Reports of the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY No. 54 51 C., TRADE ROUTES AND ECONOMIC EXCHANGE AMONG THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA James T. Davis Issued March 31, 1961 The University of California Archaeological Survey Department of Anthropology University of California Berkeley 4, California TRADE ROUTES AND ECONOMIC EXCHANGE AMONG THE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA James T. Davis UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY REPORT NO. 54 TABIE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX: CORRELATION OF INDIAN TRAILS OF ABORIGINAL CALIFORNIA WITH MODERN THOROUGHFARES. . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . ........ . . . . EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS MAP 1: BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES TO TRAILS . . . MAP 2: TRADE RELATIONS IN ABORIGINAL CALIFORNIA (INCLUDING INDEX TO TRIBES) ..... ILLUSTRATIONS .0 1 Is. 47 .0 49 * * 66 * . 69 Following Page MAP 1 . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * MAP 2 . . . . . . a . . . . . . .l. . . . . . . ..a . . . 71 71 ABSTRACT Information referring to trade and trails in native California has been abstracted from ethnographic works and other sources which contain specific reference to the subject. Trail routes are plotted and numbered, for bibliographic reference, on one map, and another map indicates, schematically, the California groups who had occasion to use the trails. Each group thus mentioned is listed, together with itemizations of goods imported and exported. The relative importance of traded material, based upon a count of the number of times each commodity is mentioned in the litera- ture, is suggested by a table with the items arranged in descend- ing order of frequency of mention. The work is intended as a replacement and supplement to an earlier presentation (Sample, 1950), now out of print, co-n the same subject. (Ed.) -, * a.R * a. ' * *. The related subjects of inter- and intra-tribal trade and the routes followed in traveling from one place to another in aboriginal California are ones which have been largely neglected by ethnographers. The lack of coverage of these topics possibly reflects a series of conscious or uncon- scious assumptions on the part of both informants and ethnographers. For example, it would not be unreasonable to suppose that if one San Francis- can informed another that he was going to Oakland, both parties would probably assume that the route followed would be over the San Francisco- Oakland Bay Bridge. Similarly, an Achomawi informant, for example, might offer the information that "we go to Glass Mountain to get obsidian," and unless further information is elicited by the interrogator as to the route traversed in getting there, such intelligence probably would not be volun- teered because the Indian, possibly unconsciously, assumes that anyone knows how to get to Glass Mountain from a given starting point. In spite of the lack of specific detailed coverage of these topics inl- all but a few ethnographic works, such as Steward's (1933) monograph on the Owens Valley Paiute, a considerable body of data may be extracted, piecemeal, from the literature. The first attempt to assemble data on the subjects of trade and trails in California appeared in 1950 in the Univer- sity of California Archaeological Survey Report No. 8. The present work is offered as a replacement and supplemient to its predecessor which has been out of print for a number of years. - 1 - Obviously in a research project of this magnitude several sources of information are bound to be overlooked and omissions of data are apt to occur. However, a check of the bibliography will reveal to the reader that a considerable body of literature has been utilized in this study. In all, the principal omissions in the present work have very likely been made in the area of historical sources rather than ethnographic ones. Such omissions must be considered, in a way, as deliberate and are based upon the conviction of the writer that the time involved in searching the huge volume of literature on the early history of California would not be considered well spent when balanced against the relatively small amount of information which may be gained therefrom. Frequencies of imports and ex- ports of various items, as presented in Table 1, might be altered somewhat by additional (historical) information, but in the total picture of trade in aboriginal California alterations or adjustments based on this informa- tion probably would appear to be of only small significance. For many years archaeologists have been aware of the distances., some- times very great, over which preferred artifacts and materials have spread from one group to another. Such diffusion is well documented in the south- western United States: see, for example, Ball (1941); Bennyhoff and Heizer (1958); Brand (1935, 1937, 1938); Chard (1950); Colton (1941); Fewkes (1896); Gifford (1949 ); Heizer (1941, 1946); Heizer and Treganza (1944); Henderson (1930); Hodge (1935); Leechman (1942); Malouf (1940); Rogers (1941); Stearns (1889); Tower (1945); and Woodward (1937). Perhaps the earliest published reference to aboriginal trade in shell products between the inhabitants of the Pacific Coast and the Southwest appears in Barber (1876:68). Specifically, we may note the following items traded between the Puebloan Southwest and California in aboriginal times, and perhaps betweeni Mexico and California, at least during the Mission period. Gif ford (1947:61-62) found fourteen types of ornaments and beads made from marine shell species restricted in their habitat to the Pacific Coast in various Puebloan sites which ranged in time from Basketmaker II through Pueblo IV. Tower (op. cit., p. 21) notes a similar relationship between the Southwest and California. Kroeber (1925:934-35) and Gifford and Schenck (1926:104 ff.) note the presence of a Mohave type wooden war club, soft twined bags, and woven cotton cloth of Puebloan type, which accompanied burials (presumably Yokuts) near Buena Vista Lake in California. Font (Bolton, 1931b:250, 275) attests to the fact that woven cotton blankets imported from the Southwest were known and used by the Chumash Indians on the coast and islands of the Santa Barbara Channel. - 2 - Gladwin and Gladwin (1935:204) report that two sherds of Hohokam red-on-buff pottery, dating from the Sedentary Period, were recovered from a Gabrielino site near Redondo Beach, California. Walker (1945:191, 193) states in reference to a site on the north- ern outskirts of the city of Los Angeles: "It was a prehistoric site, history commencing with the arrival of the Spaniards, and no white man's meterial, such as glass beads, iron, etc., being present. "Arizona supplies one more or less definite date for the site owing to the discovery . . . of about twenty sherds of Arizona red-on-brown Hohokam pottery. This pottery has been identified . . . as of one vessel made in the seventh, eighth, or ninth century A.D." For the occurrence of Hohokam and other Arizona pottery among the prehistoric Colorado tribes, see Schroeder (1952:47 ff.). There is on record the occurrence of grooved stone axes from the Southwest among several California tribes in both archaeological and ethnographic times (Heizer, 1946, passim). Merriam (1955:88-89) notes the use of tripodal metates among the Luiseino in the historic villages of Rincon and Pauma, which perhaps were derived from Mexico. Another interesting fact concerning relations between the aboriginal peoples of the Southwest and southern California is that, according to Heizer and Treganza (op. cit., p. 335)., the turquoise mines in the Mohave Desert were not worked by California Indians but by Puebloan peoples com- ing into California in presumably rather large expeditions, who remained for some period of time before returning home. Apparently the most important trade item entering California from the north was the shell of Dentalium pretiosum, which was traded southward from tribe to tribe from the vicinity of Vancouver Island, especially from deep water beds in Quatsino Sound (Drucker, 1950:273). Not only were these shells traded southward to numerous California tribes as far south as the Chumash (Gifford, 1947:7), but northward to the Kogmollik and Nunatarna Eskimo (Stefansson, 1919:164) and eastward at least as far as the Crow and Assiniboin (Denig, 1930:590). Aside from establishing generalized trade routes and relations by means of determining the source(s) of imported items, the most fruitful results arising from the study of aboriginal trade has been the establish- - 3 - ment of relative or "absolute" cross-chronologies of archaeological cul- ture nmanifestations areally removed from one another by considerable dis- tance (e.g.X, Bennyhoff and Heizer, op. cit.; Riddell, 1958:45). Other opinions have been expressed concerning the possible value and utility of the study of aboriginal trade and trails, For example, it has been proposed that the study of Indian trails may be an important tool in attempting to determine the distribution of aboriginal population (Dodge, 1952:235); however the suggestion received rather strong criticism on various grounds (Broek, 1952), and to my knowledge such a study has not been published. Hill (1948:371-72) sees the consideration of trade goods anLd trading customs as an important aspect in the study of the processes of cultural dynamics. Several investigators have suggested that the evolution of modern highways and railroads developed in many instances from game trails lead- ing to such resources as salt and water. Primitive populations often utilized these natural resources, and they could be thought to have cer- tainly expanded the game trails to include paths furnishing access to other commuInities and to other raw materials and food supplies as well. When Europeans settled on the eastern seaboard, there was already estab- lished a network of trails connecting many diverse locations which supplied a large number of the needs of the inmmigrants. However this may be, Roe (1929, passim) attempts to discredit the thesis that many modern routes of land transportation in Canada and the United States evolved from game trails, on the basis that buffalo wander and graze indiscriminately over an extensive area and that when they do move in a herd from one grazinig region to another they move in a large disorganized array, rather than filing in such a way as to leave a well-defined trail. Whatever the ultimate origin of the narrow Indian trails, we can state with assurance that from a number of them were developed military and post roads. These were later the routes followed by toll. and public thorough- fares (Hulbert, 1902a:18 ff.; 1902b:143 ff.; Mills, 1914:7; Myer, 1928:735; Crawford, 1953:60 ff.). A similar development, at least in regard to Indian trails becoming modern routes of European travel, may be noted in California. For example, Kroeber (1959:299) remarks: "The Nohave, however, knew about the former residents on Mohave River, for their route to both the San Joaquin Valley and to the coast of southern