47. Basketry: A Proposed Classification Heole~ne Balfet Translated and with preface by M. A. Baumhoff Preface The following article is a translation of a paper which originally appeared in French in thejournal L'Anthropologie (1952, vol. 56, pp. 259- 280). I am indebted to Miss Helene Balfet, the author of the original article, both for permission to republish her paper in this form and for valuable critical assistance in the translation. Dr. Henry V. Vallois, editor of L'Anthropologie, kindly granted permission to publish the trans- lation. Finally I extend my thanks to Dr. J. H. Rowe and Mr. Seth Leacock who assisted in certain technical aspects of the translation. Basketry has long been a favorite topic of those ethnographers who concern themselves with technology or material culture. This is no doubt due to the large part played by basketry in the lives of the non-pottery making people's . One aspect of basketry manufacture which has been exploited with partial success stems from the interest of Franz Boas in relationships between. individuals and their culture. The type of study which Boas had in mind, and in which he himself carried out investigations (Boas et al., 1928), takes the form of "investigating the subjective attitude of thebasket] weaver, of determining individual reactions.to craft aspects" (O'Neale, 1932). O'Neale's (Ibid.) work with the Yurok-Karok basket weavers of North- western California is perhaps the most successful study of the kind. One result which we might expect of such studi es, if they come to fruition, is a systematic definition of the aesthetics of basket making. Since this would have come by induction to a group of individual craftsmen it would have had the virtue of being a generalization derived from the particulars in question and this may have been one of the things Bas was trying to find. But it is perhaps too much to expect artists to be articu- late about the values of their art. In any case no good definition of the aesthetics of basketry has come from these studies, In fact I have not found anything in the literature on basketry which is entirely satisfactory from the standpoint of art criticism (cf. Weltfish, 1953). Whether.thls is because no critic has been able to accept the underlying artistic assumptions or whether the restrictive properties of basketry as a medium have prevented its attaining any real artistic value I do not know. The Boas-O'Neale method has another aspect in which it has been decid- edly more successful than it has in artistic analysis. This is the study of the'methods of teaching and learning of the craft. Such studies are of help in giving us the mechanisms and partial explanations of the regularities and -1- variations which may be observed in the basketry of a given village or group. It; is a pity this kind of study has not been done for more groups; if methods of training and work were kmown systematically they could perhaps then be obtained inferentially fromn the baskets themselves. This would be of particu1- iar value to the archaeologist, who must use all possible evidence in recon- structing culture. A more immediate problem to techrologists and archaeologists is that approached by Miss Balfet in the present paper-the classification of basketry techniques. Basketry techniques cannot even be identi?fied and compared unless some sort of classification is used and up to the present we have been seri- ously handicapped in this respect0 As Mi3s Balfet points out, the previous efforts have, on the one hand, been so cumbersome as tCo be Impractical (L.ehmang 1907) or, on the other hand, have been regional descriptions rather than classifications p se (Mason, 190h). Morris and Burgh's Anasazi Bask will stand as an exception to thi's statement. Although they claim to deal .only with the archaeological basketry of a small area of the southwestern United States yet their terminology and systematics are such that they c.an be used for classification of almost any co.led basketty. One of the properties of basketry which makes its analysis attractive iles in the fact that its types may be regarded as discrete eleents rather than as arbitrary points on a continuum, The baskeet weaver may twine wit>;h a right hand twist or a left hand twist butll, he cannot be half way In between these points. Furthermore his method of work is perfectly apparent in the finished product so the craftsman himself ni~eed not be observed at alls.. Thus for most situations in basket making there is only a finite number of logical alternatives and basketry analysis, in a way similar to kinship analysis, consists of working out the possible combinations. In both basketry and kin- ship the logical structure is so important that we are provided wilth powerful tools either for determining the causal relationships or for the purpose of elegant and economical description. Miss Balfet's basketry classification provides a point of entrance into the logical structuire of basketry techniques. It Is to be hoped that use of this classifica+ton will result in.n the sort of elaboration that has been achieved 'in kinsip studi es M. A. B, uh.of f Berkeley, California Februa.,ry 1 , 192; 9-9 Introduction B3asketry, which makes up an important part of all ethnographic collec- tions, seems often to have resisted efforts at classification. Though certain well-known types are recognized with all their variants in certain geographical areas, it is still impossible to get an idea of their mutual relations. Furthermore, the inadequacy of the terminology makes description difficult and interpretation of the published accounts uncertain.1 In 1904 Mason published his classic description of American basketry.2 Since that time most of the accounts, especially those in English, have simply adopted the types established by Mason, adding to them here or sim- plifying there, depending on the region under consideration. But it must be noted that Mason's monograph, which was based on the basketry of a single region, did