. Ten of the hammerstones show secondary use as anvils,
that is, they have small pits or depressions on their sides which pre-

sumably were used for placing acorns in position for cracking with other
hammers tones.

Anvils: Four objects which apparently were designed for one pur-

pose only were all made of sandstone, and all except one were round, flat
pebbles with pecked depressions in the center of one surface. Specimen
No. 435 (pl. 2a) is a good example of this type. The mean measurements
for the three flat anvils are: diameter, 13 cm.; thickness, 4.4 cm.;

diameter of depression, 3.8 cm.; depth of depression, 4 mm. The odd piece
in the collection is an unworked beach cobble 12 cm. long, 9.2 cm. wide,

and 4 cm. thick, which has a pecked depression 3.4 cm. in diameter and 15
mm. in depth. The depression was probably an enlargement of a naturally

formed hollow in the cobble. Three of the four anvils were found at depths
between 36 and 60 inches; one is unlocated.

32

Net sinkers: Table 6 gives the numbers and depth distribution of
objects called net sinkers. Three types have been distinguished:

(1) side-notched (pl. 9d-&); (2) end-notched (pl. 9h); and (3) grooved

(pl. 9b, c).   The side-notched type, with flaked (and sometimes partially
ground) notches in the centers of the two lateral edges, is by far the

most frequently occurring of all the artifacts at site Hum-118, totaling
815 specimens in all.   (Table 6 shows a total of 470, but this does not
include 346 sinkers recovered from six caches; all of these except one

grooved specimen were of the side-notched type.) They were all made from
the flat beach pebbles-mostly of fine-grained igneous or metamorphic
rock-which litter the northern ocean beaches of California. The con-

flicting picture of relatively few fish bones found in the midden deposit
as against the great number of sinkers which presumably were used in

fishing activities, is not peculiar to this site and will not be further
commented upon. If the objects appeared individually in the deposit

there could be some question about their exact use, but the occurrences
in the caches (features 2, 14, 29, 37, 38, 39, table 2) leave little
doubt that one of the main functions of these objects was that of net

sinker. The nets themselves have long since disintegrated in the midden
soil.  Side-notched sinkers average about 5.6 cm. in length, 3.9 cm. in

width, and 8 mm. in thickness; the notches themselves are about 19 mm. in
length and 3 mm. in depth. Average weight is about 30 grams.

The end-notched specimens (pl. 9h) are probably but minor variants
of the side-notched type. The small number recovered (11 specimens) does
not give us a clue as to their exact function, if it did indeed differ
from that of the more numerous side-notched type. Shapes of these

sinkers range from tabular (circular) to sub-cylindrical. Two of these

specimens (Nos. 1347, 1439) may have served also as hammerstones as their
lateral edges show the characteristic battering of the latter kind of

tool.  The notches cut in the ends of all specimens, measuring about 5 mm.
in length and 1 mm. in depth, were formed by pecking or pounding. The
average size of these sinkers, as represented by specimen No. 273, is

4.5 cm. in length, 4 cm. in width, and 2 cm. in thickness. One end-notched
sinker was found in the 84-96 inch level, two in the 36-48 inch level, and
one each in every 12 inch level above the latter. Five specimens were
without depth designation.

All three of the types of so-called net sinkers described here
also occurred at Gunther Island site Hum-67. However, Loud (1918:428)
referred to an example of the end-notched variety as a "'problematical

stone object" and to the specimens with circumscribed grooves as ''girdled
stones." The 15 grooved objects from site Hum-118 are sub-cylindrical in
shape and all are about the same size, with an average specimen (No. 1840)

33

measuring 4.3 cm. in length, 3.5 cm. in width, and 2.5 cm. in thickness.
The grooves average about 4 mm. in width and 2 mm. in depth. All of
these stones have been pecked or ground to shape.

Tarring stones: In addition to the definite pestle fragment (No.

1624) with a tarred or carbon-stained distal end (see p. 30), five barely

worked sandstone or quartzite objects, each showing a blackened surface on
one end (pl. 2b), were recovered at site Hum-118. All of these stones also
exhibit signs of pounding on the blackened ends, this evidently having

occurred after the stone was chosen for use. We were told by a local resi-
dent that such stones were employed by the Klamath River Yurok who heated
them in the fire and employed them as applicators, in the manner of a

soldering iron, to melt and spread pitch over cracks in redwood dugout
canoes 6

These stones are all roughly sub-cylindrical or barrel-shaped, with
mean longitudinal measurements of 20 cm. and central diameters of 8.2 cm.
The blackened areas or "tarring" ends extend from 2.5 cm. to 7 cm. back

over the unworked but relatively smooth side surfaces. Four tarring stones
were found above the 60 inch level and one was recovered in the 96-108 inch
level.

Adze handles: Only two fragments of these fine-grained sandstone
objects-which are directly identifiable as the type of handle used for

historic Yurok adzes (Kroeber 1925:pl. 19)-were recovered at site Hum-118,
at depths of 31 and 89 inches. One specimen (p1. 2d) is the smooth prox-

imal tip of the curved handle, while the other has part of the tip missing
but shows the lashing grooves located on the side opposite that where the
blade was placed (pl. 2c).

Kroeber (1925) states that the Yurok anciently used shell blades

for their adzes. No object which could be so described was found at site
Hum-118, although one relatively crude shell specimen (No. 976) was recov-
ered in the 96-108 inch level which could conceivably have been an incipi-
ent adze blade.

Zooform clubs: Loud (1918:366-375) called these pieces "slave-
killers" and developed the idea that they may have been so used. It

seems more probable that the animal-form clubs served as special wealth
items or were of that class of items which Kroeber (1925:26-27) has

called "treasure." The zooform clubs or fragments from site Hum-118 do

not seem to cast any important new light on the problem of their function.
Of the nine specimens which could be identified as zooform clubs or parts
of these, only two fragments appear to be from "full-sized examples

34

TABLE 6

Depth Distribution

of Some Ground or Pecked Stone Artifacts

at Site Hum-118

Stone             I l     l                   I

Depth           Vessels   Pestles           Hammer- j Sinkers    Zooform
(in.)         | St    0 | F    Sm   Mauls | stones    N     G     clubs
0-12            3              3               9      55    3
12-24            4              7      3       16      39    1

24-36            5    1         8      4       29      36    1      1
36-48            4    2   1     3              12      58    1

48-60            4              3               5      41           2
60-72            2    2                 1       3      47    2

72-84            1    1                         5      59           1
84-96            1    1                         3      27    1      1
96-108                          1               2      20           1
108-120                    2                            11
120-132           1    1                                 1

132-144                                 1                1           1
No provenience    7    4         8       2      21      75    6      2
Total            32   12   3    33      11     105     470   15      9

St = Steatite           F  = Flanged        N = Notched
0 = Other stone         Sm = Simple         G = Grooved

(see pls. 2e, 8i), that is, comparable in size to the larger ones reported
at site Hum-67 by Loud. The remaining complete or fragmentary specimens

(pl. 8&, h, i) are either small specimens or miniatures of the larger ones.

While it is perhaps not proper to refer to these small specimens as
clubs, we can point to the miniature obsidian blades found at Hum-118 as
small replicas of the larger blades found both in local prehistoric and

35

historic contexts and certainly highly valued by the historic Yurok.

Zooform clubs of the type under discussion were absent from the historic
cultures of the Northwest Coast, but the imitative parallel between the
blades and the clubs is nevertheless fairly obvious. It appears

perfectly justifiable to state that the clubs must have had a ceremonial
function similar in some respects to that of the large obsidian blades.
While neither miniature obsidian blades nor the zooform club specimens
were found with burials at site Hum-118, this of itself may not bear

significance, mainly because Hum-118 probably was not a regular burial
site. Furthermore the occupants of the site may indeed have been like
the abstemious historic Yurok, looking upon their ceremonial obsidian

blades, and perhaps the miniatures as well, as of too great value to be
disposed of forever in burials.

Slate was the material predominantly used in the manufacture of
zooform clubs although some of the cruder fragments are of a kind of

sandstone, like that of specimen No. 1387 (pl. 2e). This fragmentary

specimen is in the doubtful category, although one end of it appears to

be an attempt at shaping the usual kind of tail for these animal figures.
Specimens Nos. 1387 and 320 (the latter shown in actual size in pi. 8i)
are the two fragments which seem to be derived from full-sized zooform
clubs. Projecting the drawing of these fragments, using as a model the
complete specimens from site Hum-67, results in figures with estimated

lengths between 35 and 40 cm. The two "large" complete specimens illus-
trated by Loud (1918:pl. 18) measure 32.2 and 41.6 cm., while his minia-
ture specimen (ibid.) is 5.5 cm. in length. Since the small complete

specimen from site Hum-118 (pl. 81) measures 11 cm. in length, and the
projected measurement of the headless specimen (pl. 8h) is about 15 cm.
long, we can arbitrarily set the division line between "large" and
"small" specimens at about 20 cm.

The depth distribution of zooform clubs (table 6) suggests that

they were known during a good part of the time of occupation of the site.
Their absence in the top layers perhaps foreshadows or directly reflects
their disappearance among the late prehistoric-historic groups of the
region.

Worked slate objects: Among the artifacts recovered from site
Hum-118 are several classes of slate objects which resemble, and may

possibly have been derived from, an early Northwest Coast culture. Borden
(1951:45), for example, refers to the "slate grinding industry" as one of

the important elements so derived in British Columbia, and illustrates one
ground slate projectile point and several knives (1951:pl. II) which

resemble slate specimens from Hum-118; for example, the projectile point
(No. 181, pl. 8f) and the knife or blade (No. 220, pl. 2f).

36

Apart from the zooform clubs, there were 24 slate objects found in
the midden deposit. These had been worked into various shapes-half of

them rectangular, and the remainder square, semi-lunar, or of some other
shape as indicated in Table 7. The flat surfaces of these specimens are

mostly smooth, but there are additional scratching or pecking marks present
on six of them.

On the basis of their having sharp edges, four specimens may be

classified as knives or blades, one of which (No. 220) also has a notch on
one edge. Two of these specimens with center notches on each long edge

are possibly sinkers, and two with serrations may be incipient ornaments.
One specimen (No. 1562) is square-shaped and has a notch on one edge only.
The projectile point (pl. 8f) has minute edge serrations, is shouldered,
and has a straight base. Although one otherwise unworked specimen has a
centered hole in it, this appears to have been done by some rock-boring
organism. On the other hand, the flask-shaped specimen (pl. 9a) has

minute serrations, and one end appears to have been rounded off by chip-
ping. The hole in this specimen is so placed as to leave little doubt
that it was made deliberately, probably to serve as a suspension hole,
and that the object was therefore intended to be a decorative pendant.

Three other slate specimens have flaked edges, and hence may be
classified as scrapers.

These few suggestions about the possible function of the slate

pieces cover most of the specimens. It is impossible to say precisely
what the objects with the smooth edges (e.g. Nos. 1671, 2110) may have
been.

Stone pipes: The two fragmentary tubular pipes found at Hum-118
resemble, in a way, specimens reported from the Gunther Island site,

Hum-67. Neither of the Hum-118 pipes has a flared mouthpiece end (cf.

pl. 8d), and neither fragment appears to have been more than about 10 cm.
long in its original state. One of the specimens without provenience
(No. 2276) is 4 cm. long and is made of a markedly low grade steatite.

Probably its maximum length did not even approach 10 cm.., although there
is no evidence remaining of a bowl opening on its inside. Its diameter
(1.8 cm. at mouth end, 2.5 cm. at the broken end) would allow a fairly
large boring if the material of the pipe were more suitable, but there

remains an even boring only 5 mm. in diameter at either end of the speci-
men.

The illustrated specimen (pl. 8d), found at a depth of 78 inches,
is similar in form to that just described, but is made of a stronger,

37

TABLE 7

Worked Slate Objects Recovered from Site Hum-118

Spec. I Depth I   Shape and Size (mm.)     I

No.  I (in.) I (length x width x thick.) I             Remarks

300

315
342
484
2110
1671
2187
1547

0-12

12
16
24

Rectangular

216 x 50 x 27
Irregular

38 x 29 x 3
Rectangular
80 x 45 x 8

Bottle-shaped
117 x 50 x 10
Rectangular

123 x 50 x 11
Rectangular

104 x 27 x 8
Rectangular

300 x 104 x 26
Semi-lunar

40 x 18 x 5
Rectangular
52 x 26 x 3
Rectangular
88 x 27 x 9
Semi-lunar

103 x 25 x 5
Square

53 x 45 x 4
Proj. pt.

98 x 32 x 3
Leaf-shaped
64 x 20 x 3
Rectangular

184 x 45 x 9

Pecking distributed on lateral
lateral and flat surfaces

One side smooth, obverse rough
One long edge sharpened

Numerous scratches on sides
Edges smoothed
Edges smoothed

End and one long edge flaked
One edge finely serrated

Deep scratches on one side

V-shaped centered notch on each
long, rounded edge (pl. 2g)

Pointed ends, portions of long
edges ground flat or sharpened
5 irregular serrations 1 mm.
deep on one edge

Small serrations between shoul-
ders and tip (p1. 8f)

Edges ground sharp, centered
notch on one edge (pl. 2f)
Sharpened edges

1209    24-36
1552    24-36

139
183
181
220
344

36
36
38
48
55

38

TABLE 7 [cont'd.]

Spec.   Depth     Shape and Size (mm.)     l

No.   j (in.) | (length x width x thick.)        Remarks
1762    60-72        Irregular               Scraper(?)

65 x 59 x 7

1791     73          Rectangular             Unworked except for centered

254 x 176 x 19         hole (rock-boring organism?)
2188     79          Rectangular             Pecked areas on one side

413 x 135 x 34          surface

1020    72-84        Irregular               Scratches on one side

75 x 48 x 6

1319    72-84        Rectangular             Flaking on edges

135 x 73 x 22

524     89          Net sinker              Notch cut in both rounded,

59 x 46 x 6             long edges, 12 x 4 mm. deep
1885    84-96        Rectangular             Pecking on side surfaces

153 x 53 x 14

1446     102         Flask-shaped            Pendant with serrated edges,

150 x 50 x 5           suspension hole (pi. 9a)

1562     108         Square                  Crescentic notch cut in one

38x 38x4                edge

more fine-grained variety of steatite which has been ground down evenly

and is well polished. It has a mouthpiece diameter of 1.3 cm. and is 2 cm.
in diameter at its broken end. The tubular boring measures 7 mm. in diam-
eter at its mouthpiece end, and this hole extends evenly through the

specimen for 5.5 cm., at which point a flaring-presumably for a bowl-

starts, reaching a diameter of 1.3 cm. at the broken end. These kinds of
pipes are evidently atypical for site Hum-67, however, as Loud (1918:366,
pl. 17) reports much longer specimens (one ca. 24 cm. long) equipped with
flared mouthpieces.

Stone pendant: One of the few decorative pieces from Hum-118 is

a stone pendant found at a depth of 8 inches. This is a small, biconically
drilled object about 7 mm. thick (pl. 8e), evidently made from a fairly
hard (in the range of nephrite), fine-grained pebble. This was the only

39

stone pendant found at the site apart from the polished slate pendant
(pI. 9a); several other notched pieces of slate may also have served
as pendants.

Miscellaneous stone objects:   In this section will be described
objects which are either extremely fragmentary or which show only a

minimum of alteration or deliberate use by the occupants of the site,

and which therefore cannot be assigned to a definite category or function.
Some of these specimens may be incompleted or rejected pieces of the kind
which have been described in preceding sections or, like the questionable
awl-sharpener (No. 2203), may simply be unique among the artifacts recov-
ered at site Hum-118.

The ground stone object (No. 2138, pl. 2h), found at a depth of
108 inches, is fragmentary. It appears to be one end of a carefully
ground piece, perhaps a charmstone of the type found on the central

California coast (Beardsley 1954). The pecked sandstone object (No. 2113,
pl. 4c), recovered at a depth of 20 inches, is a fairly large boulder with
pecking marks or smoothing distributed spottily about all surfaces. This

specimen could have been a fragment of a unique type of tool, or the pecked
surfaces, where most emphasized, could indicate incipient shaping of some
implement like a pestle.

A flat sandstone cobble (No. 2203), about 10 cm. long and 6 cm.

wide, shows a center groove on one side about 7.7 cm. long, 8 mm. wide,

and 4 mm. deep.  Since the groove is crooked near one end, an abrading or
sharpening stone of some kind, perhaps an awl sharpener, is suggested.

If the groove were straight and continued for the length of the stone, this
specimen would have been classified as an arrow straightener or smoother.

Five flat or rounded fractured pebbles, noted in the upper 21

inches of the deposit, showed unpatterned red ocher stains on one side of
each specimen. The irregular nature of the staining offers no clues as
to the function, ceremonial or otherwise, of these objects.

Nine specimens appear to have had some association with grinding
processes. Five of these are "natural" mortars, that is, boulders with

rounded or conical (not flat) bottoms in which a natural concavity in the
top surface has been slightly utilized, as shown by smoothing and wear.
These specimens almost certainly could not have been used with basketry
hoppers, although some crude kind of grinding of dried foods or bone may
be indicated.

Four sub-rectangular or ovoid flattened boulders with pecking or

40

smoothing marks on one surface could have been used as working slabs or
anvils (not acorn anvils), perhaps in the fabricating of other stone or

bone tools. Alternately, these specimens could be looked upon as incipi-
ent slabs for a hopper type of mortar.

Bone and Antler Artifacts

Harpoons: Classification of antler or bone harpoons from archaeo-
logical sites in California was originally done by E. W. Gifford in 1940.
According to Bennyhoff (1950:299), Gifford's typology is inadequate to
deal with the variations exhibited by certain northwestern California

specimens, hence Bennyhoff proposed a new typology for the simple harpoons,
which are defined as those "with a head which retains its original position
after striking an animal" (after Jochelson 1925:53). These are distin-
guished from toggle harpoons "in which the head assumes a transverse

position when an obstruction is encountered" (ibid.). Evidence of com-
posite varieties of the toggle type were also found, though in reduced

number, at site Hum-118, but the previous typology referring to them was

only partially modified by Bennyhoff. In any case the designations offered
by Bennyhoff for both types of harpoon will be followed in the present

paper, since the Hum-118 specimens, and especially the simple harpoons,
played a strong part in his original establishment of these typologies
(see pls. 6, 10, and 11 for illustrations).

The letter and numeral designations employed by Bennyhoff (1950) for
the simple harpoons will be briefly reviewed here in order to make the
discussion of types more meaningful.

I, large unilaterally barbed simple harpoons for hunt-
ing sea mammals in Northwestern California; II, small
unilaterally barbed simple harpoons used for fishing
and small game in Northwestern California; capital

letters, method of line attachment (A, bilateral line
shoulder; B, bilateral line guard; C, unilateral line
guard; D., line hole); Arabic numerals, tip variations
(1, simple tip; 2, slotted tip; 3, grooved tip with

inset); lower case letters, barb variations (a, simple
barb; b, hooked barb).

The symbols used in the toggle harpoon typology do not need repeti-
tion here since variations between the specimens are not crucial, and
furthermore, only six specimens, representing two types, were found.

41

TABLE 8

Depth Distribution

of Simple Bone and
at Site Hum-118

Antler Harpoons

Depth                          T y p e                   |    Fragment

(in.)  |     IA     IA      IB      IIB     IC     IIC   | Large    Small
0-12                        1

12-24                        3       2      2                         2
24-36                        3       4b                       3

36-48                 lb     3ab     3b     Ic       lb       6       1
48-60        1               5       lb

60-72        1        lb             2b     1                 3       1
72-84                                lb                       1
84-96        3                                                1

96-108               lb                                       2       2
108-120       2a

120-132       1                                                1
132-144                                                        1

Total         8       4d     15      13      4        1       18       6

a:  Includes specimen(s) further classified as IA2a (pl. 6j)

or IB2a (p1. 10k)

b:  Includes specimen(s) further classified as IIAla (pls. 6n,

lOd, e) or IBla (p1. 10) or IIBla (pls. 6c-e, lla, b, d-f)
or IICla (pl. 11A)

c:  Specimen further classified as IC2b (pl. llh), slotted tip

inferred

d:  Includes one specimen without provenience, Type IIAla (pl. 6o)

The most important criterion employed for designating the different
subtypes of simple harpoons is the form of the base which, in these har-

poons, functions, as indicated, as a line attachment.    Table 8 summarizes
the occurrence of specimens representing three of the four base types

found in northwestern California. The line-hole (subtype D) was absent at

42

Hum-118. Subtype B harpoons (bilateral line guards), with 28 specimens,
were the most frequently encountered in the excavation. Subtype A (with
bilateral line shoulder) was next, with 11 specimens, and subtype C (uni-
lateral line guard) was the least often encountered, with only 5 speci-
mens found.

Indicated in the review of the symbols used in description of

simple harpoons is a justification for designating subtypes in part on
the basis of size; that is, the larger specimens (I) were presumably
used for hunting animals of different size than those for which the

smaller harpoons (II) of the same form were intended. Since the harpoons
from site Hum-118 were included with specimens from other parts of north-
western California in order to arrive at a final classification, it is

desirable to give some average figures or ranges of size of each of the
basic subtypes.

TABLE 9

Measurements of Simple Harpoons in Northwestern California

(after Bennyhoff 1950:299-300)

| Length Range    | Average Shank      Average Shank

Type        (cm.)           width (mm.)    | Thickness (mm.)

IA      12.0-20.0              12                17
IIA       5.5-10.5               5                  7

IB      13.5-18.0              16                14
IIB       5.0-12.0               6                 7

IC      14.5-20.0              13                17
IIC       7.5-12.0               5                 7

All of the Hum-118 simple harpoons appeared to be unilaterally
barbed, in keeping with the apparent norm for northwestern California,

and two barbs seems to have been the preferred number. Only two complete
specimens (No. 1051, pl. 6d; No. 2238, pl. llb) appear as definite

single-barbed specimens. No. 2174 (pl. llj) probably had two barbs orig-
inally, but its tip was reworked after the top barb was broken. Four

other harpoons, Nos. 2108 (pl. 6g), 44 (lOj), 1678 (lli), and 1510 (pl. 111),
also show reworking, but these specimens all are either fragmentary or lack
barbs, and the tips appear to have been modified so that the former harpoon

43

could serve as a punch, for example, with the base as a convenient handle
(Bennyhoff 1950:301).

All of the barbs except one are simple; that is, they taper evenly
to a fairly sharp point. The exception is seen on a Type IC specimen

(No. 751, pl. llh) which shows a hooked barb-one not smoothly tapering
to a point on one side but giving the appearance of the beginning of a

hook, as the name implies. Some of the large harpoons have barbs offset
from the medial plane, as shown in Plate llh and in the fragmentary

specimen (No. 1292, pl. l1k). Bennyhoff (1950:299) states that it is

usually the lowest barb (as in the examples shown) which is so twisted in
northwestern California harpoons of this type, but occasionally both barbs
exhibit some degree of torque.