California and subsequently to the Missions and Spanish settlements had fol- lowed Mohave River, as later an emnigrant trail, then a horse express and freight route, and finally the Santa Fe Railroad followed it." - 4 - Van Dyke (1927:354) also mentions this development. It might be added that most of U.S. Highway 66 and portions of other roads follow the same path. In addition to the route cited above, numerous other highways in California follow closely the courses of aboriginal footpaths. A listing of the more important of these routes is presented here in the Appendix. There appears to be good reason for the fact that many Indian trails in California could later become modern highways. For example, Beattie (1925:230) states: "This region [the Colorado Desert in California] had been inhabited by Indians for generations, and was traversed by well-established trails. When Sonorans and Americans began coming into California, they naturally followed the old paths whenever possible." Many of the early travelers in California either received directions from Indians or were accompanied by native guides. Examples of thL .s are seen in Anza's 1774 expedition (Bolton, 1930; 1931:216; Beattie, 1933a: 54-55, 61); Portola's 1769-1770 travels (Teggart, 1911:9, 25, 27, 111; Bolton, 1927: 89, 151; Priestley, 1937:8; Smith and Teggart, 1909:33); McKee's route from Clear Lake to Humboldt Bay (Gibbs, 1853:124); the es- tablishment of "El Camino Viejo A Los Angeles" (Latta., 1936:3); the "Walla Walla Road" (Heizer, 1942; Maloney, 1945); Fremont's 1844 journey (Fremont, 1845:206, 219, 254, 298); Whipple's route from San Diego to the Colorado River (Whipple, 1951:2, 13); Garces' travels along the Colorado River and Mohave Desert in 1776 (Kroeber, 1959:304). For other instances of Cali- fornia and neighboring Indians furnishing directions or drawing maps for Caucasian explorers, see Heizer (1958a, passim). All of the paths mentioned in the preceding paragraph are not plotted on the accompanying map for one reason or another, usually lack of detailed information (e.g. McKee's route from Clear Lake to Humboldt Bay). Some, such as that described for Portola's expedition (trail 77)*, have been traced only in part because only a portion of the pertinent narrative may contain specific detail. Others have been plotted in their entirety because of assumed reasonable exactness, for example, "El Camino Viejo A Los Angeles" (trail 102), and Fages' route across the Cuyamaca Mountains to San Diego (trail 94). Various observations and statements concerning the general course of travel or character of trails in California are on record, for example, Kroeber (1929:255) states that among the Valley Nisenan (Southern Maidu), * See page 66 and Map 1. - 5 - "It is clear that native communications prevailingly followed the large streams." Barrett and Gifford (1933:256) observe, "Miwok trails were usually almost airline in their directness, running up hill and down dale without zigzags or detours." Referring to Wailaki trails, Powers (1877: 119) relates: "Time and again I have wondered why the trails so laboriously climb over the highest part of the mountain. . . . "When the whole face of the country is wooded alike, the old Indian trails will be found along the streams; but when it is somewhat open they invariably run along the ridges, a rod or two below the crest. . . . The California Indians seek open ground for their trails that they may not be surprised either by their enemies or by [animals]." Along the trans-Sierran trails, Muir (1894:80) observed: "It is interesting to observe how surely the alp-crossing animals of every kind fall into the same trails. The more rugged and inaccessible the general character of the topography of any particular region, the more surely will the trails of white men, Indians., bear, wild sheep, etc., be found converging in the best places." Concerning these same trans-Sierran routes, Hindes (1959:13) states that, "Modern trails marked on the present day U. S. Geological Survey maps coincide to a great extent with old routes said to have been used by the Indians." Farmer (1935:156) says that the trail along the Santa Clara River (trail 77 on the accompanying map) followed the ridges above the canyons rather than the floors of the canyons. In most regions Indian trails are difficult or impossible to recognize today, in fact many trails were originally so narrow that they served merely as footpaths for humans, and horses could not negotiate them in brush country (Dale, 1918:243). But in the arid desert regions of California one may still recognize at least remnants of the ancient pathways (Gates, 1909; Johnston and Johnston, 1957; Belden, 1958; Jones, 1936; Rogers, 1945:181; Wallace, 1958:8). Referring to these desert trails, Johnston and Johnston (op. cit., p. 23) observed: "Although the singular word 'trail' will be used throughout this paper, in actuality seldom, and then but for brief stretches, did any of the re- corded sections contain only one trail. Almost always there were two or more subsidiaries running parallel to w-lat might be considered the main trunk." - 6 - Certain features have been suggested as being associated with Indian trails in different regions of the state. The best documented of such asso- ciations are the trailside "shrines" located at irregular intervals along numerous trails in the southern California deserts (Jones, op. cit.; Rogers, 1945:181; Johnston and Johnston, op. cit.; Jaeger, 1933:128; Wilhelm, 1951; Castetter and Bell, 1951:57; Schroeder, 1952:45). Such shrines were also present in Wappo territory (Yount, 1923:61; Heizer, 1953:247, P1. 31a, b). These shrines consist of piles of rocks, many of which contain "offerings" of potsherds, beads, or other articles. Powers (op. cit., p. 58) and Goddard (1913:passim) relate that the Yurok dropped twigs and stones at the junctions of trails, which in some places accumulated into considerable piles of brush. Similar shrines were also erected by the Chilula (ibid, p. 280). The Yurok also shot arrows into certain trees and made offerings at specitic traditional resting places on the trail, as did the Wiyot (Loud, 1918:252-53). Other groups appear to have occasionally marked trails with rocks, for example, the Yana (Anderson, 1909:16) and the Serrano (Campbell., 1931:18). Mallery (1886: 34-35) suggests that pictographs are located at or near the origin of the several trails passing over the Santa Ynez Mountains in Chumash territory. The question of time-depth relating to the establishment, use, or aban- donment of the trails is an important one. It is practically impossible, however, in the light of present knowledge, to unravel such history or the time-span of the use of the trails. In this connection, it may be of interest to note a statement by Elsasser (n.d., p. 10): "It is obvious, of course, that trails, however faint, would have to connect one site with another whether the sites were used synchronically or diachronically." The only date-range I have been able to find for the aboriginal., i.e., pre-European contact, use of a trail (or at least portions of a trail) in California is supplied by Harner (1957: 36). Such dating is based upon the occurrence of datable pottery at the trailside shrines along the San Gorgonio- Big Maria trail as defined by Johnston and Johnston (op. cit., passim; trails 83, 86, 87, and 91 on Map I of this paper). The range of dates as cited by Harner extends from 900 A.D. into the historic period, ca. 1900 A.D. Proposed trails 8 and 9 on Map 1 terminate at Glass Mountain, the forma- tion of which has been dated by means of radiocarbon analysis. Concerning this date, Heizer (1958b:3, discussion of sample C-673) says, "Glass Mountain obsidian., widely used by Indians in Northern California . . . could not, therefore, have been available before 600 A.D." At present one may only assume that the trails plotted on the map repre- sent different orders of time of use. Some, such as the Mohave trade route, may be quite ancient, while others, such as the "Walla Walla Road" and "El Camino Viejo A Los Angeles," may be qulte recent. - 7 - In aboriginal California, the most prevalent type of trade appears to have been a simple exchange of goods considered to be of approximately the same value. The outright purchase of desired commodities, through a developed monetary system based primarily upon lengths of strings of clam shell disc beads, was perhaps the next most common method of obtaining desired articles. Other less common, although not infrequently practiced, methods of securing goods include: the free reciprocal use of at least portions of one another's resources (Merriam, 1955:76; Barrett, 1908:134, 1910:240; Drucker, 1937:289; Garth, 1953:131, 154; Gifford, 1931:35); the purchase of a favorable locale in another territory which then became the semi- permanently owned property of the purchaser (Waterman, 1920: 222); the payment to a "chief" to allow a one-trip hunting, fishing, or gathering expedition (Garth, op. cit., p. 136; Loeb, 1926:195); a direct clandestine invasion of another group's territory to obtain articles by theft, which frequently resulted in warfare (Merriam, 1955:16-17; Kroeber, 1925:236; Loeb, op. cit., p. 174). In addition to formal barter or purchase of goods, many of the Cali- fornia tribes practiced a generally informal exchange of "gifts" (Boscana, 1933:42); however, it was not gift-giving without expectation of reciprocal exchange, for the recipient was generally expected to return items of equal or most often greater value at some future time. Two restrictions to primitive trade noted by MacLeod (1927:271 ff.) appear not to have operated in aborigilnal California. The first of these involves a tribute payment for, or imposition of., a toll on goods passing through the territory of an intervening group. In the first place, the nature of intertribal relations and transportation and exchange of goods militated against such restrictions. Seldom in California did one group pass through another's territory, and in the few cases where this did take place, certain circumstances existed which prevented or affected such trib- ute or toll collection. As one illustration could be cited the case of the Mohave who traveled through the territory of several intervening groups to trade with the Yokuts and Chumash. Much of the country over which they traveled was very sparsely populated desert. In addition, the Mohave were perhaps the most fierce, fearsome, and feared fighters in California (Stewart, K. M., 1947), and any attempt to exact tribute from them would probably have been met with a kind of warfare quite foreign to the usual Californian pattern of taking flight when the first man was wounded. A similar set of circumstances may be pointed out in relation to the Modocs, who were feared as warriors in northern California as much as the Mohave were in southern California, and who were perhaps the only other tribe be- sides the latter in the state who habitually traveled through the territory of other tribes. - 8 - Another instance concerns the direct trade relations between the Eastern Mono (Northern Paiute) and the Yokuts. In this case, the