not attempt to cover the range which has been attributed to it. In ank case the work was rather an enumeration of types than a classifica- tion. The work of J. Lehman (1907-1912) has a greater classificatory value (see below) but it has only a very limited utility in practice because none of the forms described is named but only labeled with a formula. This obliges one to refer con$inually to the table of explanations to find the meaning of the formulas. '4 This touches on one of the primary difficulties encountered in the course of this work. That is the necessity of naming types while having due regard for the traditional terminology and at the same time maintaining the logic and coherence of the classification. Wherever a name established through usage designates a well known form, it is unwise to replace it arbi- trarily. But when it is-necessary to create or choose names, it seems preferable to base them on a single principle of classification rather than on a resemblance to types previously named. Another difficulty lies in the vagueness of the definition of basketry, In a general way we may agree that basketry is a hand-made assemblage of fibers which are relatively large and rigid, making a continuous surface, usually a receptacles~ In general basketry is distinct from weaving, in which flexible fibers are worked together to make continuous plane surfaces with the aid of an apparatus to put tension on the warps; from netting, by which plane surfaces as well as receptacles are produced by assembling fine flexible f ibers manually; and finally from branding, in which, also by hand, fibers are brought together into bands of variable widths. But even if these distinctions are granted there remain intermediate cases and examples of such complete identity between the technique of basketry arni that of weaving or of netting that one cannot study the one without studying the others. The boundaries of the study here presented are often quite arbitrary, as the author well recognizes. Even more so does the author realize that the study of related techiqlques has been conducted along parallel lines and this knowledge is used in such a way as to permit at least the establishment of necessary connections when these domains shall be approached in the same way. -3- Finally, iv t Is necessary to choose between the possible criteria of classification. In view of the preceding definitions, the classification cannot be based on function for we are not concerned with classifying baskets according to their use. Moreover it will not be based on exterior appearance or on degree of fineness or stiffness. It cannot be based on these factors because they vary infinitely with function, without enabling us to trace pre- cise limits or define types. It may seem shocking that we leave these things out of account and classify together forms so diverse as a fence of bound sticks and certain fine and closely woven basketry simply because they have a similar weaving technique. It must be noted, however, that generally rigid threads (osier, wooden laths, or splints) do not lend themselves to the same work as do flexible threads (rush, raffia, strips of palm frond, etc.). In addition, to reserve a place for the form and function of the objects, it seems necessary to introduce, in the margin of the classification, a distinc- tion between openwork basketry, basketry wiith one element spaced and the other tight, and closework basketry. Most methods of basket-making lend themselves to two or three such variations, and it; is thus possible to group two very different products under a single weaving technique. Figure 1 (a, b, c) shows three fragments of twined basketry as a very striking illustration of this fact. 6 It has been possible to distinguish between the elements of basketry which may be called passive, i.e., relatively fixed, and which make up the foundation, on the one hand, as against the moving elements which are inter- twined among the passive elements, on the other hand. These will be desig- nated by the terms standard and thread, the first being more explicit than the second; the term standard may serve also as the general term when it is not possible to distinguish between the two, English terminology helps to make these terms precise by calling them wap an4 wefts respectively, thus equating them with the war and fill of cloth.' If oQne could list all the possible arrangements of standards and all the ways that the thread could be woven among them then this would give all the possible cases of basketryA In practice it is possible to abbreviate this procedure somewhnat while reserving Irreducible forms as special cases. Standards and Threads Standards These may be distinguished according to their nature, the number of layers they make up, and according to their general direction. 9 i0 A single layer of passive parallel standards. Wattle type (Fig. 2, nos. 1-12)o 2. One or occasionally two layers of active standards. Standards and threads are in this case not distinct i.e., they are generally flat and usually woven. The elements are parallel to each other but may be perpendicular to the edge (straight basketry) or oblique (diagonal basketry). Matting type (Fig. 2, nos. 13-38), -4- 3. Two (or three) layers of passive standards. The two layers are some- times oblique but the more usual case is for one of them to stand per- pendicular to the edge while the other is wound around the vessel from bottom to top. Lattice type (Figo 2, nos. 39-64). 