Slotted tips for the insertion of chipped stone points (cf. pls.

1 and 15) are apparently typical of most large harpoons (pls. 10k, 1lk).

Only the Type IB harpoons were complete enough to allow this statement to
extend with some certainty to any specific type, and one IB example (No.

1530, pl. lOj) does not have a slotted tip. Eleven of the 18 large harpoon
tip fragments, unidentifiable as to type, have slotted ends.

There was evidently a preference in material used in the manufacture
of different types of harpoon at Hum-118, as indicated by comparison of the
two most numerous subtypes, A and B. Of the former (bilateral line shoul-
der base), eight specimens are of antler while four are of bone. In the B
subtype (bilateral line guard), only seven are of antler while 21 are of
bone.

Two subtype B harpoons (No. 44, pl. lOg; No. 270, pl. Ila) show

design incising on their bases, while nine other specimens (seven subtype
B, two subtype C) are incised, grooved, or scratched either on their bases
or barbs. The basal marking consists mostly of series of parallel lines,
probably meant as roughening for greater efficiency in attaching the har-
poon head to the main shaft.   Examples are shown in Plate llc, e-, i.

The six toggle spurs or barbs (three illustrated in pls. 6b, llm, n)
are of the kind which presumably were used on opposite sides of the harpoon
head; that is, in pairs with their forked or squared ends serving as a

socket for a polished bone or a chipped stone point. The spurs are desig-
nated as Type IIIa (with squared end) and IIIb (with forked end) by

Bennyhoff (1950:306), who followed in general an earlier typology by

Drucker (1943). The single Type IIIa spur (pl. 6b) was found at a depth of
124 inches, while the Type IIIb examples ranged from the 84-96 inch level

(one specimen) to the 24-36 inch level (two specimens), with two additional

44

spurs found at undetermined depths. Bennyhoff (1950:312) points out

that the historic Yurok employed toggle spurs with forked tips, and the
occurrence of these specimens in the lower half of the deposit at site

Hum-118 may possibly represent their first use in northwestern California.

A third type of bone projectile specimen, with a slotted tip, is

represented by a fragment designated as a foreshaft or barbed arrow point
(pl. llp) which was found at a depth of 19 inches in the deposit. Like
the forked tip toggle spur, this kind of foreshaft was also used by the

historic Yurok (cf. Kroeber and Barrett 1960:pl. 19). Bennyhoff (1950:312)
comments that the slotted tip for harpoons and foreshafts seems to be

characteristic in northwestern California of the Yurok ethnographically,

and in their territory archaeologically. The slotted tip harpoon was not

found at the Gunther Island site not far south of Hum-118, which is in the
territory of the historic Wiyot.

The bone point illustrated in Plate Ilb may also be designated as
a bipointed gorge (No. 427, recovered in the 36-48 inch level). This

object is included here because it conceivably could have served as a tip
for the composite (toggle) harpoons. Bennyhoff (1950:306) classified

this as a Type Tlf point, which has been noted in other sites in central
and northern California where it presumably was also used with harpoons.
Since only a few spurs or toggles for a composite type of harpoon were
recovered, it is not possible to make any definite statement about the

place or time of their derivation., or even their developmental history at
the site. On the other hand, the simple harpoons at site Hum-118 show a
quite definite sequence of occurrence in the deposit (see table 8).

Except for two unusual occurrences, there is a clear picture of an early
predominant use (below 72 inches) of the large bilaterally shouldered
type (IA), together with a few representatives of the small variety of
this form.

The deposit lying between 48 and 72 inches possibly represents a

transitional period during which Types IA and IIA were largely supplanted
by harpoons with bilateral line guards (types IB, IIB) and, to a lesser

extent, by the unilateral line guard types (IC, IIC).   Although one Type
IIA harpoon (No. 755) found in the 36-48 inch level, and one Type IIB

example (No. 1267) in the 72-84 inch level, represent a survival and a

precursor respectively from and to the transitional period, there is no
mistaking the general trend as shown. This sequence of fairly well

defined types has great importance in the interpretation of the course of
cultural events at site Hum-118, and perhaps at other sites in northwest-
ern California as well.

45

Modified antler and antler wedges:   It has been suggested previously
that the fibrous structure of deer or elk antler may determine choice of
the latter among wood-working peoples as the proper material for wedges.

The fact that the polls of such tools can be struck without being shattered
by the flat end of a stone maul would make them ideal for aiding in the
production of relatively straight redwood planks, such as those used by
the historic Yurok for their rectangular-shaped houses.

Table 10 indicates that antler wedges were used by the earliest
settlers of Hum-118 although the approximately parallel occurrences of
pieces designated as "modified" does not necessarily imply that wedges

alone were manufactured from antler. Other kinds of tools, such as flakers,
may have been intended. Many of these fragments have been so modified or
weathered as to make positive distinctions between elk and deer quite

difficult. In the doubtful category, large pieces have been attributed to
the Roosevelt elk and the small pieces to the California mule deer.

Of the 62 modified pieces recovered, 31 are of cut deer antler, 11
are cut sections of deer or elk, and 19 are split specimens, also of deer
or elk. All of the cut deer antler pieces exhibit crude hacking on what

appear to be the basal ends. These specimens vary from 3.9 to 16.2 cm. in
length, and some of them have wedge-shaped distal or anterior ends, though
there is no actual evidence of their use as wedges. Others are crudely
notched or have partly smoothed surfaces.

In Plate 5a, b are shown two cut elk-antler pieces which probably

demonstrate one stage of the approved manner of breaking the tough antler
sections; that is, by making circumferential cuts and then snapping the

section at the weakened point. The average measurements of sections of elk
antler recovered are exemplified by one specimen (No. 1511) which is 11.3
cm. long and 5 cm. in diameter. Some of these sections have longitudinal
grooves, perhaps indicating an intention to split them into two equal

lengths. The side surfaces of one elk antler specimen, a proximal end (No.
1503), show cuts which suggest a use as a small butcher block.

The 19 split antler pieces are of varying lengths and diameters; an
average specimen (No. 380) measures 10.8 cm. in length and is 2.9 cm. in

diameter. These pieces were probably split in order to obtain small pieces
of antler for the making of various tools, including wedges.

Sixty-three definite antler wedges were recovered, of which 41 are
complete. Fifty-four of these were from elk and nine from deer.    About

half (30) of these wedges were manufactured from split fragments. Plates

5c-e and 12b show some examples of elk antler wedges. The wedge (No. 1496)

46

in Plate 5 has a damaged spot, almost a perforation, on its ground-down

working surface which suggests the relative weakness of the inner cancel-
lous tissue of antler. Complete elk antler wedges range from about 5 to
20 cm. long, 3 to 5 cm. wide, and 1.5 to 2.5 cm. thick, while the deer
antler wedges range from 10 to 15 cm. long, 2.5 to 3.8 cm. in diameter,
and 1.9 to 2.4 cm. thick. One complete split antler specimen (No. 962)
has 14 parallel scratches cut on its body above the working end.

Bone gouges: These tools are mainly distinguished from wedges by
a lack of battering on their polls. The large cannon bones (metatarsals)
of mamnals from which they were usually made are probably too brittle to
receive prolonged hammering from a stone maul. In addition the cutting
edges of these tools can receive sharpening superior to that of the

"tentering"i edges of wedges, even though this characteristic is not always

apparent when comparing the two classes of specimens. Bone gouges presum-
ably were used in woodworking, and for gouging or grooving other bones or

pieces of antler (i.e. they were employed as tools for manufacturing other
tools). Several sea lion bones were recovered from the deposit which

showed end gouging or notching, and this modification may have been done
with the bone gouges.   Unlike bone adze blades, which gouges may also
resemble (cf. Loud 1918:pl. 21), they were evidently not meant to be
haf ted.

Only three definite gouges were found at site Hum-118J two in the

0-12 inch level and one at a depth of 50 inches. Two of these are complete,
One of the latter (No. 581) is 24.7 cm. long, with the edges of the inner
surface (the longitudinal surface where the bone was originally split)

smoothed from about the midpoint of the specimen to the distal or gouging
end. An incised line approximately 3 cm. in length extends across the
outer surface of this specimen, about 4.8 cm. from the distal end. The
other complete specimen (pl. 12a) is about 18 cm. long and it too is

smoothed on its inside surfaces along about half of its length, on the

distal end. This piece shows some chipping, perhaps representing attempts
at shaping its proximal end, The incomplete specimen (pl. 7g) is about

13.8 cm. long, probably two-thirds of its original length before the distal
end was broken off. It has smooth inner surfaces running its entire length,

Bone or antler f lakers: Fifty-eight bone or antler implements with
their ends bluntly pointed or rounded off were recovered at site Hum-118.
Again, upon ethnographic analogy, these have been classified as flakers;
that is, as tools used in pressure flaking, in the manufacture of stone

tools. Table 10 summarizes the depth distribution of four types of flakers
which have been distinguished, as follows: (1) Split (mammal) rib or

antler, 45 specimens (pls. 7a, m, 12c).   Five of these f lakers are designated

47

TABLE 10

Depth Distribution of Some Bone and Antler Implements

from Site Hum-118

|F I a k e r s                                    l

Depth         IModified|AntlerI Split Ribj     |Wholel  Bone    Modified
(in.)         j Antler |wedgesi or Antler|lUnal Rib ISplinter I Bone**

0-12             1        1        5*                              5
12-24             6       14        4       1    1                  8
24-36             7       4         4                    1         12
36-48             5        4        8       1    1                 14
48-60             3        3        3            2                  6
60-72             4        2        5*      1                       4
72-84             6        6        1       1                       5
84-96             6        8        3*                              3
96-108            4       6         2                    1          1
108-120            4        2        1*                              2
120-132            2                 1*
132-144            4        1

No provenience    10       12        8       2             1        18
Total             62       63       45       6    4        3        78

*Includes one "extra-long" specimen
**Including split and notched ribs

"extra-long," as they considerably exceed the mean length of the specimens
as a group (ca. 10 cm.). Specimen No. 1341 (p1. 7a), for example, is more
than 25 cm. long.   (2) Proximal ends of mammal ulnae, 6 specimens (pl. 12f,
&). (3) Whole (mammal) rib, 4 specimens (pls. 7n, o, 12d). (4) Mammal
(long) bone splinter, 3 specimens (not illustrated).

Differences between the small number of flakers of Types 2, 3, and

4 are not at all marked so far as depth distribution is concerned, although

48

Type 3 specimens are possibly set apart in this respect from the former.
Their lowest appearance, in the 48-60 inch level., may represent a later

introduction of an implement which varied so little from the other forms

that there was no question of the later type supplanting the earlier ones.

Worked bone objects: Seventy-eight bone fragments, modified in
varying degrees, were recovered from all levels above 120 inches in the
deposit. No definite function can be attributed to any of these bones

and it may be assumed that some of them, at least, represent the incipient
stages of manufacture of more readily identifiable tools. Sixty-eight
pieces were split and/or notched ribs (for example, as illustrated in

pl. 74-1), and ten were other bones, such as cannon bones or an elk scap-
ula, which had some evidence of working on them. The notched ribs ranged
from 4.8 to 24.3 cm. in length, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. in width, and 5 mm. to 9
mm. in thickness. In most cases the notches were roughly produced and

show little sign of wear. One specimen (No. 2269) has definite rectangu-
lar-cut notches about 5 mm. deep and 14 mm. in length. Notches on other
specimens are irregular and average about 3 mm. in depth and 7 mm. in

length. These bones may conceivably have been used for wrapping cordage,
either for storage or for actual use in fishing or sea lion hunting.

Split ribs without notching often have smoothed sides and tapered,
squared, rounded, or partly pointed ends. Some of these specimens may
have been crude "sweat-scrapers, " which, however are not mentioned by

Driver (1939) as being used by the historic Yurok. He does note, however,
that wormwood leaves were used by head shamans to rub sweat off their

bodies, and von Loeffelholtz (see Heizer and Mills 1952:141) mentions the
use of bone pendants by the Yurok for sweat scrapers.

The two distal ends of cannon bones (pl. 7b, c) probably were

rejects, with the main shafts of the bones being sought for some utili-
tarian purpose.

The elk scapula (pl. 7i) is crudely cut on one side, and has a
long scratch paralleling the cut.

The perforated object (pl. 7d) and the smoothed bone (rib?) peg-

like object (pl. 7h) may represent finished tools for some unknown special-
ized purpose, perhaps also connected with fishing. The three cut bones

shown in Plate 7j-1 are evidently partly shaped, incipient tools of some
sort which possibly demonstrate the method of breaking or chipping the
edges of bone fragments before they were ground to their final form.

Bone awls: The usual function of awls in California Indian cultures

49

TABLE 11

Depth Distribution of Bone Awls at Site Hum-118

Depth        I Type l    I Type 2    |   Type 3  |   Type 4    l    I

(in.)        i(splinter)| (split rib)I(artic.end)I (split bone)|TipsITotal
0-12

12-24              2                       1                      1     4
24-36              3           2                                  1     6
36-48                                      1            1         3     5
48-60              2           1           1                      3     7
60-72              1                       1            3         3     8
72-84              2                                    1         1     4
84-96              1           1                        1               3
96-108             3           1                                  1     5
108-120             2           1           2            1         1     7
120-132

132-144             2                                                    2
No provenience      3           2           2                            7
Total              21           8           8            7        14    58

is in connection with coiled basketry.   Since the historic groups of north-
western California almost without exception did not manufacture or utilize
coiled basketry (Driver 1939:333), it seems safe to assume that the occu-
pants of site Hum-118 likewise did not. As an alternative, it may be

suggested that the 58 awls or fragments found (table 11) represent tools

which were used as "eel slitters" (Kroeber and Barrett 1960:pl. 20; Gifford
1940:168), or in working the soft redwood, or perhaps with animal skins,

for garments.  "Perforating implements," the designation employed by Gifford
(1940:161) for single-pointed bone tools, is perhaps an even less commital

term and, except for the seemingly general acceptance of the word "awl" for
these tools in California, would serve as well for the Hum-118 examples.

Awls are divided into four different types, as follows: Type 1

50

(pl. 13a, b), manufactured from irregular splinters of mammal bone, with
mean dimensions of 8.5 cm. in length, 1.2 cm. in width at the proximal

end, and 7 mnn. in thickness (21 specimens); Type 2, from split ribs, with
mean measurements of 8.4 cm. in length, 1.3 cm. in width, and 5 mm. in

thickness (8 specimens); Type 3 (pls. 7e, f, 13c, d), made from bones with
articular ends present, with mean measurements of 10.4 cm. in length, 1.9
cm. in width, and 1.5 cm. in thickness (8 specimens); Type 4 (pl. 13e-g),
from usually evenly split sections of mammal bone, and with mean measure-
ments of 10.7 cm. in length, 1.2 cm. in width, and 8 mm. in thickness
(7 specimens).

Obviously there are not very significant differences between these
types, either in their form or in their depth distribution. The bone

splinter awls are the simplest type of the four, and were evidently the
most commonly used. Perhaps this is in keeping with the idea of a non-
specialized use for these implements-if they were not used for the

comparatively delicate processes involved in coiling baskets, not much
care would have to be given their manufacture. There is no evidence in
the site deposit of any artifacts which would definitely have required

awls in their fabrication, but there can be no doubt that they nevertheless
had some importance. It will be recalled that several of the bone harpoon
heads which had lost their barbs (cf. pl. lli) were reworked to the form
of an awl.

The long bone specimen shown in Plate 13h (No. 1633), found at a

depth of 28 inches, is sharply pointed at either end, and may have served,
for example, either as a hair pin or an awl. Driver (1939:396) notes

that sharp, bipointed pins were reported to have been worn in war by some
historic Yurok so that the enemy would not grab their hair.

Head scratchers: Three decorated bone objects were recovered in
the excavation (pl. 14a-c) and have been identified as head scratchers.

Similar implements have been observed among the Yurok and other groups in
northwestern California, where they were used mostly by girls at the age
of puberty (cf. Loud 1918:383, pl. 20). The triangular designs on the

Hum-118 specimens correspond quite closely with those on head scratchers
from the Gunther Island site excavated by Loud, and the perforation or

grooved arrangement at one end of these specimens suggests that they were
attached to cordage, perhaps to be worn around the neck, as among the

ethnographic Yurok. One of these specimens was found in the south talus

slope of the site, hence does not have usable provenience data. Specimen
No. 1293 is broken at both ends and may have had a perforation at its

grooved end.  It was found at a depth of 98 inches, while the perforated
object (No. 686) was recovered from the 12-24 inch level.

51

Perforated bone needles: Three objects which were possibly used

as needles were found.  Two of these, both from the 24-36 inch level, are
vestigial metapodials, probably of deer (pl. 14d, e). They are both

partially smoothed and biconically drilled on their proximal ends. Their
relatively irregular shape and the fact that the proximal knob is not
smoothed down suggest that these specimens were not very effective

needles. They may as well have served as necklace pendants or even as
headscratchers, though there is no sign of decoration upon them.

The fragmentary specimen found in the 0-12 inch level (p1. 14f),

with a perforation near its notched end, offers more certainty about its
identity as a needle. It is polished all around and has a longitudinal
groove on one side, extending from the end-notch to the perforation and
slightly beyond.

Modified bird bone: Of three incised bird bone fragments recovered,

two, from the 12-24 inch level, appear to be whistle fragments (pl. 14i, h).
These specimens are polished and each hasone end square-cut. The longer
specimen (pl. 14g) has a design consisting of encircling and spirally cut
lines, and the broken end shows slight evidence of the former presence of
a hole. The shorter specimen (pl. 14h) has quite definite evidence of a

whistle hole at one end. The edges of this probable opening are smoothed,
except for a series of five nicks along one side.

At a depth of 48 inches was recovered a small piece of bird bone
with a spirally incised line near its center. Its small size suggests

that it may have served as a bead, even though there was little evidence
of other types of beads, even shell beads, found in the deposit.

Worked sea lion teeth:   Twelve worked teeth, eight canines and four
incisors, were recovered from the deposit. These were all from sea lion
(Eumetopias iubata), and the canines at least suggest animals of varying

ages, as indicated by the development and size of the pulp cavities, which
have a large, hollow appearance in young individuals. The teeth range

from 3.8 to 7.9 cm. in length, with an average of 4.8 cm. for the incisors
and 6.8 cm. for the canines. They were found scattered throughout the

deposit, three from the 72-84 inch level, two from the 48-60 inch level,

two above the 36 inch level, and five either on the talus slope or other-
wise without provenience.

The canine teeth are all almost complete, except for one split

specimen which is polished and slightly incised (pl. 14k). All show vari-
ous polishing, grinding (pl. 14i), or incising marks on their surfaces.
These specimens may have been used as gaming dice or perhaps merely as

52

good luck pieces. There is no indication that they served a practical
function as tools.

The incisors (probably all upper laterals) are all split speci-
mens with inside edges polished or lightly incised, and one specimen
(No. 222) has numerous scratches on its outer surfaces. Although the
incisors may also have been used as small dice or charms, at least one
of them (No. 1712) has apparently artificially smoothed edges on its
distal end, suggesting use as some kind of tool.

Curved bone fishhooks: Heizer (1949:93) has already described
the four curved bone ("C"-shaped) hooks from Hum-118. Two of these

specimens were recovered at depths of 20 and 22 inches, and the others
were without depth data.   Heizer comments as follows:

These are all rather similar, and differ from those of
Hum-67 [Gunther Island] in being consistently smaller
and having more incurved tips. They approximate the
subcircular form of the south central coast hooks.

The Hum-118 hooks are made of some land animal (prob-
ably elk), bone and sea lion tooth. They range from
0.75 to 1.0 inch in diameter. They either bear a

rudimentary knob [No. 1582, pl. 141] resembling some
...hooks of the south central coast, or they have a
plain shank which has been slightly roughened by in-

cised cross-hatched lines to assist in firmly attach-
ing the line.

Incised bone and antler fragments: Three specimens, two of bone
and one of antler (pl. 14n-p) all show crude incising, in linear or tri-
angular form, on their surfaces. The bone specimens are both pointed at
one end, and hence may have served as some kind of decorative pin. The
antler piece (probably of deer, pl. 14p) is broken at both ends, and it

cannot be determined whether it was a decorative or a practically useful
object.

Cut whale bone slab fragments: It has already been noted that

whale bone fragments, slightly modified or unmodified, were found at all
levels in the deposit. Five pieces will be mentioned here, found in the
120-132, 84-96, 72-84, and 12-24 inch levels, which were retained and

numbered because they all show marked smoothings, notchings, or roundings
of their ends. These pieces were all fairly large, averaging 17 cm. long,
9.6 cm. wide, and 2.5 cm. thick. Two of the pieces could be identified as

coming from the scapula or rib of the whale. One specimen (No. 35) appears

53

to have been designed as a wedge, but the working on the other pieces
gives no definite clue as to their intended function.

Shell Artifacts

In spite of the fact that the spot on which site Hum-118 is

located has been given the modern name of Abalone Point and notwithstand-
ing the shell-rich midden deposit of the site, only a few shell artifacts
were found. Evidently the turbulent water below the site and the jagged,
rocky character of the small inlet to the beach, may have discouraged the
inhabitants from taking abalone since only occasional pieces were noted

in the deposit, and no artifacts of this material were noted. The mussel-

shell ornament found with burial No. 3, at a depth of 72 inches, was unique
for the site, and in any case was not a highly worked specimen.

Olivella beads of two types-the small circular (disk) examples

(Beardsley 1954:116, type 3d) and small whole shells with the spire ground
off square (ibid., type la)-were found with Burial 2 at a depth of 40

inches.  Two other finds in the midden, at a 20 inch depth and in the 36-48
inch level, each consisted of spire-lopped beads like that found with
Burial 2.

Historic Artifacts

When we consider that site Hum-118 was presumably abandoned before
it could have been perceived by early European travelers-which was not
the case with Tsurai (Hum-169) and the Gunther Island site (Hum-67)-a

surprisingly large number of historic artifacts were recovered from the

upper levels of the deposit. Fragments of glass, probably from bottles of
various shapes, were most frequently recorded (about 80 pieces). All of
these were found above the 24 inch level, with the exception of three

pieces found at different places, horizontally, in the site (units 5L6,
15L7, and 5OL3) but at approximately the same depth-one at 38 inches

(15L7) and the other two in the 24-36 inch level. When such a small per-
centage of historic pieces is found below expected depths, it is possible
to attribute these occurrences to some kind of accident; rodents may have
been responsible for transporting the specimens downward, or they may con-
ceivably have fallen out of the side walls during excavation, to be found
later at a lower level. In the Hum-118 example, the small distance of
possible secondary displacement may not in any case be significant.