inter- vening group through whose territory the Paiute passed, the Western Mono (Monach&.), were close relatives, both linguistically and socially, of the Paiute. Members of the Paiute trading parties accordingly were welcomed as friends by the Monachi, although the Yokuts with whom they traded feared and disliked them. Much the same set of circumstances as cited above prevailed in Cali- fornia in the few cases where direct transport of goods was accomplished through the lands of an intervening group. The procedure most widely recognized in California was the exchange of goods between tribes having a common border. In most cases, groups fortunate enough to be geographically situated to act as middlemen in the flow of commodities naturally marked up the "price" of articles passing through their lands, but this resulted only after the goods had beeln in- corporated into their body of products available for trade. The second restriction of the two alluded to above involved individ- ual monopoly for discovering a new trade item. It is true that certain near-monopolies existed on a tribal basis in California, such as the Pomo near-monopoly in the manufacture of magnesite beads and the making of clam disc beads by the Coast Miwok and Pomo, but these were due to geographic considerations rather than to a formally recognized right. (Some additional references relating to trade restrictions in California which may be cited for the benefit of the interested reader are: Schenck, 1926:143; Forde, 1931:105; Muir., 1917:80-81; Stratton., 1935:105-6; Barrett and Gifford. op. cit., pp. 251, 256; Holmes, 1900:177; Treganza, 1952:20-21; Garth, op. cit., pp. 131, 137; Murphey, 1941:360-61). Despite what has been said above, it appears that there were in fact some factors which tended to restrict a free and reciprocal exchange of goods in aboriginal California, Some neighboring tribes, for instance, felt hostility or fear toward one another, or were perhaps adversely affected by geographical features, such as existed between the Washo and Maidu, who apparently had little to do with each other socially or in a trading rela- tionship (Kroeber, 1925:399; Dixon, 1905:201). The Yuma had little contact with the Cocopah, except perhaps in warfare (Whipple, op. cit., p. 19). Even though the Kings River Yokuts were quite unfriendly to, and distrustful of, the Monachi and Mono-Paiute, a great deal of goods nevertheless passed between them. However, concerning this relationship, Gayton (1946:259) points out: "Thus two types of environmental factor, topographic access or hindrance, - 9 - and 'weather-permitting' or hindering, affected the economic relation of the foothill Yokuts with their neighbors. Easy access does not necessar- ily mean exchange of goods or other cultural items, but barriers do retard them. On the other hand, differing environments mean different products, and had Eastern Mono products been identical with Yokuts (yet equally accessible) the impetus to exchange would have been wanting." On the other hand, some neighboring tribes were apparently very friend- l ly and enjoyed much visiting back and forth; for example, the Thbatulabal and Southern Yokuts (Kroeber, 1925:606), the Northeastern Pomo and the Yuki (Barrett, 1904:190), and the Tolowa and the Karok (Waterman, 1925:528). Such visiting would tend also to accelerate exchange of commodities. Generalized routes or streams of diffusion of items have been noted in aboriginal California. Probably the best example of this is seen in the flow of clam disc beads northward from the region about San Francisco Bay and the reciprocal southward movement of pelts, sinew-backed bows, and stonework. The Central and Northern Wintun acted as middle-men in this exchange, contributing little or nothing to the flow except perhaps the re-grinding of imperfect shell beads, yet profiting from the opposing streams of diffusion (Goldschmidt, 1951:336-37). Kroeber (1925:309) notes the exchange of shell beads up the Pit River for furs passing downstream. Gayton (1948a:56) observed the eastward flow of shell beads from the Chumash through the Yokuts to the Eastern Mono (Mono-Paiute) as opposed to a westward movement of various goods in exchange. The routes of diffusion of various religious cults and movements in California are presented by Du Bois (1939). These are relatively late in time and it must therefore be recognized that they were possibly greatly altered by historic conditions and may not reflect an aboriginal pattern of paths of diffusion. One of the most interesting accounts concerning long-distance travel for trading purposes in California is based on the expeditions of Walla Walla, Cayuse., and Nez Perce Indians, who traveled, after 1800, on horse- back from eastern Washington up the Deschutes River, thence down the Pit and Sacramento Rivers as far south as Sutter's Fort (Heizer, 1942; Maloney, 1945:230; Hussey and Ames, 1942) and the cinnabar deposits at New Almaden, south of San Francisco (Heizer and Treganza, op. cit., p. 298). That this trail, "the Walla Walla Road,," is probably quite recent is admitted by the investigators cited above. It conceivably could be, how- - 10 - ever, an ancient diffusion route (Davis, 1959:26, Map 1) which through time became a trail in the usually understood sense, It will be noted in the accompanying list of tribes and articles traded, that all tribal divisions and dialect groups are not consistently segregated; for example, the Pomo are treated as a single entity, while each of the separate Yokuts groups is treated individually. The reason for this variance is that many of the various Pomo groups traveled quite freely throughout much of the entire tribal area at different times of the year, and also because many references do not specify the precise sub- group involved in trading activities, On the other hand, even though the Yokuts are occasionally referred to generically, most of the references to trading practices are specific. The number of times each article or commodity is mentioned in the literature as having been traded from one group to another is presented in the following table, arranged in descending order of frequency. One occur- rence as an export or import is counted for each mention of a group's trad- ing an article to or receiving an item from another group. Howeve-r X if the reference is to one group's trading three different kinds of animal hides, for example, to one other group, that occurrence is counted only as one rather than three. On the other hand, if it is stated by informants that one group traded but one kind of hide to three other groups, such occurrence is counted as three. From Table 1, it appears that the classes of items most frequently traded among the California Indians were food (including salt) and tobacco (mentioned 321 times), followed in order by beads and shell products (230), various manufactured goods (205), various raw materials (174), clothing and textiles (68), feathers and birds (25), and miscellaneous items (15). Swanton (1907:446) noted that shell beads and animal hides were the most common media of exchange in aboriginal North America. Concerning their utilization as items possessing fixed values, this statement is possibly true; however, in California, as stated above, salt as a single item, and foods in general, apparently were more often exchanged. As Driver and Massey (1957:377) remarked in summarizing Sample's (op. cit. ) data: "It is apparent that there is no simple explanation of the frequencies of the various trade goods. They are determined by local differences in availability, local differences in craft specialization, local differences in re-tradability with another neighbor, and local tastes and preferences for one item instead of another." - 11 - On Map 1 are depicted trails known to have been utilized by the aboriginal inhabitants of California, and proposed routes whose probable existence is supported by substantiating evidence. Only major trails are numbered and references are cited for them individually. For unnum- bered trails in a geographic region, referegices are cited only in general terms for the area as a whole. No trail appears on the map for which there is no supporting evidence in the literature. It may seem to be a simple matter to plot a series of trails on a map, assign numbers to each trail, and then cite references for defined routes, However, numerous difficulties arise in the process of attempt- ing to carry out what appears to be a simple mechanical procedure. For exaimple, J. R. Swanton has remarked in his preface to Myer's (op. cit., p. 731) work: "It should be remembered that there is and always must be consider- able artificiality in the determination of what constitutes a trail, and where a trail begins and ends." In addition to this problem is the one presented by the considerable overlappintg of references to a trail. For example, the trail along the Klamath River could be completed only after examining references to parts of the route in several different sources. In spite of such difficulties as these, it is believed that specific information concerning a particular path may be found in one or more of the references cited for the region in which the trail occurred. TABLE 1 Number of Times Items Are Mentioned in Literature as Being Imported and Exported Im- Ex- Item ported ported Total Salt 39 40 79 Basketry 40 36 76 Hides and pelts 38 30 68 Marine shell beads (other than those 30 28 58 separately listed) Acorns 24 23 47 Dentaliaa 23 22 45 Clam disc beads 22 22 44 - 12 - TABLE 1 [continued] Im- Ex- Item ported ported Total Whole or fragmentary marine shells 21 21 42 Fish 20 17 37 Obsidian 19 16 35 Bows (other than sinew-backed and unspecified) 15 15 30 Pigments and paint 17 12 29 Miscellaneous vegetal foods 15 14 29 Pine nuts (other than pi?ion) 13 11 24 Sinew-backed bows 11 9 20 Molluscs and echinoderms 9 10 19 Caucasian goods (guns, horses, glass beads, 8 11 19 axes, f ishhooks) Rabbit-skin blankets 9 9 18 Arrows 9 9 18 Miscellaneous seeds and nuts 7 9 16 Seaweed and kelp 7 6 13 Piffon nuts 6 7 13 Stone arrowheads, blades, etc. 6 7 13 Miscellaneous beads. 