4. A single standard wound in a flat coil at the base and then winding upward in horizontal coils in the vessel wall (Fig. 2, nos. 65.77?o 5. A special case of the preceding. Coiled basketry of a single element (Figo 2, nos. 78-90). Threads This is the moving element which holds the standards by intertwining among them in one of three ways. 1 Threads wound around the standards. Under the term Abound* are grouped all the cases in which the thread loops around the standard. This is usually done with a spiral motion or with a stitch, the latter also being in a spiral, At other times a knot or a half-hitch is used to fasten the thread to the standard, (Fig. 2, Bound,) 2. Threads twisted around the standard in two and threes. This is twined thread basketry, so named because of the twisting motion given to the threads in making a twine of two or three strands which encloses the standards. Various combinations are possible, the simplest being desig- nated by the formiula 1/1, which means that it is two strand cordage each twist of which encloses one standard, If the thread encloses two stan- dards with displacement10 we have the formula 2/2 corresponding to the s imple twill of weaving. Odd combinations give several possible formulas of serge twill and even a form twined by braiding (and not by simple twisting). (Fig. 2, Twined.) 3. Threads woven among the standards, The intricacy with which the threads move among the standards gives weaves corresponding to those of cloth. They are plain weave (l/l),ll simple twill (2/2 with displacement), serge twill (2/1 or other odd combinations with displacement of one standard per course), and satin (a special case of the preceding, 4/1 for example, with displacement of two standards). (Fig. 2, Woven.) With the aid of these two series placed horizontally and vertically in tabular form the first chart has been constructed. This allows us to designate basketry by coordinates and gives evidence of the groupings among the various forms analyzed. They are seen to group themselves into four principal types. (1) bound lattice-work, (2) coiled basketry, (3) twined basketry, and (4) woven basketry. It may be noticed that these types, which group themselves on the chart, correspond to classical basketry types. The advantage here lies in having them better situated for purposes of comparison. It also helps to sharpen the definition of these types so as to demonstrate as variants of them other forms hitherto insufficiently definite-. .5- The forms shown on the chart do not absolutely exhaust all possible cases butb it seems that all other forms which one encounters may be placed thzrneO- This chart (also Fig. 3 and Fig. 1) has been based on examples prsascnally observed in six ethnographic museums (see Bibliography).1 The geatest possible number of publications has been inspected in the cases A;r;e the detail which interested us was shown. Bound WorkI4 '-6 Wattle Workl5 This is generally called wrapped in English terminology.16 Montandon has ^alled it wound ware, In this work the threads describe a turn around each standard (Fig. 2, no, 3). This type, together with some of the more elaborate forms, is very wtdespread in distribution. It occurs in Tierra del Fuego, New Guinea (small baskets), Arizona, Mdamans (burden baskets), the Sudan, and in Senegal (poult~ Acages)., The wattled work with tied threads (half-hitch or other knots) is exept"onal-.-it is found only in the manufacture of objects which must have the threads firmly lashed to the standards (screens, railings). (Fig. 2, nos. h, 5.) Bc;unZd MSt Work17 The type in which the standard bends back against itself and is tied there with a half-hitch is known from a baleen net among the Central Eskimo'8 '(Fig. 2, no. 16). It is interesting to note the proximity of this very excreptional case with the Kwakiutl type in which the standards and threads are both twined (Fig. 2, no. 18) and which is used to make objects of the same type. Bound Lattice Work19 This type is frequently encountered, especially in its spiral thread form, but it has only rarely been distinguished in classifications. 0. T. Mason cites it in his vocabulary20 (lattice weaving) without giving it a place in the ranainder of his work. Others group it with the twined work21 or give to just one of its forms (Northwest American) the undescriptive name of ',bird cage pattern The name "tbasketry with multi-layer standards given by A. Leroi -Gourhanh Z has here been given the additional word "bound" because cther forms (twined or woven) are usually included in the twined or woven groups. In this type it is most usual for the standard to be in two layers, the elemints of one being parallel and of the other perpendicular to the edge. There also occur cases of oblique standards and even cases of three layer standards. In the latter case one layer is enclosed by the other two, e.g., anl oblique standard may be enclosed by layers with elements parallel and perpendicular to the edge. Spiral Thread, In this case the standards are bound by winding flexible thre-ads around them. The thread may be in a simple spiral or it may cross over itself or form variouspatterns similar to embroidery (Fig. 2, no, 39). The work obtained may be either open or close work. The first form occurs sporadically throughout the world (fishtraps, etc.). The second has three principle centers of distribution: Central and East Africa (Congo, Uganda, Tanganyika); the Northwest Coast of North America; and Guiana (typical forms and the intermediate forms up to the sewed thread form). Sewed Thread. Indonesia in particular offers a number of examples of receptacles made of leaves which have two layers of standards sewn together (Fig. 2, no. 140). Tied Thread. This type is at the present time very rare and is combined in quite disparate fashion (Fig, 2, nos. 42, 43, 56). Certain twined forms may, despite the rule e unciated above, be included here as a variant of the spiral bound type. 3 In fact this type is often found in bands on spiral bound basketry. In this case two threads are twined to allow an alternation of color in a decorative design. The requirements of decoration frequently lead to such an overlap of types. Coiled Basketry24 The distinctive character of this group (Fig. 2, nos. 65-90) lies in the form of its foundation. This is made up not of a series of standards but of a single element wound in a spiral around itself.25 The coils are kept in place by the thread2 in various ways. Usually the work is done stitch