Perhaps the glass fragments were properly in place and, at that depth,
truly represent the early beginnings of contact with Europeans.

54

Five fragments of white chinaware and two unidentified metal

pieces were found in different parts of the midden, all above the 12
inch level.

Two of the features noted in the deposit contained historic

objects.  From Feature 12, at a depth of 19 inches, came a few fragments
of metal, glass, and chinaware, Feature 18 was mainly a concentration

of historic objects mixed with artifacts of prehistoric type: obsidian
and chert points, chert blades and cores, notched stone sinkers, cobble
choppers, and some bone implements. The entire feature extended from 3

to 28 inches in depth from the surface of the deposit. Besides ten glass

fragments like those already described, there were several bits of charred
cloth and three chinaware fragments, including one cup handle. Eight

varied metal pieces included a blade, two buttons, and one disk. There

were two halves of a decorated gun powder flask, typical of those used in
the nineteenth century in the United States. According to an identifica-
tion by Mr. Arthur Woodward, formerly of the Los Angeles County Museum,

the design on both pieces is known to collectors as the "lotus pattern, "
and the specimen probably was manufactured in the general period of
1840- 1850.

Mr. Woodward also examined the remains of a double-barrelled per-
cussion lock pistol found with Feature 18. He stated that it was manu-

factured either in Britain or Belgium, and also dated from about 1840-1850.

In Feature 18 and in several other parts of the upper levels of

the site, glass trade beads were found. The Feature 18 occurrence was of
but one blue bead. All of the 20 or so beads can be described as tubular,
with faceted, hexagonally molded exterior decoration, of different colors
and sizes. These types of beads have been found in Indian sites in

central California, generally north of San Francisco Bay, and Mr. Woodward
believes that they date from 1840-1860. Comparison with beads in the

collections of the R. H. Lowie Museum of Anthropology, University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley, leads one to believe that they are probably of American

manufacture. Some of the beads have been found with brass military buttons,
and it seems likely that the Hum-118 beads came to the site as an aftermath
of the Gold Rush in northern California. The beads range in length from 6

to 9 mm., and average about 7 mm. in diameter; perforations are from 3 to 5
mm. in diameter.

As already indicated, the historic objects do not present any insu-

perable problems in their depth distribution. Barring the minor exceptions
noted, which are not far removed from expected depth in the deposit, these
specimens all reinforce the idea that the deposit may have built up in a

55

relatively uniform way, without a great deal of mixture or disturbance

in the lower levels of any part of the site. If the dating estimates of
some of the historic specimens are correct, we seem to have evidence
that the occupants of the site had some sort of contact with Euro-

Americans, probably until well after the middle of the nineteenth century.
It will never be known whether the local Yurok living in 1920 did not

know of the existence of the site or simply did not want to tell T. T.

Waterman its exact location. Unless new evidence comes forth about the
significance of the site to the local historic Indians, it can be sug-

gested that Hum-118 was abandoned at some time in the latter half of the
nineteenth century and was not well enough known to later Yurok to be
remembered either as an important village or camp site.

Summary

Accompanying the descriptions of all the artifacts recovered at

site Hum-118 have been indications of the depths at which they were found,
regardless of the horizontal location of the excavation unit. Defense of
this procedure lies in the smallness of the site and in the resultant

possibility of excavating virtually in one large block, from which the
great majority of artifacts were recovered. Map 1 shows only a limited
part of the site examined apart from the main excavation in its center

and southern portions. The fact that two isolated small series of units
in the northern sector were relatively shallow probably does little to
affect the impression of layering of materials inherent in the tabular

presentation. Some errors are certain to creep in because of the sloping
contours of the site, but at least the observation of layering can hardly
be subject to error arising from the chance that different areas of the
site were occupied at widely separated periods in its history.

If we assume that the deposit represents a steady accretion of

living refuse over the years, essentially in one spot, we are faced with

the picture of a fairly uniform group, possibly composed of several allied
families and their descendents., being responsible for the midden deposit
from bottom to top. In the limited amount of soil deposit below the 12

foot depth were found only pebble choppers and scrapers, but immediately
above that depth appear elements diagnostic of northwestern California
prehistoric culture, such as elk antler wedges, notched sinkers, bell-
shaped mauls, zoomorphic clubs (or miniatures of these), evidence of

simple harpoons in the form of bone or antler tips, and two types of pro-
jectile points (types 3 and 4), both thought to have been used in connec-
tion with the simple harpoons. Between the latter depth and the 72 inch
level, which should be designated the effective midpoint of the deposit,

56

most of the other important archaeological elements of northwestern Cali-
fornia are seen to emerge. These include probable arrow points (type 6),

grooved sinkers, flanged and unflanged pestles, artifacts of slate, toggle
harpoon spurs, tubular steatite pipes, stone adze handles, steatite dishes,
bone head scratchers, and bone awls and f lakers. Above 72 inches, new
increments to the site seem to decrease in number, with only miniature

obsidian blades, bone gouges, worked sea lion teeth, and stone acorn anvils
appearing for the first time, all below the 30 inch level. This level
perhaps represents a time of minor change in the life of the Patrick's

Point people. In addition to a limited number of historic artifacts (e.g.

bottle glass fragments and glass beads) excavated in the upper 30 inches of
deposit, aboriginal types of artifacts such as the barbed (and slotted)

arrow foreshaft, bone whistles, "1C"1- shaped bone fishhooks, and bone needles
were found to be confined in or near this upper portion.

Even allowing for the possibility that Hum-118 was not an important
village, and therefore did not contain the full complement of what may be
called prehistoric Yurok culture elements, we can judge with Bennyhoff

(1950:311) that much of the northwestern California culture pattern had
already been established before the site was occupied. Only the simple
harpoons show variation through time at the site (table 9). While these
typological variations may represent an amazingly quickened and sustained
interestin sea lion hunting on the part of the original occupants of the

site, we are still faced with a possible contradiction when considering the
length of occupation of the site. Perhaps the other types of artifacts

listed are not so susceptible to change, but in any case the uniformity of
culture reflected by them would not suggest long-time occupation. On the
other hand, the change in harpoon types does point to a relatively long
duration of occupation by a well integrated group.

In comparing the probable course of events at site Hum-118 with

those at the Gunther Island site, we are struck with the general similarity
of the artifact assemblages between the two sites. Although we are not

positive about the sequence of simple harpoon types at Hum-67, it may be

noted that all of the major types from site Hum-118 also appeared at Hum-67.
However, as Bennyhoff (1950:312) has commented, there are some slight

differences in the harpoons from the two sites; for example, the slotted

tips of large specimens as well as hooked barbs present at Hum-118 were not
found at site Hum-67.

Other differences are seen in the lack of large ceremonial obsidian
blades at Hum-118. These are an important feature in the burial complex at
Hum-67, and their absence at Hum-118 is perhaps another indication that the
site did not have the status of a permanent village. On the other hand,

57

The presence of both miniature obsidian blades and miniature zooform

clubs at Hum-118 suggests the importance of these classes of artifacts to
the prehistoric cultures in the Yurok region. Characteristically, no
zooform clubs were found above the 24 inch level at site Hum-118., and
the finding of seven miniatures in a total of nine specimens lends

credence to the idea that these animal-form figures served a ceremonial
or magical purpose, rather than some such practical use as clubs for
killing slaves.

The radiocarbon date of about 1310 A.D. for the early levels of

Hum-118 does indeed seem late, especially since a date of about 900 A.D.
has been secured for site Hum-67. Although the charcoal from Hum-118
was not collected during the 1948 excavation, the site is so small in
horizontal area as hardly to allow the possibility of finding charcoal
in a part of the site occupied separately and perhaps later than the

main portion which represented the original occupation. If the charcoal
had been collected at the same spot in 1948, it is believed that it would
have been equally usable as material for dating of the significant or
central part of the deposit.

In the event that the date is accurate, there are several explan-
ations which permit its acceptance without particular strain on the

evidence from elsewhere. First of all, the allowed error for the Hum-118
date is +90 years (see End Note 2) while that for site Hum-67 is +200
years (Crane and Griffin 1961:119). This means that there is a possi-

bility of a gap between the first occupations of the two sites of about
only 120 years. Without placing too much confidence in this remote

contingency, we may nevertheless point out that the great bulk of arti-

facts (and all but one burial) from Hum-67 were recovered from above the
60 inch level, while the charcoal sample was taken at a depth of 104

inches (ibid.) Since the main reason for assuming contemporaneity of the
two sites was originally based upon the similarities of their artifact

assemblages, it could be argued that Hum-67 was indeed the first occupied,
at the indicated date, and that at a later time, when the culture there
had developed its characteristic form, the Patrick's Point site was
founded.

Subsequently the peoples from the two sites must have had contact
with each other, and their manner of living would have varied only in

some relatively minor details. It is remarkable that such similarities

as have been noted could have come about in view of the postulated differ-
ing circumstances of the two sites. Hum-67 seems to have been primarily
a favored burial site, while Hum-118 was most likely an intensively used,
but seasonal, camp spot.

58

II. THE HISTORIC SITE OF TSURAI (HUM-169)

The historic Yurok village known as Tsurai is located on the north
shore of Trinidad Bay, about five and one-half miles south of Hum-118 and
about one-quarter mile due east of a small, rocky point known as Little
Trinidad Head. It has already been stated that Tsurai is, in a way, not

typical of Yurok village locations insofar as it does not lie at the mouth
of a large stream, nor does it overlook a quiet-water lagoon. In spite of
these irregularities, however, Tsurai was indeed a major Yurok village,

and has the distinction of best illustrating a Yurok habitation spot which
was seen by Europeans in the eighteenth century and which continued to be
occupied well into the twentieth century. Its strategic location in a

small natural harbor resulted both in its early discovery by Europeans and
its ultimate downfall, since Trinidad Bay served as a supply port to the
placer miners of the Trinity River after 1850.

Heizer and Mills (1952) collected numerous historical documents

which refer in one way or another to Hum-169, and they divided the native
occupation of the site into four periods (or ages) as follows: (1) Pre-
historic, A.D. 1620(?)-1775; (2) Discovery and Exploration, 1775-1800;

(3) Exploitation, the Fur Trade, 1800-1849; and (4) Decline and Fall, the
American Invasion, 1850-1916. These periods are enumerated because they
are intimately related to the archaeology of the site as here described.

For the purpose of setting forth the entire history of Hum-169

Heizer and Mills merely summarized the prehistoric aspects, and it will
be the purpose of the present report to add substance to these aspects.

Since Tsurai is in approximately the same ecological zone as site Hum-118,
it will not be necessary to repeat the account of the general setting of
the site on the north coast of California, and the following sketch by
Heizer and Mills (1952:13) attests to the similarity in the economy of
the two sites.

Some aspects of the economy of the ancient Tsurai
people can be recovered from archaeology. Thus the

great abundance of bivalve shells tells us that mussels
(Mytilus californianus), cockles (Cardium corbis), and

clams (Saxidomus nuttali), razor shell (Siliqua patula),
and rock oyster (Hinnites multirugosus) were important
dietary resources. Abalones (Haliotis rufescens), sea
urchins (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus), sea snails

Polinices lewisii), and barnacles from the sea helped
fill the larder. Fish bones were abundant, and it may

59

be supposed that rockfish and salmon comprise the bulk
of these remains. Bones of the Roosevelt elk (Cervus
rooseveltii), seal (Phoca callorhinus), and sea lion

(Eumetopias jubata) were very commn and probably fur-
nished the main meat and fat resources, together with
white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and racoon
(Procyon lotor).  Acorns were used, if we are correct
in assigning a function to the stone mortars and

pestles, and various edible roots, bulbs, and berries

must have been eaten. Bones of the sea otter (Enhydra
sp.) are fairly common, and we know from the accounts
of the early visitors to Trinidad Bay that these ani-
mals were hunted for their superior fur.

Today the portion of shoreline where Hum-169 is located, although
undoubtedly much more overgrown than it was when continuously occupied
and not now having any standing living structure, otherwise seemingly
varies little from its aboriginal condition.  In support of this view,
we have an account by William Shaler (reprinted in Heizer and Mills

1952:75-81) which gives an excellent description of the area of the site
in 1804.

This bay is bordered by a rocky shore, with sandy

beaches at intervals; behind this, the land rises very
quick for about one hundred yards, which space is

thickly covered with brakes, nettles, strawberry [black-
berry?] vines, clover and other herbage, and shrubbery.

The top of this elevation is a plain, gently rising, and
covered with a thick forest of cedars, fir, hemlock, and
spruce. A little way in, the trees grow to an enormous
height and size, particularly the cedars [redwoods],
many of which shoot up like beautiful columns, above

eighty feet, without a limb or twig. Behind these, the
mountains rise to a great height, and are covered with
evergreen forests, that are probably co-eval with the

soil that nourishes them. This high land is split at

intervals of about a quarter of a mile, by deep gullies,

down which flow streams of excellent water, into the bay.
These gullies are impenetrable by reason of the thick

growth of underwood and timber; the former is principally
alder, which may be cut at the entrance of the gullies,

and is the only wood that can be procured at Trinity. A
little within, the forest is pierced in every direction

60

Map 2. Site Map of Hum- 1697

Section X-Y (Trench A) Refers to Profile Drawing in Chart 2

61

by paths made by the moose deer [elk], which seem to
abound here.

On the side of the hill, about the middle of the bay,
stands the Indian village; it consists of about a

dozen huts, built of a very rude kind of planks, made
by splitting the ancient trunks of the fallen cedars
with wedges.

Map 2 gives a clear picture of the gradual slope upon which the

site was located-between the upper part of the beach and the level plain
at the top. Small streams which in effect delimit the site on the east

and west both run all year at the present time. They are fed by springs,

and the stream at the east side especially must have provided the original
inhabitants with an adequate water supply. Unlike the Patrick's Point
site, Tsurai has a sheltered position, and the beach below the site is

sandy, usually with but gently breaking waves, in contrast to the jagged
rocks and crashing surf at Patrick's Point. In all, Tsurai gives the

impression of a permanent village oriented to an open coast economy, but
not occupied solely because the sea mammal hunting or the collecting of

molluscs was particularly desirable there., as seems to have been the case
at Patrick's Point. Tsurai was evidently a pleasant place to live for a
variety of reasons.

Since the site was occupied until about 1916, it appears unlikely
that the shell midden deposit would have been greatly disturbed by

vandals or treasure seekers before that date. After 1916 some forays

were made by casual excavators, and certain specimens in local collections
are known to have come from the site. In the summer of 1948 a field class
from the University of California, under the direction of R. F. Heizer,

spent a few days testing in several portions of the site, and in August,

1949, a field crew from the University, under the direction of R. F. Heizer
and J. E. Mills, conducted a large scale excavation there. Most of the
specimens described herein were found during this latter expedition, al-

though some were added to the lot by continued excavation by members of the
University of California Archaeological Survey in September, 1949.

Unfortunately, it was not possible to excavate in certain areas of the site
or anywhere else in the neighborhood of the town of Trinidad where Yurok

cemeteries were known to be located. The only trace of a burial at Hum-169
was encountered fortuitously in the historic level of the site, and little
or nothing not already known about local burial practices in historic times
could be added from this information. Nothing whatever can be set forth on
the burial customs during the prehistoric occupation of the site.

62

Excavation

The estimated 80 per cent sampling of the Patrick's Point site
could not, for various reasons, be duplicated at site Hum-169. It has
been roughly estimated that about 350 cubic yards of midden soil were
excavated at Patrick's Point, and the artifact yield from this mass

consisted of about 2300 stone and bone specimens. It would indeed be

difficult to estimate the percentage of the deposit of Hum-169 investi-
gated by the several University of California groups., since there was

so much dense plant growth on the site. Probably not more than 15 per
cent of the site has been examined so far. If the surface area shown

in Map 2 were covered by a midden deposit which was uniformly deep from
the center to the eastern border of the site, then the figure of 15 per
cent would evidently be far too high.

Whatever the size of the sample relative to the total size of the
deposit, it is certain that Hum-169 is a richer site than Hum-118. The

calculation of about 150 cubic yards of deposit soil excavated at Tsurai,
with about 3300 artifacts found, allows a fair picture of the comparative
richness. The incidence of historic items of metal and glass at Hum-169
was high. Discounting these, it is true that there were about twice as
many artifacts per cubic yard at Tsurai than at Patrick's Point.

In the descriptions of the artifacts which follow, it will be seen
that the upper levels of the site are invariably included in the depth
distribution tables for aboriginal (i.e. prehistoric type) artifacts.

Table 12 indicates that in all excavation units plotted on Map 2, historic
artifacts were found in the upper levels; hence it is recognized that a
definite mixture of ancient and modern types is present in these levels.
We have chosen in general to touch but lightly upon historic type arti-

facts here, partly because these have already been adequately summarized
by Heizer and Mills (1952), and partly because the chief purpose of

minutely describing historic artifacts is to aid in providing approximate
chronological end points to a site having its beginnings in the late pre-
historic period or earlier. In the case of Hum-169, this end point is
already known.

Heizer and Mills (1952:13) have suggested that since no definite

evidence was found of the visit to Trinidad Bay of the Hezeta expedition

in 1775, any objects received from the Spanish by the occupants of the site
were either buried with the dead or discarded when broken or worn out.
It may be assumed also that the Indians obtained such things as metal

knives, axes, needles, and scissors, as well as glass bottles and beads, at

a later date, but that, in general, these objects were secured intermittently,

63

TABLE 12

Depth Distribution of Historic and Prehistoric Types

of Artifacts at Site Hum-169 (see Map 2)

Depths from surface (in.) in Excavation Units
Trench     Levels          No. 1     No. 2     No. 3      No. 4     No. 5

A        Historic        12-36       6-18      6-12     13-24      0-24*

Prehistoric     36-39      18-66     12-81     24-87     24-90
B        Historic         6-18      30-48      0-12     12-36      6-24

Prehistoric     18-42      48-66     12-78     36-78     24-84
C        Historic         8-22       0-6       0-6       6-18      6-48

Prehistoric     22-39       6-42      6-55     18-72     48-96
D        Historic        18-24      13-24     12-18

Prehistoric     24-58      24-60     18-60
E        Historic          0-20     18-24     12-18

Prehistoric     20-60      24-60     18-60
F        Historic         0-6        6-12

Prehistoric      6-69      12-69

G        Historic         12-24     18-24     24-30      4-24

Prehistoric     24-52      24-54     30-48     24-54
H        Historic         18-24      0-18     24-36     12-30

Prehistoric     24-56      18-52     36-52     30-48
T        Historic         19-32

Prehistoric     32-66

*Underlined figures represent total depth of excavation units.

Thus total depth of Trench A, Excavation Unit No. 1, was 39
inches.

and probably not in large quantity, during the fur trading period of

1800-1849 (ibid., 74). The European objects probably could not have had

a great effect upon the local culture patterns at this time, although some
of these items may be represented in the 36-48 inch level; for example, in
excavation units B-2 and C-5 (see table 12). The finds in other units, of

the base of a Sandwich glass vase or lamp (ibid., 86) and some metal objects,
including iron swords-which were probably utilized as trade goods to the
Indians-may also date from the pre-1849 period.

64

The great majority of historic specimens seem to have derived from
the last period of the site's occupation, after 1850. Evidence in support
of this statement may be seen in part in the sheer quantities of metal and
glass artifacts in the upper 36 inches of the midden deposit, and by the

nature and continuous occurrence of some of these artifacts. A good example
of the kind of objects expected in the historic levels is provided by the
excavation of the sweathouse, located about 35 feet northeast of Trench E
(see map 2). The old pit was excavated to a depth of 36 inches and the
following artifacts were recovered:

Artifacts of native manufacture, similar or identical to late pre-

historic types:  20 side-notched net sinkers, 18 chert scrapers, 2 hammer-
stones, 1 anvil, 1 pestle, 1 chopper, 4 concave-base projectile points, 17
abalone ornaments, 1 steatite bowl fragment, 1 chipped stone drill, 1 bone

splinter awl, 8 whole Olivella beads, 7 end- and face-ground pine nut beads,

34 end-ground pine nut beads. Included in this category are several examples
of doubtful classification, such as glass scrapers and whetstones (e.g. pl.

17d). Another example of this adaptation of old techniques to modern mater-
ials is seen in the so-called Desert Side-notched projectile point (Baumhoff
and Byrne 1959) manufactured of bottle glass.

Glass or metal specimens or fragments from obiects not originally
of native manufacture:   1 iron file, 4 iron spikes, 1 metal hoe blade,

1 iron knife blade, 2 metal spoons, 1 iron nail, 1 iron bracelet, 5 brass
buttons, 1 metal shoe grommet, 1 brass thimble, 1 metal suspender buckle,

1 metal can lid, 1 broken cast iron stove door, 10 glass fragments, 2 bottle
bases, 4 bottle tops and necks, 9 chinaware fragments (cups and plates),

1 white clay pipe bowl, 15 white glass buttons. The following trade beads
were found:  10 blue glass, unfaceted; 142 blue glass, hexagonally faceted;
5 white glass, translucent; 3 blue-green glass; 16 red glass with white
center; 2 gray glass.

It will be noted that the most frequently encountered glass beads in
the collection are the hexagonally faceted blue glass variety, which are

identical with those found at Patrick's Point, and which have been noted as
probably having been imported during the period 1840-1860. Some of the

other types may indeed date before this time, but we cannot be sure that

they do not represent survivals from the relatively short time before 1850
when they could have been brought to the site.

In the discussion on the building up of the midden deposit at

Patrick's Point, it was suggested that the smallness of the site plus the
fact that historic materials were in all cases found in the upper levels
only of the deposit, point to a minimum of mixing of ancient and modern

65

materials. Thus it appears that the ordinary procedure of attributing

greater age to specimens occurring at lower depths at site Hum-118 would

in this instance have a certain justification. At site Hum-169 there can
be no such argument, although the generally upper level occurrence of

historic artifacts (table 12) may well indicate a relatively even layer-

ingof the deposit through time. Unfortunately, however, the area of Hum-169
is too great to allow the supposition that the occupation soil aggraded
steadily in any given place on the site. A cross section of the total

slope of Hum-169 would reveal the presence of three separate, level terraces
(indicated in map 2 by greater distances between contour lines) upon which
occupation must have been heavier than elsewhere on the site.

On the other hand, Chart 2 (the reproduced profile of the west wall
of trench A) shows that the slope of the subsoil was less than that of the
surface of the site at the time of the excavation. This suggests that at
least the lowest terrace of the three, in which trenches D and E were dug,
may have attained its level state partially by being built, in effect, on
occupation midden. The soil at the south ends of trenches A-C in fact was
the result of talus deposits, with the midden worked down or slipped down
from above. It was in this part of the excavation that the depth record-
ings of artifacts could not be depended upon. Accordingly, this factor,

plus surface finds, largely explains the presence of so many specimens in
the "no provenience" category in the depth distribution tables which
accompany the artifact descriptions.

