ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 20:1 A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS BY NORMAN E. GABEL UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY AND LOS ANGELES 1958 0 0 C) cU 0 .r4 ,4i CU 0~ 0 04 0 (A *,1 Uo .p4 0 *r. 0 .94 b) 0 CH. 0 CH 0 4.4 .9.4 cc a z 4i 2 A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS BY NORMAN E. GABEL ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS VoL 20, No. I UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Editors: C. W. Meighan, Harry Hoijer. Eshref Shevky Volume 20. No. 1, pp. 1-44. plates 1-16 Submitted by editors April 11, 1957 Issued March 27, 1958 Price, $1.00 University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles California Cambridge University Press London, England Manufactured in the United States of America CONTENTS Introduction The problem and procedure ...... The habitat ............... History. Population . Racial background ........... Acknowledgments. Measurements and indicess......... General. Weight. Stature. Span. Span-stature index ......... The trunk ................ Sitting height ............ Relative sitting height ....... Biacromial. Relative shoulder breadth. Bi-iliac . Shoulder-hip. Chest breadth ........... Chest depthh............ Thoracic. Arms and legs............. Arm length ............. Humeral lengthh.......... Radial length ............ Radial-humeral. Leg length ............. Tibial length ............ Calf circumference ....... The head ................ Head circumference ........ Head lengthh............ Head breadth ............ Cephalic index ........... Head heightt............ Length-height . Breadth-height. Cranial modulee.......... Minimum frontal .......... Fronto- parietal. The face................ Bizygomatic. Cephalo-facial. Zygo'-frontal. Total face height .......... Total facial index......... Upper face heightt......... Upper facial index ......... Bigonial. Fronto- gonial. Zygo-gonial . Nasal height ............ Nasal breadth th.......... Nasal index x............ Nasal depthh............ Nasal-depth index ......... Mouth breadth ........... Page 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Lip thickness...... Ear length ....... Ear breadth....... Ear index........ Bicanine breadth . ... Morphological observations . . . Pigmentation. Skin color: exposed . . Skin color: unexposed Hair color ....... Eye color........ Hair. Hair form..... Hair texture . . . Head hair quantity Hair length ........ Baldness. Beard quantity ...... Body hairr........ Grayness: head. Grayness: beard . . . . The face e........... Prognathism: total. . . . Prognathism: mid-facial Prognathism: alveolar. Malar projection: lateral Malar projection: frontal Gonial angles s...... Palate shape ....... Chin prominence ..... Chin type ......... The head ........... Temporal fullness .. Occipital protrusion . . . Lambdoidal flattening . . Occipital flattening. ... Median sagittal crest . . Parietal bosses..... Cranial asymmetry. ... Facial asymmetry . ... Eyes . Eye folds: external . . . Eye fold: median. Eye folds: internal. ... Eye obliquity ....... Eye opening....... Forehead. Brow ridges ....... Forehead height. Forehead slope..... Nose . Nasion depression . ... Root height ........ Root breadth ....... Nasal septum m...... Bridge height t...... Bridge breadth ...... Nasal profile ....... Nasal-tip thickness. . .. [ v I Page . . . . . . 10 ...... . . . . . 10 ...... . .... 11 ...... . .... 11 ...... . .... 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Page Pg Nose (Cont'd.) Nasal-tip inclination ........ Nasal wings............. Mouth. Lip thickness: membranous.. Lip thickness: integumental. Lip eversion ............ Lip seam .............. Teeth. Bite . Caries. Crowding. Tooth eruption ........... Wear. Ears . Ear helix .............. Darwin's point . . . Ear-lobe type. ... Ear-lobe size. . Ear protrusion ........... Ear slant . . . 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 Body build. . . Body build: Body build: Body build: Summary . . . . . . . . endomorph mesomorph ectomorph . . . . . . . Conclusions. Literature cited .............. Plates. . . . . 21 . . . . 22 . . . . 22 22 ... . . . . . . . ... 22 22 22 22 22 23 25 26 27 MAP Simplified map of Fiji showing four regional divisions of population made by the author . . . . frontispiece vi Page A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS BY NORMAN E. GABEL INTRODUCTION This paper concerns itself with a physical survey of the native male population of Fiji. The main objective is a description of these people by means of anthropometric procedure.1 The treatment includes, first, a description of the Fijians as a whole, second, a comparison with neighboring people, and third, regional differences among the Fijians themselves. THE PROBLEM AND PROCEDURE The data used in this survey were secured in 1954 during a stay of seven months in Fiji. My plan was to obtain anthropometric samples from several parts of the archipelago; this plan was only slightly altered as time and transportation facilities directed. Each of the three main administrative districts into which the islands are divided were visited and within each district samples were secured from most of the constituent provinces. The original sample consisted of 880 subjects. Later, 65 subjects were excluded for various reasons: some were part Samoan or Tongan, a few were Rotumans, and others were immature. The number finally used stands at 815. A limited amount of comparative material has been included in order to help locate the Fijians in the over- all Pacific picture. These data were drawn from W. W. Howells, "Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the Solomon Islands" in The American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers, volume 33, part 4, 1933, and from L. R. Sullivan, "A Contribution to Tongan Somatology" based on the field studies of E. W. Gifford and W. C. McKern, in Memoires of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, volume 8, number 4, 1922. The latter report provides comparison with what may be termed western Polynesians who are also the nearest Polynesians to the Fijians. The Fijian data in Howell's paper make it possible for me to check some of my own Fijian material, and the Solomon Island data in the same report provide a Melanesian measuring stick. Since an over-all description of the Fijians is the initial concern of this paper, each physical trait meas- ured or derived from measurement is tabulated accord- ing to range, average, and deviation. Traits observed but not measured are presented according to degree of development, e.g., absent, medium, and pronounced, and according to percentage of occurrence. Further statisti- cal manipulation is not deemed necessary for the writer's purposes. lHooton, 1946. pp. 735-763. It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people. They are regarded. and with good reason, as a hybrid of, mainly, Melanesian and Polynesian compo- nents. Their geographical location, their history, and their physical appearance bear this out. The proportions of Polynesian and Melanesian ele- ments are, of course, not evenly distributed throughout Fiji. Even superficial observation indicates that the natives range from strongly Melanesian to markedly Polynesian. To demonstrate how this variability follows certain regional trends, the data have been broken down into four geographical areas. This subdivision rests on several considerations and merits further comment. One of the subgroups represents the people of the mountainous interior of Viti Levu, the main island of Fiji (see accompanying map). This region may be re- garded as something of a refuge area. Fijians from this relatively isolated locality might reasonably be expected to exhibit more of the earlier racial elements of the total composition. It should be pointed out, however, that the degree of isolation associated with this "interior" group is not extreme. Fiji tradition and history indicate ex- tensive interregional movement. Particularly in early historic times, when the advent of firearms and other Western culture greatly stimulated intergroup warfare and cannibalism, there was much moving about from one region to another. With all this, the interior people still remained, as indeed they are today, more apart from the rest of the population and less subject to outside influence. The second segment chosen for interregional compari- son is in the central Lau Islands and is designated in this paper as the "eastern" group. Lying as they do, at the eastern end of Fiji, they are closest to Tonga, the nearest Polynesian neighbors. Tongan contact with Fiji in prehistoric as well as more recent times is well es- tablished.2 It is in the Lau Islands that Polynesian cultural affinities are most marked. Hence, it seems a logical choice for a second and separate glance in the racial history. The third comparative sample might be termed an intermediate group. It is taken from the coastal villages of eastern Viti Levu, largely from the provinces of Rewa and Tailevu. This area is geographically between the "interior" and "eastern" groups and is referred to in this paper as the "coastal" group. The final regional division represents the northwest- ern parts of Viti Levu. This is the place where, accord- ing to Fiji tradition, their ancestors first landed after 2Derrick, 1946, pp. 5-6. [1] ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS migrating from the west.3 Fijian legend, which gives this hint of their ancestry, does not include a physical description of these immigrants. Nor does it define the physical appearance of the earlier people whom the new- comers encountered and with whom they mingled. On the rather slim hope that anthropometry might shed a little light on this questionable phase of Fijian history, this area, along with the first three, has received separate treatment. THE HABITAT The islands of Fiji are centrally located in the south- west Pacific. Over three hundred islands and islets make up the archipelago, which spreads between latitudes 15' and 22' south of the equator for 300 miles. The inter- national date line runs through Fiji at the Koro Sea and the Moala Island group. The total land area of the islands is about the equiva- lent of the state of Delaware, somewhat over 7,000 square miles. Two great islands account for nearly 95 per cent of the total area: Viti Levu, the largest, is over 4,000 square miles, and Vanua Levu, about half as large. Over 90 per cent of the native population lives on these two islands although nearly a hundred other islands are inhabited. Most of the islands are made up of volcanic and sedi- mentary rocks. The largest islands rest on a submerged portion of an ancient land mass, sometimes called the Melanesian continent, which goes back in time to the Paleozoic and, in its prime, intermittently connected Fiji with southeastern Asia and Australia. Subsequent submergence, followed by cycles of volcanic upbuilding, erosion, and more submergence over eons of time, gave the big islands their upper foundations. The last exten- sive volcanic activity and land uplift occurred in the Pleistocene and accounts for many of the present moun- tain masses. The final touches to the Fiji profile have been wrought by more recent weathering and erosion. Sedimentation is still going on at river mouths and along the coasts, where deltas are being built and mangrove thickets flourish. Many of the smaller islands are old limestone masses that were pushed up from the sea. Unlike the high craggy volcanic islands, these are lower and flat-topped. Typi- cally, they contain a basin-shaped depressed area that is surrounded by a rim. These depressions are usually fertile and heavily forested. Coral islands make up the third variety of land forms. These are always small and low. Their small size, thinner soil, and lack of fresh water make them much less suitable for human habitation. But even a thin layer of soil produces a luxurious vegetation. Fringing and barrier reefs are abundant throughout the archipelago, surrounding nearly every island. The most striking of these formations is the Great Sea Reef, which forms an arc of nearly 300 miles along the western fringe of Fiji and encloses large areas of coral-infested sea. Moderately high mountains give to the larger islands a generally rugged terrain. The more extensive ranges lie across the path of the prevailing south and easterly winds producing windward and leeward climatic areas. On the windward side rainfall is heavy and rather evenly distributed over the year. Here the valleys and mountain 3Ibid., pp. 7-8. slopes support a typical dense tropical growth. The lee- ward side, however, receives much less moisture and has wet and dry seasons. Scattered patches of trees and grasses cover the ground, whereas heavy stands of forest are confined to valley bottoms and higher mountain slopes. The mountainous interior of Viti Levu contains a number of peaks over 3,000 feet, the highest of-which is Mt. Victoria, 4,341 feet. Surface water is abundant on the bigger islands. Several large and navigable rivers drain Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The Rewa River, on the east side of Viti Levu is the largest and is navigable for small craft for 70 miles. Smaller rivers and hundreds of streams are important sources of food and drink for the people of the interior. Great flood plains are formed at the mouths of the larger rivers. These and the fertile flats that run back along the valleys contain the greatest population densities. The climate is generally pleasant and healthful. Tropical extremes of heat and humidity are moderated by the prevailing trades, which usually supply cool and pleasant breezes from the east. Still, days of uncomfort- able heat and oppressive humidity are not unknown; however, such periods are protracted only in the interior. The climate is far from uniform throughout the islands. The windward sides, where rainfall often exceeds a hun- dred inches, have a more even temperature and sunshine is more moderate. On the leeward sides there is less general cloudiness and more sunshine, especially during the dry season. The smaller islands generally resemble the leeward areas in climate. Native plant and animal life, like much of the south- west Pacific, is southeastern Asiatic in type and in origin. In the more profuse and varied windward sides there are several general vegetation zones. Along the coasts and in the larger river basins occur alluvial vege- tation largely dominated by several kinds of mangrove, which is densest in mud flats washed by the tide. In this zone trees are scattered, and many of them bear useful nuts and fruits. On the slopes and ridges behind the coastal belts are the great tropical ra-in forests. They make up a dense cover of evergreen trees interwoven with wild creepers and vines. Thick stands of shrubs and smaller trees add to the tropical profusion. Above 2,000 feet the forests thin out and become more heavily coated with moss and lichens, and ferns and orchids attach themselves to the branches. Beyond 3,000 feet is the cloud belt, and above this trees become stunted and are finally replaced by hardy shrubs that cling to the rocks and crags. On the leeward sides, patches of rain forest are found only in the moister areas. More typical of this zone are thin-leaved trees interspersed in large expanses of meadow and grassland. A number of native plants are very vital to the Fijian livelihood and some have modern economic importance. Several timber trees are essential to house building, canoe construction, and wood carving. The ubiquitous palms, here as elsewhere in the Pacific, are vital sources of food, drink, building, and weaving materials and cordage. The mangrove provides firewood, house poles, fishing fences, and traps, laths for bows and black dye for their hair and tapa. Valuable starch is secured from the sago palm, which is cut just before flowering, and the leaves are a common thatching material. Various reeds, canes, and bamboos and lianas are useful to Fiji economy. In the drier areas reeds and grasses provide material for house walls, thatch, fish fences, and arrow shafts. Several kinds of trees yield edible nuts and fruits. 