5 7 12 Animal meat 6 5 11 -Tobacco 5 6 Il Woodpecker scalps 5 5 10 Miscellaneous fruits and berries 6 4 10 Tailored skin slothing 6 4 ,10 !Moccasins 5 Magnesite beads 6 4 10 Dugout canoes 5 5 10 Eagle and hawk feathers 6 3 9 Insect foods 5 4 9 Tobacco seeds 2 6 8 Skin robes 5 3 8 Basketry raw materials 5 3 8 Steatite 5 3 8 Wooden fire drills 4 3 7 Horn for spoons 3 3 6 Material for fiber 2 4 6 Pine nut beads 2 4 6 Miscellaneous foods 3 3 6 Pottery 2 3 5 Yellowhammer feathers 3 2 5 Asphaltum 3 2 5 - 13 - TABLE 1 [ continued] Im- Ex- Item ported ported Total Miscellaneous vegetal material 3 2 5 Sihell ornaments 3 2 5 Woven fiber blankets and cloth 4 - 4 Miscellaneous sea foods 2 2 4 Dogs 3 1 4 Seeds for planting 2 2 4 Woven tule or fiber mats 2 2 4 Hot rock lifters of wood 2 2 4 Steatite vessels 2 2 4 Sinew 1 2 3 Gourd rattles 2 1 3 Cordage and rope 2 1 3 Miscellaneous articles 2 1 3 Olivella shell beads 1 1 2 Juniper seed beads 1 1 2 Woven pack straps 1 1 2 tJUnspecified clothing 1 1 2 Nets 1 1 2 Skirts (other than hide) 1 X 2 Stone and wood tobacco pipes 1 1 2 Miscellaneous chipped stone tools 1 1 2 Woodieni vessels 1 1 2 Log -:afts I 1 2 S tonie mortars and pestles 1 1 2 Clay for pottery 1 1 2 Pumice stone 1 1 2 Pepperwood pods (for hair dressing) 1 1 2 Human slaves 1 1 2 Miscellaneous unworked stone 1 1 2 Steatite beads 1 - 1 Live eagles 1 - 1 Fiber sandals I - 1 Feather robes 1 - 1 Sea lion harpoon heads I - 1 Wooden digging sticks I - 1 Wood for bows I - 1 Woven wool ponchos 1 - 1 - 14 - On the following pages are set forth the details of trade, with the ethnographic groups concerned, arranged in alphabetic order. The inter- connections between Californian groups are shown graphically on Map 2. Each group shown as a major heading may be keyed to Map 2 by means of a following identification number and letter, as, for example, ACHOMAWI:6e. -ACHOMAWI:6e Supplied to: Atsugewi Basketry caps, salmon flour, acorns, salmon, dentalia, tule baskets, steatite, rabbit- skin blankets Modoc Shell beads, shallow bowl-shaped twined baskets, braided grass skirts, pine nut string skirts Northeastern Maidu Northern Wintun Northern Paiute Yana Unspecified tribes Green pigment, obsidian, bows, arrows, deer skins, sugar pine nuts, shell beads Salt, furs, bows Sinew-backed bows, arrows, baskets, dried fish, women's basketry caps, clam disc beads, dried salmon flour Obsidian Raw sinew, bows Received from: Modoc Atsugewi Yana Northern Wintun Northern Paiute Shasta Northeastern Maidu Unspecified tribes Furs, bows, dentalia, horses Seed foods, epos roots (Pteridendia bolanden), other roots and vegetables, furs, hides, meat Buckeye fire drills, deer hides, buckskin, dentalia, salt Salmon flour, clam disc beads, dentalia Sinew, arrowheads, red paint, buckskins, moccasins, rabbit-skin blankets, various foods, basketry water bottles Dentalia Clam disc beads, salt, digger pine nuts Completed sinew-backed bows, magnesite beads, Olivella shells, dentalia - 15 - ACHOMWI [ continued] References: Dixon, 1908:211,215; Curtis, 1924:13:131; Kroeber, 1925:399; Kniffen, 1928:316-17; Spier, 1930:42,178-90; Kelly, 1932:114,151; Du Bois, 1935:25; Gifford and Klimek., 1936:83, 91-92, 98; Stewart, 0 C. 1941:432; Voegelin, E. We, 1942:179,191, 194,196,199,201; Sapir and Spier, 1943:258; Garth, 1953:136,183; de Angulo and Freeland, 1929:320. ATSUGEWI:6f Supplied to: Achomawi Northern Paiute Northeastern Maidu Yana Furs, hides, meat, seed foods, epos roots, other roots and vegetables Bows, baskets, shell beads Bows, twined baskets, furs, horses Buckskin, arrows, wildcat quivers, wood- pecker scalps Received from: Achomawi Northern Paiute Yana Ki amath Basketry caps, salmon f lour, steatite, acorns, salmon, dentalia, tule baskets, rabbit-skin blankets Horses, buckskins, red ochre, glass beads, guns, Olivella beads Salt, dentalia, buckeye fire drills Baskets Clam disc beads, coiled baskets, skins Clam disc beads, dentalia 1908:211; Kniffen, 1928:316-17; Voegelin, and Spier, 1943:258; Garth, 1953:130,136, Northeastern Maidu Northern Wintun References: Dixon, 1905:201; E. W., 1942:196, 201; Sapir 139; Spier, 1930:178,190. BUENA VISTA YOKUTS: 20g -Supplied to: Southern Valley Yokuts: Reference: Latta, 1949:65 Asphaltum - 16 - CAHUILLA:21t Received from: "The East" Gourd rattles, red paint Yuma Gourd rattles Chemehuevi Basketry caps, conical burden baskets References: Kroeber, 1908:42,62; Curtis, 1924:15:25 CENTRAL MIWOK:18e Supplied to: Eastern Mono Washo Yokuts (subgroup not specified) Received from: Eastern Mono Yokuts (subgroup not specified) Shell beads, glass beads, acorns, squaw berries, elderberUtes, manzanita berries, a fungus used in paint, baskets, sea shells, arrows Acorns, soaproot leaves for brushes Baskets, bows, arrows Pine nuts, pandora moth (Coloradia pandora) caterpillars, kutsavi (pupae of the fly Ephydra hians), baskets, red paint, white paint, salt., pumice stone, pifion nuts, buffalo robes, rabbit-skin blankets Dogs References: Clark, 1904:45-46; Bunnell, 1911:86; Barrett, 1917:14-15; Barrett and Gifford, 1933:193.,221,224,270; Steward, 1933:257; Godfrey, 1941: 57; Aginsky, 1943:454; McIntyre, 1949:5. CENTRAL WINTUN (NOMLAKI) : 16b Supplied to: Northwestern Maidu Patwin Yuki Clam disc beads, other shell beads Pine nuts, acorns, seeds, game, bear hides, beads, sinew-backed bows Salt Yana Clam disc beads, magnesite beads - 17 - CENTRAL WINTUN (NOMLAKI) [continued] Received from: Patwin Salmon, river otter pelts, game, beads Northern Wintun Obsidian Yana Baskets Yuki Black bearskins References: Powers, 1877: 240; Kroeber, 1925:399,421; 1932:274; Gifford and Klimek, 1936:83,91-92. 98; Goldschmidt, 1951:336-37, 418- 19. CIENEHUEVI (SOUTHERN PAIUTE): 21e Supplied to: Western Yavapai Shell beads Cahuilla Basketry caps, conical burden baskets References: Kroeber, 1908:42; Gifford, 1936:254. CHILULA: ld Supplied to: Yurok White grass used in basketry Reference: O'Neale, 1932:144. CHIMARIKO: 9 Received from: Wintun Obsidian Reference: Dixon, 1910:300. COAST MIWOK: 18a Supplied to: Wappo Clam shells, abalone shells Pomo Clam shells, clam disc beads References: Driver, 1936:194; Curtis., 1924:13:131, 257. - 18 - COAST YUKI:4c Supplied to: Kato Karok Mussels, seaweed, dry kelp for salt, salt, surf fish, abalone, giant chi ton Whole clam shells Surf fish, abalone, giant chiton, mussels., seaweed, dry kelp for salt, shells of Hinnites giganteus Salt, fish Pomo Yuki Received from: Kato or Yuki (?) Tobacco Kato Yuki Pomo Redbud baskets, hazel bows Obsidian Clam disc beads, acorns, fire drills of buckeye wood, beads of H. giganteus shell Bone sea-lion harpoon head, red obsidian "The North" References: Gifford, 1939;303ff., 332,334,335,338,340,342,355; Driver, 1939:382,398; Essene, 1942:56, 61; Foster, 1944:167. COSTANOAN: 19c, f Supplied to: Yokuts (subgroup referred to as "Tulare Yokuts") Sierra Miwok (subgroup not specified) Received from: Yokuts (subgroup ref erred to as "Tulare Yokuts") References: Pilling, 1950: 438; 251-52. Mussels, abalone shells, salt, dried abalone Olivella shells Piion nuts ms., n.d.; Barrett and Gifford, 1933: - 19 - DIEGUEflO: 15b Supplied to: Mohave Acorns Kamia Tobacco, acorns, baked mescal roots, yucca fiber., sandals, baskets, carrying nets, eagle feathers Eagle feathers Acorns Cocopa Yuma Received from: Cocopa Mohave Kamia Salt Gourd seeds "The Desert"1 Vegetal foods, salt Tule roots, bulbs, cattail sprouts, yucca leaves, mescal, pine nuts, manzanita berries, chokecherries, mesquite beans Gourd seeds Yuina References: Spier, 1923:349; Gifford, 1931:17, 23, 25, 35, 37-40; 1933:279; Drucker, 1941: 172; Curtis, 1924: 15:43. EASTERN MONO (NORTHERN PAIUTE)2: 21b Su]pplied to: "The Wes t"3 Central Miwok Mineral paint, salt, pine nuts, seed food, obsidian, rabbit-skin blankets, tobacco, baskets, buckskins, pottery vessels, clay pipes Pine nuts., pandora moth caterpillars, kutsavi, baskets, red paint, white paint, salt, pumice stone, rabbit- skin blankets 1. The list includes several mountain grown species, probably actually obtained from the Mountain Cahuilla rather than the desert. 2. Also called Owens Valley or Mono Lake Paiute. 3. Central Miwok, Southern Miwok, Western Mono, Ttibatulabal, Yokuts, - 20 - Southern Miwok Tule-Kaweah Yokuts Kings River Yokuts Washo Koso Western Mono Yokuts (subgroup not specifiedY Tiibatulabal Received from: "The West"t Central Miwok Paiute to east Southern Miwok Rabbit-skin blankets, basketry materials Sinew-backed bows, pinon nuts, obsidian, moccasins, rock salt, jerked deer meat, hot rock lifters Red paint Kutsavi Shell beads, various goods Mineral paint, pitch-lined basketry water bottles, acorns, rock salt, pinon nuts, mountain sheep-skins, moccasinsj tailored sleeveless buckskin jackets, fox-skin leggings, hot rock lifters, sinew-backed bows, unfinished obsidian arrowheads., red paint Salt, piiion nuts Salt, pine nuts, baskets, red and white paint, tanned deer skins, kuts avi, pandora moth caterpillars Squaw berries,4 shell beads, glass beads, acorns,, baskets, manzanita berries, bear skins, rabbit-skin blankets, elderberries Arrows, baskets, clam disc beads, shell beads, glass beads, acorns, squaw berries, elder- berries, manzanita berries, a fungus used in paint Black paint, yellow paint Clam disc beads 4. In previous literature these are believed to have been referred to as "sow-berries" (Steward, 1933:257; Sample, 1950:17). However, an attempt to determine the scientific name for sow berries has failed, and it is be- lieved that the species referred to is Rhus trilobata Nutt. (Squaw Bush) which grows in narrow valleys or canyon bottoms along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada at elevations between 1000-4000 feet (Jepson, 1951:608). Its branches were a favorite basketry material (cf. Brubaker, 1926: 77). - 21 - EASTERN MONO (NORTHERN PAIUTE) [continued] Received from: Tule-Kaweah Yokuts Western Mono Koso Yokuts (subgroup not specified) Tilbatulabal Deer, antelope, and elk skins, steatite, salt grass, salt, baskets, shell beads Shell beads, acorn meal, fine Yokuts baskets Salt Shell ornaments, buckskins, acorn meal Shell beads, acorns, manzanita berries, elderberries, baskets, rabbit-skin blankets References: Clark, 1904:45-46; Bunnell, 1911:86; Muir, 1916:228; Gifford, 1932:21, 26; Barrett and Gifford, 1933:193, 224, 255-56; Steward, 1933:250, 257, 266.,277; 1935:8,10,19-20; Driver, 1937:120; Godfrey, 1941:57; Aginsky, 1943:454; Gayton, 1948a:56; 1948b:146; McIntyre, 1949:5; Latta, 1949:64; Heizer, 1950:39, Merriam, 1955: 76,112; Steward, 1938:78; Stewart, G. W., 1927:391. GABRIELINO: 21m Supplied to: Serrano Unspecified tribes Shell beads, dried fish, sea otter pelts, steatite vessels Roots Received from: Serrano Acorns, deer skins, seed foods References: Kroeber., 1925:630; Strong, 1929:95-96; Eisen, 1905:9. IALCHIDHOMA6: 15e Supplied to: Maricopa Tobacco seeds 5. Apparently the Island (Santa Catalina) Gabrielino carried on most of the trade with the mainland group, who, in turn, traded the material inland, 6. Refers to trade carried on before the Halchidhoma were driven out of their former lands in the Colorado River Valley. - 22 - Hopi, Cotton Received from: Hopi Woven blankets and clot-h References: Spier, 1933:43; Coues, 1900:423; Bolton, l930:'2:386 HIUCHNOM: 4b Supi?liod. _o.: Yuki Lassik Recived from: Pomrn Clam disc beads, sea foods, clams, -salt, whole clam shells, kelp Clam disc beads Clam disc beads References: Essene, 1942:54, 56, 61; Foster, 1944:173-74. HUPA: 1c SUPPlied %o: Yurok Mattole Shasta Received from: Yurok Wiyot Mattole Northern Wintun Shasta Inland foods, skins, acorns Grass for rope, pine nut beads Acorns, baskets, dentalia, salt Woven pack straps, smelt, redwood dugout canoes, dried sea foods, surf fish, mussels, salty seaweed, dentalia White deerskins Angelica root, tobacco, Haliotis shell, various foods Salt Buckskin, pine nuts, horn for spoons References: Goddard, 1903:8, 31, 50; Dixon, 1907:435; Loud, 1918:250; Kroeber, 1925:132; Nomland, 1938:105; Driver, 1939:382, 386-87; Voegelin, E. W.. 1942:177. - 23 - ISLAND CHUMASH: 14h Supplied to: Mainland Chumash Chipped stone implements, fish bone beads, shell beads, baskets, a dark stone for digging,-stick weights Received from: Mainland