While considering the manner in which the various components of the
midden soil may have been deposited, the features excavated (suimmarized in
table 13) should not be neglected. Each of the 25 features recorded (9
rock concentrations, 7 artifactcaches, 6 fire pits, 2 rock walls, and

1 definite house floor) probably reflects some kind of occupation specifi-
cally, rather than mere undifferentiated midden or refuse. Even the rela-
tively formless rock concentrations may have been corners of former houses,
the putative hard clay floors of which have simply disappeared with the
passage of time. All three of the major excavation trenches contained

some features. If the supposition that the features represent the remnants
or adjuncts of some kind of dwelling place is correct, then we can further
assume that the pattern of dwelling location in the eastern edge of the

site observed in the twentieth century (shown in map 2) was not always the
same.  The depth of the midden deposit in trenches G and H, on the western
edge of the site, perhaps bears this out, even though no positive house
floors were located there during the excavations.

66

Ia l         i                         -

g[uw

AKE

0                         c

CO C-

A                                   0

0-A      co  o   ~    co

jefi

0                    04

g?i                      CZ--

A              4J
'J  ----.                 O
~  ?q  3I--.&--              4Co.

x

67

TABLE 13

Features Excavated at Site Hum-169

Feat. I                                 I Location j Depth lAssoc. Objects
No. I            Description           I (Map 2)  | (in.) I   Remarks

I     Fire pit (partially slab-lined)

possibly assoc. with clay house

floor. 22 in. diam., 10 in. deep

2     Section of rock wall (slabs and

cobbles) 51 in. long, 30 in.
deep

3     Cache of stone, bone, and

antler tools. 21 in x 11 in.
area

4     Fire pit, 17 in. diam., 6 in.

deep

5     Cache of bone and antler tools

14 in. x 9 in. area

6     Pile of rocks, possibly a wall

30 in. long, 10 in. deep

7     Fire pit, 48 in. diam, 14 in.

deep

8     Rock concentration with

artifacts. 51 in. x 43 in.
area, 13 in. deep

9     Cache of stone and glass

artifacts. 19 in. x 16
in. area

Tr. A,
S. end

Tr. A,
S. end

D- 3

E-1
D- 2
A- 2

51    1 harpoon barb

Steatite dish &
redwoQd frags.

scattered about
40    1 antler wedge

1 pestle frag.
Redwood board

frags. between
cobbles

16    2 antler wedges

1 bone f laker

16 stone scrapers
Unworked bone and
stone

44    Defined by heavy

layer of charcoal
26    3 antler wedges

3 worked ribs
1 bone awl
15

24    Steatite rocks in

ash layer

50    1 pestle frag.

2 maul frags.

1 Olivella bead
1 scraper

Redwood frags.

scattered about
24    3 steatite bowl

frags., 1 adze

handle, 1 glass
object (candle

stick base). Found
below redwood plank,
above layer of red-
wood bark

E-2
D- 1,

2

A- 2
B-2

D-1, 2

68

TABLE 13 [cont'd.]

Feat.                                  I Location I Depth |Assoc. Objects

No.  I           Description           I (Map 2)  1 (in.) I  Remarks

10     Segment of house floor, flat

slabs & boulders resting on
sand layer. Ca. 15 x 15 ft.
area

11     Fire pit with assoc. unmodified

bone, scattered chert chips;
85 in. diam.

12     Rock (unburnt) concentration,

chert chippage & much fish bone
included. 45 x 26 in. area

13     Rock concentration., with arti-

facts & unmodified land and

sea mammal bones. 12 x 5 ft.
area

14     Cache of chert chips, 12 in.

diam.

15     Concentration of hist. glass

artifacts., 12 in. diam.,
6 in. deep.

16     Concentration of rock and

mammal bone

A- 2,
B- 2,

4
3

G-1, 2
H- 2

63    Arrow straightener

Hammerstone; elk
antler and bones
(unmodified)

30-36   3 side-notched

sinkers., 1 sand-

stone pestle frag.
1 bone wedge

1 pointed bone tool
1 schist blade
7 hammers tones

1 pestle, 1 bone

needle, 2 historic
arti facts

C-3, 4    54-82  4 stone scrapers

A-4
B-4
C-4

G- 2
H- 2

B-4
C-4

2- 57  2 pestle frags.

1 toggle harpoon

spur, 1 net sinker
1 pecked steatite
bowl, 1 steatite
anvil, 1 chopper
1 hmerstone

3 hist. artifacts
20    Ca. 200 flakes

6

20-42   1 bone implement

1 net sinker

2 sect. cut antler
1 maul frag.

1 steat. dish frag.
1 hammers tone

69

TABLE 13 [cont'd.]

Feat. I                                I Location I Depth lAssoc. Objects

No.  I          Description           I (Map 2)  | (in.) |   Remarks

17     Fire pit with large rock lining

19 in. diam.

18     Concentration of rocks

15 x 5 ft. area

19     Concentration of rocks

74 x 27 in. area

20     Concentration of rocks

40 x 38 in. area

21     Concentration of rocks

24 x 8 in. area

22     Fire pit, stone, charcoal,

small bone frags. assoc.
7 x 5 ft. area

23     Cache of steat. bowls, no

evidence of use (4). 15
ft. diam., 9 in. deep

24     Concentration of crude side-

notched net sinkers (11)
30 x 12 in. area

25     Rock concentration with

historic artifacts
32 x 20 in. area

H- 3

A-4
B-4
C-4
G-3
H- 3
G-4
G- 3

A-4
B-4

Tr. C
B-4
C-5

16    In shell layer

above clay house
floor remnant
53-80   2 blade frags.

1 cobble chopper
Sea mammal scap.
41    1 pestle frag.

37    1 bone tool

2 chert scrapers
24    2 historic arti-

facts, glass

76-87   1 side-notched

net sinker

39
80

18    1 steatite cobble

1 clay pipe

1 metal tube

1 crumpled mass
of metal

Despite the inconsistencies indicated by the size of the site and

the fairly steep slope of the terrain, we may assume that the gradual growth
of the deposit was not unbalanced; that is, one part was not built up like
a volcanic cone while an adjacent area remained low and level. The mean

depth of the midden in the excavated portions of the site is about 62 inches,
and this depth (except in two instances) does not differ by more than 24

70

inches from the depths of any individual excavation units. In addition,
the mean lowest depth of occurrence of historic artifacts is 23 inches,

and here in only two instances are differences much greater than one foot
(lower) noted in the individual pits.   These figures, of course, are not
startling, but taken by themselves they present a picture which suggests
that Heizer and Mills (1952:8) were not too far off when they estimated
that the site was originally occupied in about A.D. 1620.

In the following descriptive section on artifacts recovered, the
same order will be adhered to as was used to present the Patrick's Point
data, so that comparisons between the two sites may be facilitated. In
view of what has been said about the possibly irregular nature of the

building up of the deposit, the depth tabulations for the various kinds

of artifacts are presented with the qualification that again the crudeness
of the device is fully realized by the writers. One reason for this can
be plainly seen in Chart 2, which shows the extremely complicated profile

of the longest trench excavated. Similar drawings for all excavation units
are almost equally uneven, and explain why the midden deposit was excavated
in arbitrary levels. There is no easy explanation thus far of the sequence
of events which could have been responsible for this formation at the site.

Artifacts Recovered
Chipped Stone Objects

Projectile points: Ninety-two points were recovered at Hum-169

slightly more than half the number of specimens of this kind found at site

Hum-118. All but two of the types noted earlier for northwestern California
were present, with materials and approximate sizes as follows:

Type 1:  Leaf shape, with convex base (pi. 15a); six specimens, three
chert, three jasper. Large specimen 5.8 cm. long, 3.3 cm. wide, 10 mm.
thick; small specimen 2.7 cm. long, 1.4 cm. wide, 5 mm. thick.

Type 2:  Leaf shape, with pointed base (pl. 15b); four specimens,

three chert, one jasper. Large specimen 7.6 cm. long, 2.7 cm. wide, 10 mm.
thick; small specimen 2.7 cm. long, 1.4 cm. wide, 5 mm. thick.

Type 3:  Triangular, with straight base (pl. 15c-f); 18 specimens,

13 chert, 5 jasper. Large specimen 6.6 cm. long, 3.8 cm. wide, 8 mm. thick;
small specimen 2.6 cm. long, 2 cm. wide, 5 mm. thick; selected average
specimen 4.4 cm. long, 2.3 cm. wide, 6 mm. thick.

71

Type 4: Triangular, with concave base (p1. 15g-o, b'); 37 speci-
mens, 27 chert, 9 jasper, one bottle glass.    Large specimen 6.8 cm. long,
3.5 cm. wide, 8 mm. thick; small specimen 2.7 cm. long, 2.7 cm. wide, 4
mm. thick; selected average specimen 4.8 cm. long, 2.8 cm. wide, 5 mm.
thick.

Type 5a:   Short barb, round or square stem (pl. 15p, q); five

specimens, all chert. Selected average specimen 3.3 cm. long, 1.8 cm.
wide, 4 mm. thick.

Type 5b: Same base form as Type 5a but with long, extended tip
(pl. 15r, s); four specimens, three chert, one obsidian.    Obsidian

specimen 3.7 cm. long, 1.7 mm. wide, 3 mm. thick; selected chert speci-
men 2.7 cm. long, 1.5 cm. wide, 4 mm. thick.

Type 6: Long barbed with short stem, basal notched (pl. 15t-z);
15 specimens, 13 chert, 2 jasper.   Large specimen 4.2 cm. long, 2.1 cm.
wide, 4 mm. thick; small specimen 2.8 cm. long, 1.5 cm. wide, 3 mm.
thick; selected average specimen 3.3 cm. long, 1.7 cm. wide, 4 mm.
thick.

Type 7a: Sloping-shouldered (pl. 15a'); one chert specimen 4.3
cm. long, 1.2 cm. wide, 4 mm. thick.

Type 7b: None found at site Hum-169.
Type 8: None found at site Hum-169.

A single example (pl. 15c') of a Desert Side-notched type of

point (Baumhoff and Byrne 1959) manufactured from bottle glass was found
at the site, without provenience. This type of specimen is character-

istic of late prehistoric and historic time levels in central California
and its presence at Hum-169 was not unexpected.

Apart from the observation that almost twice as many points were

found at the Patrick's Point site as at Hum-169 (see table 14), and that
three types of points (types 2, Sa, b, and 7) were found in small number
at Hum-169 but not at Hum-118, the only notable difference between the
two sites with regard to projectile points is seen in the frequency of
Type 6. All of the other point types shared by the two sites tend to

follow a pattern; for example, Types 4, 3, and 1 are most numerous, in
that order, at Hum-118 (see table 4), and taken together, number 135

specimens, as against 61 specimens of the same types at Hum-169. However,
only nine Type 6 examples were recovered at Patrick's Point, while 15 were

72

TABLE 14

Depth Distribution of Chipped Stone Projectile Points

from Site Hum-169

Depth           Type   Type | Type j Type    Type   Type | Type   Type

(in.)         |   1  |   2   |  3   I   4  1 5a   | 5b   |   6  |   7    Total
0-12                     1      3      3     1              4            12
12-24             1       1      1      5     1      1       1            11
24-36                            3      9     1      1       4            18
36-48              2      2      3      4                    1            12
48-60                            1      2     2      1       1             7
60-72                            4      3                    3            10
72-84                            1      2                                  3
84-96                                   3                                  3
No provenience    3              2      6            1       1      1     14

Total             6       4     18     37     5      4      15      1      90

recorded at Tsurai.
points (and knives)
were used primarily

In the discussion of
at Patrick's Point, it
in the hunting of land

the probable function of projectile
: was suggested that Type 6 points

I mammals. The greater frequency of
that it was less specialized than
iddition to the sea mammal hunting
:o other kinds of hunting.

occurrence at Tsurai may further indicate
at the Patrick's Point site; that is, in a
there may have been more attention given t

Blades: Twenty-seven specimens were found at site Hum-169 (table 15),
18 chert and 9 jasper; this compares to the 81 blades recovered at Patrick's
Point. The Tsurai blades are approximately like those of site Hum-118 in

size and shape, except that at the latter site no such finely made specimen
as that illustrated in Plate 17n was found. This blade has excellent secon-
dary flaking all around, on both of its sides.

The blade shown in Plate 17p is fairly close to the average size of

the Tsurai blades.   It is 6.8 cm. long, 2.8 cm. wide, and 11 mm. thick.   This
specimen is of jasper and, although it does not show any central constriction,
it resembles the miniature obsidian ceremonial blades found at Patrick's

73

TABLE 15

Depth Distribution of Some Chipped Stone

from Site Hum-169

Implements

Depth          I            I    Cobble    I

(in.)          I   Blades   I  Choppers    I  Scrapers
0-12                 6             8             40
12-24                               3            41
24-36                 4             6            36
36-48                 4            13             39
48-60                 2             7             30
60-72                 2             4             10
72-84                                              8
84-96                 1             3              7
No provenience        8            11             31
Total                27            55            292

Point. It is noteworthy that neither miniature
were found in the excavation of Tsurai.

nor large obsidian blades

Choppers: The simplicity of these implements makes it impossible
to distinguish between the specimens found at Patrick's Point and those

recovered at Hum-169. The 55 choppers from Tsurai (pl. 16b-f), which were
fairly evenly distributed in the levels of the deposit (table 15), are all
of beach cobbles, mostly of hard metamorphic rocks, and average about 9.3

cm. long, 8 or 9 cm. wide, and 4 or 5 cm. thick. All but two of the chop-
pers are chipped on one face only. The two bifacially chipped specimens

(one shown in pl. 16b) are equally crude, however, and the chipping on one
of the faces may have been produced accidentally. Some of the specimens
designated as unifacial show occasional scars opposite the deliberately
flaked face.

Scrapers:  As at site Hum-118, the scrapers from Tsurai represent

the most numerous type of chipped implement found. The 292 scrapers from

Tsurai are divided about equally between slightly chipped ("use-retouched")
specimens and those with relatively refined unifacial flaking along one or

74

several edges. Material is predominantly chert, with jasper well repre-

sented. Among the crudest specimens are two obsidian and three milk quartz
examples, the latter of extremely low grade material and classified as

scrapers with some reservation. One scraper (pl. 18k) is of a high quality,
almost translucent flint. This was found at a depth of 13 inches, in the
historic level of the deposit, and may actually be a gunflint of Euro-

American manufacture. Hamilton (1964:54) illustrates French gunflints known
to have been manufactured in the nineteenth century, one of which resembles
the Tsurai specimen.

The pointed scraper shown in Plate 18i may originally have been

intended as a projectile point. It is steeply ridged on one side and flat

on the other, however, and in spite of its markedly pointed end would serve
admirably as a scraper or small plane.

Average sized specimens measure about 5.4 cm. long, 4 cm. wide, and
1.2 cm. thick.

Drills and saws: Four drills, of which three have an expanded base
(type 1), were found at site Hum-118. The latter are all of chert and were
found in the 48-60 inch level (one) and in the 24-36 inch level (two).

They are not essentially different from the corresponding examples of the
type recovered at site Hum-118 (pl. 17q, r).

One specimen, possibly of the so-called "nail-type" (type 2) found
at Patrick's Point, was without provenience (pl. 17s).  This drill, with

its delicate and widely flaring finger grip(?), seems unique for the region
of the historic Yurok. Perhaps, however, the nail-type at Patrick's Point

was originally like this specimen but later had its grips broken off at the
point where they became the shank of the drill.

One specimen only has been identified as a saw. This is a tabular

chert flake 3 cm. long, 1.2 cm. wide, and 4 mm. thick, with slight, chipped
serrations on both long edges.

Ground Stone Objects

Steatite vessels: Fourteen steatite vessels complete enough to be
measured were recovered (table 16), although four of these were miniature
specimens evidently not intended to serve as grease-catching dishes, the
function postulated for the large specimens found at Hum-118. The ten

larger specimens were either round (four) or oval in shape, the three of

the latter carved to resemble the shapes of the wooden canoes of the his-
toric Yurok. Thirty-three fragments of steatite vessels were recovered,

75

from all but the 84-96 inch level of the deposit, and these seem largely

to be parts of round or oval vessels.   One specimen, however, is a corner
of what must have been a large rectangular-shaped vessel, like several of
those from Patrick's Point (p1. 3a).

All of the round vessels do not have evidence of carbonized organic
matter adhering to them, such as would be produced if the specimens were

used as dishes for catching grease from salmon in the process of its being
smoked over a fire. This does not mean that the round-shaped vessels were
not intended for this purpose, however, as three of the specimens were not
in a finished state (cf. pl. 20f), and one (pl. 20d) was found in a cache
(feature 23, p. 69) containing finished vessels, none of which obviously

had yet been used for any purpose whatsoever; they were in "mint" condition.

The four miniature specimens also present some question as to orig-
inal use. One of these (pl. 21b) is a finished replica of the larger
vessels, while the others (pl. 21a, c, d) appear to be in an incipient

state of manufacture. Perhaps they were intended as toys to be used by

children, in anticipation of a particular domestic chore which played an
important part in the lives of the occupants of the site.

Additional details of the steatite vessels are as follows:

(1) Round specimens: two with rounded bottom, two with flat bottom.
Mean measurements are 13 cm. in diameter, 9 mm. wall thickness (complete

specimen only), 6.2 cm. height, and 3.3 cm. basin depth (examples shown in
pl. 20d, f).

(2) Oval specimens:   one with flat bottom, two with rounded bottom.
Mean measurements are 14.3 cm. length, 9.7 cm. width, 1.5 cm. wall thick-

ness, 4.3 cm. height, and 3 cm. basin depth (examples shown in pl. 20b, e;
note that vessel in pl. 20e shows a crudely incised design on its edge).

(3) Canoe-shaped specimens: one with rounded bottom, two with flat
bottom.  Mean measurements are 19.6 cm. length, 11.5 cm. width, 1.9 cm.

wall thickness, 5.7 cm. height, and 3 cm. basin depth (examples shown in
pl. 20a, c).

(4) Miniature specimens:   one with flat bottom, three pebble-like,
with rounded bottom and shallow depression on top. Mean measurements are

7.8 cm. length, 5.6 cm. width, 3 cm. height, 11 mm. wall thickness (shaped,
flatbottomed specimen only), and 15 mm. depth of bowl (examples shown in
pl. 21a-d).

Mortars and pestles: Five hopper mortar slabs were recovered at
site Hum-169. None of these differed essentially from the Patrick's

76

Point examples and are therefore believed to have been used primarily for
grinding acorns. These specimens are all relatively thick slabs of sand-
stone, flat on the surfaces which contain the depressions and slightly

rounded or flat on the opposite or lower surface. One specimen only has
depressions on both upper and lower surfaces. The slabs are subcircular,
subrectangular, ovoid, and polygonal (one 4- and one 5-sided) in shape.
In spite of this variety of shapes, however, the slabs are all almost

equal in size, with mean measurements of about 45 cm. in length, 35 cm.

in width, and 10 cm. in thickness. The grinding depressions likewise do

not vary between specimens either in shape or in location near the centers
of the slabs.  The depressions are ovoid rather than round, with mean

measurements 15.5 cm. long, 12 cm. wide, and 3 cm. in depth. Two of the
hopper slab mortars from site Hum-169 are illustrated in Heizer and Mills
(1952:86).

Twenty-two pestles were excavated at Hum-169, of which 18 are the
simple type, three the "offset" type (found at Hum-67 on Gunther Island
but not at Patrick's Point), and one a fragmentary flanged specimen. A
fine complete example of the latter type from Tsurai (but without other
provenience data) is in the collections of the R. H. Lowie Museum of

Anthropology of the University of California, Berkeley, and is illustrated
by Heizer and Mills (1952). This specimen is 54 cm. long, 5.8 cm. in

diameter, with its ring or flange extending out 4 mm. from the sides of

the specimen. The flange is 14.5 cm. from the distal end. The excavated
fragment, from the 36-48 inch level, probably was not originally as long
as the complete one, although it is almost identical in other respects.

It is 21.5 cm. long, 6.2 cm. in diameter, and its flange, 13 cm. from the
distal end, also extends out 4 mm. from its sides. Like the complete
specimen, it had been symmetrically shaped and finely polished.

The simple pestles are represented by 11 complete specimens and
7 fragments (table 16). The largestof the complete specimens measures
25.6 cm. long and 8 cm. in diameter, the smallest is 11 cm. long and 5
cm. in diameter. The mean size of the simple pestles is 18.5 cm. in

length and 6.7 cm. in diameter. All were manufactured from hard sandstone.
One specimen, which may be designated as a simple pestle-hammerstone (pl.
19d), is 10 cm. long and 7 cm. wide. Its flattened, or hammerstone, end
seems to have been used most frequently, but its proximal end is also
pecked in the form of a conventional pestle.

Of the three examples of the so-called offset type of pestle, the
smallest (pl. 19c) may not be a good representative of the type as its

offset, or expansion, shoulder occurs at only 4.5 cm. from the proximal

end. The outlines of this pestle are complete; it is 16 cm. long, with a

77

TABLE 16

Depth Distribution of Some Ground Stone Implements

from Site Hum-169

Depth              Steatite Vessels   | Slab          Pestles      l

(in.)          | Fragments   Complete   Mortars | Simple   Offset   Mauls
0-12                4          3          2          1        1

12-24                6          1          1         1                2
24-36                5          2                    2

36-48                4          4          1         4                2
48-60                4          4                    1        1        1
60-72                2                                        1
72-84                1                               1

No provenience       7          2          1         8                4
Total               33         14          5        18        3        9

maximum diameter of 6 cm. and the diameter on its reduced portion is 4.7

cm. Two fragmentary specimens resemble the distal ends of similar speci-
mens found at site Hum-67. These two fragments (pl. 19g, h) are 19.5 cm.
and 8.3 cm. long, 7 and 7.5 cm. in diameter at the shoulders, which are
located 7 and 6 cm. respectively from the flattish distal ends of the
specimens.

Mauls:  Nine specimens, identifiable either by flattened distal or
wedge-pounding ends, or by markedly or slightly constricted necks near

their presumed proximal ends, were recovered (table 16). Only two complete
specimens (p1. 19a, b) were found, and neither of these shows the charac-
teristic pear-shape of the type described for other archaeological and

ethnographic sites of northwestern California. The maul shown in Plate 19a
is of hard sandstone and is almost rectangular in cross section. It is

16 cm. long and 7 and 8 cm. in diameter at its flattened pounding end. Its
proximal extremity shows evidence of a break, but below this break is a

shallow, pecked encircling groove. This seems to have been at least a ges-
ture in the direction of providing the maul with a constricted neck. The
smaller complete specimen, also of sandstone, is 12.5 cm. long, 3 cm. in
diameter at the proximal end, and 5.5 cm. in diameter at the distal end,

78

which has a slightly concave pounding surface. The pecked encircling
groove below the intact proximal end is more marked on this specimen
than on the larger maul.