2 GABEL: A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS Like other central-Pacific island groups, Fiji is poorly provided with indigenous mammals. A small gray rat is a considerable pest in gardens and homes, and a large nocturnal bat, which is called a flying fox, lives in tree colonies and is often seen at dusk in banana groves or other feeding places. All the economically important animals of Fiji have been introduced, such as pigs, fowl, dogs, cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. Bird life is diverse and interesting, although in a number of places introduced forms, like mynahs and turtle doves, have forced the native varieties back into the jungle. Several game birds such as doves, pigeons, and ducks are occasionally hunted. Snakes and lizards are fairly common on the islands; none is poisonous. Some are eaten, but the practice is not usual. Snakes had a more important place in the former religious and totemic practices. Much more vital to the native economy is the abundant iand varied marine life. This, with gardening, provides tihe foundation of Fijian subsistence. Turtles, crabs, prawns, eels, to say nothing of scores of fishes, are hunted, trapped, poisoned, speared. and netted. The cycle of the balolo worm has here the same importance a in other Pacific islands. HISTORY The first western contact with Fiji was made in 1643 when Captain Abel Tasman entered Fijian waters and slghted several islands and reefs without realizing the nature of his discovery. Over a hundred years later, Captain Cook made a second contact by stopping at one of the southern Lau Islands. Real knowledge of the area began in 1792 when Captain Bligh sailed through the archipelago from the southeast to the northwest, follow- ing the famous mutiny of the Bounty. Bligh made an attempt to land, was attacked by natives, and continued through the islands with no more landings. He did, how- f,over, make a record of most of the islands he passed. In the nineteenth century, commercial contacts began -in the form of sandalwood trade. This profitable com- -modity brought Europeans and Americans first to the Sandalwood Coast on the west side of Vanua Levu. Dur- lag this period the first systematic survey of Fijian waters was mady by the U.S. Exploring Expedition in 1840. After little more than a decade the sandalwood supply was depleted to the point where trade virtually c eased. As a result of this initial commercial contact, which was mainly around western Vanua Levu and eastern Viti Levu, some marked changes were effected in Fijian cul- ture. After the sandalwood traders abandoned Fiji for more profitable fields, a number of deserters and ship- wrecked men remained. These beachcombers, along :with firearms that had been introduced by trade or salvaged from wrecks, brought about the first striking alterations. Rival chiefs competed for the acquisition of muskets, gunpowder, and beachcombers. The latter in .some instances became attached to royal households as dubious advisors and instructors in the use of guns, powder, and shot. Some of these coaches enjoyed a status tresembling that of household pets. The introduction of firearms changed the native politi- cal scene and increased the scope and destructiveness of warfare. For a time the rulers of Mbau in eastern Viti nearly monopolized the supply of muskets and white men. This established their political supremacy over rival leaders. Larger and stronger political and military alliances, some resembling small kingdoms, developed for purposes of defense or aggression. As warfare grew more frequent, new diseases entered the islands and trade in liquor advanced. After the third decade of the nineteenth century better elements began to enter Fiji and ensuing culture contact was not so consistently deplorable. Beche-de-mer traders and whalers began to visit the islands for trade goods and supplies. Some began to settle at the east end of Viti Levu. Missionaries came in the 1830's and the Christianization of Fiji began. Internal conflict between rival chiefs, attacks on French, British, and American ships, with subsequent reprisals, continued and intensified. By mid-century, rivalry between the local kingdoms of Mbau and Rewa reached a peak. At this time the powerful ruler of Mbau, Thakombau, who dominated a large segment of eastern Viti Levu, had become hard pressed by his Rewa ene- mies. Thakombau submitted to the missionaries who had been pressing his conversion. With his support of the missionaries, the native struggles became a religious war between Christianity and paganism as well as be- tween nativism and westernism. Thakombau's cause was rescued in 1855 when King George of Tonga brought an army of 2,000 warriors to Fiji and combined his strength with that of the kingdom of Mbau. Thenceforth Thakombau remained the paramount chief in eastern Fiji and for some twenty ensuing years ruled under the dominance of Tongan princes. Another Tongan chief, Ma'afu, arrived in 1848 and set up a political domain that rivaled the kingdom of Thakombau. Throughout these struggles and particularly with the conversion of Thakombau and the leadership of the al- ready Christianized Tongan chiefs, native religion, in- cluding cannibalism, rapidly declined. Meanwhile, English, Australian, and New Zealand settlers were augmenting earlier trade contacts. Plantations and trade centers developed, and in 1857 a British consul was appointed and set up at Levuka on the east coast of Viti Levu. A few years later Thakombau sought relief from the payment of indemnities to foreign powers and from internal harass- ments by an offer to cede his dominions to Great Britain. The initial offer was declined and the British consul was recalled in 1860. The next ten years saw a continuation of political and military turmoil stemming from rival interests of native rulers, Tongan interlopers, and European immigrants. A second appeal to the British government resulted in an unconditional deed of cession on October 10, 1874, which marks the beginning of Fiji's status as a British Crown Colony. POPULATION Over 300,000 people live in the Fiji Islands. Of these about 140,000 are native Fijians. The others are arranged in the following divisions:4 Indians ................. 154,803 Europeans ............ 6,500 Part European ....... 7,496 Polynesians ) Melanesians ) ....... 4,133 Micronesians) Rotumans ....... 3,990 Chinese . ........ 3,857 Others ........... 