Chumash Seeds, acorns, bows, arrows References: Heizer, 1955:151,154; Eisen, 1905:12; Bolton, 1931b:272, KAMIA: 15c Supplied to: Di egue'no Vegetal foods, salt Yuma Tobacco Received from: Diegueno Tobacco, acorns, baked mescal roots, yucca fiber sandals, baskets, eagle feathers, carrying nets Shells from Gulf of California Cocopa Yuma Tobacco References: Gifford, 1931:17, 23, 25, 35, 37-40; 1933:279; Forde, 1931:117; Curtis, 1924: 15:43. KAROK: 8 Supplied to: Shasta Tobacco seeds, baskets, dentalia, salt, sea- weed, tan oak acorns, canoes, pods for hair dressing, pepperwood, Haliotis orna- ments, Haliotis shells, whole Olivella shells Soaproot, pine nut beads Dentalia, baskets Dentalia Tolowa Konomihu Yurok - 24 - Received from: Shasta Basketry caps, juniper beads, salt, dentalia, white deer skins, woodpecker scalps, obsid- ian, sugar pine nuts, wolf skins, deer skins, large obsidian blades, horn for spoons Dentalia Wailaki Coast Yuki Whole clam shells Yurok Tolowa Whole Olivella shells, tobacco seeds, dugout canoes, clam shells, pipes, bows Smelt, dentalia Nongatl Konomihu Salt Furs, deer-skin clolthing Unspecified tribes Clam disc beads References: Dixon, 1907:432,436; Kroeber, 1925:283-84,287; Harrington, 1932:128,162; Drucker, 1937:243; Driver, 1939:382-83,386; Essene, 1942:61; Voegelin, E. W., 1942:177,197-98,200-1; Holt, 1946:312,340; Waterman, 1925: 529. KATO:lk Supplied to: Lassik Clam disc beads Hazelwood bows Coast Yuki Wailaki Baskets, arrows, clothing Received from: Coast Yuki "The North" Wai laki Northern Wintun Unspecified tribes Salt, mussels, seaweed, abalone, giant chiton, surf fish, clam shells, dry kelp for salt Dogs Dentalia Salt Hazelwood self bows References: Curtis, 1924:14:4; Kroeber, 1925:214; Driver, 1939:382; Gifford, 1939:303ff; Essene, 1942:56,61, 90. - 25 - KAWAIISU: 21f Received from: Tilbatulabal (?) Concave-based arrow heads, double-notch based arrow heads Reference: Driver, 1937:71, 117. KINGS RIVER YOKUTS: 20d Sud to: Tule-Kaweah Yokuts Received from: Tule- Kaweah Yokuts Western Mono Eastern Mono Clay for pottery, black paint, black sword fern root and redbud bark for basketry Cladium roots, bunch grass, soaproot brushes, salt from salt grass, baskets, various roots and herbs Sinew-backed bows Red paint References: Gayton, 1948b:146; Latta, 1929:16; 1949:57ff. KITANEMUK: 21h Received f rom: Chumash Wooden vessels inlaid with Haliotis shell Reference: Kroeber, 1925:613. KONOMIHU: 6c Supplied to: Karok (?) New River Shasta (?) Received from: Karok (?) New River Shasta (?) Furs, deer-skin clothing Furs, deer-skin clothing Dentalia, baskets Clam disc beads Reference: Kroeber, 1925:284. - 26 - KOSO (PANAMINT SHOSHONE):21d Supplied to: Eastern Mono Received from: Eastern Mono Reference: Steward, 1938:7 LAKE MIWOK: 18b Received from: Pomo Unspecified tribes Salt Shell beads, various goods Acorns Al1 bows References: Gifford and Kroeber, 1937:216; Kniffen:1939. LASSIK:lh Received from: Northern Wintun Wailaki Nongatl Huchnom Kato "The North" Salt, obsidian Salt, clam disc beads Dentalia Clam disc beads Clam disc beads Dogs References: Essene, 1942:56, 61,90; Baumhoff, 1958:229. LUISEIO (not indicated on map) Received from: Unspecified tribes Mesquite beans Reference: Sparkman, 1908:196 - 27 - MAINLAND CHUMASH: e.g. 14d Supplied to: Ki tanemuk Island Chumash Southern Valley Yokuts Yokuts (subgroup not specified) Tilbatulabal Salinan Wooden vessels inlaid with Haliotis shell Seeds, acorns, bows, arrows Shell beads, whole pismo clam shells, Hali- otis shells, Olivella shells., keyhole limpet shells, cowrie shells, sea urchin shells, dried starfish Shell ornaments Shell beads, shell cylinders., steatite, asphaltum, fish Steatite vessels, columella beads, possibly also steatite and wooden vessels Received from: Is land Chumash Chipped stone implements, a dark stone for digging-stick weights, fish bone beads, shell beads, baskets Southern Valley Yoku ts Thbatulabal Yokuts (subgroup not specified) "The Interior" Mohave Fish, obsidian, salt from foods, steatite beads, vegetables salt grass, seed various herbs, Pi?Ion nuts Clam shells, asphaltum., buckskins, obsidian, abalone Deer skins, acorns, f ish, grasshoppers Unspecified goods References: Mason, 1912:180; Kroeber, 1925:613,630; Voegelin, E.W., 1938:52; Latta, 1949:65,66, 274-75; Heizer, 1955:151.,154; Stewart, G.W.,s 1927:391; Taylor, 1860-63:vol. 13; Curtis, 1924:14:154; Eisen, 1905:12; Bolton, 1931b: 272. MATTOLE: lf Supplied to: Hupa Angelica root, tobacco, Haliotis shell, various foods - 28 - Wiyot Tobacco, Haliotis shell, various foods Received f rom: Hupa Grass for rope, pine nut beads Dugout canoes, various foods Wiyct References: Nomland, 1938:105; Driver, 1939:386 MODOC :5 Supplied to: Klamath Achomawi Shasta8 Human slaves from surrounding tribes, 7 shallow bowl-shaped twined baskets, blankets, beads, clothing, axes, spears fishhooks Furs, bows, dentalia, horses Buckskin dresses and shirts Received from: Achomawi Shasta8 Klamath Shell beads, shallow bowl-shaped twined baskets, braided grass skirts, pine nut string skirts Bows, dentalia Women slaves, various hides Wooden war clubs with stone or bone insert, grooved stone axes, feather blankets Unspecified tribes References: McKay, 1869; Powers, 1877:254; Dixon, 1908:215; Curtis, 1924:13:131; Kniffen, 1928:309; Spier, 1930:42, 178, 190; Voegelin, E. W., 1942:189,191-93,199; Maloney, 1945:231; Clarke, 1960:10. MOHAVE: 15f Supplied to: Western Mono-Yokuts Dieguef"o 7. Also taken to the Dalles 8. "Warm Springs Indians" ? Pottery Gourd seeds to trade for horses. - 29 - MOiAV, [ continued] Supplied t:o: liavasupai Yuma Wa 1napai hlorses Gourds, eagle feathers lHorses, shells (halketap), shell beads, glass beads, beadwork, corn, dried pump- kin, screw and mesquite beans, kwa va seeds beans Received from: a 1 I a a i Clhemehuev i Western Yavapai Diegueino Paiute Havasup ai Chumash Navaho Unspecified tribes Rabbit-skin blankets, red paint, meat of deer, mountain sheep, antelope, cottontail, jackrabbi t, rat; Hopi and Navaho blankets, eagles. eagle feathers, buckskin, mountain sheep skins, eagle down, chicken hawk down, Eagle down, chicken hawk down Mescal, red paint, eagle down, chicken hawk down Acorns Rabbit-skin blankets Pueblo blankets Unspecified goods Woven wool ponchos Blankets, basketry References: Kroeber, 1902:277; 1908:41,62; 1935:164ff; Spier, 1928. 245; 1933:349; 1955:6,7; Gifford, 1931:49; 1936:254; Latta, 1.949:63. NEW RIVER SHASTA: 6b Supplied to: Konomihu Clam disc beads Received f rom: Konomihul Furs, deer skin clothinig Reference: Kroeber, 1925:284 - 30 - NONGATL:lg Supplied to: Lassik Dentalia Karok Salt Received from: Northern Wintun Salt References: Driver, 1939:382; Essene, 1942:61. NORTHEASTERN MAIDU: 17 a Supplied to: Atsugewi Northwestern Maidu Northern Paiute Washo Achomawi Received from: Atsugewi Northwestern Maidu Achomawi Unspecified tribes Deer hides, clam disc beads, coiled baskets, skins, bows Bows and arrows, skins, sugar pine nuts, shell beads, deer hides, miscellaneous foods, acorns Dentalia Papam bulbs, species unidentified Clam disc beads, salt, digger pine nuts Bows, twined baskets, furs Clam disc beads, other shell beads, acorns, salmon, salt, digger pine nuts Obsidian, green pigment, shell beads, bows, arrows, deer skins, sugar pine nuts Wood for sinew-backed bows, blue pigment References: Dixon, 1905:201; 1908:215; Kroeber, 1925:399; Stewart, 0. C., 1941:435; Voegelin, E. W., 1942:180,191, 201; Garth, 1953:183; Riddell, n.d. NORTHERN HILL YOKUTS: 20c Supplied to: Western Mono Acorns, willow bark baskets, shell beads - 31 - NORTHERN HILL YOKUTS [continued] Received from: Western Mono Rabbit-skin blankets, moccasins, rock salt, red and blue paint, pi0on nuts Reference: Gayton, 1948b:160,181, NORTHERN MIWOK: 18d Supplied to: Plains Miwok Finished arrowheads, digger pine nuts, salt, obsidian Acorns, shell beads, sea shells, baskets Washo Received f rom: Paiute9 Plains Miwok Washo Baskets Grass seeds, fish Salt References: Holmes, 1900:172; Barrett and Gifford, 1933:193, 255-256. NORTHERN PAIUTE (PAVIOTSO):21a Supplied to: Achomawi Basketry water bottles., sinew, arrowheads, red paint, buckskins, moccasins., rabbit- skin blankets , various foods Atsugewi Horses, buckskins, red ochre, glass beads, guns, Olivella beads Received from: Achomawi Sinew-backed bows, arrows, baskets, dried fish, women's basketry caps, clam disc beads, dried salmon flour Atsugewi Bows, baskets, shell beads Northeastern Maidu Papam bulbs 9. Probably Washo. - 32 - References: Dixon, 1908:211; Curtis, 1924:13:131; Kniffen, 1928: 316-17; Kelly, 1932:114,151; Stewart, 0. C., 1941:432; Voegelin, E. W., 1942:191,194; Garth, 1953:130,136,139,183; de Angulo and Freeland, 1929:320; Riddell, n.d. NORTHERN VALLEY YOKUTS: 20a Supplied to: Miwok (subgroups not specified) ReceiLved from: Miwok (subgroups not specified Costanoan Dogs Baskets, bows, arrows Mussels, abalone shells References: Barrett and Gifford, 1933:270; Pilling, 1950:438. NORTHERN WINTLJN: 16 a Supplied too: Shasta Chimariko Atsugewi Deer hides, woodpecker scalps, baskets, acorns, pine nut beads, clam disc beads, dried salmon, clams, shell beads Obsidian Clam disc beads, dentalia, acorns Salt, obsidian tMagnesite beads Salt Salt Lassik Yana Hupa Nongatl Northwestern Maidu Shell beads Kato Salt Achomawi Salmon flour, clam disc beads, dentalia Central Wintun Obsidian Received from: Shasta Bows, arrow heads, manzanita berries, pelts, meat, dentalia, obsidian, deer skins, sugar pine nuts, green pigment - 33 - NORTHERN WINTUN [ continued] Received from: Achomawi Salt, furs, bows Yana Salt References: Powers, 1877:235; Dixon, 1905:202; 1907:436; 1910:300; Curtis, 1924:13:131; Kroeber, 1925:287,418; Du Bois, 1935:25, Driver, 1939:382; Essene, 1942:61; Voegelin., E. W,, 1942:198, 201; Sapir and Spier, 1943:255; Holt, 1946:312; Goldschmidt, 1951:419; Garth, 1953:183; Baumhoff, 1958:229. NORTHWESTERN MAIDU: 17b SuNrhlised to: Northeas tern Maidu Clam disc beads, other shell beads, salmon, salt, digger pine nuts Patwin Obsidian Log rafts Southern Maidu Yana Clam disc beads Received from: Central Wintun Northeastern Maidu Northern Wintun Clam disc beads, other shell beads Bows and arrows, skins, sugar pine nuts, shell beads, deer hides, miscellaneous foods, acorns Shell beads References: Dixon, 1905:201, 202; Kroeber, 1925:399,421; 1929:260; 1932:273; Voegelin, E. W., 1942: 180. PATWIN:16d Supplied to: Central Wintun1o Pomo Salmon, river otter pelts, game, beads Woodpecker scalp belts, cordage for making deer nets, shell beads, sinew-backed bows, yellow hammer headbands 10. Items not bartered, paid for with shell beads by both parties. - 34 - Wappo Sinew-backed bows Southern Maidu Shell beads, abalone shells Received from: Central Wintunio Southern Maidu Northwestern Maidu Pomo Pine nuts, acorns, seeds, game, bear hides, beads, sinew-backed bows Obsidian, yellow hammer and woodpecker feathers Obsidian Shell beads, salt, obsidian, fish, clams, magnesite beads References: Gifford, 1923:80; Kroeber, 1932:273,274,297,364; Beals, 1933:355-56; Driver, 1936:194; Gifford and Kroeber, 1937:141,182; Goldschmidt, 1951:336-37,p418. PLAINS MIWOK:18c Supplied to: Northern Miwok