The two fragmentary "handles" shown in Plate 19e, f are of stea-

tite and sandstone respectively. These are the typical proximal ends of
the northwestern California pear-shaped mauls.

The remainder of the mauls are of sandstone; they are distal end
fragments which, in view of what has been shown, may have had one of the
two kinds of handles described, or some other perhaps plain, handle por-

tion. The maul shown in Plate 19i is unusual in that its original handle
surface had obviously been broken off, but the spot of the break had been
reworked by pecking and perhaps grinding so that the maul was still in

usable condition. Its smoothed flat pounding surface is 10 cm. in diameter.

Hammerstones:  The 51 hammerstones excavated at site Hum-169 do not
differ in any marked way from the Patrick's Point specimens already des-
cribed, either in material, size, shape, or number of edges which show
battering (see table 17). One sandstone specimen, 9 cm. long, 6.6 cm.

wide, and 3.6 cm. thick, is of about average size for hammerstones, and

shows secondary use as an anvil as well.   It has pits averaging 11 mm. in

diameter and 5 mm. deep on both faces. Another specimen (pl. 19d) has been
described as a pestle-hammerstone.

Anvils: There were ten hammerstones recovered at Patrick's Point
which had evidence of secondary use as anvils, and only four sandstone

specimens which presumably could have served only as anvils. The occur-

rences at site Hum-169 follow a slightly different pattern, probably because
of the easier availability of steatite at the site. Of 12 anvils recovered
at Hum-169, 5 are of steatite and 7 are of sandstone. Three of the stea-
tite examples are shown in Plate 21f, i, j. Two of the latter are like
sandstone specimens from sites Hum-118 and Hum-169 (pl. 21f, i) in that
they are simply rounded pebbles with small depressions in their centers

(on one face only). The odd specimen (pl. 21j) has numerous round holes

drilled on its surface, obviously produced by some kind of drill or speci-
ally shaped stone. One of the holes, however, is several centimeters deep
and its sides are irregularly shaped, thus giving rise to the supposition
that it was made fortuitously by some kind of rock-boring organism.

Net sinkers: The 331 side-notched sinkers found at Tsurai (table 17)
vary so little in size, shape, and material from those of Patrick's Point

that the specimens shown from the latter site (pl. 9d-g) will serve as well

to illustrate examples from Hum-169. Perhaps the only significant variation

79

TABLE 17

Depth Distribution of Some Additional Ground Stone Implements

from Site Hum-169

I         l    Anvils           Net Sinkers..

Depth           Hammer-   sand-    stea-    side-      end-    Arrow Shaft
(in.)           stones    stone   tite    notched    notched j Smoothers
0-12              4                         51                      2
12-24              6                         44                     3
24-36             12        1                61         1           6
36-48              7        1        2       33

48-60              8        2        1        9         1
60-72              3                          8

72-84                                         2                     2
84-96                                         5                      1
No provenience    11        3        2      118         2

Total             51        7        5      331         4           14

between the two sites in the matter of sinkers is that where six caches or
features at Hum-118 indicated an ancient storing or hiding of fish nets

already equipped with sinkers, no such concentrations were found at Tsurai.
Sinkers were recovered in some features there, but not in numbers suggest-
ing the presence of a net.

Four end-notched specimens were excavated at Hum-169 (pl. 18e, f)

and these are similar to the Hum-118 sinkers of the type, except that none
of them appeared to have been used secondarily as a hammerstone.

The single grooved sandstone fragment (pl. 18g) from site Hum-169 is
4.5 cm. long, 4 cm. wide, 1.8 cm. thick, and has a groove 4 mm. wide and 3

mm. deep evidently girdling the specimen. The presence of this one example,

found at a depth of six inches in the deposit, allows us to state that at all
of the sites discussed in detail in this report-.Hum-67, 118, 169-the same
types or subtypes of sinkers were found.

80

Adze handles: Two fragmentary handles, one of fine-grained sandstone
and another of a schistose, slatey material, were found in the 36-48 inch
level of the deposit.   One complete specimen, of sandstone, was found with
Feature 9 (p. 67) at a depth of 24 inches (pl. 18c, d). None of the speci-
mens differ in any important respect from those recovered in archaeological
sites or those known ethnographically in northwestern California. For

example, the complete specimen from site Hum-169 shows the typical curve

of the handle and, on the distal end, the recessing on one side and grooving
on the other, designed to receive and secure the (shell) blade.    The com-

plete specimen (pl. 18c) has a small "spur" on the outer side of the curved
handle; both of the handles illustrated have well executed grooves or
depressions running along the inner parts of the curve.

Steatite pipe bowls:   Although relatively long tubular stone pipes
are common in northwestern California, and one specimen from Hum-169 is

known to be in the collection made in 1793 by the Vancouver expedition (see
Heizer and Mills 1952:15), none of this variety of pipe was recovered in

the recent excavations.   However, three steatite bowl inserts (two fragmen-
tary and one complete specimens) were found, one at a depth of 60 inches
(pl. 17e), one in the 0-12 inch level, and one without provenience (pl.
17f). The latter specimen still retains evidence of dottle in its bowl,
and roughening or knurling is discernible on its base. The roughening,

plus some kind of mastic, would provide a tight fit of the bowl into the

wooden tubular shaft. Goddard (1903:pl. 17) illustrates both detached and
fitted bowls in use by the historic Hupa and Yurok, and these seem to be
identical with the specimens from Tsurai.

Worked slate objects: Apart from the adze handle fragment and the
slate pendants described on page 81, the only noteworthy pieces of slate
from Tsurai are one incised tabular piece and two club fragments. The

decorated piece has smooth edges and faces, with crudely incised lines on
one surface only (pl. 17a). The most prominent of these lines are four
parallel, transverse scratches extending the width of the object, with
spacing between them varying from 2.1 to 4.9 cm. This specimen is 11.2

cm. long, 5.9 cm. wide, and 10 mm. thick. It was found at a depth of 79
inches.

Plate 18a shows a whale bone specimen (described on p. 95) which is
mentioned at this point to draw attention to the fact that even though no

zooform clubs were excavated at Hum-169, other types of clubs were present
at the site.  Two clubs, one an object of polished slate and one of a

slate-like, fine-grained sandstone, both fragmentary, probably could fit
Kroeber's (1925:50) description of the type of club used (for "cracking
heads") by the historic Yurok-short, spatula-shaped, and blunt edged.

81

The bone object could almost fit the type except for its material; also
Driver (1939:371) reports the nonuse of whalebone clubs among the Yurok.

The probable club fragment of gray, slate-like material (pl. 18b)
was found at a depth of 69 inches in the deposit. It was obviously

crudely shaped by flaking, and parts of its flattish surface and one edge
have been smoothly ground. It is 2.5 cm. in thickness at a point near

the break. Another similar specimen (without provenience) is also broken
at one end-apparently the proximal end since the specimen has a shoulder
and consequently a reduced portion which would serve as a sort of handle.
This piece is 22.2 cm. long, 7.4 cm. wide, and 1.9 cm. thick at its
center.

Several finished slate clubs are known from site Hum-67, of a type
to which the Tsurai specimens could also correspond. These probably

indicate that the type was not necessarily a late introduction into north-
western California, and almost certainly coexisted, in some sites at least,
with the so-called zooform clubs.

The observation than no spatulate stone clubs were found at Patrick's
Point further illustrates the differences in the slate working industry at
sites Hum-118 and Hum-169. Table 7 shows that many more and various types
of slate specimens were excavated at Hum-118 than at Tsurai.

Stone pendants: Seven pendants (pi. 17g-m) were found at Hum-169,
four of them steatite and three slate. Two of the steatite pendants were

recovered without exact provenience, one was found at a depth of 22 inches,
and the other at 32 inches. One of the steatite pieces (pl. 17f) is ques-
tionable.  However, even though it shows no evidence of a perforation, and
is less thick (measuring only 4 mm. in thickness) than the other steatite
examples, its general shape suggests an incipient pendant. The three

remaining steatite pieces all show biconical drilling of their perforations
and all were made from fairly heavy fragments of steatite, averaging 15 mm.
in thickness. As may be seen in Plate 17, two of the pendants are quite

crude in shape and finish, but the example shown in Plate 17h is relatively
symmetrical in shape, well finished, and has in addition an incised design
on one of its faces. This specimen was found at an undetermined depth in
the historic sweathouse (map 2). It is also illustrated in Heizer and
Mills (1952:12).

One of the three slate pendants was recovered without exact proven-
ience, and the remaining two were found at depths of 30-36 inches and 40
inches respectively. The examples illustrated in Plate 17i, j are both
complete, biconically drilled, and about the same thickness-4 and 3 mm.

82

respectively. The remaining piece is broken in the area of the suspension
hole and perhaps broken longitudinally as well, thus giving its perforation
merely the appearance of having been drilled conically. In its present
form the pendant is 6 mm. thick.

Arrow shaft smoothers: In contrast to the Patrick's Point site

where no grooved arrow shaft smoothers were recovered, 14 specimens were

excavated at Tsurai, in the lower as well as the upper levels (see table 17).
Although most of these specimens are broken at one end, all of them would
have been usable in the state in which they were found, assuming that the

function assigned to them is correct (cf. Driver 1939:327: historic use by
Yurok, Wiyot, and other groups in northwestern California of stone

"tstraightener," 2 piece, longitudinal groove, of abrasive stone). They

were all manufactured from a distinctive, coarse grade of sandstone, and
all have similar grooving. Judging from the sizes of the fragments and

the complete specimens (pl. 16g-i), an average arrow shaft smoother would
be about 8 cm. long, 4.2 cm. wide, and 2.5 cm. thick, with rounded grooves
6 or 7 mm. wide and 2 or 3 mm. deep. The grooved surface on most of the
specimens is rectangular in shape, and the sides are either straight or

incurving to a rounded or flattish bottom, narrower than the upper grooved
portion. These implements, if used in pairs on opposite sides of a slender
wooden shaft, would serve admirably to shape and smooth it.

Miscellaneous stone objects:   In all of the sites so far excavated
in northwestern California, numerous unshaped rocks, having various abra-
sions, irregular grooves, or odd pits or depressions, have been found.

Site Hum-169 is no different from the other sites in this respect, except
that it seems to have more than its expected quota of steatite specimens
of doubtful function. The large, grooved steatite chunk shown in Plate
16a, for example, seems too small to be an anchor and too large to be a

sinker. It is 13 cm. long, 8.5 cm. wide, and 8 cm. thick, with a groove
encircling its long dimension, and another groove half-circling its short
dimension.  The large groove is 12 mm. wide, 5 mm. deep, while the short
one is 6 mm. wide and 2 mm. deep. There is little question that these

grooves were meant to secure some kind of line, running around the speci-
men, probably for a maritime purpose. The piece was found at a depth of
24 inches.

Two grooved steatite specimens (pl. 21g, f), both found in the

12-24 inch level of the site, superficially resemble the grooved arrow

straighteners of the southern Sierra Nevada (Elsasser 1960:33; cf. Driver
1939:371:  one piece, steatite, transverse groove straighteners, denied
by all informants in northwestern California). Upon closer inspection
these objects are found to be unsuited for the purpose of straightening

83

arrows since the grooves, which appear on one surface only, show no sign
of wear from use. They are "V"-shaped, and in their present form (4 mm.
wide, 4 mm. deep) would be far too small to receive any such object as a
cane or wooden arrow shaft. If these objects were manufactured from an
abrasive material like sandstone, there would be little hesitation in
assigning to them some such function as an awl-sharpener.

A chunk of steatite 7 cm. long and about 3.8 cm. in diameter, re-

covered at a depth of 36 inches (pi. 21e), is shaped and polished all over
but shows no sign of use whatever. Perhaps it was intended to be a gaming
stone or even a charmstone.   If the latter, it should be noted that there
is no means of suspending it-such as a hole or a neck constriction-and

it therefore cannot be readily compared with charmstones from archaeologi-
cal sites in central California.

Seven pieces of steatite-three from the 0-12 level, one from the

18-24 inch level, and three without provenience-appear to merit more than
assignment to the category of casually worked stones. These are all sub-
globular or subcubical chunks from 4 to 8 cm. long, and are ground or
polished on parts of their surfaces as if some definite implement was

intended but never shaped up to an identifiable form. Grooves and scratches
may be fortuitous, but may also represent markers, for example, where the
steatite was intended to be cut or ground later.

Among the non-steatite rocks, there were two examples, found in the
24-36 inch level, which had red ocher stains on their surfaces. Ordinar-
ily, one would surmise that such rocks would be associated with burials;
neither rock, however, was found in the vicinity of an interment.

One sandstone piece, with evidence of pecking near its center, was
found at a depth of 79 inches and was classified tentatively as a small,
unfinished mortar. This specimen is 18 cm. long but only 11 cm. wide;
hence it seems unlikely that it could have been intended for use as a
hopper mortar, which evidently was the preferred type at site Hum-169.

Bone and Antler Artifacts

Simple harpoons: Table 18 discloses that fewer simple harpoons

were recovered at Hum-169 than at Hum-118 (see table 8). In keeping with
this smaller number, it is observed that the harpoons with the bilateral
line shoulder bases (types IA and IIA) were not found at all at Tsurai.
It has been suggested that these two types of harpoon may represent an
early type in this part of California, and the guess that Tsurai was

initially occupied at a later date than site Hum-118 thus seems to be

84

TABLE 18

Depth Distribution of Simple Bone and Antler Harpoons

from Site Hum-169

Depth             |        Simple Harpoon Types             Barbs, Tips, or
(in.)                IB        IIB       IC       IIC       Other Fragments
0-12                           1        3                         1
12-24                                    1

24-36                           1        4b                        3
36-48                                    7

48-60                           1                                  1
60-72                 2a        2                                  1
72-84

84-96                                                              2
No provenience                           3c         ld             5
Total                 2         5       18          1             13

a: One specimen classified as Type IB2b; Walker Coll., Trinidad, Calif.
b: Two specimens classified as Type IC2b (see pl. 22b, d)

c: Two specimens classified as Type IC2b (see Bennyhoff 1950:fig. 6a, b)
d. Classified as Type IICla (see pl. 22e)

borne out in part by evidence provided by harpoons. The relationship between
numbers of subtype "B" (bilateral line guard) and subtype "C" (unilateral line
guard) simple harpoons is also approximately reversed at the two sites: 28

subtype "B" and 5 "C" at Hum-118 as against 7 subtype "B" and 19 "C" at Tsurai,
This also points to another postulated sequence ("B" preceding "C" in time of
introduction) which in turn is supported by difference in depths of the two

subtypes at Tsurai (table 18). Bennyhoff (1950:310) suggests that the sequence
"A"l-l'B"1-"C" is substantiated also by the wider geographical distribution and
ethnographic occurrence of the subtype "C" specimens.

The relative proportions of antler to bone specimens may refer only
to local preferences, but the figures of 18 antler to 8 bone specimens at
Tsurai do not correspond to proportions in materials for the two most
frequent types of harpoons at Patrick's Point.

In spite of these differences in the harpoon assemblages from the

two sites, it is clear that we are dealing with the same general kinds of

85

projectiles. All of the simple harpoons recovered at site Hum-169 are
unilaterally barbed, as are those from Hum-118. Judging from the near-
complete or complete specimens, two barbs on each harpoon seem to have
been the preferred number at both sites. Hooked and simple barbs (pi.

22d, e) are present on specimens from both sites, and the large harpoons
from both seem, with but few exceptions, to have slotted tips.    Finally,
reworking of harpoons into some such tool as a flaker (pl. 22f) was
practiced at both sites.

Among the minor differences we may note that none of the Hum-169
specimens recovered had either roughened or incised bases or barb tips,

such as are seen on some Patrick's Point specimens. The possible occur-
rence of the line-hole at the base of the harpoon is exemplified by the

specimen shown in Plate 22k. This object was found in the upper portion
of the midden deposit (0-36 inches). It is waterworn and of doubtful
form at best, but its base does have an unmistakable depression which

appears to be one side of a biconically drilled hole. The remainder of
the base was presumably broken off, and the area of the break was subse-
quently worn down. No line-hole harpoons were found at site Hum-118,

and the Hum-67 specimen with a line-hole is also in the doubtful category.
It was not even classified as a harpoon fragment by Loud (1918); however,
Bennyhoff (1950:fig. 6i) shows it as a part of a Type ID harpoon.

No marked example of the practice of offsetting the barb from the
medial plane of the harpoon-such as that shown for Patrick's Point

specimens (pl. llh, k)-is seen among the Tsurai examples.    However, when
a specimen was manufactured from a slightly bent piece of antler, like

the one shown in Plate 22d, the barb tends to appear offset.   The torque
effect thus is present to a small degree on four Hum-169 harpoons, two

showing slight twists to the right and two to the left, when viewed from
the proper angle.

Five examples of hooked barbs were noted on the simple harpoons
from Hum-169.  Only one such barb was recorded from Patrick's Point.

Composite harpoons and fish spears: Bennyhoff (1950:306), in

employing an expansion of an earlier typology of toggle spurs by Drucker
(1943), has drawn distinctions between types based upon several factors,
including size, shape of socket and barb ends, and, most significantly,
the form and extent of the central channel. Thus Type I examples have
central channels broken by a medial ridge (example shown in pl. 22t),

while Type III specimens have central "V" shaped channels extending from
three-quarters to full length of the objects (pl. 22s). Type II toggle
spurs (with scarffed tips) have not been found in California. Type III

86

examples alone were recovered at Patrick's Point, while at Tsurai both

Types I and III appeared. In both of these types there is a further sub-
division, designated by "a" (with rectanguloid socket end) and "b" (with
forked socket end, see pl. 22s). The Hum-169 specimens fall within the
length range given by Bennyhoff (1950:306) for northwestern California
types, as follows: Ia (5.5-7.5 cm.); Ib (5.5-9.0 cm.); IlIa and IIIb
(4-6 cm.).

Table 19 shows an irregular distribution of these various toggle
spurs at site Hum-169. As at Patrick's Point, there were not sufficient
numbers of toggle spurs recovered to allow meaningful conclusions to be
drawn concerning their stratigraphical relationships. All of the types
except IIla are represented in the 60-72 inch level or below by one

example only, and all types are found in the upper levels of the site as
well.

The toggle spurs just described are the most easily identified
parts of the three-piece composite harpoons used ethnographically in

northern California and found there in archaeological sites. The stone
or bone point or tip components for these specimens are not readily
recognized when excavated as being specifically related to composite

harpoons; hence the assigning of certain bone specimens to this role is
here done with reservations.

At site Hum-118 one bipointed bone pin, labeled as a Type Tlf com-
posite harpoon tip (pl. llo), was found. Bennyhoff (1950:306) explained
that this classification was based upon the assumption that these arti-

facts were needlessly specialized for use as gorges or in composite hooks,
hence they might well serve in certain types of toggle harpoons. One

such specimen, practically identical to that from site Hum-118, was found
at Tsurai at a depth of 66 inches. In addition, 12 pins (table 19) were

found at Tsurai which differ from the Tlf pins in not being bipointed and
in having flat-elliptical rather than cylindrical cross sections. The

blunt-based pins or composite harpoon points are designated Type Ul, and

also fall within the length range of 5 to 8 cm. observed for these objects
from northwestern California (ibid.). Examples are shown in Plate 22m-q.

The type of barbed foreshaft or arrow point fragment from the

Patrick's Point site, shown by Bennyhoff (1950:fig. 5w) and reproduced

herein in Plate llp, was represented at Tsurai by two specimens, one com-
plete (pl. 221) and one fragmentary. These delicate objects have small
slots at their ends, evidently designed to receive small stone points.

The complete specimen is virtually identical with the two "double-barbed
foreshafts" illustrated by Kroeber and Barrett (1960:pl. 19e-h) and

87

TABLE 19

Depth Distribution of Toggle Harpoon Spurs, Bone Harpoon Points,

and Barbed Spear Points from Site Hum-169

Depth            I          Spur Types               Point       Bone Barbed
(in.)              Ia     Ib      IIIa     IIIb  | Type Ul    | Spear Point

0-12                      1                            3             1
12-24              1       1       1                    2

24-36                                        3         2              1
36-48                                                   1
48-60

60-72              1                         1
72-84                      1
84-96

No provenience      1              1                    4

Total               3      3       2         4         12             2

attributed to historic northwestern California.

recovered from the upper 36 inches of the midden

These foreshafts were both
deposit (table 19).

Modified antler and antler wedges: Eighty-nine pieces of antler,
which had been cut circumferentially at either one or both ends (cf. p1.
23a, b), irregularly polished, hacked, or split, were found at Hum-169

(table 20). Fifteen of the specimens were simply fragments with one end

(tip?) slightly ground or polished and the other apparently showing where

the terminal was hacked off the larger piece of antler. Both elk and deer
were represented among the specimens, although, as has already been men-

tioned, the identification is not easily made on broken specimens. Judging
from the sizes of the fragments encountered, it seems reasonable to suggest
that about 85 per cent of the antler pieces came from the Roosevelt elk.

Since the modified antler collection from Hum-169 strongly resembles that

from site Hum-118, it is not thought necessary to itemize here the several
minor variations shown between the specimens.

The antler wedges from Tsurai also tend to follow the pattern of the

88

TABLE 20

Depth Distribution of Some Bone and Antler Implements

from Site Hum-169

l        l        I    -    -  Flaker Types

Depth            Worked    Antler | Split rib          Whole     Bone

(in.)            Antler | Wedges   or Antler    Ulna    Rib    Splinter
0-12                9        2         2                           2
12-24              11         9         6                          3
24-36              16        12        12         3      2         1
36-48              13         9         2         1                2
48-60                3        3         5                          2
60-72               4         1         1                          5
72-84               2                   2                          2
84-96                         2                   1                1
No provenience     31        13         7         2      1         1
Total               89       51        37         7      3        19

Patrick's Point assemblage.  Fifty-one specimens (table 20) were recov-
ered; of these 27 are complete while the rest are in variously damaged
conditions, that is, some are broken at one or both ends and others are

simply broken in half longitudinally. Twenty of the 27 complete examples
are of elk antler, while the remaining 7 are either doubtful or were made
from deer antler. The sizes of these specimens are approximately the

same as those of similar objects from Patrick's Point. They range from

7 to 20 cm. in length, 2 to 7 cm. in width, and 1.5 to 3 cm. in thickness
(near their centers). The specimen illustrated in Plate 23e provides a
good example of the battering at the poll, probably by a stone maul,
resulting in a bending aside of the fibrous tissue of the antler.