by stitch and coil by coil without having an entire length of founda- tion laid out beforehand. The methods of sewing, as well as the nature of the coil, on which they depend in large part, enable us to define the vari- ations within this type. Spiral Co Iling (Fig. 2, nos. 65, 661,27 This is the most frequent form of coiling. The nature of the standard may vary and the two following sub-types Sorre- spond to these variations (1) Solid (made of a single whole stem2- --to bind each coil to the preceding one the thread must squeeze the two together, giving a diagonal or Wtwilledlt effect (Figs. id, lh). In some cases the stitch slips under t2Ve stitch of the preceding row without touching the standard (Fig. le). (2) The double or triple standard30--in this Ease the thread catches in each stitch one of the elements of the preceding coil. Many combinations are possible and have been described in detail by Mason and G. Weltfish. (See Fig. if.) The distribution of types (1) and (2) extends in a band across northern Eurasia and into Northwest North America (roots of conifers); the types are -7- found also in the Southern Pacific region (China and Melanesia) and some examples occur in Africa (Rhodesia). Sewed Coiin This type has a foundation of mfultiple elements, that is to say is made up of a bundle of fine fibers.31. It is sewed coiling3' made with the aid of a needle or an awl. The coil is bound to the one preceding by the thread, which goes through the body of the preceding coil (Fig. 1k). The appearance of this type may change according to whether or not the thread conceals the foundation or whether it goes through the center of the corresponding stitch on the preceding coil as in the case of the "split stitcht' type33 (Figs. Ii, j, k). This type of coiled ware has a very wide distribution. It is almost the exclusive form in many of the regions of Africa in the north and the west. It existed in atcient Egypt arid it occurs in Arabia and throughout the Mediterranean Basin as far as Western Europe. It also occurs in India and sporadically in the Asiatic Pacific and finally outlines another distinct zone in North America (throughout the Pueblos). Coiled with Wound Thread This form is very rare. It is used to make the pottery rockers in the Sudan (Fig. 2, no. 67). Half-hitch Coiling3h In this-type the thread forms half-hitches holding the preceding loop of thread in place-and the standard serves only as a support (Fig. 2, no. 68). It is not possible to differentiate this type from the half-hitch net without foundation (Fig. 2, no. 81) of which the geographic distribution is much more extensive.3 This netting (with foundation), which requires very round and flexible material, appears to be limited to Australians, Tasmanians, Tierra del Fuegians and Pygmies. Knotted Coiling6 The simplest knot (Fig. 2, no. 69) is also the most diffuse but many varieties may be noted in the Congo, in Indonesia, and among the Basket Makers, Twined or Woven Coiling These two types, which are rarer than the others, are grouped with the coiled ware because their foundations are coiled (Fig. 2, nos. 70, 74). But they have elements the lengths of which are arranged in advance, running from the center out to the edge, Because of this it is possible to regard them as twined or woven ware with flexible standards and stiff threads. The examples of twined coiling (or basketry with twined flexible standards) are very limited (Southern Africa). Woven coiling is well represented by a type from West Africa and by many cylindrical hats from tropical America. -8- Single Element Coiling37 This type differs from the preceding in detail but fundamentally it is part of the same group in that its single element follows a spiraled direction analogous to the path of the foundation in the usual type. It is rare to find cases with wound threads within this class (they would usually be grouped with the "knotless netting'). Coiled ware made from sewed braids (Fig. 2, no. 79) is attested to throughout North and Northeast Africa since the time of Ancient Egypt. There is some half-hi ching without foundation of which one openwork variety is from East Asia.3 Finally there is the knotted Fuegian basketry (Fig. 2, no. 82). Twined Basketry39 In this variety the standards are held by having the threads twisted around them as if they (the threads) were being made into cordage (of two or three strands). We have already encountered (Figs. la, b, c) the three possibilities of twined: close twined, basketry with tight standards but spaced threads, and openwork basketry* The latter type is almost universally distributed because it is a perfect solution to the problem pf maintaining rigid standards with even spacing for fish traps, hurdles, 40 etc. The type with spaced threads may also be employed with flexible elements when one wishes to fabricate without stiffening (e.g., Ainu flexible basketry). In this form it occurs throughout the Northern Pacific from Japan to the American coast where it is found side by side with close twining (and with twined textiles or cloth). Close twining occurs in three principal zones: Western North America from Alaska to the Pueblos. Aus trgllia. Central Africa from the Congo to the East Coast. In the regions of the greatest frequency, above all the American and African zones, we encounter tie vgriations--variations in the threadwork, eOg., simple twilled twining;41 serge twilled twining;42 braided twining;43 two superi mpoed layers of standards held with twined threading (straighth4 or diagona ); Phoney comb" twined,146 in which the flexible standards are twined together two and two but with alternate pairing on successive courses of threading ('Fig. 2, no. 19); and finally the exceptional basketry of the Kwakiutl in which both the threads and the standards are twined (Fig. 2, no. 18). 