Received from: Northern Miwok Grass seeds, fish Digger pine nuts, salt, obsidian, finished arrowheads Reference: Barrett and Gifford, 1933:255-56. POMO:10a-g Supplied to: Yuki Hinnites sp. shell beads, clam disc beads, dentalia, moccasins, sea shells, shell beads, dried Haliotis, mussels, seaweed, salt, magnesite beads Huchnom Clam disc beads "The North" Lake Miwok Wappo Shell beads Acorns Tule mats, magnesite beads, sinew-backed bows, fish - 35 - POMO [continued] Supplied to): Patwin Coast Yuki Received from: Yuki Shell beads, salt, obsidian, fish, clams Clam disc beads, acorns, fire drills of buckeye wood "The North" (Yuki?) Patwin Furs, beads, baskets, skins Iris fiber cord for deer snares, arrows, sinew-backed bows of yew Sinew-backed bows, yellow hamner headbands, woodpecker scalp belts, cordage for making deer nets Surf fish, abalone, giant chiton, seaweed, mussels, dried kelp for salt, shells of Hinni4es giranteus Coast Yuki References: Gifford, 1923:90; 1926:342; 1939:303ff.,338, 340, 342; Kroeber, 1925:166-67, 257; 1932:273, 365; Driver, 1936:194; Gifford and Kroeber, 1937:1411,182; Kniffen, 1939:361; Essene, 1942:56; Foster, 1944:9,167,173-74. SALINAN: 13b 5pieto: Yokuts Shell beads, whole shells Received from: Mainland Chumash Steatite vessels, columella beads, possibly also steatite and wooden vessels References: Mason, 1912:179-80; Gayton, 1948a:7, 9. SERRANO: 21h, k Supplied to: Gabrielino Acorns, deerskins, seed foods Received from: Gabrielino Shell beads, dried fish, sea otter pelts, steatite vessels - 36 - References: Kroeber, 1925:630; Strong, 1929:95-96. SHASTA:6a Supplied to: Northern Wintun Deerskins, sugar pine nuts, green pigment, bows, arrowheads, manzanita berries, pelts, meat, dentalia, obsidian Yahi Obsidian Karok Juniper beads, basketry caps, salt, dentalia, white deer skins, woodpecker scalps, whole Olivella shells, large obsidian blades, obsidian, deer skins, sugar pine nuts, wolf skins, horn for spoons Acorn flour Rogue River Athabaskan Modoc Bows, dentalia Klamath Yurok Achomawi Hupa Bows, clam disc beads, conical burden baskets Horn for spoons Dentalia Horn for spoons Received from: Northern Wintun Woodpecker scalps, acorns, baskets, pine nut beads, clam disc beads, deer hides,.dried salmon, clams, shell beads Haliotis ornaments, Haliotis shells, salt, tobacco seeds, baskets, dentalia, seaweed, pepperwood pods for hair dressing, canoes Karok Rogue River Athabaskan "Warm Springs Indians"11 Kl amath Yurok Dentalia Buckskin shirts and dresses Otter skins, other skins and skin blankets, buckskin dresses, men's shirts Canoes, acorns, baskets, dentalia, salt 11. Modoc? - 37 - SHASTA [ continued ] Received from: Unspecified tribes Wooden war clubs with stone or bone insert, grooved stone axes References: Powers, 1877:235; Dixon, 1907:432,436; Barrett, 1910:259; Pope, 1918:116; Curtis, 1924:13:131; Kroeber, 1925:283, 284, 287, 418; Spier, 1930:41; Harrington, 1932: 128; Du Bois, 1935: 25; Driver, 1939:382, 397; Voegelin, E. W., 1942:177,191-93, 197-201; Holt, 1946: 303,312,340; Goldschmidt, 1951:419. SINKYONE: li Received from: Wiyot Beads (dentalia?) Reference: Nomland, 1935:165. SOUTHERN MAIDU (NISENAN, NISHINAM)):17c Supplied to: Washo Patwin Acorns Received from Paiute (probably Washo) Obsidian, yellow hammer and woodpecker feathers, shell beads Carrying baskets, seed beaters, winnowing trays Shell beads, abalone shells Log rafts Patwin Northwestern Maidu References: Holmes, 1900:169; Barrett, 1917: 14; Kroeber, 1929:260; 1932:273; Beals, 1933:355-56,365. SOUTHERN MIWOK: 18 f Supplied to: Eastern Mono Received from: Eastern Mono Clam disc beads Rabbit-skin blankets, basketry materials - 38 - References: Barrett and Gifford, 1933:256; Merriam, 1955:112 SOUTHERN VALLEY YOKUTS:20b Supplied to: Mainland Chumash Tule-'Kaweah Yokuts "The East" Western Mono Received from: Mainland Chumash Buena Vista Yokuts Tule-Kaweah Yokuts- Eastern Mono or Koso S alinan Western Mono Fish, obsidian, salt from salt grass, seed foods, steatite beads, various herbs, vegetables Tule mats, shell beads Shell money White paint Shell beads, whole pismo clam shells, key- hole limpet shells, Haliotis shells, Olivella shells, sea urchin shells, dried starfish, cowrie shells Asphaltum Steatite, coiled baskets, burden baskets, pottery vessels Mineral salt, obsidian Whole shells Salt, sinew-backed bows, stone mortars and pestles Fire drills, digging sticks, baskets "'The East" Referencee: Gayton, 1948a:7, 56, 73, 78, 87; 1948b:215, 265; Latta, 1949: 65, 274-75. TOLOWA: lb Supplied to: Karok Smelt, dentalia Rogue River Athabaskans Women's basketry caps, eating baskets, trinket baskets Received from: Karok Soaproot, pine nut beads - 39 - TOLOWA [ continued] References: Driver, 1939:383; Drucker, 1937:243, 273; Waterman 1925:529. TUBATULABAL: 21g Eastern Mono Mainland Chumash Yokuts (subgroups not specified) Kawaiisu Shell beads., acorns, manzanita berries, elderberries, baskets, rabbit-skin blankets Piinon nuts Piinon nuts Concave-based arrow heads., double-notched base arrow heads Received f rom: Eastern Mono Mainland Chumash Yokuts (subgroups not specified) References: Steward, J. Driver, 1937:71, 117. TULE-KAWEAR YOKTS: 20e Supplied to: Salt, pine nuts, baskets, red and white paint, tanned deer skins, kutsavi, pandora moth caterpillars Shell beads, shell cylinders, fish, steatite, asphaltum Acorns, shell beads H., 1935:8, 10,19-20; Voegelin, E. We, 1938:52, Kings River Yokuts Eastern Mbno Southern Valley Yokuts Cladium roots, bunch grass, soaproot brushes, salt from salt grass, baskets, various roots and herbs Deer, antelope and elk skins., steatite, salt from salt grass, baskets, shell beads Steatite, coiled baskets, burden baskets, pottery vessels - 40 - Received from: Kings River Yokuts Eastern Mono Southern Valley Yokuts Clay for pottery, black paint, black sword fern root and redbud bark for basketry Sinew-backed bows, jerked deer meat, rock salt, obsidian, hot rock lifters of wood, piion nuts, moccasins Tule mats, shell beads References: Latta, 1949:57ff; Gayton, 1948a:56. WAILAKI:lj Supplied to: Lassik Karok Yuki Kato Received from: Kato Salt, clam disc beads Dentalia Whole clam shells, bows Dentalia Baskets, arrows, clothing References: Essene, 1942:56,61, 90; Foster, 1944:173; Curtis, 1924:14:4. WAPPO:4d Supplied to: "Neighboring Groups" Salt Received from: Patwin Pomo "The North" Coast Miwok Sinew-backed bows Tule mats, fish, magnesite beads, sinew- backed bows Yellow hammer headbands Clams, clam disc beads, clam shells, abalone shells References: Barrett, 1952:114; Driver, 1936:194; Heizer, 1953:238. - 41 - WASHO: 11 Supplied to: Northern Miwok Sierra Miwok (sub- group unspecified) Received from: Northern Miwok Northeastern Maidu "The West" Eastern Mono Sierra Miwok (sub- group unspecified) Salt Salt, pii?on nuts, buffalo skin robes, rabbit-skin blankets Acorns, shell beads, sea shell, baskets Papam bulbs (species not identified) Redbud bark for basketry, soaproot leaves for brushes Kuts avi Acorns, beads, shells, baskets, manzanita berries References: Barrett and Gifford, 1933:193, 221,2 24, 270; Kroeber, 1925: 571; Barrett, 1917: 14,15,17; Heizer, 1950:39; Riddell, n.d. WESTERN MONO: 21c Supplied to: Eastern Mono Southern Valley Yokuts Kings River Yokuts Northern Hill Yoku t s Clam disc beads, canes for arrows., acorn meal, fine Yokuts' baskets, tubular clam beads, shell beads, acorns, manza- nita berries, squaw berries, elderberries, rabbit-skin blankets Salt, sinew-backed bows, stone mortars and pestles Sinew-backed bows Rabbit-skin blankets, moccasins., rock salt, red and blue paint, piiion nuts Received from: Eastern Mono Unfinished obsidian arrowheads, hot rock lifters of wood, sinew-backed bows, tailored sleeveless buckskin jackets, mountain sheep skins, moccasins, fox skin leggings, rock salt, piiion nuts, baskets, red paint, white paint, tanned deer skins, kutsavi. pandora moth cater- pil-lars, mineral pigments, pitch-lined basketry wniLer bottles - 42 - Northern Hill Yokuts Southern Valley Yokuts Acorns, willow bark baskets, shell beads White paint References: Steward, 1935:8,10,19-20; Driver, 1937:120; Gifford, 1932: 21, 26; Merriam, 1955:76; Gayton, 1948a:73,,78; 1948b:146, 160,181, 214-15, 258-59, 265; Latta, 1929:16. WESTERN MONO-YOKUTS (ENTIMBITCH)12:21c Received from: Mohave (?) Pottery Reference: Latta, 1949:63. WIYOT:3 Supplied to: Mattole "Inland" Sinkyone Hupa Yurok Received from: Mattole Yurok Dugout canoes, various foods Olivella shells Beads (dentalia?) White deer skins White deer skins Tobacco, Haliotis shells, various foods Iris fiber rope References: Nomland, 1935:165; 138:105; Driver, 1939:386; Curtis, 1924: 13:87; Loud, 1918:250. YAHI:7d Received from: Shasta Obsidian Reference: Pope, 1918:116. 12. See Gayton, 1948b:254-55. - 43 - YANA: 7b-d Supplied to: Atsugewi Achomawi Northern Wintun Central Wintun "The North" Received f rom: Atsugewi Achomawi Northwestern Maidu Northern Wi ntun Central Wintun "The North" "Unknown" Salt, dentalia, buckeye fire drills Buckeye fire drills, deer hides, buckskin, dentalia, salt Salt Baskets Deer- hides, buckskin Buckskin, arrows, wi ldcat skin quivers, woodpecker scalps Obsidian Clam disc beads Magnesite beads, dentalia Clam disc beads, magnesite beads Barbed obsidian arrowheads Dentalia, clam disc beads References: Garth, 1953:139; Voegelin, E. W., 1942:179, 201; Sapir and Spier, 1943:254,255,258; Du Bois, 1935:25; Gifford and Klimek, 1936:83,91-,92, 98. YUKI: 4a Supplied to: Pomo Coast Yuki Central Wintun Received from: Pomo Huchnaom Wailaki Furs, beads, baskets, skins Obsidian Black bear skins Dentalia, clam disc beads, moccasins, sea shells, shell beads,. dried Haliotis flesh, mussels, seaweed, salt, magnesite beads Kelp, sea foods, salt, whole clam shells, clam disc beads Whole clam shells, bows - 44 - Received from: Central Wintun Coast Yuki "The North" Salt, obsidian Salt, fish Dogs References: Kroeber, 1925:166-67; Essene, 1942:9, 54,56,61; Foster, 1944:167,173,174; Goldschmidt, 1951:336,411; Gifford, 1939:334; Powers, 1877:240; Curtis, 1924:13:131, 257. YUMA: 15d Supplied to: Diegue'no Western Yavapai Cahuilla Kamia Received f rom: Western Yavapai Gourd seeds Glass trade beads, dried pumpkin, maize, beans, melons Gourd rattles Tobacco Rabbit-skin baskets, baskets, buckskin, other skins, mescal, finished skin dresses Mohave Pima "The Northeast" Di egueiio Gourds, eagle feathers Martynia pods used in basketry Buckskin Acorns References: Gifford, 1931:49; 1936:253-54; Curtis., 1924:15: 25; Spier, 1923:349; Forde, 1931:107, 117, 124, 126. YUROK:2a Supplied to: Hupa Karok Woven pack straps, smelt, redwood dugout canoes, dried sea foods, surf fish, mussels, seaweed, dentalia Clam shells, pipes, bows, whole Olivella shells, tobacco seeds, dugout canoes - 45 - YUROK [continued] Supplied to: Shasta Redwood dugout canoes, acorns, baskets, salt, dentalia Wiyot Iris fiber rope Received from: Hupa Inland foods, skins, acorns Karok Dentalia shells Chilula White grass used in basketry Shasta Buckskin, pine nuts, horn for spoons Wiyot White deer skins "The South" Haliotis shell ornaments References: Kroeber, 1925:5, 132; Voegelin, E. W., 1942:177, 201; Holt, 1946:312,340; Driver, 