Bone gouges: The function of bone gouges has been discussed along
with the description of the specimens from Patrick's Point (p. 46) where
three bone gouges were excavated. At Hum-169 one complete and three

fragmentary specimens were found, the former without provenience, and the

latter distributed in each of the three 12 inch levels, from 12 to 48 inches.

89

The complete specimen was manufactured from an elk cannon bone. It is

22 cm. long, 3.7 cm. wide, and 1.5 cm. thick, with grinding and polishing
marks on almost the entire length of its inner edge (pl. 23k). Two of the
fragments have their cutting or gouging edges missing, but it is clear

from the thinning and polishing of the split cannon bone from which they

were made what kind of tool is represented. The tip or cutting edge frag-
ment evidently corresponds to a specimen of about the same size as the
complete one.

Bone or antler flakers:   The collection of flakers from Tsurai

totaled 66 specimens (table 20) compared with 58 found at Patrick's Point.
Examples are illustrated in Plate 23h-j. The numbers of each type of

flaker (split rib or antler, ulna, whole rib, bone splinter) from each

site tend to correspond, except that more of the bone splinter type were
found at Tsurai than at Patrick's Point-19 specimens compared to 3.

Since the flakers are all of about the same quality of workmanship and
also average about the same size (ca. 10 cm. long), the difference in

number shown by one type is probably not significant in terms of chrono-
logical reckoning at either site.

Two worked penis bones, probably of seal, are not included in the

tabulations for flakers from site Hum-169, mainly because they are really
in a doubtful category and are only mentioned here because they resemble
flakers more than they do any other kind of implement found at the site.
One was without provenience, and the other was excavated from a depth of
60-66 inches. Both specimens are about 9 cm. long and are ground or

polished about one-third of their lengths, measuring from the distal ends
(pl. 231).

Worked bone objects: Although more unidentifiable worked bone

specimens were recovered at Tsurai than at Patrick's Point, the kinds of
objects represented are about the same at both sites.    Thus, of the 115
examples (table 21) at Hum-169, 56 pieces are evidently from long bones

of mammals-split, notched, splintered, or irregularly ground.      This num-
ber includes 6 definite fragments of elk cannon bones with evidence of

cutting upon them. There are 36 split rib fragments, notched, hacked, or,
like the long bones, irregularly ground; 16 whole (unsplit) rib fragments
with the same kind of working upon them as upon the split specimens; 5
irregularly cut bird bones, and 3 pieces of cut whale bone. Since the
various objects which make up this assortment approximate in size and

general crudeness the similar specimens from Patrick's Point, the assign-
ment of such labels as "incipient tools," "broken tool fragments," or

merely "crude, unidentifiable bone objects" should suffice here as well.
If selected specimens were illustrated, they would surely resemble the
examples from Hum-118 shown in Plate 7.

90

TABLE 21

Depth Distribution of Miscellaneous Bone Objects

at Site Hum-169

Depth             Modified    Grooved    Spatulate

(in.)               Bone      Pendants    Objects   f Needles  Whistles
0-12                 16                     1           3

12-24                 11                     2           2         2
24-36                 26         1           3           8         2
36-48                 19                     2           1
48-60                  4                     1           1
60-72                  7         1

72-84                  9                                           2
84-96                  4         1

No provenience        19         1           2           1

Total                115         4          11          16         6

Bone awls and bipointed pins:   The function of single-pointed bone
objects as eel-slitters or perforators has been discussed in the section

on the Patrick's Point specimens (p. 49).   At Tsurai, the awls, like other
classes of bone implements, tend to correspond in number found, type, and
size to the Hum-118 examples (table 22). The only notable difference in
occurrence is that only one split rib awl was excavated at Tsurai while

eight were found at site Hum-118. Apart from the observation that the awl
assemblages from both of these sites correspond closely to each other, we
note that there are three specimens from Tsurai which are unusual and

therefore merit further description. One is an object 17 cm. long (pi. 23m)

which resembles a fairly long Type 3 awl (with articular end of bone present)
in most respects. However, it shows evidence of a perforation near its

proximal end, and its tip is roughened by numerous transverse scratchings.
The awl shown in Plate 23n is a split and polished bone with a remarkably

sturdy point. It is certainly too heavy to have been used in the tasks for
which most of the other pointed specimens were designed. The final anomaly
among the awls is illustrated in Plate 23p). This is a pointed object,

unlike other awls in that it was made from elk antler. Two longitudinal

grooves on one surface suggest that attempts were made to thin the original

91

TABLE 22

Depth Distribution of Bone Awls and Bipointed Pins

from Site Hum-169

Awl Types              I      l

Depth           |            Split   Artic.   Split    Awl    Bipointed
(in.)           | Splinter    Rib     End     Bone   j Tips     Pins
0-12                 1

12-24                 4                1                3         3
24-36                 9                1         1      2         4
36-48                 3        1                        1

48-60                 2                          1                1
60-72                 2                 1        1      1         3
72-84                 2
84-96

No provenience        3                4         3      2         3
Total                26        1        7        6      9        14

antler so that it could
countered bone awls.

serve the same purpose as the more usually en-

At the Patrick's Point site, only one bipointed pin, which possibly
could have been used in the same manner as what have been here designated
as awls, was found. Tsurai presented a different picture in this regard
since a greater number of such pins was recovered, although these speci-

mens vary considerably in size.   It has been suggested that these objects
may have served as hair pins. To this, may be added the supposition that
gorge fishhooks are represented, at least by the shorter pins. While it
is difficult to draw the line of separation, it can be stated that the

shorter pins average about 4.5 cm. in length (see pl. 24k). Four of the
14 bipointed pins from Hum-169 (table 22) are in the short category.

These were excavated from the 60-72 inch level of the deposit and above.
If the larger pins (p1. 24h, i) are indeed hair pins, it remains only to
account for the thin bird bone pin shown in Plate 24j. This is evidently
too delicate to serve as a gorge hook and its use as a hair pin may be
questioned on the same grounds.

92

Headscratchers, pendants, and spatulate objects:    Although there
is only a tenuous relationship between these three classes of objects,
they are considered together here because of their probable ceremonial
function, or at least because they cannot readily be assigned a direct
part in the subsistence economy. The one Hum-169 specimen (pl. 24w)

which most closely resembles the kind of bone object referred to as head
scratchers at both Hum-67 and Hum-118 was recovered without provenience

in the upper 36 inches of the midden deposit. It is fragmentary, and does
not contain the same kind of incised decoration noted on specimens from
the two other sites. Two spatulate specimens show perforations at one

end and incised decoration as well. These are approximately the same size,
averaging 10.7 cm. in length, 1.8 cm. in width, and 5 mm. in thickness.

The decoration on one of these consists of straight parallel lines, incised
transversely near the biconically drilled hole, but only on one surface of
the bone. The second specimen has but slight evidence of a conically

drilled hole. Since these two specimens are larger and certainly more
crudely decorated than the objects call headscratchers from the Gunther
Island and Patrick's Point sites, it may well be that they represent a

kind of decorative pendant, without any other function. They were found
at depths of 42 and 49 inches respectively in the deposit.

Four objects of uniform length (ca. 6 cm.), having notches or con-
strictions near one end (pl. 24s-v), have been classified as grooved

pendants. Three of these are short pieces of mammal bone and one is a

fragment of what appears to be a sea lion tooth. The grooves or constric-
tions suggest a place for attachment of cordage, but what the objects were
attached to is not known-perhaps they were meant to be fastened to a dance

skirt in the manner of a "tinkler."   Although the specimens are undecorated,
the main reason for not assigning to them a practical use-as in fishing,
for example-is that such a small number of them was found. If they were
items of everyday use, presumably more of them would have been recovered
in the deposit.  On the other hand, the fact that they were not found all
together (table 21) clouds the idea that they may have been used for any
single purpose or in a group.

As may be seen from the illustrations (pl. 24a'-d'), "spatulate

objects" is evidently a catch-all term for ground and polished bone speci-
mens which may have served any of several different functions. Two of the
large pieces (pL. 24a', b') are finely worked and may have been used as

mesh gauges in the manufacture of fish nets. Although the usual form of
ethnographic mesh gauges in the Yurok region is a tabular piece of bone,
rectangular in form with constrictions on its long sides, some of the

pieces shown by Kroeber and Barrett (1960:pl. 17) do not have, or show but
slight suggestions of, thinning or constrictions on their sides. Perhaps

93

the Hum-169 specimens would be called simply "spatulate or tabular bone
objects" if found in an inland site where fish were not known to be an
important part of the economy. The piece shown in Plate 23b', further-

more, has one end ground to a fairly sharp edge, in the manner of a modern
putty knife. This kind of edge is certainly not necessary in a mesh gauge.

The large single-pointed specimen shown in Plate 24d' resembles in
plan view one of the possible composite harpoon points (see p1. 222) but
has been eliminated from the latter category both because of its length
(10.9 cm.) and its thickness (6 mm.), which are too great and too little
respectively to allow such a classification. Perhaps this object was

intended to be a pendant or headscratcher but somehow never received a
perforation or neck constriction for suspension.

The remaining seven specimens in this group are fragmentary and

are exemplified by the polished, round-ended example shown in Plate 24c'.
The average thickness of these fragments, which may have been ends or
mid-sections of pendants or headscratchers, is about 4 mm.

Bone needles: The total of 16 bone needles listed in Table 21
includes four short tip fragments which need no further description.

Three of these were in the 0-12 inch level and one was in the 12-24 inch
level. Four of the needles, or at least four of the specimens deemed to
be needles, are vestigial deer metapodials with sharpened, polished tips,
three from the 24-36 inch level and one from the 36-48 inch level. Only
one of these is perforated at the proximal end, although two are broken
and may once have had perforations (e.g. the specimen shown in pl. 24r).
The object shown in Plate 24q is a highly polished metapodial which had

its original knobbed end rounded off evenly and was provided with a small
groove encircling the lower part of the knob (also illustrated in Heizer
and Mills 1952:fig. 1). The arrangement would have been suitable to
receive thin cordage, thus allowing the piece to function most effec-
tively as a perforated needle.

The remaining eight specimens, three of which are illustrated in
Plate 24x-z, are all perforated and have small longitudinal grooves

above and below the drilled holes, usually only on one side of the needle
itself. They closely resemble the bone needles from Patrick's Point.
These needles were all manufactured from ribs, and even though six of
them cannot be entirely reconstructed, the two specimens (pl. 24y, z)

which are complete, or almost so, probably give an excellent idea of the
approved length (ca. 20 cm.) of this type of implement in the region.

Bird bone beads, tubes, and whistles: Two short bird bone tubes,

94

cut at each end and averaging about 3.8 cm. in length and 4 mnm. in

diameter, were recovered at site Hum-169, one at a depth of 38 inches,

the other in the 60-72 inch level. These objects (pl. 24c, d) are pre-
sumed to be beads even though they bear no decoration, like one of the
specimens from Hum-67 which is called a bead by Loud (1918:pl. 20).

Since bird bone beads were relatively rare even in the numerous burials

at Hum-67, and only one specimen was found at Patrick's Point, it is not
surprising that but two of them were recovered at Tsurai where burials
play no part in the final computation of artifacts.

Four larger pieces of bird bone, averaging about 8 cm. in length,
were found; two were in the 0-12 inch level, one was at a depth of 35
inches, and another was recovered from the 72-84 inch level. All of

these specimens were fragmentary but showed at least one end with a square
cut, and all had some evidences of polishing. One specimen has lightly
incised lines near its cut end, but the others were totally undecorated.
These objects are approximately the size of whistles, but none of them
has any evidence of holes on them.

Table 21 shows that six bone whistles or flutes were found in the
upper and lower levels of the deposit. Three of these specimens are

whistles with square-cut holes (pl. 24o, p) found in the 72-84 inch level
and at a depth of 20 inches. A whistle with an ovoid hole (pl. 24n) and
the two specimens designated as flutes (with two or three holes) were

found in the upper levels of the site. None of these objects was decorated,
unless the two minor incisions on either side of the ovoid hole in the
specimen shown in Plate 24n could be called decorations. There were no

evidences of deflectors, either of asphaltum or pine pitch, in any of the
whistles or flutes. Whistles in other parts of California often have
remains of asphaltum deflectors opposite the holes or stops.

The trait of square-cut holes in whistles was noted in specimens

from Hum-67 but did not occur at Patrick's Point, where only two whistle
fragments of any description were recovered. Its appearance as the

dominant type at Tsurai, with two of the specimens found in the lower

level, may indicate a change in custom, although unfortunately not enough
specimens were found in all to allow the observed occurrences to carry
much weight in this regard.

Worked sea lion teeth: In contrast to the Patrick's Point site

where 12 worked sea lion teeth were found, only one example was excavated
at Tsurai. This is a split canine tooth (pl. 23g) with only slightly

rounded or polished inside edges, and no other evidence that it had been
deliberately utilized by the occupants of the site. It was recovered at
a depth of 14 inches in the deposit.

95

Whale bone club: The single example of a bone club from Tsurai
was found at a depth of 18 inches (pl. 18a). It was probably manufac-
tured from a whale rib, and its weight, length (44 cm.), and general

shape would allow it to be used as a club probably more effectively than
a piece of slate.  In spite of this, slate or some similar stone was

possibly preferred material for clubs in northwestern California in both
prehistoric and historic times, even though clubs of wood or bone would
have served better as fighting implements (cf. Kroeber 1925:50; Driver
1939:371 reports that his informants denied use of whale bone clubs).

Bone fishhooks: Bipointed objects which may have been utilized
as gorge hooks have already been discussed. The only other type of

specimen which may have served as a fishhook is the curved bone object

illustrated in Plate 24b (see also Heizer and Mills 1952:fig. 1). This
was found at a depth of 69 inches in the deposit. It resembles some of
the specimens (those with rudimentary knobs and simple points) from

Patrick's Point, hence is classified as of Type 2, following Heizer's
(1949:90) typology of curved single-piece fishhooks.

Antler spoons: Three delicately modeled fragments of antler which
correspond to the kinds of elk antler spoons used by the historic Yurok
and Hupa (Kroeber 1925:pl. 20; Goddard 1903:pl. 16; Kelly 1930:pls. 103-
108) were found, one in the 36-48 inch level (pl. 24e'), one at a depth

of 54 inches, and another in the 0-12 inch level. The illustrated speci-
men is the most complete of the three since the other examples consist of
a fragment of the bowl only, and of a bowl with two separate extensions,
each about 4.5 cm. long, which when originally joined at the upper end
no doubt represented a kind of openwork spoon handle similar to those
shown by Kroeber, Goddard, and Kelly. The nearly complete specimen is

13.1 cm. long. It has two drilled holes near the end of the bowl, close
to the break, and it seems likely that the missing fragment had a corres-
ponding pair of holes which would indicate that "crack-sewing" was once
employed to prolong the life of the spoon.

An odd specimen, a partially worked antler tip (p1. 23f), was found
at a depth of 16 inches. It is placed in the category of spoons simply
because it could conceivably be used in eating some kind of thick meal,
for example. One end and the inner edges, extending almost to the mid-
point of the object, are roughly ground and a sort of soup spoon effect
is thereby produced.   Kelly (1930:pl. 105a) shows a small object not
unlike this specimen, which is designated as a Yurok "woman's spoon."

In view of the elegant forms of spoons used in historic times by the local
natives, it would be presumptuous to suggest that this crude specimen was
their precursor. If the depths at which the spoons were found are a true

96

indication of the first appearance of one type or another, then the
finely made specimens would take precedence. In any case it seems

likely that the elaborate spoons noted in historic times must have had

some fairly long period of local development; hence the relatively early
occurrence at the site, indicated by a find of a fragment of one of these
pieces at a depth of 54 inches, is not unexpected. What is unusual is
that such delicate pieces should have been preserved at all, assuming
that they are at least more than fifty years old.

Netting shuttle: A single specimen (pl. 24a), found in the 12-18
inch level of the deposit, is unquestionably a fragmentary shuttle used

to pay out cordage in the manufacture of fish nets. Kelly (1930:pl. 119a)
shows a similar object attributed to the Yurok, and Kroeber and Barrett
(1960:pl. 12) illustrate a series of such specimens, all used in north-

western California.   The Tsurai fragment, even though broken at both ends,
clearly corresponds to some of the smaller examples described by Kroeber
and Barrett.  It is about 24 cm. long in its present state, and the

extensions at each end, which would make up its "slotted eyes," are the
portions missing. One of them is reconstructed in Plate 24a.

Decorated pins or labrets:   Three decorated pins (pl. 24e-g),
resembling modern metal nails in shape, were excavated, one from the

12-24 inch level and one each at depths of 32 and 39 inches. The speci-
men illustrated in Plate 24e (shown in better detail in Heizer and Mills
1952:fig. 1) has extremely delicate triangular designs incised on its

sides, and the surface of its head is further incised with a fine cross-
hatch design. The specimen shown in Plate 24f has encircling lines

incised at two places on its shank. The remaining example (pl. 24&) is
slightly different in shape from the two just described in that it is

not so markedly nail-like in form, and is flattish or tabular rather than
round in cross section as are the other two.

These objects are evidently uncommon in northwestern California

sites.  None was found at Patrick's Point, but one has been reported from
site Hum-67. Although their function is not recorded ethnographically

among the Yurok, Dall (1884:88) describes "a slender bone or wooden peg,
shaped like a small nail or long tack" worn through the lower lip below

the nasal septum, by the Tlingit and Haida. Both de Laguna (1934:pl. 51)
and Heizer (1956:pl. 79w, x) show objects of stone from archaeological

sites in Alaska which are similar in shape to the specimens from Tsurai.
In each case these authors refer to the objects as "labrets." However,
both Bodega and Mourelle (in Heizer and Mills 1952:22, 47) refer to

decorated "bone pins" or "bone screws" worn in the ears of the people at
Tsurai; hence it seems more likely that these objects were used as ear

97

decorations rather than as true labrets worn through the lip. Another
possibility is presented by de Laguna (1960:122, pl. 1OK) who describes
a broken bone pin with a T-shaped end as one which "may possibly have

been an ornament worn in the nose." This specimen closely resembles the
Tsurai examples, although it was recovered in the Angoon area in ethno-
graphic Tlingit territory.

Shell Artifacts

Olivella beads: The beach at Trinidad Bay is littered with

Olivella shells with spires ground off, evidently by the combination of
surf and moving sand. There is no way of telling whether the 40 shell
beads found in the site were picked off the beach or were deliberately
ground for use as beads. Thereis little doubt that spire-ground speci-
mens were so used since this is a common type, used ethnographically by
the Yurok and found in other archaeological sites in association with
graves. The relatively small number of beads found in the deposit can
best be explained by assuming that their principal use was in burial
practices. It is assumed that if burials in the lower levels of the
site were excavated, they would be found to contain Olivella beads.

One small gastropod shell (Thais lamellosa) with the spire ground

off in a manner similar to that observed on the Olivella shells was found
in the upper levels of the site.

Abalone ornaments: Table 23 shows that all of the four types of
Haliotis ornaments were found in the upper levels of the site. A few

fragments of abalone which were probably once ornaments but which cannot
now be classified, three other cut fragments, and one practically whole

shell of Haliotis were found either in the upper levels (above 27 inches)
or were without depth provenience in the site. Of the fourteen specimens
illustrated in Plate 25a-n, five (pi. 25a-d, n) were recovered from the

historic sweathouse. All of the four types of ornaments have been found
in archaeological contexts in California (Gifford 1947) and all have

likewise been found in use in historic times among the Yuork, Hupa, or
Karok (ibid.). Again, the lack of these ornaments in the lower levels
may be related to the possibility that the prehistoric occupants used

Haliotis ornaments but that they were, with few exceptions, originally
deposited with burials. The species of Haliotis used for the ornaments

could not be determined, although the one whole shell was readily identi-
fied as of the red abalone Haliotis rufescens.

Mussel shell objects: Plate 25o, p shows two pieces of Mytilus
californianus, one circular, the other shield-shaped, and both unperfo-

98

TABLE 23

Depth Distribution of Some Shell Artifacts from Site Hum-169

Depth              Olivella   |     Haliotis Ornament Types*

(in.)               Beads       QlaIII    S2aIII   Z2aLI   Z3aI
0-12                 15                             4       1
12-24                  4                                     1
24-36                  4           2                 4       1
36-48                  6
48-60                   2
60-72
72-84
84-96

No provenience          9                   1        2

Total                  40          2        1       10       3

*After Gif ford (1947)

rated. Although both of these may be incipient ornaments, they could as
well have been designed to serve as gaming pieces or scorers. Goddard

(1903:61, pl. 19), for example, describes and illustrates an almost exact
duplicate of the Tsurai circular specimen in use among the Hupa:

"swomans dice game, disks of mussel shell." The shield-shaped piece was
recovered from the 84-96 inch level, while the round disk was in the
0-12 inch level.

Perishable Artifacts

Apart from the pine nut beads already mentioned in the discussion
of finds in the historic sweathouse at Tsurai, the only other items of a
readily perishable nature which were found are two wooden pillows of the

same form as those used by the historic peoples of northwestern California.
Kroeber (1925:92, pl. 10) shows such an object located in a sweathouse and
implies that this was the accustomed place among the Yurok for the pillow.
Neither of the pillows found at Tsurai has any exact depth data. One was

99

found in the historic sweathouse, however, and the other was excavated
from the upper levels of the site, in a disturbed area. These pillows

are rectangular blocks of redwood. Each has a concavity in the top which
was intended to accommodate the head of the reclining person. They aver-
age 31.5 cm. long, about 9 cm. wide, and stand 9.6 cm. high, with the

center of the recess or concavity measuring 7.5 cm. from the bottom of
the pillow.

Artifacts Probably Not of Native Design

In the discussion of finds in the historic sweathouse, artifacts

of indubitable European or Euro-American manufacture were noted. Most of
these artifacts, such as glass beads and metal files, were evidently

acquired in trade with the whites. Another class of objects which should
be considered is that which includes specimens which may have been manu-

factured and used by the Indians but which ostensibly were patterned after
certain objects which the Europeans possessed upon arrival. Thus a three-
tined iron fork has a bone handle which may have been fitted or replaced
by a local Indian using local bone. A relatively crudely designed bone

object, with numerous small holes on a flat surface, appears to be a tooth
or hair brush, with the bristles and handle missing. The back of this

putative brush is marked by four incised triangles. Finally, there are

three stone specimens of micaceous schist or shale (pi. 17b-d) which have
all obviously been shaped and ground, especially on their flat surfaces.
These are presumed to be whetstones, probably for sharpening the blades
of the introduced metal knife blades. These objects were found in the

historic sweathouse, and elsewhere in the deposit in the 0-12 inch level.