17 Woven Basketry This category includes all the types in which the threads weave among the standards. Three basic varieties of this may be distinguished: Wattle worko Plaited basketry with two perpendicular elements, straight or diagonal. -9- Work with three or more elements, t.he weaving of which varies to create the subtypes. Wattle Workh8 This type, with stiff standard and flexible threading, is ,universally distributed (Fig. 2, nos. 9-Il). This is the most usual type in European and African baskets and it is also found in North and South America and in the Far East. It is everywhere used, at times, to busl.d hurdles and the walls of houses. Plain weave is most usual in this type, often with an excess of threads which hide the standard. The various twills are also found in this type. Although as a general rule this type will have the standards perpen- diculgr to the edge, it also includes another form., with both European and Chinese variations, in which the standards, bent into semi-circles, look like meridians (convergent at the two poles--Europe) and parallels (China) when seen from the bottom, while the threads rur. from. one edge to the other. Plaited Work4e In this type, either the straight or dIagonal, it is necessary to use flat fibers (Fig, 2 Nos. 22-25; 35-38). This type is very similar to textile weaving and uses the whole gamut of weaving techniqueso Its decoration gives it an infinitely varied appearance. The diagonal forms are the most frequent with a tendency toward simple twill (2/2). According to the material and the technique, this type lends itself to a great variety of forms and it is here in particular that it is possible to make the best plane surfaces of Large dimensions. It seems particularly well adapted to the natural resources and to the kind of life that is found in the intertropical regions. It has a vast distribution but its regions of emphasis comolement those of coiled and twined ware, ioe., the regions which have rarely been cited--the Far East from Japan to Malaysia, tropical Amer.ica, and Madagascar. Woven Basketry with Three or Four Standard Layersr Some varieties of this type are completely woven whi'le others are Intermediates between woven and lattice b-sketry--for example, two standards layered and one woven. This latter type, "diamonds in three elements has a very wide distribution (Fig. 29, no. 61). It is the technique most conrimon in openwork basketry with flat elements that is found from Europe to Japan and in tropical America. In the latter region it is represented by a great number of varieties--straight (Nambikwara) and diagonal, and with double and triple threading. The really intricate types sometimes form figures which are variations of the diamond shape. However one type which is quite distinct is that of a closely woven fabric In three layers (1/I or 2/1 weave) with a very limited distribution in Indonesia (Fig, 2, no. 37)0 Starts and Finishes It remains to describe two critical steps in the manufacture of basketry--the start, the initial placing of the eleme s, and the finish, which ends the work and gives it its definitive appearance. In these two operations there is a great variety of forms because the imagination is often impelled toward a decorative goal. We have seen that the geographic distribution of the weaving technique alone- is of little help, therefore it will be necessary to find additional comparative elements in the analysis of starts and finishes in order to establish a satisfactory series of technlcal characteristics for the study of basketry. However, it may be asked if the multiplication of details observed does much to gieve the observation additional comparative value, that is to say, in what measure are these details irgiependent of each other? It is possible in fact that certain associations are inevritable or at least pref- erential. For example, a certain weave may imply a certain finish or a certaln starting position for the standard. To make this idea more precise it seems preferable to wait until the possibilities of a statistical study on this point have been investigated. Starts (Fig, 3) It must be noted from the f irst that, at least 'in the case of basketry receptacles, the start is almost always the same as the base or the center of the vessel. Some rare exceptions wlll be shown below0 As in the case of weaves the present classlflcatlon is based on the position of the standards and the way they are grouped at the beginning. 1. Radial start - the standards occupy a positi'on more or less radiating out from the center,53 If the standards are handled individually they radiate typically (nos. 1-7); sometimes the standards are in bunches, the elements of which, gathered at the center, subsequently spread out to give the desi'red diameter (nos. 8-14h, 2. Layered start54 the standards are placed i'n layersa, usually two but sometimes one, three, or even four. The most usual form (flat start)5 makes a surface whlch is more or less the same as the bottom of the basket (nos. 15-21). The "linear starts",56 are of the same type, adapted to the weaving of objects with a flat sectlon ?nos. 22-28) except for the particular case called "start from the edge."5 T This latter is rarely used for receptacles (some examples from Oceania are made of palm fronds, no, 32) but are inevitable in the case of opern end tubular baskets (sheaths, irnterior cones of fish traps, etc.). The standatds thus arranged may be held in various ways: ao Tled to each other (chiefly the radial standard type). b. Stratified (isolated, in bunches or layers). c. Lashed type - the standards may be i'n a bundle bound on the inside (type wlth inAterior ring) or on the outside (type wlth exterior rlng, of which one example ls made of a splint of bamboo). Also the standards may be bound and folded back (umbilical type), or they may be in bunches bound flat; there may be bound layers of standards (flat start), or a single bound layer of standards (linear start)O d. Woven type there may be isolated standards (4, 6, 8 or more) making a start which is square,, hexagonal, octagonal or diaphragmatic -l 1- (as in a camera aperture] (n.cs ae?). She standards