1939:386,387,398; O'Neale, 1932:144; Goddard, 1903:8,31, 50; Harrington, 1932:162; Dixon, 1907:432,436; Powers, 1877:47; Curtis, 1924:13:8 fft.,87; Loud., 1918:250; Waterman, 1925:529. - 46 - APPENDIX CORRELATION OF INDIAN TRAILS OF ABORIGINAL CALIFORNIA WITH MODERN THOROUGHFARES Trail Nos. (Map 1 ) 21, 47, 77 4 12 5,102, 63 103 24 21 28 29 27 30 102 34 57 39 48 65 69 Modern Road U.S. Hwy. 101 from the Oregon border south to Loleta; from Longvale south to Windsor; from San Jose south to Gilroy; from Salinas south to Paso Robles; from Gaviota south to Ventura. State Hwy. 96 along its entire route, from U.S. 99 west and south to Willow Creek. U.S. Hwy. 299 from Willow Creek east and north to the Oregon border. U.S. Hwy. 99 from the Oregon border south to Los Angeles, State Hwy. 1 from Rockport south to Bodega Bay. State Hwy. 20 from Fort Bragg east to Willits; from Ukiah east to Colusa. State Hwy. 128 from near Albion southeast to Cloverdale; from Harbin Hot Springs east to Sacramento. State Hwy. 29 from Lakeport south to Vallejo. State Hwy. 16 from Clear Lake Park southeast to Sacramento. U.S. Hwy. 40 from Sacramento northeast to Nevada border. U.S. Hwy. 50 from Sacramento east to Nevada border; from Oakland east to Manteca. State Hwy. 33 from Tracy south to near Los Banos; from Coalinga south to Taft. State Hwy. 152 from Gilroy east to Fairmead. State Hwy. 25 from Hollister south to junction with State Hwy. 198, thence east to Coalinga. Unnumbered road from Santa Margarita east to McKittrick. State Hwy. 166 from near Santa Maria east to junction with U,S. Hwy. 399. - 47 - Trail Nos. (Map 1) Modern Road 74 U.S. Hwy. 399 from Ventura northward to junction with U.S. Hwy. 99. 70 U.S. Hwy. 466 from Bakersfield east to Mohave. 68, 101 U.S. Hwy. 6 from Mohave north to junction with U.S. Hwy. 395, thence north to Mono Lake. 64 State Hwy. 178 from Bakersfield east to junction with U.S. Hwy. 6. 83, 80 U.S. Hwy. 66 from San Bernardino east to Needles 83, 86 92 U.S. Hwy. 60 from Los Angeles east to Blythe. 78 State Hwy. 126 from Ventura east to junction with U.S. Hwy. 99. The preceding list represents only a small fraction of the number of roads which essentially follow Indian trails, but it is sufficient to illustrate the fact that many of the major modern routes of travel in California probably evolved from aboriginal footpaths as suggested pre- viously in this paper. - 48 - BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbreviations Used AA AAnt AMNH CHS _C KAS _I MAIHF PMCM SBMNH SC -B SI -AR -BA SWJA SWM -M -p Uc -AR -AS - IA - PA - PA YNN American Anthropologist American Antiquity American Museum of Natural History .AP Anthropological Papers .B Bulletin California Historical Society Quarterly Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation -C Contributions Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee B Bulletin I Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History -L Leaflet Sierra Club Bulletin Smithsonian Institution Annual Report E Bureau of American Ethnology -B Bulletin -R (Annual) Report Southwestern Journal of Anthropology Southwest Museum Masterkey Papers University of California L Anthropological Records Archaeological Survey -MS Manuscript -R Report Ibero-Americana LAE Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology LPCH Publications of the Academy of Pacific Coast History Yosemite Nature Notes - 49 - Aginsky, B. 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UC-PAAE 37:71-100. Gif ford, E. W. and A. L. Kroeber 1937 Culture Elemeint Distributions: IV Pomo. UC-PAAE 37:117-254. Gifford, E. W. and W. E. Schenck 1926 Archiaeology of the Southern San Joaquin Valley, California. UC-PAAE 23:1-122. Gladwin, W. and H. S. Gladwin 1935 The Eastern Range of the Red-on-Buff Culture. Medallion Papers No. 16. Gila Pueblo. Globe, Arizona. - 56 - Goddard, P. E. 1903 Life and Culture of the Hupa. UC-PAAE 1:1-88. 1913 Wayside Shrines in Northwestern California. AA 15:702-3. Godfrey, E. H. 1941 Yosemite Indians Yesterday and Today. YNN 20:49-72. Goldschmidt, W. 1951 Nomlaki Ethnography. UC-PAAE 42:303-443. Harner, M. J. 1957 Potsherds and the Tentative Dating of the San Gorgonio-Big Maria Trail. UC-AS-R 37:35-39. Harrington, J. P. 1932 Tobacco Among the Karuk Indians of California. SI-BAE-B 94. Heizer, R. F. 1941 Aboriginal Trade Between the Southwest and California. SWM-M 14:185-88. 1942 Walla Walla Indian Expeditions to the Sacramento Valley, 1844-47. CHS-Q 21:1-7. 1946 The Occurrence and Significance of Southwestern Grooved Axes in California. AAnt 11:187-93. 1950 Kutsavi. A Great Basin Indian Food. KAS-P 2:35-41. 1953 The Archaeology of the Napa Region. UC-AR 12:225-358. 1955 California Indian Linguistic Records; the Mission Indian Vocabularies of H. W. Henshaw. UC-AR 15:85-202. 1958a Aboriginal California and Great Basin Cartography. UC-AS-R 41:1-9. 1958b Radiocarbon Dates from California of Archaeological Interest. UC-AS-R 44:1:1-16. Heizer, R. 1944 Henderson, 1930 F. and A. E. Treganza Mines and Quarries of the Indians of California. Calif. Journ. Mines and Geol., 40:291-359. J. Ancient Shell "Trade Routes." Nautilus, 43:109-10. Boston. - 57 - Hill, W. W. 1948 Navaho Trading and Trading Ritual: A Study of Cultural Dynamics. SWJA 4:371-96. Hindes, M. G. 1959 A Report on Indian Sites and Trails, Huntington Lake Region, California. UC-AS-R 48:1-15. Hodge, F. W. 1935 Coral Among Early Southwestern Indians. SWM-M 9:157-58. Holmes, W. H. 1900 Anthropological Studies in California. Report of the United States National Museum, 1900. Holt., C. 1946 Shasta Ethnography. UC-AR 3:399-350. Hulbert, A. B. 1902a Historic Highways of America. Vol. 1: Paths of the Mound Building Indians and Great Game Animals. A. H. Clark Co., Cleveland. 1902b Historic Highways of America. Vol. 2: Indian Thoroughfares. A. H. Clark Co., Cleveland. Hussey, J. A. and G. W. Ames, Jr. 1942 California Preparations to Meet the Walla Walla Invasion, 1846. CHS-Q 21:9-21. Jaeger, E. C. 1933 The California Deserts. Stanford University Press. Jepson, W. L. 1951 A Manual of Flowering Plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley. Johnston., F. J. and P. H. Johnston 1957 An Indian Trail Complex of the Central Colorado Desert. UC-AS-R 37:22-34. Jones, Newell 1936 "Spirits" Once Worshipped at San Diego Indian Shrine. San Diego Tribune (Dec. 5). - 58 - Kelly, I. T. 1932 Ethnography of the Surprise Valley Paiute. UC-PAAE 31:67-210. Knif fen, 1928 1939 F. B. Achomawi Geography. UC-PAAE 23:297-332. Pomo Geography. UC-PAAE 36:353-400. Kroeber, A. 1902 1908 1922 1925 1929 1932 1935 1959 L. Preliminary Sketch of the Mohave Indians. AA 4:276-85. Ethnography of the Cahuilla Indians. UC-PAAE 8:29-68. Elements of Culture in Native California. UC-PAAE 13:8:259-328. Handbook of the Indians of California. SI-BAE-B 78. The Valley Nisenan. UC-PAAE 24:253-90. The Patwin and Their Neighbors. UC-PAAE 29:253-423. Walapai Ethnography. Amer. Anthrop. Assn. Mem. No. 42. Ethnographic Interpretations, 7-11. UC-PAAE 47:235-310. Lathrap, D. W. and D. Shutler, Jr. 1955 An Archaeological Site in the High Sierra of California. AAnt 20:226-40. Latta, F. F. 1929 Uncle Jeff's Story. Press of the Tulare Times, Tulare, Calif. 1936 El Camino Viejo A Los Angeles. Kern County Historical Society, Bakersfield, Calif. 1949 Handbook of Yokuts Indians. Kern County Museum. Bakersfield, Calif. Leechman, D. 1942 Abalone Shells from Monterey. AA 44:159-62. Loeb, E. M. 1926 Pomo Folkways. UC-PAAE 19:149-405. Loud, L. L. 1918 Ethnogeography and Archaeology of the Wiyot Territory. University of California Press, Berkeley. McCubbin, J. C. n.d. An Account and Map of a Prehistoric Trail in Tulare and Kings Counties, California. UC-AS-MS 177. - 59 - McIntyre, R. N. 1949 Indian Paint Fungus and Quinine Fungus Collected. YNN 28 :4-6. McKay, W. 1869 The Early History of the Dalles. Dalles Mountaineer (May 28). MacLeod, W. C. 1927 Trade Restrictions in Early Society. AA 29:271-78. Mallery, G. 1886 Pictographs of the North American Indians. SI-BAE-R 1882-83, 4:3-256. Maloney, A. B. 1945 Shasta Was Shatasla in 1814. CHS-Q 24:229-34. n.d. Trails in Northern California. Malouf, C. 1940 Prehistoric Exchange in the Northern Periphery of the Southwest. AAnt 6:115-22. Mason, J. A. 1912 The Ethnology of the Salinan Indians. UC-PAAE 10:97-240. Merriam, C. H. 1917 Indian Village and Campsites in Yosemite Valley. SC-B 10: 202-9. 1955 Studies of California Indians. University of California Press, Berkeley. Miller, J. 1873 Life Amongst the Modocs. R. Bentley and Son, London. n.d. The Battle of Castle Crags. The Traveler., San Francisco. Mills, W. C. 1914 Archaeological Atlas of Ohio. Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society. Fred J. Heer, Columbus. Muir, J. 1894 The Mountains of California. The Century Co... New York. 1916 My First Summer in the Sierra. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1917 The Mountains of California. The Century Co., New York. - 60 - Murphey, E. V. A. 1941 Out of the Past: A True Indian Story Told by Lucy Young of Round Valley Indian Reservation. CHS-Q 20:349-64. Myer, W. E. 1928 Indian Trails of the Southeast. SI-BAE-R 1924-25, 42:729-857. Nomland, G. A. 1935 Sinkyone Notes. UC-PAAE 36:149-78. 1938 Bear River Ethnography. UC-AR 2:91-124. O'Neale, L. M. 1932 Yurok-Karok Basket Weavers. UC-PAAE 32:1-184. Pilling, A. R. 1950 The Archaeological Implications of an Annual Coastal Visit for Certain Yokuts Groups. AA 52:438-440. n.d. Tulare Indians at Monterey. UC-AS-MS 74. Pope, S. T. 1918 Powers, S. 1877 Yahi Archery. UC-PAAE 13:103-52. Tribes of California. U. S. Dept. of the Interior Geog. and Geol. Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. Contribs. to North American Ethnol., Vol. 3. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Priestly, H. I. (trans.) 1937 A Historical, Political, and Natural Description of California, by Pedro Fages. Written for the Viceroy in 1775. University of California Press, Berkeley. Rensch, H. E. 1955 Fages' Crossing of the Cuyamacs. CHS-Q 34:193-208. 1957 Wood's Shorter Mountain Trail. CHS-Q 36:117-32. Riddell, 1958 F. A. The Eastern California Border: Affinities. UC-AS-R 42:41-48. Cultural and Temporal n.d. Field Notes on the Washo, Paiute and Northeastern Maidu. - 61 - Roe, F. G. 1929 The Wild Animal Origin of Ancient Roads. Antiquity, 3:299, Gloucester. Rogers, M. J. 1941 Aboriginal Culture Relations Between Southern California and the Southwest. San Diego Museum Bull. 5 :1-6. 1945 An Outline of Yuman Prehistory. SWJA 1:167-98. Sample, L. L. 1950 Trade and Trails in Aboriginal California. UC-AS-R 8. Sapir, E. and L. Spier 1943 Notes on the Culture of the Yana. UC-AR 3:239-98. Schenck, W . E. 1926 Historic Aboriginal Groups of the California Delta Region. UC-PAAE 23:123-46, Schroeder, A. H. 1952 A Brief Survey of the Lower Colorado River from Davis Dam to the International Border. National Park Service, Region III, Santa Fe. Simoons, F. J. 1953 Development of Transportation Routes in the Clear Lake Area. CHS-Q 32:363-71. Smi th, D. 1909 So lomons, 1895 E. and F, J. Teggart (eds.) Diary of Gaspar de Portola During the California Expedition of 1769-1770. UC-PAPCH 1:33-89. T. S. A Search for a High Mountain Route from the Yosemite to the Kings River Canyon. SC-B 1:221-37. Sparkman, P. S. 1908 The Culture of the Luiseino Indians. UC-PAAE 8:187-234. Spier, L. 1923 Southern Diegueino Customs. UC-PAAE 20:297-358. 