Summary

While it was not possible to recover any data from burials at site
Hum-169, it is believed that occurrences of artifacts throughout the
deposit may serve adequately to reflect the essence of the manner of

living at the site. Unlike the Patrick's Point site, Tsurai was evidently
a large, relatively important village rather than a restricted, seasonally
occupied camp spot.

The very size of the deposit at Tsurai must dictate caution in

placing too much trust in the idea of regular stratification of artifact
types suggested by the tabular presentation of finds.   Nevertheless,
certain other considerations give some justification to this method.

Comparison of elements with finds from other sites, such as Patrick's Point

100

and Hum-67, leads to the observation that the lower part of the living
deposit at Tsurai tends to correspond with the middle levels at these
localities. This means that the prehistoric time column for Tsurai is
relatively restricted, especially if the C-14 dating discussed in the
preceding section on Patrick's Point is correct. There seems little
reason to believe that within the short period of time allowed by the
postulated beginning date of the site and the termination of the pre-
historic period there were enough discrete "centers of occupationt' to
essentially change the picture of the site's building up fairly regu-
larly, that is as a single unit rather than as a series of small

enclaves, each perhaps differing in time of occupation. Continuity
from the beginning of the historic period directly to the twentieth

century Yurok inhabitants is fairly regularly expressed over the extent
of the area excavated (table 12), and this also lends support to the
" single unit" concept.

The lower five feet of the Hum-169 deposit, irregular as they
are from one excavation trench to another (table 12), show, with some
exceptions, the beginning finds of what we have come to recognize as

''matrix" elements in prehistoric northwestern California culture: stone
projectile points for simple harpoons; pebble choppers; flake scrapers.;
chipped blades of chert; steatite vessels (grease catchers); simple

pestles; side-notched sinkers; (decorative) objects of slate; bone and
antler simple and composite harpoons; antler wedges; bone flakers and
awls; and bone whistles. All of these kinds of objects occur in the

"basal" levels of the deposit, that is from depths of 96 to 72 inches.
Above the 72 inch depth and up to what may best be called the "proto-

historic" level (at about 36 inches) are encountered for the first time

additional matrix traits:   bone gouges, needles, bipointed pins, and beads;
unshaped hammerstones, offset pestles, slab mortars, slate clubs, and stone
drills. Flanged pestles and stone adze handles in the 36-48 inch level and
bell-shaped mauls in the 48-60 inch level are included in the latter cate-
gory. Perhaps the relatively shallow depths at which these objects were
found should be attributed to chance in excavation rather than to the

possibility that they were introduced later than the other diagnostic or
matrix elements. The curved bone fishhook found in the 60-72 inch level
probably corresponds to the similar specimens found in the upper levels

of the Patrick's Point site.   It is noteworthy that this type of hook has
not been reported for the historic groups of northwestern California and
does not occur in the historic levels of Tsurai.

The finding of two distinctive types of artifacts used by the his-
toric Yurok-steatite pipe inserts and elk horn spoons-in the 48-60 inch
level of site Hum-169 suggests more specifically than the other kinds of

101

artifacts enumerated the direct prehistoric roots of the ethnographic

groups of the region. Other traits, such as the barbed bone spear point,
the bone or antler netting shuttle, the wooden pillow, pine nut beads,

and Haliotis ornaments-all recovered from above the 36 inch level-are

identical to types found among the Yurok, and are therefore not unexpect-
edly found in the historic levels. Olivella beads occurred, apparently
for the first time, in the 48-60 inch level; hence on this evidence they
cannot be included with the Haliotis ornaments and pine nut beads as
latercomers to the site. Nonetheless, it is thought that all three

classes of artifacts would, if excavation were permitted in the local

prehistoric cemetery, probably be found to occur with burials represent-
ing the earliest occupation of Hum-169.

Worked sea lion teeth, head scratchers, a whale bone club, and a
Type III toggle spur were also found in the deposit only above the 36
inch depth. While the club may be a late intrusive or trade piece at

the site, the recovery of the other three types of specimens only in the
historic level probably was fortuitous since these are types which were
found in lower levels at Hum-118.

In equating the lower levels of site Hum-169 with the middle or
upper levels of either Hum-118 or Hum-67, the chief exceptions are pre-
sented in the observation that at Hum-169 no evidence was found either

of obsidian blades of the miniature or large ceremonial type, or of the
so-called zoomorphic clubs. Since Hum-169 was almost certainly an

important village where some fragments at least of these objects should
have been found had they been commonly in use, we must assume either

that such specimens were handed down as treasures, relatively intact, to
succeeding generations or were deposited with burials. Again the impor-
tance of excavating prehistoric graves is indicated.

Additional gaps in comparisons of Hum-169 with the other sites
were noted. Thus, no offset pestles were recovered at Hum-118, but

several examples were found at Tsurai. Arrow shaft smoothers were found
in both upper and lower levels of Hum-169 while none were found at

Hum-118. It may be suggested that this latter absence could be associ-

ated with the relatively reduced importance of land-mammal hunting (hence
use of the bow and arrow) as expressed by the comparatively small number
of projectile points assumed to have been used with Type 6 arrows found
at Hum-118. Tsurai showed a much larger proportion of Type 6 points to
its total number of projectile points than did Hum-118-17 per cent as

against 6 per cent. Finally, no Dentalium beads were found at Hum-169.

Again the possibility exists that such beads did occur with burials, but

here we may note that no Dentalium was recovered at Hum-118 either, where

102

some burials, even though few and poorly endowed, were recorded. Offset
pestles, arrow shaft smoothers, and Dentalium beads were all found at
site Hum-67.

It is not our intention to suggest that there was much diagnostic
culture change observable at Tsurai other than that represented by the
obvious prehistoric-historic transition.   As at site Hum-118, the great
majority of the aboriginal types of artifacts are believed not to have
undergone any significant morphological changes during the whole course
of the known prehistoric and historic periods, that is in the period

denoted by the entire depth of the midden deposit. The only observable
indications of distinct types of changes through time occur with bone

whistles or flutes, and with simple harpoons. Whistles with square-cut

holes were recorded from both upper and lower levels, while whistles with
ovoid holes and flutes (bone tubes with more than one hole-stop) were

found only in the upper levels. Unfortunately, too few specimens of each
of these varieties were found to allow much weight to be given this
observation.

On the other hand, the occurrence of harpoons seems to be clear

and forthright. Table 18 shows that subtype "B" harpoons (bilateral line
guard) were recorded from the 60-72 inch level, while subtype "C" appeared
only in and above the 36-48 inch level. This evidence of typological
change is about what would be expected in view of the finds at site

Hum-118, and tends to further bear out Bennyhoff's (1950) original concept
of sequences of harpoon types in northwestern California.

All of the evidence from site Hum-169 seems to be in agreement with
the estimate of Heizer and Mills (1952:9) for the first occupation of the
site at around A.D. 1620. This date could still stand as correct even

though no radiocarbon date has been secured for the site, and even though

the early occupation of the Patrick's Point site described in the preceding
section is later than was first estimated by about 300 years.

103

END NOTES

1. Kroeber (1917:391) guessed that over 1000 years "seem demanded
for the particularity of these Algonkian [Wiyot, Yurok] and-Na-Dene

[Haida, Tlingit] fragments."   He subsequently suggested (1934:21) that
"the 'Algonkian'-speaking Wiyot-Yurok need not be derived [directly]

from the great Algonkian body east of the Rocky Mountains.- They may more
likely represent a branching off from the also 'Algonkian'-speaking

Salish-Wakash, drifting south along the coast. This would go far to

explain the strange local focus of northwest coast culture in northwest
California."

2.  Two samples were submitted to the Geochron Laboratories, Inc.,
one from, or slightly above, the clay subsoil of the deposit (in unit

15L2, map 1) and another from a point about 36 inches above the subsoil
in the same excavation unit. Sample No. GXO181 (from clay subsoil) was
dated at 640 + 90 years (A.D. 1310), while No. GX0182 was calculated at
545 + 115 years (A.D. 1405). Although the original excavation of the
site has greatly changed its contours, it has been estimated that the

samples were taken from depths of 7 to 10 feet below the land surface as
it was at the time of abandonment of the site.

3. Carbon-14 dating in western Oregon-northwestern California:
Site or Region                    Approx. C-14 Date     Reference

Site Ti-i (Tillamook, Oregon)         1400 A.D.         Newman, 1959

Ethnographic Kus region, Oregon       1500 A.D.         Olson and Broecker,

1959

Site Hum-67, California                900 A.D.         Crane and Griffin, 1961

4. Jasper and chert are distinguished throughout the artifact
description sections even though, mineralogically speaking, there are

but slight differences between these two siliceous materials. Jasper is
usually reddish in color while chert may be mottled gray green or

brownish. Both materials are usually considered under the general head-

ing of chalcedony (Loomis 1948:106-107). Apart from the color difference,
chert may display a more splintery fracture characteristic than jasper.

5. This practice is reported both archaeologically and ethno-
graphically in the Napa region (Heizer 1953:251).

104

6. This practice was paralleled in the Santa Barbara region
where asphalt was applied in this fashion.

7. Map 2 represents a portion of Tsurai village, about three-

quarters of the area of Heizer and Mills' Map 5 (1952:99). The ethno-
graphic features are mainly house locations (with names of owners)
existing about 1900. In excavated areas, capital letters refer to
trench designations and Arabic numerals to pits within trenches.

105

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

[Numbers shown in Plates 1 through 14 are field numbers assigned
by the University of California which have been retained for

specimens on display or in storage at Patrick's Point State Park,
California.]

Plate 1. Chipped stone specimens from Hum-118

a-d     Projectile points or knives, Type 1.   Nos. 2094, 56, 1198, 238.
e-j     Projectile points, Type 3; probably used in bone harpoon heads

for securing sea lions.   Nos. 1906, 2212, 527, 786, 1274, 821.
k-s     Projectile points, Type 4; suggested use same as for Type 3.

Nos. 848, 562, 1351, 1871, 1892, 655, 257, 1265, 1210, 226.
t,d'    Drills, Type 1.  Nos. 226, 1719.

u-y     Projectile points, Type 6; used predominantly as arrow points(?)

Nos. 1008, 2051, 1850, 867, 881.

z-c'    Miniature facsimiles of ceremonial obsidian blades.    Nos. 192,

131, 572, 541.

Plate 2. Stone implements from Hum-118

a     Anvil stone.  No. 435.

b     Quartzite cobble with burnt end.   No. 1357.

c, d    Stone adze handle fragments.   Nos. 1491, 1875.

e     Pecked stone object, fragments; large zooform club(?).    No. 1387.
f     Polished slate blade.   No. 220.

g     Notched slate object.   No. 1552.
h     Ground stone object.   No. 2138.

i-l     Chert, flint, and jasper blades.   Nos. 1282, 274, 10, 2067.
m,n     Chert and jasper scrapers.   Nos. 1257, 616.

o     Chert blade blank.   No. 481.

p-s     Unifacial cobble or pebble choppers.   Nos. 1789, 1696, 2206, 1948.
Plate 3. Stone dishes from Hum-118

a     Steatite grease dish.   No. 1786.

b,c     Steatite dishes.   Nos. 746, 1953.

d     Stone dish.   No. 1321.

Plate 4. Stone dishes and pestles from Hum-118

a     Sandstone grease dish.   No. 1647.

b     Incipient steatite dish.   No. 1961.
c     Pecked sandstone object.   No. 2113.

d     Sandstone pestle, proximal end.   No. 43.
e     Flanged pestle.   No. 1925.

106

Plate 5. Antler and stone artifacts from Hum-118

a
b
c-e
f,g

h
i, j

Plate 6.

Broken base of antler with circular cut. No. 1923.
Cut fragment of elk antler base. No. 2195.
Elk antler wedges. Nos. 1185, 1496, 212.
Simple stone pestles. Nos. 2146, 1409.
Flanged pestle. No. 328.

Stone mauls. Nos. 80, 1822.

Simple harpoons or fragments and toggle spurs from Hum-118

a     Simple harpoon, Type IIC. No. 2099.
b     Toggle spur, Type IIIa. No. 1372.

c     Simple harpoon, Type IIBla. No. 1205.
d     Simple harpoon, Type IIBla. No. 1051.
e     Simple harpoon, Type IIBla. No. 1267.

f-i     Simple harpoons, Type IB; note that "g" is reworked to form an

awl-like implement. Nos. 1679, 2108, 2132, 1829.

j     Simple harpoon, Type IA2a; small size of remaining portion of

line shoulder on non-barb edge allows identification of base
form. No. 1464.

k-m     Simple harpoons, Type IA. Nos. 289, 188, 262.
n,o     Simple harpoons, Type IIAla. Nos. 656, 747.

Plate 7.  Bone and antler tools and worked fragments from Hum-118

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
1
m
n

0

p
q
r

Rib flaking tool, extra long. No. 1341.
Cut artiodactyl metatarsal. No. 1517.
Same as "b." No. 811.

Worked antler object with perforation. No. 1426.
Bone awl, Type 3. No. 1458.
Same as "e." No. 518.

Metatarsal gouge fragment. No. 1610.
Worked rib. No. 1524.

Worked artiodactyl scapula (elk). No. 1244.
Worked mammal bone fragment. No. 584.
Same as "j." No. 1943.
Same as "j." No. 890.

Split rib flaker. No. 2159.
Whole rib flaker. No. 399.
Antler flaker. No. 2246.
Notched rib. No. 1485.

Notched long bone fragment. No. 391.
Notched rib. No. 1501.

107

Plate 8. Chipped and ground stone artifacts from Hum-118

a     Chipped chert drill, Type 2.    No. 1359.
b     Chipped chert drill, Type 2.    No. 2095.
c     Chert saw.   No. 683.

d     Ground stone pipe fragment.    No. 1680
e     Ground stone pendant.   No. 1585.

f     Polished slate projectile point.    No. 181.
g     Miniature zooform figure.    No. 301.

h     Small zooform figure fragment.    No. 792.

i     Fragment of zooform club (leg?).    No. 320.

j     Worked slate fragment (zooform club?).    No. 1881.
Plate 9. Various stone artifacts from Hum-118

a     Perforated slate pendant.    No. 1446.

b,c     Grooved stone sinkers.    Nos. 2092, 887.

d-g     Side-notched stone sinkers.    Nos. 233, 2190, 1360, 472.

h     End-notched stone sinker.    No. 1213.
i     Hammerstone.   No. 2267.

Plate 10. Simple harpoons from Hum-118 (after Bennyhoff 1950)

a-c     Type IA.   Nos. 1465, 2057, 409.
d,e     Type IlAla.   Nos. 1453, 755.

f     Type IIA, No. 862.

g-i     Type IB.   Nos. 44, 402, 576.

j     Type IBla.   No. 1530.
k     Type IB2a.   No. 1066.

Plate 11. Simple harpoons and toggle spurs from Hum-118 (after Bennyhoff

1950)

a-f     Simple harpoons, Type IIBla.    Nos. 270, 2238, 1417(?), 1275,

283, 1805.

g-i     Simple harpoons, Type IC.    Note that "i" has been reworked to

form an awl-like implement. Nos. 1995, 751, 1678.

j Simple harpoon, Type IICla. Evidently reworked after loss of

first barb. No. 2174.

k     Slotted head of large harpoon; side and front views, showing

torque. No. 1292.

1     Small harpoon tip, reworked into awl(?).    No. 1510.
m,n     Toggle harpoon spurs, Type IIIb.    Nos. 1688, 1777.

O     Possible toggle harpoon tip, Type Tlf.    No. 427.
p     Barbed bone arrow point fragment.    No. 544.

108

Plate 12.

a
b

c

d
e
f,g

Plate 13.

Bone and antler implements from Hum-118
Bone gouge. No. 2222.

Antler wedge. No. 1449.

Split rib flaker. No. 2252.
Rib flaker. No. 2021.

Worked bone implement (flaker?). No. 1216.
Ulna flakers. Nos. 130, 223.
Bone implements from Hum-118

Awls, Type 1. Nos. 651, 1290.
Awls, Type 3. Nos. 796, 1388.

Awls, Type 4. Nos. 2161, 424, 460.

Bone pin or awl, pointed at both ends. No. 1633.

a,b
c,d
e-g

h

Plate 14.

a-c
d,e

f
g, h
i-k

1
m
n, o

p

Bone and antler objects from Hum-118

Decorated head scratchers.  Nos. 2, 1293, 686.

Perforated deer or elk metapodials. Nos. 1589, 1581.
Perforated needle fragment. No. 1898.

Bird bone whistle(?) fragments. Nos. 1983, 1142.

Sea lion canine teeth, partially worked. Nos. 453, 224, 199.
"C"-shaped bone fishhook. No. 1582.

Incised bird bone fragment. No. 334.

Incised mammal bone fragments. Nos. 1478, 1013.
Incised antler fragment. No. 1214.

[Numbers indicated for Plates 15 through 25 are those of the
Robert H. Lowie Museum of Anthropology, University of Cali-

fornia, Berkeley, and are preceded, on the specimens, by 1-.]

Plate 15.

a
b
c- f
g-o

p, q
r, s
t-z

a'
b

Chipped stone projectile points from Hum-169. All specimens

are of chert or jasper unless otherwise indicated.

Type 1. No. 116203.
Type 2. No. 98908.

Type 3. Nos. 90124, 98937, 98910, 98925.

Type 4. Nos. 98934, 90128, 98928, 97838, 97832, 98936,

98935, 115789.

Type 5a. Nos. 115791, 98916.

Type 5b. Nos. 97836 (obsidian), 98918.

Type 6. Nos. 90092, 98920, 97828, 98917, 98922, 97826,
Type 7a. No. 97816.

Type 4 (historic), made from green glass (bottle). No.

98933,

90102.

115984.

cI     Desert Side-notched point (historic) made from green glass

(bottle). No. 98927.

109

Plate 16.

a
b
c-f
g-i

Plate 17.

a
b,c

d
e
f
g
h
i, j

k
1
m
n-p
q, r

s

Plate 18.

a
b

c

d
e,f

g
h-mr

Plate 19.

Chipped and ground stone implements from Hum-169

Heavy grooved steatite sinker or anchor(?). No. 98808.

Bifacial cobble chopper (cutting edge at top in photograph).

No. 98842.

Unifacial cobble choppers. Nos. 90009, 115807, 98814, 98867.
Sandstone arrow shaft smoothers.    Nos. 115778, 90096, 90090.
Chipped and ground stone implements from Hum-169
Incised slate object. No. 98532.

Smoothed schist objects (whetstones?). Nos. 115858, 115781.
Worked shale object (whetstone?). No. 99116.

Steatite pipe bowl insert fragment. No. 98436.
Steatite pipe bowl insert. No. 90081.

Steatite pendant fragment (perforated portion missing?).

No. 98938.

Incised steatite pendant. No. 99086.
Slate pendants. Nos. 90206, 90100.
Steatite pendant. No. 98438.

Steatite pendant fragment. No. 90083.
Slate pendant fragment. No. 98538.

Jasper blades.   Nos. 98434, 116143, 99392.
Chert drills, Type 1. Nos. 98335, 99530.
Chert drill, Type 2(?). No. 97837.

Artifacts of bone, chipped stone, and ground stone from Hum-169
Shaped whale bone club. No. 98896.

Fine sandstone club fragment(?). No. 98961.
Stone adze handle. No. 97825.

Stone adze handle fragment. No. 90082.

End-notched sinkers. Nos. 99177, 97839.

Grooved sandstone object (sinker?). No. 99261.

Chipped scrapers; all chert except "mi," flint, and Inn," jasper.

Nos. 99360, 99639, 98909, 99678, 99405, 99397.

Ground stone implements from Hum-169. All sandstone unless

otherwise specified.

a,b

c
d
e
f
g, h

i

Mauls. Nos. 98894, 90112.

Small offset pestle. No. 99141.
Pestle-hammerstone. No. 90161.

Steatite maul handle. No. 98893.
Maul handle fragment. No. 99132.

Offset pestle fragments. Nos. 98891, 98864.
Fragment of large maul. No. 98890.

110

Plate 20.

a
b

c

d
e
f

Plate 21.

a
b

c

d
e
f
g,h
i, j

Plate 22.

Steatite vessels from Hum-169
Canoe-shaped. No. 90158.

Ovoid (slightly raised ends, approaching canoe-shape). No. 90157.
Canoe-shaped. No. 90156.
Round. No. 90155.
Ovoid. No. 98807.

Round (incipient). No. 115775.

Steatite artifacts from Hum-169

Incipient miniature bowl. No. 98848.
Finished miniature bowl. No. 115779.
Incipient miniature bowl. No. 98963.
Miniature (toy?) bowl. No. 98852.

Shaped steatite object. No. 98834.
Acorn anvil(?). No. 90159.

Grooved objects. Nos. 98836, 99713.
Anvils(?).  Nos. 99726, 98825.

Bone and antler artifacts from Hum-169

a      Simple antler harpoon fragment, Type IC.   No. 98327.
b      Simple antler harpoon., Type IC2b. No. 98508.

c      Simple antler harpoon fragment, Type IC (slotted tip).

No. 98415.

d      Simple antler harpoon, Type IC2b. No. 90015.     (Illustrated

in Bennyhoff 1950: fig. 6c. )

e      Simple antler harpoon, Type lICla.   No. 90014.   (Illustrated

op. cit., fig. 6h.)

f      Simple antler harpoon fragment, Type IC, with reworked tip

forming a flaking tool. No. 115763.

g      Simple antler harpoon fragment, Type IB.   No. 98504.

h      Simple bone harpoon fragment, Type IIBl.   No. 115766.
i      Simple antler harpoon fragment, Type IIB.   No. 98462.
j      Simple bone harpoon fragment, Type IIB1. No. 98316.

k      Small waterworn fragment of simple harpoon, Type IID(? ),

showing evidence of line-hole near base. No. 90045.

1      Barbed fish spear with slotted tip (bone). No. 115764.

- q     Probable bone points for composite (toggle) harpoons, Type UI.

Nos. 98399, 98383, 98404, 98369, 98301.   ("M," t"pP" illus-
trated op. cit., fig. 5r, s.)

r      Incipient toggle harpoon spur, of antler, probably like

Type IIIa but larger. No. 115770.

s      Bone toggle harpoon spur, Type IIIb.   No. 90016. (Illustrated

op. cit., fig. 5e'.)

Yu      Bone toggle harpoon spur, Type lb.   Nos. 97819, 98516.

v      Bone toggle harpoon spur, Type Ib.   No. 115762.   (Illustrated

op. cit., fig. Sa'.)

m-

t5

111

Plate 23.

a,b
c-e

f
g
h
i

k
1
m

n

0

p

Plate 24.

Bone and antler artifacts from Hum-169.

Cut elk antler sections.  Nos. 90060, 90052.