649 4Population statistics from "Fiji Information." of 1954, issued by Public Relations Office. Suva, Fiji. 3 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS When Fiji became a British Crown Colony in 1874 the population was entirely native except for a handful of outsiders. At that time the population has been variously estimated at approximately 200,000. Shortly thereafter a measles epidemic reduced their number severely. This, with other epidemics and maladies for which they had little or no immunity or resistence, continued the decimation until by 1905 there were only 87,000. During the next decade they held their own, until in 1919 the in- fluenza scourge brought them to their lowest level of 83,000. This was the last serious setback to their num- ber; since that time the population has been on the up- grade. A present threat to Fijian population, in the opinion of many, stems not from disease but from the Indian presence. This began in the latter part of the nineteenth century when Indian immigration of indentured laborers began. The influx went on until 1916 by which time some 40,000 to 50,000 Indians had come to Fiji and very few had returned to India. Since then, the Indians have in- creased more rapidly than the Fijians until they now out- number them. This situation has, of course, created numerous problems beyond the scope of this paper. It is significant to point out that intermarriage or interbreeding between Fijians and Indians is relatively slight. The amount of mingling of Fijians with Europeans or Orientals cannot be demonstrated statistically, but it has not been extensive. The Fijians, on the whole, retain pretty much of their prehistoric racial make-up. RACIAL BACKGROUND It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people, derived mainly from Melanesian and Polynesian sources. Both of these parental strains in turn are com- monly believed to be racial blends. Hooton describes the Melanesians as Oceanic Negroes whose composition in- cludes Negrito, Australoid, "plus convex-nosed Mediter- ranean plus minor fractions of Malay and Polynesian."5 Birdsell sees the same three strains in Melanesia which he believes contribute to the Australians, namely Negrito, Murrayan, and Carpentarian, plus a small amount of Mongoloid. He believes they differ from Australians in being "basically negritic in their genetic composition as a result of the rain forest environment."6 Polynesians, however, are usually thought to be derived from Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid strains in which the Caucasoid component is more often the strongest. The composite character of the Fijians has been vari- ously explained as far as order and time of the contrib- uting elements are concerned. One theory regards a Negroid stock as aboriginal to which a Polynesian strain was later added. An early explanation of this sort is that of Fornander who held that the ancestors of the modern Polynesians coming from southeastern Asia via Indonesia in the early centuries A.D. made a prolonged stopover in Fiji as they moved eastward. This left a Polynesian imprint on the native Fijian physical appear- ance as well as on their language and culture.7 Later on, Churchill added a second movement of Polynesians from the west about a thousand years later. This was used to explain a certain amount of Mongoloid elements that needed accounting for in western Polynesia.8 A differing interpretation brings the Polynesian in- 5Hooton. 1946, p. 621. 6Birdsell, 1949, p. 120. 7Fornander, 1878. fluence into Fiji from the east in relatively recent times. Thomson, for example, regards it as mainly Tongan. There are many references in the eighteenth and nine- teenth centuries to Tongan presence in Fiji; they came to trade, to fight, and merely to visit. Hocart believes the Polynesians at one time occupied most of Fiji until they were driven eastward to Tonga and Samoa by native Melanesians.9 Howells tentatively suggests another possibility: originally all of Fiji was occupied by Polynesians except perhaps for some Mela- nesian tribes in the mountainous interior of Viti Levu. Around the eleventh century a wave of immigrants from the west reached Fiji. "The newcomers, taking posses- sion of the archipelago, partly amalgamated with and partly pushed out the Polynesian tenants, just as did the hill tribes of Hocart's theory, the refugees fleeing to Somoa and Tonga."10 Howells associates this immigra- tion with the Fijian tradition of an arrival of ancestral families from across the western sea. This Fijian tradition of their own origin includes a landing on the west coast of Viti Levu at Nandi by an an- cestral chief and his sons who came across the sea from the west. Several of his sons moved eastward and even- tually founded families with native wives in various parts of the archipelago. These families ultimately became consolidated into present-day tribes or federations. Most Fijian social units derive their origin from this or simi- lar legendary immigrations. These eposodes occurred eight or ten and, in one case, fifteen generations ago.11 Where these ancestors came from or what their racial affiliations were is not described in the stories. On the basis of supposed similarities of place-names, claims have been made for Africa as the place of origin, but the validity of them is dubious. It is likely that these tra- ditions refer only to the more recent immigrations from the west. As to the racial make-up of the ancestors, it is commonly believed that they were Polynesians who, after settling in various parts of Fiji, took native wives, pre- sumably Melanesian, and originated many of the existing family lines. This assumption does not rest on any actu physical reference to their appearance but on such cul- tural data as their patrilineal succession and their tra- dition of strong hereditary chieftainship. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to a number of people of Fiji whose assistance and cooperation were helpful. Thanks are due to Sir Ronald Garvey, governor of Fiji, whose approval of my project gave administrative sanction. Mr. G. Kingsley Roth, the Secretary for Fijian Affairs, secured for me the cooperation of the Fijian Affairs Department, which in turn gave me access to the proper native offi- cers and leaders, furnished me with necessary transpor- tation; he also gave me some sound advice. Also of the Fijian Affairs Office, Ratu Dr. Dobi helped me make the necessary contacts as my work took me from one area to another. Mr. Robbin H. Yarrow, safety officer of the Emperor Gold Mining Company, was most helpful during my stay at Vatukoula, where I secured an excellent sam- ple of the northern provinces. The young Fijian who acted as my interpreter, guide, and recorder was Joji Qalelawe; my especial thanks to him for his intelligent and cheerful co6peration. 9Hocart, 1929, p. 236. llRoth, 1953, pp. 54, 55. I 8Churchill, 1911. 10Howells, 1933, p. 335. i I I I I I 4 MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES GENERAL Weight12 No. Range 814 0 73 210 79 105-300 0 130- 245 118-300 120-212 Span of the arms also reflects the generous propor- tions of the Fijians. Regional difference is not marked. Relative to stature, the hill people have the longer arms and the eastern natives the shortest. The greater rela- Mean S.D. C.V. tive arm length of the hill tribes seems to be owing more to deficiency of stature than to excessive arm 163.0 20.3 12.5 length or shoulder breadth. U 168.1 160.7 161.9 U U 19.3 11.5 22.8 14.2 16.9 10.4 Span-Stature Index No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. The average weight of 163 pounds, coupled with their ;rather tall stature, describes the Fijian as a large per- son, on the whole. Their generous weight does not re- flect excessive obesity; the body build, as will be pointed fout later, is prevailingly muscular and athletic. Varia- -tion among the regional samples is not significant; all the groups average more than 160 pounds. Stature No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior ; East Coast SN.W. Fiji ,(Howells) ? Solomons " (Howells) FTonga ,- (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 133 150.1-195.0 150.1-183.7 160.2- 190.5 156.1-195.0 159.8- 186.0 158-190 85 146-181 Total sample Interior East Coast N .W. 815 154 120 210 79 172.5 6.1 3.5 169.6 6.0 3.5 Total sample 173.3 6.0 3.5 Interior 173.4 5.8 3.4 East 172.7 5.8 3.3 Coast 170.8 6.1 3.6 N.W. Fiji (Howells) 160.2 6.8 4.2 Solomons (Howells) 92 160-188 173.0 5.2 3.0 The stature of the Fijians is moderately tall. Howells' .series of Fijians, as well as mine, indicate this category. ,In this measurement, the Fijians are similar to the tTongans. They are 12 cm. taller than the Melanesians. Among the Fijian themselves, the interior people of e highlands are definitely shorter than the rest of the Spopulation. Rumors still persist of remnants of pygmoid people in the interior mountains of Viti Levu. I found no evidence if them either in my travels in the interior or by exten- five inquiries among natives