may be in 2, 4, 6 or more bunches of woven elements0 Most frequently in this type the standards are in layers, straight or diagonaLS8 There may also be straight or diagonal i!Y8ar? starts or start-s from the edge. Entirely apart, there must be cited the coiled starts the usual type i 1, coiled basketry. It. is interes- t ting that we find divisions here which correspond to those we have just encounteredo the spiral may be started from a cen.tral point (no. 36)3 it may be folded back several times to form a square or a rectangle before starting the spiral (no. 37); an oval base may be ob- tained with a coiled start of the linear type (no. 38); finally the coiled start from the edge (no. 39) exists in cases analogous to those cited above but again it is rare (it occurs in Indonesia for instance) except in open- ended tubular baskets. Besides the case of coiled basketry where the agreement between the foundation and the start is almost a formal rule, it is proper to note that the greatest frequency of radial starts occurs with wattled weave and of flat starts with the plaited (or mattina) weaves. Finishes (Fig. 4) We must make a preliminary note here corresponding to that which was made in the case of starts. The finish of basketry usually coincides with the edge of the basket so that frequently the term "edge" is used instead of ".finish." It might be better to reserve the tern "edge," common to all receptacles, to the description of shape. I have left aside the purely decorative elements which often mask the essential characteristics and which, if taken under consideration in the present work, would entail excessive subdivision,59 Basically we may observe here two main types--edges in which the finish is produced by the elements of the basketry itself, generally the stanrdards (simple firnish), and on the other hand those in which the finishing element is added (composite finish). The method of finishing, properly so called, furnishes a second criterion. The position of the standard does not seem to merit an essential place but it does introduce noticeable variation (the standards may be cut, may be laid tangent to the edge, or reversed). 6o Edges without finish, with a free end (no. 1) are rare. One finds them on objects, hats for example, on which the edge is pointed down. Finish with knotted standards demands a great flexibility in these elements (coiled basketry with wound thread, for example, or matting). Finish with the thread wound in a coil presents various forms. Amrng the simple edges, almost all coiled basketry is fini^"shed with a "fag end" wound with threg% (no. 3). Often this type will have a spiral in figure-of-eight pattern for the purpose of embellishing and reinforcing the edge. The distinction between simple winding and figure-of-eight is functionally more important in the composite type. There the first form is frequently encountered when the -12- standards are bent flat at the edge (no. 31). The second form is seen as a stop for a weave of cut standards (no. 25), while the converse combinations are rare. The type with edges tightened between two slats (no. 26) offers great variety in the method of binding (tight or loose winding, figure-of.- eight, knots, etc.). However, it-seems possible to group these together without going into detail because the functional element is the binding between the two rigid pieces. Twined finish with cut standard of the simple type is used- for flat edges in close weave--having some rows finer and tighter than the rest gives a very great solidity. Standards laid or reversed back into the weaving are frequent in woven basketry. When the standards are too stiff they are cut and the edge is stopped with a flexible element recalling a hair-pin. Finally we must mention a very special type of edge, although it may be attached to composite edges of cut standards; the finish is made of an element of non-basketry material--gum (tropical America, for example), band of cloth (Ainu), or hide (East Africa). -13- Notes 1. The basis of a general classification of basketry proposed by A. Leroi- Gourhan in 191.3 (L'Homme et la Matiere, pp. 279-290) has been borrowed here in rough outline. The present work, which completes that classi- fication, follows the body of a revision of terminology undertaken in 1948 under the direction of MN Leroi-Gourhan at the Department of Comparative Technology of the Musete de l'Homme. The figures were drawn by N. R. Htunblert of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique* 2. Mason, 1904. 3. To convince oneself of this fact it is only necessary to examine the principle used in it. Of the two general classifications, one (woven basj ry) is defined by a term which, if taken in its limited sense woven). eliminates more than half of the forms discussed thereunder, but which if taken in its more general sense (intertwined) would include not only all basketry but most flexible solids as well. Tne other classification (coiled haskez) defined according to the direction of work, is by no means the opposite of the first. The detail of the work contains several similar cases. 14. Letters and niuimbers can certainly be very expressive if one is able to give an equivalent meaning to the same symbol in all cases. However [in Lehmann's work] in the formula IaA the letter A designates the weave (plain weave); in the formula IIAa't the same weave is indicated by> while A designates the wattled type as opposed to B, the coiled type. 5,0 Lerol-Gourhan3, o0 cit ., pp. 279-280. 6. ibido. D. 282. 7. The terms which have been translated as standard and thread are montant and brin. Montant appears to have the essential meaning of support (post of a door, upright of a ladder). Foundation might have been used tc translate this word but in English terminology it has already been specialized to coiled basketry S Rimi* larly the word warp could not be us;ed as it is specialized to non-coiled basketry. The word brin has a meaning similar to that of the English word thread-- it also means strand, as in two-strand cordage. Again the words %weft and stitch could not be used because of their specialized association in English terminology. (Transl.) 