Elk antler wedges. Nos. 90207, 98897, 99068.
Spoon-like antler implement. No. 98410.
Split sea lion canine. No. 98732.
Bone f laker, Type 2. No. 97821.
Bone f laker, Type 4. No. 97824.
Bone flaker, Type 1. No. 97827.

Elk cannon bone gouge. No. 97840.

Penis bone implement (punch?). No. 98384.

Pointed bone implement with evidence of perforation at one

end. No. 97817.

Heavy pointed bone implement (perforator?). No. 98488.
Bone awl, Type 3. No. 90024.

Pointed antler implement with longitudinal grooves. No. 90073.

Bird and mammal bone artifacts from Hum-169.

a
b
c,d
e-g
h-k
l,m

n
o,p

q
r
s-u

v
w
x, y

z
a', b'

c'I

d'
el

Matting shuttle, with broken ends. No. 98417.
Curved fishhook. No. 97833.

Bird bone beads. Nos. 116117, 98288.

Decorated labrets(?).  Nos. 97823, 97829, 115772.

Bipointed bone pins. Nos. 97831, 90079, 98405, 98293.
Bird bone flute fragments. Nos. 90148, 97822.

Bird bone whistle with ovoid hole. No. 115757.

Bird bone whistles with square cut holes. Nos. 115755, 115756.
Polished metapodial needle(?). No. 98452.

Vestigial metapodial (deer) needle fragment. No. 98287.
Cut bone pendants. Nos. 98294, 115773, 90064.
Cut sea lion canine pendant. No. 115774.

Incised, perforated headscratcher. No. 98385.
Needle fragments. Nos. 98390, 90036.
Complete needle. No. 90204.

Incised tabular implements (net gauges?). Nos. 98389, 90087.
Grooved tabular fragment (headscratcher?). Nos. 98297.
Pointed bone object (hair pin?). Nos. 90088.
Bone spoon fragment. No. 115771.

Haliotis and mussel shell specimens from Hum-169

Haliotis ornaments, Type QlaIII. Nos. 98784, 98779.

Haliotis ornaments, Type Z2aII. Nos. 98781, 98780, 98448,

98289, 98291, 98444, 98443, 98445.

Haliotis ornament, Type S2aIII. No. 90050.

Haliotis ornaments, Type Z3aI. Nos. 98785, 98542, 98798.

Mussel shell pendant(?) blanks, unperforated. Nos. 98793,

115792.

Plate 25.

a,b

C-J

k
1-n
o,p

112

-,

0r-
0
C

E
--e--\

7

El
U

(IV)J

-o

LU

---

o -l

cIzlDu

CD -

0

N

-.-I

.''

H4

II
'i
U
Hi
04

-o
-0

0

113

d

a

b                 c

5cm.A ,
SCA LE

e          f  g
0h  <)n  -                 ;

r

4

r                    s

Plate 2

114

IO cm.

SCA LE

Plate 3

115

7..x
A....

161

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SCA LE                                  ':

*".'

f,V . --.:I

16                       7-3a4                   d

lq~

c

Plate 4

116

b

f          9         h

1 0 cm.__
vi            j L

Plate 5

117

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e.g.

a                                                                                                                                         e

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5cm.

I                                        I

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k                                  I                             m                     n                    o

Plate 6

118

w

4J

119

I'l

11

4

. -.7

i

p

b

9

a

1.I

*i

cW

f

1   3 cm.

SCA LE

e

Plate 8

120

? dd 2

g 4 $  h  X>

3 cm.

SCALE

Plate 9

121

I j *4

-T-* ?
I,

a                                                                                                  d                    e                      f

1.?

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h                                                                                             4,

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9

i

5 cm.

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k

Plate 10

122

91 4 W

tvp 2

a

I

d

I
I

e

0
1

f

g

h

k

5 cm.

SCALE

Ii
l

n

0

p

m

Plate 11

123

Ili 'I
II

III

I II
II
II

I!
I II

II

.I

ii

!I

.   I  11

11

III
II

.I
II

I

I
c

VI

I'.

'I

II

d

3 cm.
SCA LE

\      V

0\1117
?o     .1

I

I    11  .

1.

I
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1

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11.
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e

Plate 12

124

"IO

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f I

v                    V               v              v

I

I
I
d
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[I
II

I
I

I
I
I
I
I
I

Plate 13

125

II

I'

I \  0

Ii
P. I

a

II,

'1

It'M

c

I11
I

I
I

II
I

. ;l..

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II

III
I.

I,

I

i

d

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III

11
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ill

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I
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'iii;
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3 cm.
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1.

h

II

I

I

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I

n

,.1

.II

I

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m

0

p

Plate 14

126

d

e

f

a

c

b

5 cm.     I
SCALE

I

9                h

k

m

n

0

A

p

q

r        s

t

u

v

z

A

w

x

a'

b'

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di

Plate 15

a

127

oe..

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C

5 cm.
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,                    f

ek

lb...

A%z

V.6 *

9                            h

d

Plate 16

128

d

b

c

e

6  cm.I
SCA LE

f
90

k

h                                                I

m

n             0        p       q       r      s

5

Plate 17

129

6 cm.
SCA LE

c

a

b

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a            ..

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...,        i -    ..  :   .

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k

I

m

Plate 18

130

a

b

c

e

6 cm.
SCA LE

9

Plate 19

131

b

6 cm.
SCALE

c

e

f

Plate 20

132

5 cm.
SCALE

~  bb

r,*,*e

Plate 21

133

a

6 cm.
SCA LE

I

I

e

m

9            h

~nA

i           k         I

r       s        t        u

m   n

o       P      q

I

C'

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V

v

Plate 22

134

?,

*        SI"'

?

b

c

d

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. " , I

%%, t

a

I

9

I

6 cm.

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I' I

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135

c

d

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s1 i
egg.

h

k

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ii

:S

x

y

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. I

v

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e'

Plate 24

136

d

a

b

c

i

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e                       f

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h

k

I             m

C

On      o

5 cm.
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p

Plate 25

137

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbreviations Used

AAA        American Anthropological Association

-M        Memoir

AA         American Anthropologist
AAnt       American Antiquity

AMNH       American Museum of Natural History

-B       Bulletin
-H       Handbook

ABC        Anthropology in British Columbia
AINA       Arctic Institute of North America
BAE        Bureau of American Ethnology

-B        Bulletin

IJAL       International Journal of American Linguistics
SI         Smithsonian Institution

-AR        Annual Report

-CK        Contributions to Knowledge
-MC        Miscellaneous Collections

SAA        Society for American Archaeology

-M        Memoir

SWJA       Southwestern Journal of Anthropology
UC         University of California

-AR        Anthropological Records

-ASR       Archaeological Survey Report

-PAAE      Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology
UW         University of Washington

-PA        Publications in Anthropology

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1960    The Story of a Tlingit Community:  A Problem in the

Relationship Between Archaeological, Ethnological, and
Historical Methods. BAE-B 172:1-254.

Dixon, R. B,

1905

Driver, H. E

1939

Drucker, P.

The Northern Maidu. AMNH-B 17:119-346.

Culture Element Distributions: X. Northwest California.
UC-AR 1: 297-433.

1937    The Tolowa and Their Southwest Oregon Kin. UC-PAAE 36:221-300.
1939    Contributions to Alsea Ethnography. UC-PAAE 35:81-102.
1943    Archaeological Survey on the Northern Northwest Coast.

BAE-B 133:17-142.

1950    Culture Element Distributions: XXVI. Northwest Coast.

UC-AR 9: 157-294.

1955    Sources of Northwest Coast Culture.  In New Interpretations

of American Culture History. 75th Anniversary Volume of the
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1965    Cultures of the North Pacific Coast. Chandler Publishing

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141

DuBois, C. A.

1932    Tolowa Notes. AA 34:248-262.

1935    Wintu Ethnography. UC-PAAE 36:1-148.

Duff, Wilson

1956    Prehistoric Stone Sculpture of the Fraser River and the

Gulf of Georgia. ABC 5:15-115.
Eells, M.

1886    Relics in Eastern Oregon. American Antiquarian, Vol.

8:165-166.

1889    The Stone Age of Oregon. SI-AR (1886), 283-295.
Elsasser, A. B.

1960    The Archaeology of the Sierra Nevada in California and

Nevada. UC-ASR 51:1-93.

n.d.    The Archaeology of the North Coast of California. Ph.D.

dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1965.
Essene, F.

1942    Culture Element Distributions:  XXI. Round Valley.

UC-AR 8:1-97.
Ferrand, L.

1901    Notes on the Alsea. AA 3:239-248.
Foster, G. M.

1944    A Summary of Yuki Culture. UC-AR 5:155-244.
Gatschet, A. S.

1890    The Klamath Indians of Southwestern Oregon. Contributions

to North American Ethnology, II. Washington, D.C.

1899    The Kalapuya People. Journal of American Folklore,

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1962    Side-notched Points Near Bering Strait.  In Prehistoric

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Gif ford, E.

1928
1939
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W.

The Cultural Position of the Coast Yuki. AA 30:112-115.
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Californian Bone Artifacts. UC-AR 3:153-237.
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Goddard, P. E.

1903    Life and Culture of the Hupa. UC-PAAE 1:1-88.

1914    Notes on the Chilula Indians of Northwestern California.

UC-PAAE 10:263-288.

1924    Indians of the Northwest Coast. AMNH-H 10.

142

Goldschmidt, W. R.

1940    A Hupa "Calendar."  AAnt 42:176-177.

1951    Nomlaki Ethnography. UC-PAAE 42:303-443.

1951    Ethics and the Structure of Society:  An Ethnological Contri-

bution to the Sociology of Knowledge. AA 53:506-524.
Gould, R. A.

1963    Aboriginal California Burial and Cremation Practices.

UC-ASR 60:149-168.
Hamilton, T. M.

1964    Recent Developments in the Use of Gunflints for Dating and

Identification. In Diving Into the Past. Minnesota
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Harrington, J. P.

1932    Tobacco Among the Karuk Indians of California. BAE-B 94:1-284
Heflin, Eugene

1960    Kalapuyan Archaeology. Screenings, Vol. 9:2-3.

1961    Kuitsh or Lower Umpquan Artifacts.  Screenings, Vol. 10:1.
1966    The Pistol River Site of Southwest Oregon. UC-ASR

67:151-206.
Heizer, Robert F.

1937    Baked Clay Objects of the Lower Sacramento Valley,

California. AAnt 3:34-50.

1938    An Inquiry Into the Status of the Santa Barbara Spearthrower.

AAnt 4:137-141.

1940    The Botanical Identifical of Northwest Coast Tobacco.

AA 42:704-706.

1941    Oregon Prehistory: Retrospect and Prospect. Commonwealth

Review, Vol. 23:30-40.

1941    The Introduction of Monterey Shells to the Indians of the

Northwest Coast. Pacific Northwest Quarterly, Vol. 31:399-402.
1942    A Decorated Mortar in the Columbia Valley Art Style.

AA 44:534-537.

1943    Aconite Poison Whaling in Asia and America: An Aleutian

Transfer to the New World. BAE-B 133:419-468.

1944    Artifact Transport by Migratory Animals and Other Means.

AAnt 9:395-400.

1949    Curved Single-piece Fishhooks of Shell and Bone in California.

AAnt 15:89-96.

1950    An Unusual Decorated Steatite Slab from Northwestern

California. AAnt 15:252-254.

1951    A Prehistoric Yurok Ceremonial Site (Hum-174). UC-ASR 11:1-4.

143

1953    Statement Presented in Discussion of Papers Published in

Anthropology Today. In An Appraisal of Anthropology Today,
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1956    Archaeology of the Uyak Site, Kodiak Island, Alaska.

UC-AR 17:1-200.
Heizer, R. F. (Ed.)

1953    The Archaeology of the Napa Region. UC-AR 12:225-358.
Heizer, R. F. and A. D. Krieger

1956    The Archaeology of Humboldt Cave, Churchill County, Nevada.

UC-PAAE 47:1-190.
Heizer, R. F. and J. E. Mills

1952    The Four Ages of Tsurai. University of California Press,

Berkeley.

Heizer, R. F. and D. M. Pendergast

1954    Additional Data on Fired Clay Human Figurines from California.

AAnt 21:181-185.
Hewes, G. W.

1942    The Ainu Double-foreshaft Toggle Harpoon and Western North

America. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
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Hill-Tout, C.

1898    Oceanic Origin of the Kwakiutl-Nutka and Salish Stocks.

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Jacobs, M.

1937    Historic Perspectives in Indian Languages of Oregon and

Washington. Pacific Northwest Quarterly, 28:55-74.
Jones, P. M.

1956    Archaeological Investigations on Santa Rosa Island in 1901.

UC-AR 17:201-280.
Keep, J.

1935    West Coast Shells.  Stanford University Press.  (Rev. by

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Keithahn, E. L.

1962    Stone Artifacts of Southeastern Alaska. AAnt 28:66-77.
Kelly, I. T.

1930    The Carver's Art of the Indians of Northwest California.

UC-PAAE 24:343-360.

144

King, A. R.

1950    Cattle Point:  A Stratified Site in the Southern Northwest

Coast Region. SAA-M 7:1-94.
Klimek, S.

1935    Culture Element Distributions:  I. The Structure of California

Indian Culture. UC-PAAE 37:13-70.
Krieger, H. W.

1927    Archaeological Investigations in the Columbia River Valley.

SI-MC 78:187-200.

1928    A Prehistoric Pit House Village Site on the Columbia River

at Wahluke, Grant County, Washington. Proceedings of the U.S.
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Kroeber, A. L.

1917    The Tribes of the Pacific Coast of North America. Proceedings

of the 19th International Congress of Americanists, Washington,
1915, pp. 385-401.

1923    American Culture and the Northwest Coast. AA 25:1-20.

1925    Handbook of the Indians of California. BAE-B 78:1-995.

1934    Yurok and Neighboring Kin Term Systems. UC-PAAE 35:15-22.

1935    Preface to Culture Element Distributions:  I. The Structure

of California Indian Culture, by S. Klimek. UC-PAAE 37:1-11.
1936    Culture Element Distributions:  Area and Climax. UC-PAAE

37: 101-116.

1937    Appendix in Culture Element Distributions: VII. Oregon Coast,

by H. G. Barnett.  UC-AR 1:199-203.

1939    Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America.

UC-PAAE 38:1-242.

1939    Local Ethnographic and Methodologial Inferences.  In Culture

Element Distributions:  X. Northwest California, by H. E.
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1941    Some Relations of Linguistics and Ethnology. Language,

Vol. 17:287-291.

Kroeber, A. L. and S. A. Barrett

1960    Fishing Among the Indians of Northwestern California.

UC-AR 21:1-210.
Lantis, M.

1938    The Alaskan Whale Cult and Its Affinities. PA 40:438-464.
Laughlin, W. S.

1941    Excavations in the Calapuya Mounds of the Willamette Valley,

Oregon. AAnt 7:147-155.

1942    Notes on the Archaeology of the Yamhill River, Willamette

Valley, Oregon. AAnt 9:220-229.

145

Leatherman, K. E. and A. D. Krieger

1940    Contributions to Oregon Coast Prehistory. AAnt 6:19-28.
Leonhardy, F. C.

n.d.    The Cultural Position of the Iron Gate Site.  (M.A. thesis,

University of Oregon, Dept. of Anthropology, 1961.)
Lewis, A. B.

1906    Tribes of the Columbia Valley and the Coasts of Washington

and Oregon. AAA-M 1, Part 2.

Lillard, J. B., R. F. Heizer and F. Fenenga

1939    An Introduction to the Archaeology of Central California.

Sacramento Junior College, Dept. of Anthropology, Bull.
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Loud, L. L.

1918

Ethnogeography and Archaeology of the Wiyot Territory.
UC-PAAE 14:221-426.

MacLeod, W. D.

1925    Certain Mortuary Aspects of Northwest Coast Culture.

AA 27:122-148.
Mason, 0. T.

1889    The Ray Collection from Hupa Reservation. SI-AR 1886:205-239.
McMinn, H. E. and E. Maino

1956    An Illustrated Manual of Pacific Coast Trees. University of

California Press, Berkeley.
Meighan, C. W.

1955    Archaeology of the North Coast Ranges, California.

UC-ASR 30:1-39.
Mills, J. E.

1950    Recent Developments in the Study of Northwestern California

Archaeology. UC-ASR 7:21-25.
Newman, T. M.

n.d.    Tillamook Prehistory and Its Relation to the Northwest Coast

Culture Area.  (Ph.D. thesis, University of Oregon, Dept. of
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Niblack, A. P.

1890    The Coast Indians of Southern Alaska and Northern British

Columbia. U.S. National Museum Report for 1887-1888,
pp. 227-386.

146

Nomland,

1935
1938

G. A.

Sinkyone Notes. UC-PAAE 36:149-178.

Bear River Ethnography. UC-AR 2:91-124.

Nomland, G. A. and A. L. Kroeber

1936    Wiyot Towns. UC-PAAE 35:39-48.
Olson, E. A. and W. S. Broecker

1959    Natural Radiocarbon Measurements, V. American Journal of

Science, Radiocarbon Supplement, Vol. 1:1-28.
Olson, R. L.

1927    Adze, Canoe, and House Types of the Northwest Coast.

UW-PA 2:1-38.

Olson, W. H. and F. A. Riddell

1962    Salvage of the Rio Oso Site, Yuba County, California.

California Division of Beaches & Parks, Interpretive

Services Section, Archaeological Report No. 6. Sacramento.
1963    The Archaeology of the Western Pacific Railroad Relocation,

Oroville Project, Butte County, California. California

Division of Beaches & Parks, Interpretive Services Section,
Archaeological Report No. 7. Sacramento.
Osborne, D.

1956    Early Lithic in the Pacific Northwest. Research Studies of

the State College of Washington, Vol. 24:38-44.

1958    Western American Prehistory: An Hypothesis. AAnt 24:47-53.
Osborne, D., W. W. Caldwell and R. H. Crabtree

1956    The Problemsof Northwest Coast-Interior Relationship as

Seen from Seattle. AAnt 22:117-128.
Powers, G. M.

1886    Mound Relics of Oregon. American Antiquarian, Vol. 8:166-167.
Powers, S.

1877    Tribes of California. U.S. Geographical and Geological Survey

of the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions to North American
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Quimby, G. I.

1948    Culture Contact on the Northwest Coast. AA 50:247-255.
Rau, C.

1960    Shell Heaps Near Cape Mendocino, Humboldt County, California.

UC-ASR 50:25-27.
Ray, V. F.

1938    Lower Chinook Ethnographic Notes. UW-PA 7:29-165.

1942    Culture Element Distributions: XXII. Plateau. UC-AR 8:99-262.

147

Reagan, A. B.

1917    Archaeological Notes on Western Washington and Adjacent

British Columbia. Proceedings of the California Academy
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Rust, H. N.

1905

The Obsidian Blades of California. With Notes, by A. L.
Kroeber. AA 7:688-689.

Sapir, E.

1907    Notes on the Takelma Indians of Southwestern Oregon.

AA 9:251-275.

1908    Luck-Stones Among the Yana. IJAL 21:42.

1915    The Social Organization of the West Coast Tribes.  Proceed-

ings and Transactions of the Royal Society, Canada, Ser. 3,
Vol. IX:355-374.

Schenck, W.

1926

Schumacher,

E.

The Emeryville Shellmound: Final Report. UC-PAAE 23:147-282.
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1874    Remarks on the Kjokken-Moddings on

America. SI-AR (1873), 354-362.

1877    Researches in the Kjokken-M6ddings

Population of the Coast of Oregon.
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Bulletin of the U.S.

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Smith, C.

1952

Smith, H.

E. and W. D. Weymouth

Archaeology of the Shasta Dam Area, California. UC-ASR
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1899    Stone Hammers or Pestles of the Northwest Coast of America.

AA 1:363-368.

1903    Shell Heaps of the Lower Fraser River, British Columbia.

AMNH-Memoirs, Vol. 4, Part 4.

1906    Recent Archaeological Discoveries in Northwestern America.

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1906    Noteworthy Archaeological Specimens from Lower Columbia

Valley. AA 8:298-307.

1906    A Remarkable Pipe from Northwestern America. AA 8:33-38.

1907    Archaeology of the Gulf of Georgia and Puget Sound. AMNH-

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Smith, M. W.

1950    Archaeology of the Columbia-Fraser Region. SAA-M 6:1-46.
1954    Attributes and the Discovery of Projectile Point Types,

with Data from the Columbia-Fraser Region. AAnt 20:15-26.

148

Spier, L.

1930

Klamath Ethnography. UC-PAAE 30:1-238.

Steward, J. H.

1927    A New Type of Carving from the Columbia Valley.

AA 29:255-261.

1928    A Peculiar Type of Stone Implement. AA 30:314-316.

Strong, E.

1959
1959
1960

A Columbia River
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Stone Figure. Archaeology, Vol. 12:136.

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Strong, W. D., W. E. Schenck and J. H. Steward

1930    Archaeology of the Dalles-Deschutes Region.

UC-PAAE 29:1-254.

Swan, J. G.

1869

The Indians of Cape Flattery. SI-CK 16:8.

Swartz, B. K.

1960    A Bibliography of

and Annotations.

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Klamath Basin Anthropology, with Excerpts

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Treganza,

A. E.

1954    Salvage Archaeology in Nimbus and Redbank Reservoir Areas,

Central California. UC-ASR 26:1-39.

1958    Salvage Archaeology in the Trinity Reservoir Area, Northern

California. UC-ASR 43:1-38.

1959    Salvage Archaeology in the Trinity Reservoir Area, Northern

California, Field Season 1958. UC-ASR 46:1-32.

Treganza, A. E., C. E. Smith and W. D. Weymouth

1950    An Archaeological Survey of the Yuki Area. UC-AR 12:113-128.

Uhle, M.

1907
Voegelin,

1942

The Emeryville Shellmound. UC-PAAE 7:1-106.

E. W.

Culture Element Distributions: XX. Northeast California.
UC-AR 7:47-251.

Wallace, W. J. and E. S. Taylor

1952    Excavation of Sis-13, a Rock Shelter in Siskiyou County,

California. UC-ASR 15:13-39.
Waterman, T. T.

1920    Yurok Geography. UC-PAAE 16:177-314.

1920    The Whaling Equipment of the Makah Indians. University of

Washington, Publications in Political and Social Sciences,
Vol. 1, No. 1.

149

1923    Some Conundrums of Northwest Coast Art.    AA 25:435-451.
1925    Village Sites in Tolowa and Neighboring Areas of

Northwestern California. AA 27:528-543.
Wingert, P. S.

1952    Prehistoric Stone Sculpture of the Pacific Northwest.

Portland Art Museum, Portland, Oregon.
Woodward, A.

1927    Some Tolowa Specimens.   Museum of the American Indian,

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