and Europeans who had thorough knowledge of the whole island. Span kioTtal sample Iterior ,East .Coast IN.W. 96.1-116.3 99.4-115.1 99.1-108.5 97.9- 116.3 100.2- 109.7 THE TRUNK Sitting Height No. Range 815 154 120 210 79 132 85 75.1- 100 75.1-94 81- 100 80-99 80-94 78- 101 69-95 104.3 105.2 102.7 104.4 104.1 8.5 2.3 13.5 7.7 12.0 8.15 2.2 13.14 7.4 11.5 Mean S.D. C.V. 87.0 84.4 88.5 87.7 86.0 88.3 83.6 3.5 9.4 3.5 3.2 2.9 3.06 3.8 3.9 11.0 3.9 3.6 3.3 3.46 4.5 A total sitting height average of 87 cm. attests the generous general body length. A regional trend follows the same curve as that for stature. The eastern body length is greatest; it exceeds the over-all average by 1-1/2 cm. and is more than 4 cm. larger than the in- terior people who fall at the bottom of the scale of sitting height. Howells' Fijian series is close to my eastern average. Compared with the Solomon Islands natives. the Fijians are much more elongated. Relative Sitting Height No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. N.W. Fiji (Howells) 815 155.0-208.0 180.0 15.1 8.8 Solomons (Howells) 154 120 210 79 155.0-201.0 166.4-200.5 160.1-208.0 165.1-202.0 179.5 178.1 181.2 180.0 7.5 24.3 14.6 21.6 4.2 13.6 8.1 11.9 815 154 120 210 79 132 85 45-58 46-56 48-54 46-56 47-54 46-57 46-57 50.4 49.8 51.0 50.5 50.2 51.7 52.1 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.36 1.64 3.0 2.8 2.5 2.8 2.8 2.63 2.92 The relative sitting height ratio for all Fijians is 50.4 per cent. The eastern average of 51 per cent indi- cates a little more legginess, whereas the interior groups tend somewhat to longer trunks. p 1. n pon euted for dress (usually shorts only). [5] Total sample IInterior East Coast N.W. ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Biacromial No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 28-47 29-43 35-45 28-45 35-47 39.7 39.0 39.9 39.7 40.5 8.2 6.2 6.1 7.6 6.6 6.2 4.7 4.0 4.9 3.9 The Fijians are generally a broad-shouldered people. The inhabitants of Ra and Ba have the highest average and the interior people are least broad-shouldered. Relative Shoulder Breadth No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 18-27 19-25 20-26 18-26 20-27 22.3 22.9 23.0 22.9 23.4 1.3 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.1 5.8 3.9 3.9 4.4 13.2 Relative to total stature, shoulder breadth averages 22.3 per cent. No significant regional differences are indicated. Bi-Iliac No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Broad chests are also characteristic in Fiji. The eastern men surpass the Viti Levu males, and the in- terior groups have the narrowest chests, but the regional variations are small. Chest Depth No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 184-308 195-263 189-295 184-300 192-250 22.9 22.4 22.5 21.7 21.8 5.5 3.2 4.9 5.7 3.3 7.0 5.8 6.6 7.2 6.0 The chests of the Fijians are also fairly deep. The close similarity in chest depth of the interior group and the eastern sample is rather striking inasmuch as the former are nearly 4 cm. shorter in stature. This would indicate that the interior group, for their size, are rela- tively deep-chested. Thoracic No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 59-96 69-88 65-85 56-89 65-85 76.4 78.5 76.3 75.5 75.7 4.6 3.9 4.3 4.7 4.4 6.0 5.0 5.6 6.2 5.8 29.2 5.6 5.3 The thoracic index shows that the Fijians are deep- 29.0 5.1 5.2 chested relative to thoracic breadth as well as in abso- 29.5 4.1 4.8 lute values. Again the interior people stand out for their 29.2 5.9 5.5 deeper chests. 29.3 4.6 5.0 The Fijians, as a whole, are fairly broad-hipped; this condition holds with little variation in all the provinces. Shoulder-Hip No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 58-101 65- 100 67-82 58-99 62-86 73.7 74.6 73.8 73.5 72.8 4.3 4.2 3.2 4.3 5.9 5.8 5.6 4.3 5.9 8.1 The total shoulder-hip ratio describes the shoulders as 73.7 per cent as wide as the hips. These ratios do not vary greatly in different parts of Fiji. The somewhat higher index of the hill groups is owing largely to their narrower shoulders, whereas the superior shoulder breadth of the northwest provinces contributes mostly to the lower hip-shoulder index. Chest Breadth No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 24-39 25-33 26-39 25-37 25-32 28.6 28.6 29.4 28.7 28.9 6.4 3.3 7.2 7.8 4.3 5.7 4.7 5.8 6.2 4.9 ARMS AND LEGS Arm Length No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 45-87 45-83 52-84 57-87 55-86 75.2 73.6 75.1 76.0 75.3 5.0 4.8 3.9 4.9 6.6 6.6 6.1 5.2 6.4 8.8 The over-all arm length is 75.2 cm. Shorter arms seem to be characteristic of the interior population where the average is nearly 2 cm. less than the over-all aver- age. The eastern group has the longest arms; the other samples are intermediate. Humeral Length No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 26-39 32.8 8.6 5.7 Interior 154 28-38 32.8 7.1 5.2 East 120 28-39 32.9 8.3 5.6 Coast 210 26-38 32.9 9.1 5.8 N.W. 79 28-38 33.0 7.9 5.4 Length of the upper arm averages 33 cm. for all Fijians; the several provinces are closely similar in thi trait. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 23-40 25-38 27-34 23-37 26-32 6 GABEL: A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS Radial Length No. Range Mean Total sample Interior I East Coast e N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 23-35 24-33 23-34 24-35 25-32 27.6 27.3 27.5 27.9 27.9 S.D. C.V. 4.1 5.1 2.4 6.9 3.5 3.4 4.5 6.1 4.8 4.8 I Lower arm length is 27.6 cm. and also varies but -little among the regional samples. The generous girth of the calf of the Fijians reflects their sturdily muscled legs. The eastern groups excel the other Fijians in this respect, whereas the interior groups have the lowest average for calf circumference. THE HEAD Head Circumference No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Radial-Humeral No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. z Total sample l; Interior , East -'Coast > N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 65-113 77-104 65- 95 75-113 77-94 84.0 83.0 83.5 84.7 82.2 4.2 3.8 4.7 4.2 3.6 5.0 4.6 5.6 4.9 4.3 The radial-humeral ratio indicates that the lower arm Fijians is 84 per cent as long as the upper arm. None of the subgroups deviates markedly from this average. Leg Length13 No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East I Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 61-98 74-96 73-96 68-97 75-95 84.3 81.1 84.1 85.3 85.7 10.5 8.6 8.6 7.2 4.4 12.5 12.9 10.3 8.5 5.2 Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 410-630 537-613 528-630 410-630 537- 597 562.4 565.3 566.3 563.5 557.7 7.8 4.1 4.9 4.6 14.3 6.7 2.5 2.9 3.5 11.5 The head circumference average of 562.4 mm. proba- bly is a little on the large size because of the thick wiry hair of most Fijians; the eastern groups appear to have the largest heads and the northwestern groups show a rather abrupt drop. Head Length14 No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 Interior 154 East 120 Coast 210 N.W. 79 Fiji (Howells) 133 Solomons (Howells) 85 Tonga (Sullivan) 117 162-215 170-2 10 172 -209 162-2 15 165-2 14 164-208 170-208 173-213 187.9 190.1 188.6 187.4 187.2 188.8 188.5 191.0 9.4 7.6 6.6 13.5 7.9 7.29 6.5 6.6 5.0 4.0 3.5 7.2 4.2 3.86 3.5 3.5 Average leg length is 84.3 cm., and some regional differences are manifest. The legs of the hill people are shorter by 3 cm. than are the other groups. Their neigh- bors to the northwest and east have the longest legs, and the eastern are intermediate. Tibial Length No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 34-49 35-45 35-47 35-47 36-47 40.9 40.3 40.7 41.2 40.9 8.3 13.4 6.2 6.8 6.1 6.9 10.8 5.2 5.1 5.9 Lower leg length is around 40 cm. for all Fijians. The regional pattern is similar to that of total leg length: shortest in the highlands, intermediate in the east, and longest in the coastal and northwestern districts. Calf Circumference No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast , N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 29-57 31-51 33-50 29-48 30-43 37.6 37.0 38.1 37.2 37.7 6.7 6.4 4.7 9.4 7.6 7.1 7.1 6-.5 7.9 6.3 Total head length for all Fijians is 187.9 mm; longest heads occur in the interior. Both Howells' Fijian average and the Solomon Islands series are close to the above value. Gifford's Tongan head length of 191 mm. some- what exceeds the Fijian. Head Breadth No. Range Mean Total sample 815 Interior 154 East 120 Coast 210 N.W. 79 Fiji (Howells) 133 Solomons (Howells) 85 Tonga (Sullivan) 117 122- 186 135- 170 144- 172 141- 186 122- 185 135- 170 126- 158 145- 167 155.9 152.1 157.2 158.3 152.9 153.7 144.7 154.8 S.D. C.V. 6.8 6.6 5.2 9.3 8.6 6.1 5.2 4.3 7.7 4.3 3.3 8.5 8.2 3.9 3.6 2.8 General head breadth is 155.9 mm., and considerable regional variation is shown. Fijians of the interior have the narrowest heads, whereas the coastal and eastern people have appreciably wider heads. Howells' series of Fijians are closest to my highland groups. The Solomon Islanders are markedly narrower headed than the Fijians, whereas Sullivan's Tongan series is nearer the Fijian average. 