8. It is on this principle that the classification of Lehmann (1912) is based. To our way of thinking, however, his scheme presents one grave fault in that it describes only a fragment of basketry as detached from the whole. Tihus great importance has been given to the active and passive character of the elements and to their number but not to their direction. For example, wattled and coiled ware are grouped under type II while scarcely any distinction is made between straight and diagonal basketry. ~14- 9. Fr. Cla'onne (Montandon). The numbers 1 to 90 refer to those of Fig. 2 until otherwise indicated, 10. By displacement is meant, for exauple, in the'case of the 2/2 type, that we have each strand of the weft going over two and under two on alter- nate pairs of warps. (Transl.) 11. In the textile terminology of English there are three basic weaves. These are the plain weave (1), twill weave (2/1, 2/2 or other combina- tions), and satin weave (4/i, 5/1, etc.). The main characteristic of the latter is that the weft goes under many more warps than it goes *over, making the appearance and texture of the fabric almost entirely dependent on the material of the warp, In the French terminology there are four of these basic weaves--toile, corresponding to plain weave. croisi (2/2), corresponding to one part of our twilled variety; serge V2/1 r other odd combinations), corresponding to the other part of our twilled variety; and finally satin- which is the same as our satin weave. It appears that the logic of neither classification is superior to the other. Perhaps the best solution would be to arrange the types to indicate whether or not the moving element passes over the same number .of passive elements as it passes under. Within these two types the varieties could then be distinguished by formula. The classifications as they now stand are simply reflections of the cultures of England and France respectively and have no necessary connection with the practices of, say, the Indonesians or the Ainu. (Transl.) 120 This is why the blank spaces on the chart have been retained for forms which have not yet been discovered. 13. Let me take this occasion to acknowledge the kirndness of the curators of the Museum fUr VUlkerkunde in Vienna, the Department of Ethnography of the British Museum, the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge, all of whom made this work possible by generously giving me access to their collections. 14. Fr. vannerie lie.. (H. B.) 15. Fr. vannerie clayonnee a brins lies. (H. B.) 16. W. E. Roth (1916-1917) uses this term to designate bound lattice work with two layers of standards. This usage will be questioned later. 17. Fr, vannerie natte a brins lies. (H. B.) 18. Mathiassen, 1927. 19. This is the translation of vanneries a nappes supeposes ees, basketry with bound superimposed layers. The word lattice implies a framework of supporting elements which cross each other and therefore are of necessity in at least two layers. (Transl.) 20. Mason, p. 195. -15- 21.;l S~xarigid twined work (Montandon); p twined (Harrison, Weitfish) [In this and subsequent notes Weltfish 1930 is the reference.] ? DIb' d. po 281. 230 Lattice twined (Mason., Harrison, Miner)- 24. Fr. Vannerie spiralee (H. B.) 25. Montandon (1933, p. 6) bases the distinctiveness of coiled work on the existence of the pliant coil. This seems to me quite arbitrary since nothing distinguishes this coil from the strip which holds together the standards in the spiral bound type. 26. Mason distinguishes the elements of coiled basketry from the standards and threads in other types of basketry by calling them foundation*,and sewing. Similarly Graebner (1913) calls them die Willste and die Uber- fStgun (coiled basketry 's ?piralwulstkorbe7TF 27, piral-coiling (Davidson); Fr. splrale a brin roule (or spiralee- 12ralee) (H7R B.) 28. Sinj-rod foundation (Mascon); one-rod foundation (We.ltfish). 29. Sime interlocking coils (Mason). 30. Two, or three-rod foundation (Mason, Weltfish). 31. Grass-coil foundation (Mason); multiple foundat.on (Weltfish). 32.. Fr. 2piralee ccusue (H. B.) 33. Split stitch (Weltfish); furcate coiling (Notes and Queries); Fr. siralee cousue a brin fendu (H. B.) 34. Half-hitch coilLng (Davidson); Fr. spral.e demi-clef (H. B.). 35. This similarity has been confirmed by an unfinished sack net in half- hitching from tropical America which was recently acquired by the Musek de I Homme. Several consecutive rows are being formed on a foundation which makes it temporarily into basketry. It Is only necessary then to slip out the standard to give the object the flexibility of a net. 36, Ftegan coil (Mason); knot-stitch (Notes and Queries); spaced co r7His and Rtrgh.); Fr. spirfe rnouee (H. B.). 37. Fr. spJrlee sans aature' (Montandon); coiling without foundation (Mason); vannerie sp7alee a une seule nppeo (H. T 38.0 9y .jd coiling (Notes and Queries); looping (Miner). 390 Fr. Torsade (Montandon); vann.1erie cordee (H. B.); German - Doppelfaden (Reesema), ?isnindua (vogt7) -16- 10O. A hurdle is "A coarse form of basket work in brush and trees for hunting and fishing purposes." (Mason, 1904 p. 195) This trans- lates dalie, an openwork of osier. (Transl.S 41. oiagnal twining (Mason, Harrison); dia onal twilled twining (Miner, Weltfish Douglas); Fr. corde croise 7. B,). 42. Three-strand twining (Mason, Harrison, Weltfish); corde serg (H. B.). 43. Three-strand braid (Mason); three-strand braided twining (Weltfish); Fr. corde tresse'TH B.). 44. Lattice twining (Mason, Harrison, Douglas). 45. Cross-warp twined (Harrison); crossedtwining (Douglas). 46. Zigzag twining (Douglas); zigzag twilled twining (Miner); Fr. cord' "nid d'abeille" (H. B.). 47. Fr. vannerie tissee (H. B.). 48. It is to this type that English terminology has given the term wicker- work, literally osier work. Fr. type clayonne tisse (H. B.). 