1928 The Havasupai. ANH-AP 29:81-408. 1930 Klamath Ethnography. UC-PAAE 30:1-338. - 62 - Spier, L. [continued] 1933 Yuman Tribes of the Gila River. University of Chicago Press. 1955 Mohave Culture Items. Museum of Northern Arizona Bull 28. Flagstaff Starr, W, A. Jr. 1956 Starr's Guide to the John Muir Trail and the High Sierra Region. Sierra Club, San Francisco. Stearns, R. E. C. 1889 Ethno-Conchology: A Study of Primitive Money. SI-AR 1887, pp. 297-334. Stefansson, V. 1919 The Stefansson-Anderson Arctic Expedition. AMNH-AP 14. Steward, J. H. 1933 Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute. UC-PAAE 33:233-350. 1935 Indian Tribes of the Sequoia National Park Region. National Park Service (Field Division of Education). Berkeley. 1938 Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups. SI-BAE-B 120. Stewart, G. W. 1927 The Yokuts of the Kaweah Region. SC-B 12:385-400. Stewart, K. M. 1947 Mohave Warfare. SWJA 3:257:78. Stewart, 0. C. 1941 Culture Element Distributions: XIV Northern Paiute. UC-AR 4:361-446. 1943 Notes on Pomo Ethnogeography. UC-PAAE 40: 29-62. Stratton, R. B. 1935 Life Among the Indians. Grabhorn Press, San Francisco (Originally published in 1857 under the title, Captivity of the Oatman Girls. New York.) Strobridge, T. A. 1954 Anderson Valley, Mendocino County, California. CHS-Q 33:361-67. Strong, W. D. 1929 Aboriginal Society in Southern California, UC-PAAE 26:1-349. - 63 - Swanton, J. R. 1907 Exchange, Media of. In Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico (F. W. Hodge, ed.). SI-BAE-B 30:1:446-48, Taylor, A. 1860-63 Indianology of California. The California Farmer, Vols. 13-20. San Francisco. Teggart, F. .J. 1911 The Portola Expedition of 1769-1770; Diary of Miguel Costanso. UC-PAPCH 2: 164-327. Tower, D. 1945 Treganza, 1952 B. The Use of Marine Mollusca and Their Value in Reconstructing Prehistoric Trade Routes in the American Southwest. Papers of the Excavators' Club, 2:2-56. Cambridge. A. E. Archaeological Investigations in the Farmington Reservoir Area, Stanislaus County, California. UC-AS-R 14. 1958 Salvage Archaeology in the Trinity Reservoir Area, Northern California. UC-AS-R 43:1:1-38. 1959 Salvage Archaeology in the Trinity Reservoir Area, Northern California; Field Season 1958. UC-AS-R 46. Van Dyke, 1927 D. A Modern Interpretation of the Garces Route. Historical Society of Southern California Ann. Pubis.., 13:353-59. Diario y Mapa de un Reconocimiente desde S. Diego, 1783. Ms.., Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. Velasquez., J n.d. Voegelin, C. F. 1935 Tilbatulabal Texts. UC-PAAE 34:191-246. Voegelin, E. W. 1938 TUbatulabal Ethnography. UC-AR 2:1-84. 1942 Culture Element Distributions: XX Northeast California. UC-AR 7:47-251. Walker, E. F. 1945 The Dig at Big Tujunga Wash. SWM-M 19:188-93. - 64 - Wallace, W . J. 1958 Archaeological Investigations in Death Valley National Monument, 1952-1957. UC-AS-R 42:7-22. Waterman, T. T. 1920 Yurok Geography. UC-PAAE 16:177-314. 1925 Village Sites in Tolowa and Neighboring Areas in Northwestern California. AA 27:528-43. Wedel, W. R. 1941 Archaeological Investigations at Buena Vista Lake, Kern County, California. SI-BAE-B 130. Wegner, J. H. 1930 Evidence of an Old Indian Trail Located. YNN 9:67. Whipple, A. W. 1851 Extract from a Journal of an Expedition from San Diego, California, to the Rio Colorado, from September 11 to December 11, 1849. Report of the Secretary of War. Senate Ex. Doc. No. 19, 31st Congress, 2d Session. Wilhelm, P. 1951 Trail of the 57 Shrines. Desert Magazine, 14 (June), 4-8. Wilson, W. 1883 A Curious Indian Trail. In History of San Bernardino County, California. W. W. Elliott and Co., San Francisco. Woodward, A. 1937 Fluorite Beads in California. Southern California Academy of Sciences Bull. 36:1-6. Work, J. 1943-45 Fur Brigade to the Bonaventura: John Work's California Expe- dition of 1832-33 for the Hudson's Bay Company. A. B. Maloney, ed. CHS-Q 22:193-222, 323-48; 23:19-40, 123-46. Yount, G. C. 1923 The Chronicles of George C. Yount, C. L. Camp, ed. CHS-Q 2:3-66. - 65 - BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES TO TRAILS SHOWN ON MAP 1 [Dotted Lines Show Proposed Routes Supported by Evidence in Ethnographic Literature] Trail No. 1. Drucker, 1937:230; Waterman, 1920, Maps 5-32; Loud, 1918:231. 2. Merriam., 1955:11. 3. Loud, loc. cit. 4. Waterman, loc. cit.; Goddard, 1903:31; Voegelin, BE. W. , 1942: 189; Miller, 1873:162. 5. Work, 1943-45, passim; Maloney, n.d., passim; 1945, passim; Sample, 1950, Map 1. 6. Merriam, 1955:16; Du Bois, 1935:25; Miller, 1873:32, Maloney, loc. cit. 7. Maloney, 1945:230; Garth, 1953:131, 136; Kniffen, 1928:315. 8. Merriam, loc. cit.., Du Bois., loc. cit. 9. Garth, 1953:154; Kniffen, loc. cit. 10. Work, 1943-45., Map 1; Maloney, n.d.; 1945:230; Heizer, 1942, passim; Sample, loc. cit. 11. Sample, loc. cit.; Miller, n.d. :4; personal survey and site distribution records in the files of the University of Cali- fornia Archaeological Survey. 12. Sample, loc. cit.; personal survey and site distribution records in the files of the University of Cal'ifornia Archae- ological Survey. 13. Nomland, 1935:176-77. 14. Kroeber, 1925, Fig. 32. 15. Ibid.; Anderson, 1909:2 ff. 16. Kroeber, loc. cit. 17. Riddell, n.d.; Sample, loc. cit. 18. d'Azevedo, n.d. 19. Barrett, 1908: 244. 20. Ibid.; Kroeber, 1925, P1. 36. 21. Barrett, 1908:134; Loeb, 1926:192; Stewart, 0. C. , 1943, map facing p. 29; Kroeber, 1925, P1. 36. 22. Kniffen, 1.939: 361, Barrett and Gifford, 1933:122. 23. Sample, loc. cit. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 26. Fontana, n.d. 27. Sample, loc. cit. 28. Ibid.; Heizer , 1953, Map 1. 29. Gibbs, 1853:109; Sample, loc. cit. For other trails in the Pomo region (north of San Francisco Bay) see: Maloney, n.d.; - 66 - Trail No. 29. [ cont'd. ] 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. Sample, loc. cit.; Gifford, 1939:296 ff.; Stewart, 0. C., 1943, map f acing p. 29; Kroeber, 1925, P1. 36; Barrett, 1908:158,167, 244; Strobridge, 1954:365. Sample, loc. cit. Barrett and Gif ford, 1933:256. Sample, loc. cit. Latta, 1949:68. Ibid. Fremont, 1887:445; Merriam, 1917, passim. Steward, 1933:329-30, Maps 1 and 2. Latta, loc. cit. Hindes, 1959, Map 1. Latta, loc. cit. Ibid. Dorsey, 1903:210 ff.; Steward, loc. cit.; Bennyhoff, 1956:23-24. Hindes, loc. cit. Ibid.; Steward, loc. cit. Steward, loc. cit. Sample, loc. cit. Latta, loc. cit. Sample, loc. cit.; Pilling, 1950, passim. Latta, loc. cit. Sample, loc. cit.; McCubbin, n. d. G ay ton, 1948b, Maps 4 and 5. Steward, loc. cit. Ibid. Ibid. Gayton, 1948b:212, Map 3. Elsasser, n.d., Map 1. Latta, loc. cit. Gifford and Schenck, 1926:13. Steward, loc. cit. Ibid. Anonymous, 1959, passim. Steward, loc. cit. Ibid. Latta, 1949:67. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Gifford and Schenck, 1926:16. Sample, loc. cit. Latta, 1949:67. - 67 - Trail No. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. Wedel, 1941:14. Latta, 1949:67. Ibid. Voegelin, E. W., 1938:51. Gifford and Schenck, 1926:16. Latta, 1949:71. Cooke, 1940:5-6; Sarnple, loc. cit. Ibid. Farmer, 1935:156; Gifford and Schenck, loc. cit. Sample, loc. cit. For other trails in south central Califor- nia see: Voegelin, C. F.,Y 1935:221; Voegelin, E. W., loc. cit. Beattie, 1933a, passim; 1933b:112; Sample, loc. cit.; Farmer, 1935, passim. Sample, loc. cit. Kroeber, 1925:529. Farmer, 1935:154. Kroeber, loc. cit. Ibid.; Boscana, 1933:145. Johnston and Johnston, 1957, Map 1; Benedict, 1924:367. Johnston and Johnston, loc. cit. Kroeber, 1925:634. Ibid., 529; Boscana, loc. cit. Barrows, 1900:35; Bolton, 1930:1:148-49; Sample, loc. cit. Johnston and Johnston, loc. cit. Wilson, 1883:92. Sparkman, 1908:200; Kroeber, 1925:654; Boscana, loc. cit. Rensch, 1955, passim; Velasquez, n.d. Gifford, 1931:8-9; Sample, loc. cit. Ibid. Bolton., 1930:I:108 ff.; II:384; Sample, loc. cit.; Schroeder, 1952:40,43; Spier, 1955:15. Gifford, 1931:8-9; Sample, loc. cit.; Bolton, 1930:I:118-48; 11:59. Gifford, loc. cit., Sample, loc. cit. Ibid. Steward, loc. cit. Latta, 1936, passim; Cook, 1957:144. Maloney, n. d., passim. - 68 - MAP 2. TRADE RELATIONS IN ABORIGINAL CALIFORNIA Number or number and letter prefix shown before family or group subdivisions correspond with those on Kroeber's (1922) map titled "Native Tribes, Groups, Dialects and Families of California in 1770." Numbers in brackets refer to page where trade relationships of tribe in question are itemized. Athabascan Family Tolowa Group lb. Tolowa [39] Hupa Group lc. Hupa [23] ld. Chilula [18] Mattole Group lf. Mattole [28] Wailaki Group 1g. Nongatl [31] lh. Lassik [27] li. Sinkyone [38] lj. Wailaki [41] lk. Kato [25] Algonkin Family Yurok Group 2a. Yurok [45] 3. Wiyot [43] Yukian Family 4a. Yuki [44] 4b. Huchnom [23] 4c; Coast Yuki [19] 4d. Wappo [41] Lutuamian Family 5. Modoc [29] Hokan Family Shastan 6a. Shasta [37] 6b. New River Shasta [30] 6c. Konomihu [26] 6e. Achomawi (Pit River) [15] 6f. Atsugewi (Hat Creek) [16] - 69 - Hokan Family [continued] Yana 7b. Central Yana (Noze) [44] 7c. Southern Yana [44] 7d. Yahi [43,44] 8. Karok [24] 9. Chimariko [18] Pomo lOa. Northern [35] lOb. Central [35] lOc. Eastern [35] lOd. Southeastern [35] lOe. Northeastern [35] lOf. Southern [35] lOg. Southwestern [35] 11. Washo [42] Salinan 13b. Miguele'no [36] Chumash 14a. Obispeino [28] 14d. Barbare'no [28] 14f. Emigdiano [28] 14g. Interior (doubtful) 14h. Island [24] Yuman 15b. Southern (Eastern) Diegueino [20] 15c. Kamia [24] 15d. Yuma [45] 15e. Halchidhoma (now Chemehuevi) [22] 15f. Mohave [29] Penutian Family Wintun (Dialect Groups) 16a. Northern [33] 16b. Central (Nomlaki) [17] 16d. Southwestern (Patwin) [34] Maidu (Dialect Groups) 17a. Northeastern [31] 17b. Northwestern [34] 17c. Southern (Nisenan) [38j - 70 - Penutian Family [continued] Miwok 18a. Coast [18] 18b. Lake [27] 18c. Plains [35] 18d. Northern [32] 18e. Central [17] 18f. Southern [38] Costanoan 19c. Santa Clara [19] 19f. Monterey (Rumsen) [19] Yokuts (Dialect Groups) 20a. Northern Valley (Chulamni, Chauchila, etc.) [33] 20b. Southern Valley (Tachi, Yauelmani, etc.) [39] 20c. Northern Hill (Chukchansi, etc.) [31] 20d. Kings River (Choinimni, etc.) [26] 20e. Tule-Kaweah (Yaudanchi, etc.) [40] 20g. Buena Vista (Tulamni, etc.) [16] Uto-Aztekan (Shoshonean) Family Plateau Branch Mono-Bannock Group 21a. Northern Paiute (Paviotso) [32] 21b. Northern Paiute (Owens Valley) [20] 21c. Western Mono [42,43] Shoshoni-Comanche Group 21d. Koso (Panamint Shoshone) [27] Ute-Chemehuevi (Southern Paiute) 21e. Chemehuevi (Southern Paiute) [18] 21f. Kawaiisu (Tehachapi) [26] Kern River Branch 21g. TUbatulabal (and Bankalachi) [40] Southern California Branch Serrano Group 21h. Kitanemuk (Tejon) [26] 21k. Serrano [36] Gabrielino Group 21m. Gabrielino [22] Luiseno-Cahuilla Group 21t. Desert Cahuilla [17] - 71 - MAP I INDIAN TRAILS OF ABORIGINAL CALIFORNIA A50 ml. SCALE 4 . 14 h - '; ''' \ ' J) 21m Reciprocal Trade - - One Way Trade MAP 2. Trade Relations in Aboriginal California