13By subtracting sitting height from total stature. 14Cranial measurements are not distorted by cradling practice or other causes of deformation. 7 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Cephalic Index Cranial Module No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji (Howells) Solomons (Howells) Tonga (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 133 85 117 68- 99 68-96 72-92 72 - 99 71-95 68-94 65-88 73- 89 83.0 6.4 7.7 80.0 6.0 7.3 83.9 3.8 4.5 84.2 7.2 8.6 81.6 10.3 12.6 81.54 4.7 5.7 76.8 3.9 5.1 81.1 3.1 3.9 Most Fijians tend to brachycephaly. The eastern natives and those of the coastal series have the broadest heads. The interior people show definitely lesser values in this ratio than do the other groups. Howells' Fijian series is close to the northwestern Fijians in their meso- cephaly, and so is the Tongan mean. The Solomon series borders on dolicocephaly. Head Height No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N .W. 815 154 120 210 79 110-154 114- 140 114-148 112-154 117-142 129.5 127.7 129.6 120.0 127.6 6.8 4.8 5.0 7.0 9.2 7.9 3.8 3.9 5.4 8.9 Head height averages do not differ greatly among the provinces. The interior and northwestern people have somewhat lower heads; the coastal and eastern people show slight superiority. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 141-176 154 147-166 120 148- 172 210 143-176 79 141-171 157.7 156.6 158.4 158.5 155.9 10.5 11.5 4.4 15.5 10.7 6.7 7.3 2.7 9.7 6.7 Head size as expressed by the cranial module aver- ages 157.7 mm. for all Fijians. Regional fluctuation is unimportant. Minimum Frontal No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 99- 125 100- 121 99- 122 100- 125 101- 120 109.9 109.8 110.8 109.7 109.4 4.0 3.6 3.8 4.7 3.7 2.7 3.3 3.4 4.3 3.4 A minimum frontal diameter of 109.9 mm. indicates a fairly ample forehead breadth for the total sample. None of the subgroups depart much from this value. Fronto- Parietal X No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 58-89 63-82 64-79 58- 77 61-89 70.6 72.2 70.5 69.9 69.7 4.3 3.3 3.0 4.1 8.7 6.1 4.6 4.3 5.9 12.5 Length-Height No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 55-84 59-77 61-78 55-84 58-84 69.0 67.2 68.7 69.4 68.1 3.4 3.9 3.2 3.7 4.5 3.6 5.8 4.7 4.3 3.5 Relative to head length, the cranial vault of Fijians is high. The mountain people show the lowest relative head height, whereas the other provinces are nearer to the over-all average. Breadth-Height No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 66-102 75- 96 75-91 66- 97 73- 92 83.0 84.0 82.4 82.8 81.2 3.0 3.9 3.4 5.3 8.6 3.3 4.6 4.1 6.4 9.7 Head height relative to total breadth is 83 per cent. In this ratio the interior groups have the highest index, a condition owing more to deficiency in cranial breadth than to superior head height. Forehead breadth relative to total cranial width is 70.6 per cent. The greatest deviation from this average occurs in the interior where the fronto-parietal ratio is 72.2 per cent and lesser head breadth more than greater forehead width causes the higher index. THE FACE Bizygomatic No. Range Total sample 815 Interior 154 East 120 Coast 210 N.W. 79 Fiji (Howells) 132 Solomons (Howells) 84 Tonga (Sullivan) 116 110-164 110-163 137-161 128- 164 136- 156 130- 159 115- 149 131-159 Mean S.D. C.V. 145.7 145.8 146.7 145.2 145.1 144.05 138.0 143.5 5.0 6.3 4.3 4.9 4.3 5.05 5.5 5.9 3.4 4.3 2.9 3.4 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.1 Broad faces are the rule among most of these people, as the total average of 145.7 mm. shows. Regional values for this criterion are closely alike in all parts of Fiji, the eastern showing a slight superiority in bizygomatic breadth. Howells' Fiji series is slightly lower in this diameter as is the Tongan average. The Solomon Islands natives have definitely narrower faces. 8 GABEL: A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS Cephalo- Facial No. Range Mean Total sample 0; Interior East . Coast J'N.W. F Fiji (Howells) Solomons (Howells) -Tonga (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 132 84 116 82-108 84-108 82- 102 85-103 80-104 85-111 85-111 85- 103 93.5 96.0 93.3 92.5 92.6 93.7 95.4 S.D. C.V. 5.7 6.1 4.8 5.0 3.2 3.4 5.7 6.2 6.4 7.3 3.5 3.7 3.8 4.0 92.8 3.5 3.7 Relative to maximum breadth, the Fijian face tends to shortness, although this is due largely to their generous facial breadth rather than absolute deficiency of height. The interior groups have the lowest values and the east- ern groups show relatively broad faces. The Tongan average is much higher than any of the Fijian values, whereas the Solomon Islanders show simi- larity to the Fijians in this feature. Upper Face Height No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Face breadth relative to head width averages 93.5 per cent for all Fijians; Howell's series is much the same. The narrower heads of the interior people largely account for their higher index; otherwise there is general similarity in the several provinces. Zygo-Frontal No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. -Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Tonga (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 116 64- 100 64-98 68- 99 66- 100 66-93 63-84 75.5 3.0 75.4 3.2 75.5 2.5 75.5 3.1 75.4 2.9 73.1 4.2 3.9 4.2 3.3 4.1 3.8 5.8 The ratio of forehead width to face breadth is 75.5. All of the regional averages for the zygo-frontal index are strikingly alike among the Fijians in every instance; the forehead is about three-quarters the breadth of the face. The Tongan ratio is a little lower. Total Face Height No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample 815 Interior 154 East 120 Coast 210 'N.W. 79 Fiji (Howells) 133 Solomons (Howells) 85 Tonga (Sullivan) 116 100- 147 103- 137 110-147 107- 142 100- 143 105- 159 100- 129 112-147 122.5 121.3 124.7 122.6 121.7 121.8 116.4 128.2 6.0 5.6 5.8 6.1 6.8 6.9 6.6 6.8 4.9 4.6 4.7 5.0 5.6 5.7 5.7 5.3 Fijian faces have the moderate average height of 122.5 mm. Slightly shorter faces occur in the interior people, whereas the greatest total face height average ,occurs in the east. The Fijian of Howells' series is close to mine. The Tongan value for face height de- scribes them as definitely longer faced. The Solomon Islanders depart in the other direction with decidedly (shorter faces. Total Facial Index No. Range Mean Total sample nterior /East 'Coast ^N.W. !Fiji (Howells) pSolomons (Howells) @Tonga (Sullivan) oi, 815 154 120 210 79 132 84 116 68-104 73-96 75- 101 73-97 68-104 74-105 74-97 78-102 84.1 83.2 85.0 84.5 83.9 84.7 84.5 89.3 S.D. C.V. 4.6 4.4 4.4 4.6 5.6 5.0 4.4 4.4 5.5 5.3 5.2 5.4 6.7 6.0 5.2 5.0 Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 56-84 59- 79 64-83 59-84 58-80 70.2 69.1 71.7 70.4 69.4 5.1 3.9 4.0 6.6 4.8 7.3 5.6 5.6 9.4 6.9 The ratio of the upper face height