49. I have used the word "plaited" to translate natte in the section on woven basketry, that is, when the classification is based on the threads or moving elements. "Matting" is used to translate the same word when classification is based on the standards or foundation elements. (Transl.) 50. Fr. type canne (Montandon). 51. Cross-warp checker (Harrison); hexagonal plaiting (Miner); Fr. carreau a trois elements (H. B.). 52. Starts and finishes (Fr. departs and arrets [H. B.]) have been very little studied up to the present--that is why there are very few refer- ences in the pages that follow. 53. Radiating foundation or radiating ribs (British Museum); Fr. montant rayonnant (H. B.)* 54. Fr. montant en nappe (H. B.). 55. Fr.,depar a 2lat (H. B.). 56. Fr. depart lineaire (H. B.). 57. Fr. depart du bord (H. B.). 58. Often not discernible because the whole piece is initially woven flat and the concavity is finally made by retightening the edge. -17- 59. Thus the chart cannot express the nuances that can be gotten from the description of a regional type. The general outline can only place principal types--one still has to outline details peculiar to the group studied. 60. This might be called the zero finish. (Transl.) 61. Herring-bone rim (Douglas); Fr. gpirale en 8 (H. B.). -18- Bibliography1 Collections from the following museums: Musee de 1 9Homme, Paris Museum fUr V6lkerkunde, Vienna British Museum, Department of Ethnography, London Horniman Museum, London Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge Boas, F, 9 1928 H. K. Haeberlin, J. A. Teit, and H. H. Roberts Coiled Basketry in British Columbia and Surrounding Regions. Bureau of American Ethnology, Ann. Rept., 41, pp. 119484. Biihl er, K. 1948 Basic Textile Techniques, Ciba Review, Vol. 6, No. 63, Basel, Davidson, 1933 Do S. Australian Netting and Basketry Technique. Polynesian Society, Vol. 42, pp. 257-299. Journal of the Douglas, F. H. 1935 Basketry Construction Technics. Denver Art Museum, Department of Indian Art Leaflet 67. Harrison, H. S. 1924 The Evolution of the Domestic Arts, Handbook to the Horniman Museum, Part II, London. Basketry pp. 15-19. Lehmann, J. 1907 Systematik und Geographische Verbreitung der Geflechtarten. Abhandlungen und Berichte des Ktnigl. Zoolog. und Anthrop. Ethnogr. Museums zu Dresden, Vol. XI. 1912 Flechtwerke aus dem Malayischen Archipel. Verdffentlichungen aus dem St'dadtischen V'dlker-Museum, Frankfurt-am-Main, Vol. IV, pp. 256. Lero -Gourhan, A. 1943 LiHomme et la Matiere. Albin Michel, Paris. (Basketry pp. 279-290)o Mason, 0. To 1904 Aboriginal American Basketry. Ann. Rept. of the U. S. Nat. Museum for 19Q2, pp. 171-548. 1Bi'bliographic references are limited to works containing precise explanations of terms (deflnitions or figures with annotations). [Additional works cited in Preface or Notes follow, (Transl0)] Miner, HO 1936 The Importance of Textiles in the Archaeology of the Eastern United States. American Antiquity, Vol. 1, No. 3 pp. 181-192. Montandon, G. 193h Traite d'Ethnologi e Cyclo- Culturelle. Payot, Paris. (Basketry pp . 493-510. ) Morris, E. H. and R. Burgh 1941 Anasazi Basketry. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publ. No. 533. Notes and Queries on Anthropology 1951 6th Edition, London. (Basketry pp. 272-276.) Reesema, E. S. van 1926 Contribution to the Early History of Textile Technics. Amsterdam. Roth. W. E. 1901 String and other Forms of Strand: Basketry, Woven bag, and Net- work. North Queensland Ethnography, Bull. 1, 15 pp. 1917 An Introductory Study of the Arts, Crafts and Customs of Guiana Indians. Bureau of American Ethnology, Ann. Rept., 38, pp. 137- 1h3. (Terminology pp. 137-143.) Schmidl , M. 1928 Altagyptische Techniken an Afrikanischen Spiralwulstkorben. Koppers, Festschrift, pp. 645-65h. Vo gt, E. 1937 Geflechte und Gewerbe der Steinzeit. Monographien zur Ur- und Frihgeschichte der Schweiz, Vol. 1, 124 pp. Basel. Weltfish, G. 1930 Prehistoric North American Basketry Techniques and Modern Distribu- tions. American Anthropologist, Vol. 32, pp. h54h-59. Additional References Graebner, F. 1913 Gewirkte Taschen und Spiralwulstko'rbe in der SUdsee. Ethnologica, Vol. 2, pp. 25-42, Mathi assen, Therkel 1927 Archaeology of the Central Eskimos. Report of the fifth Thule Expedition, 1921-192h,. Vol. IV. OtNeale, Lila M. 1932 Yurok-Karok Basket Weavers. Univ. of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 32, no. 1. Weltfish, G, 1953 The Origins of Art. The Bobbs-Merrill Company. Explanation of Illustrations Figure 1 a, b, c. Three examples of twined basketry: a, close twining (British Columbia); b, standards close and threads spaced (Nieptani); c, openwork twining (bamboo fish trap from Laos). d, e, f, g. Four forms of coiled basketry with spiral thread: d, tight standard, twilled effect; e, tight standard, thread holding but the preceding one; f, double standard; g, sewed coiling, split stitch type. h, i j, k. Coiled basketry. h, spiral coiling, same as Fig. ld (Poland, a milk vessel made of pine roots); i, sewed coiling, tights stitches hiding the foundation (Abyssinia); J, sewed coiling with spaced stitches (Ruanda-Urundi); k, sewed coiling (split stitch type). Figure 2 Classification of techniques. Threadwork is arranged horizon- tally and standard-work vertically. Figure 3 Classification of starts. Threadwork arranged horizontally and standard-work vertically. Figure 4 Classification of finish patterns. Threadwork arranged horizon- tally and standard-work vertically. -21- a b c 1001 - - T A 1 1 v% - %X 11 ., ^_--- I- Yll A A X, V I---- X- d - - ---X - X X 7 -X X- X 14- I 1 I- 6 S a X X + % i ?-"- ?-- M"-M 1~ --- - LI LI i=-dA L\XALC) - i - 1 9. L'sE B inww Ii ; ~ WMf- ls - F A r' 'T m k Fig. I BOUND SPIRAL SEWED WOUND HALF-HITCH KNOTTED WATTLE I Single Layer Possive Standard 23 /1 14 M ATTIN6G 1/ / . ./ Active Standard I I layerI (sometlmes 2) i ,, 0I 261 271 286 29t 30 LATTICE v Passive Standard 2 (or 3) 39j 401 2 - 41--3 La yers .521 51 , I