to maximum facial breadth shows the Fijians of the interior to be relatively shorter faced and the eastern people longest. The coastal and northwestern series are intermediate. Upper Facial Index No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 37-65 41-65 42-59 40-59 39-56 48.2 47.4 48.9 48.5 47.8 3.7 3.3 2.9 4.8 3.5 7.7 7.0 5.9 9.9 7.3 The ratio of the upper face height to maximum facial breadth shows the Fijians of the interior to be relatively shorter faced and the eastern people longest. The coastal and northwestern series are intermediate. Bigonial No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Tonga (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 116 95- 146 95- 146 97- 125 95- 129 99-119 92-119 109.7 109.8 110.6 109.9 109.1 104.8 5.1 6.0 5.1 5.3 4.5 5.8 4.6 3.6 4.6 4.8 4.1 5.5 Lower jaw breadth as expressed by the bigonial di- ameter indicates a tendency to broadness shared with little variation among all the subgroups. The Tongan value is considerably smaller. Fronto - Gonial No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 80- 122 84-122 86-115 80-114 85-113 99.9 100.0 99.9 100.3 99.8 5.5 6.0 5.3 6.0 4.8 5.5 6.0 5.3 6.0 4.8 Similarly the bigonial diameter in relation to fore- head breadth is much the same in all groups, the general average nearly 100 per cent. 9 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Zygo-Gonial No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Tonga (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 116 65-86 67-86 65-82 66-83 68-83 63-87 75.3 4.1 75.4 6.0 75.4 3.5 75.7 3.4 75.2 3.4 73.2 4.6 5.4 8.0 4.6 4.5 4.5 6.2 Relative to face breadth, jaw width is 75.3 per cent with very little geographi'c variation. Nasal Height No. Range Mean Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji (Howells) Solomons (Howells) Tonga (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 133 85 117 42-65 45-65 48-62 46-63 45-61 44-63 40-59 47-65 53.9 53.2 54.7 54.1 52.9 52.4 49.9 57.4 S.D. C.V. 3.4 3.5 3.1 3.4 3.5 3.9 3.8 3.9 6.3 6.6 5.7 6.3 6.6 7.4 7.7 6.8 The Fijian nose may be called medium long. Greatest nasal heights occur in the eastern and in the coastal series. The interior and northwestern groups have shorter noses. The Fijians of Howells' series fall near the short end of my averages. Natives of the Solomons are definitely lower in nasal height, whereas the Tongarns average is so much higher that one suspects a difference in the location of the nasion. Nasal Breadth No. Range Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji (Howells) Solomons (Howells) Tonga (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 133 85 117 31-62 40-61 38-53 38-62 31-57 37-54 34-51 38-55 Mean S.D. C.V. 46.7 3.4 47.6 3.4 45.5 3.0 46.4 3.3 47.4 3.6 46.19 3.0 44.6 2.8 44.4 3.0 7.3 7.1 6.6 7.1 7.6 6.0 6.3 6.8 Platyrrhini is the rule in Fiji, but individual and re- gional variations are great. There are some leptorrine subjects in every province, and there are some whose noses are broader than long. The interior people and the northwestern groups have the relatively broadest noses, whereas the eastern index is more moderate. The noses of Sullivan's Tongans are relatively longer than the Lauans. The Solomon Island average is identical with the Fijian. Nasal Depth No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 16-32 17-32 17-28 17-32 16-29 22.0 2.9 22.5 2.1 21.9 1.8 3.2 9.3 8.2 21.8 3.6 6.5 22.3 1.9 8.5 Nasal depth averages 22 mm.; the regional variation is very small. Nasal-Depth Index No. Range Mean Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 32-60 34-59 35-60 32-58 34-58 47.2 47.4 48.4 47.0 47.2 S.D. C.V. 6.8 5.1 4.6 8.1 5.5 6.8 6.6 9.5 7.2 6.7 Mouth Breadth No. R ange Mean Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 29-72 34-72 33-66 29-67 36-65 57.6 59.6 56.5 57.3 57.3 S.D. C.V. 4.7 4.4 3.9 4.0 4.4 8.2 7.4 6.9 7.0 7.8 Mouth breadth averages show the interior groups to have widest mouths, the eastern people least wide, and the coastal and northwestern people intermediate. Lip Thickness No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Broad noses are common to most Fijians. The great- est contrast is between the narrower-nosed eastern people and the interior people, among whom the widest noses occur. The nose of the Solomon Islanders is some- what narrower, according to Howells' data, and the Tongan average is also lower. Nasal Index No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji (Howells) Solomons (Howells) Tonga (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 133 85 117 61-112 69- 109 61-100 63-111 63-110 68- 123 68-119 61-98 87.1 89.7 83.2 86.0 89.9 88.8 87.1 77.6 8.2 8.1 7.6 7.1 8.6 8.3 8.9 7.6 9.4 9.0 9.1 8.7 9.6 9.3 10.2 9.8 Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 9-45 12-31 12-29 16-45 10-29 22.4 23.4 21.7 20.8 22.0 3.8 3.6 3.4 3.6 3.9 6.9 5.4 5.7 5.3 5.7 Thick lips are characteristic of most Fijians. The interior average is highest for this diameter, whereas the northwestern Fijians have least-thick lips. Ear Length No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Tonga (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 117 55-83 53-83 55-80 55-77 57- 75 56-81 66.6 66.0 67.2 66.7 66.5 66.0 4.5 4.8 5.0 4.9 3.7 4.6 6.8 7.3 7.4 7.3 5.6 6.9 10 GABEL: A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS Fijian ears on the whole tend to be long, as the aver- age 66.6 mm. indicates. Regional differences are slight. Tongans closely resemble Fijians. Ear Breadth No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Ear Index (Cont'd.) No. Range Mean S. D. C. V. N.W. Tonga (Sullivan) 79 116 38-59 50.9 4.0 7.9 41-62 52.4 3.9 7.5 Total sample Interior East Coast IN.W. -Tonga (Sullivan) 815 154 120 210 79 116 24-55 27-41 29-40 29-55 2 5-42 25-42 34.3 33.7 34.1 34.7 33.8 34.5 3.2 2.5 4.0 3.9 2.9 2.6 9.3 7.4 11.7 11.2 8.6 7.6 Ear breadth is also generous, and regional differences .bardly exceed 1.5 mm., including the Tongans. Ear Index No.IRange Mean S.D. C.V. - ~~~No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample interior vEast "Coast 815 154 120 210 38-62 40-61 41-59 42-62 51.6 5.0 51.1 3.6 50.6 5.8 52.1 6.7 Length-breadth ear ratios indicate that coastal groups have somewhat broader, and the northwestern people the relative longest, ears. Bicanine Breadth No. Range Mean S.D. C.V. Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 815 154 120 210 79 24-72 37-49 36-68 24- 72 38-49 39.8 39.9 41.8 39.0 38.6 11.7 10.7 7.4 13.4 14.0 19.4 16.8 7.7 14.3 16.3 9.7 Bicanine breadth is characteristically great among 7.0 Fijians, reflecting the ample jaws and teeth. Widest di- 11.5 ameters are seen in the east, followed by the hill people 12.9 of the interior. The northwestern groups have the least bicanine diameter. I11 MORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS PIGMENTATION Skin Color: Exposed Brunet Swarthy Lt. Brown Med. Brown Dk. Brown No. % No. lo No. % No. % No. % Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji II Solomons Tonga 1 .01 5 .6 30 4 400 0 0 0 0 1 1 55 0 0 3 2 12 10 99 0 0 1 0 7 3 85 0 0 0 0 1 1 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 128 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 (Range from Lt. Brown to Dk. Brown.) Color of skin includes exposed and unexposed areas. The former was observed on the face, since the Fijians do not use any kind of face or head covering. This condi- tion in the total series divides itself quite evenly between medium brown and dark brown. A few have light-brown skin; only six individuals are classified as swarthy and brunet. None was judged to be completely black. The Fijians of Howells' series are described as 96 per cent medium brown15 and 5 per cent dark brown, a discrep- ancy I would attribute to personal judgment difference. The Solomon Islanders are markedly darker than the Fijians, the majority have dark-brown skin and 3 per cent are black, whereas 5 per cent have medium-brown complexions. Tongan data on skin color cannot be directly adjusted to my statistics. Sullivan's comment on their skin color states that it is "a medium yellowish-brown where it is unexposed to the sun. Exposed parts of the skin of a few of the persons were a very dark chocolate" (Sullivan, 1922, p. 248). Among the Fijians themselves, the greatest contrasts occur between the eastern and the interior groups of Viti Levu. Where 63 per cent of the latter have dark-brown skin, only 5 per cent of eastern fall into this category. The bulk of eastern (83 per cent) have medium-brown skin as against 36 per cent of hill people. The coastal and northwestern provinces are, like the total series, more evenly divided between medium and dark brown. Skin Color: Unexposed Brunet Swarthy Lt. Brown Med. Brown Dk. Brown Black No. % No. lo No. % No. '% No. % No. % Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji II Solomons 6 0 3 1 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0 0 9 0 4 2 1 0 0 1 0 3 1 1 0 0 242 20 77 56 20 0 0 30 13 64 27 25 0 0 545 133 36 148 57 127 9 66 87 30 71 72 96 11 11 0 0 2 1 5 74 1 0 0 1 1 4 87 Unexposed skin color was observed on the under sur- face of the upper arm near the armpit. The anticipated shift in color range results in a reduction of dark-skin incidence to a mere 1 per cent, and an increase in medium brown to 60 per cent and of light brown to 30 per cent. Howells' describes 96 per cent of his Fijians as medium brown, 4 per cent dark brown, and none light brown. The Solomon Islanders seem definitely darker than the Fijians whether they are compared with Howells' or my series. The eastern groups continues to contrast with the in- terior people. The former show a majority of 64 percent in the light-brown category as compared with 13 per cent among the interior groups; the latter have a medium- brown incidence of 87 per cent against 30 per cent among Lauans. 15Howells records skin color with the von Luschan scale. I have adjusted this scale to my own. [12] Black No. % Total 48 36 83 41 53 96 5 377 97 6 116 36 5 79 46 63 6 56 46 4 93 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 813 153 120 209 79 133 85 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Total 813 153 120 209 79 132 85 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 GABEL: A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS Hair Color Black Dk. Brown Med. Brown Lt. Brown Red-Brown No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji II Solomons Tonga 757 93 145 95 114 193 70 118 55 0 95 92 89 91 65 94 31 8 6 11 5 9 26 0 5 5 5 5 6 7 31 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 Black hair is the usual color, although 5 per cent are described as dark brown and a few red-brown. This latter variation is a rufous color (reddish-brown) and it may be a little more frequent than the data indicate because the Fijians frequently dye their hair with a sub- stance extracted from mangrove bark. This intensifies ^,the usual blackness of the hair and adds a satisfying gloss. More sophisticated natives have access to modern hair dye and lacking this, some have been known to resort io black shoe polish. Hair bleaching is no longer practiced in Fiji. The hair of the Solomons Islands is not so uniformly black, nearly a third have dark-brown hair and a few are light brown. Eye Color Black Dk. Brown Med. Brown Lt. Brown No. % No. % No. % No. % 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 550 131 71 127 53 130 85 0 68 86 59 61 67 98 100 94 257 22 48 81 25 0 0 0 31 14 40 39 32 0 0 0 4 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 0 3 A little more than two-thirds of Fijians' eyes are de- scribed as dark brown. The remaining third have medium-brown eyes. There were four individuals who Fwere light brown. Howells, with his Fijian series, is more generous with the darker designation; he designated 98 per cent as dark brown and 2 per cent light brown. His Solomons sample is described as dark brown without exception. The Tongan data also is recorded as more uniformly dark brown than my Fijians. The Fijians of the interior of Viti Levu have more deeply pigmented eyes than the others; 86 per cent are classed as dark brown and only 14 per cent medium brown. HAIR Hair Form Straight Low Wave Deep Wave Curly Frizzly Wooly No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Total sample 0 0 7 0.1 13 Interior 0 0 0 0 0 (i East 0 0 1 1 10 Coast 0 0 0 1 3 N.W. 0 0 2 3 0 Fiji II 0 0 0 0 0 Solomons 2 3.3 1 1.6 0 Frizzly hair is the condition of over 85 per cent of Fijians; 11 per cent are curly-haired, whereas over ttwenty individuals have wavy hair. Straight hair is ab- lent. The Fiji II series of Howell distinguishes between frizzly and wooly hair, which I do not. Their combined incidence is 83 per cent, quite close to my frequency of Irizzly. Whether one does or does not distinguish be- tueen frizzly and wooly hair, there is no doubt that most Fijians have Negroid hair form. The Solomon Islanders sre surprising with somewhat less Negroid hair form an the Fijians. Their combined percentage of frizzly d wooly is 69, which is nearly 20 per cent less than 0.2 0 8 0 0 0 0 91 4 37 18 7 19 16 11.0 3 31 9 9 16 26 702 149 72 188 70 38 17 862 97 60 90 89 33 28 0 0 0 0 0 59 25 0 0 0 0 0 51 41 813 153 120 209 79 116 61 that of the Fijians. Twenty per cent have curly hair against 11 per cent among Fijians. Also, the only in- stances of straight hair occur in the Solomons. In the Fijian breakdown, the interior groups have the most Negroid hair; 97 per cent have frizzly hair and 3 per cent have curly hair. The eastern people are the least Negroid in this respect; frizzly hair drops to 60 per cent, whereas curly hair advances to 30 per cent and wavy hair to 9 per cent. The coastal and northwestern series are closer to the interior groups with about 90 per cent frizzly hair. 18 0 0 5 4 3 0 0 Total 807 153 120 204 75 130 84 0 2 0 0 2 5 2 0 0 Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji II Solomons Tonga Total 813 153 120 209 79 132 85 Total 13 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Hair Texture Coarse No. 9% Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 804 153 116 208 78 Medium No. % 99 100 97 100 99 9 0 4 1 1 Fine No. % 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Total 813 153 120 209 79 0 0 0 0 0 Hair texture is prevailingly coarse; only 1 per cent of the total series shows medium coarseness and none have fine hair. This preponderance of coarse hair is much the same in all the provinces, although the eastern people do depart slightly with a 3 per cent incidence of medium- Head Hair Quantity Absent Subm. +16 No. % No. % No. % coarse hair. It might be added that Fijian hair is quite stiff orwiry. For example, when the hair is unshorn, it stands out like a mop. A Fijian can insert a long stemmed flower in his hair and itwill stayin place with no additional fastening. ++ No. % +++ Total No. % Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji II Solomons Head hair quantity is pronounced in the majority of Fijians (65 per cent); it is moderate in 27 per cent and submedium in 7 per cent. Howells describes nearly all the Fijians as having very pronounced head hair--99 per cent, which would appear to be a personal difference in appraisal. In any case, the two series agree that Fijians have hair of more than moderate quantity. The Mela- nesians of the Solomons are also characterized by much head hair. Regionally, the only significant variation in this trait is shown in the east, where more individuals have a sub- medium designation. In the absence of age data, this contrast cannot be fairly interpreted. Hair Length It might be observed here that although hair length was not included in this survey, on the basis of personal but unrecorded observation, the Fijians conform to the Melanesian pattern. Most Fijian men now cut their hair short in the Western style, but some still do not. Women generally trim their hair but not short. The natural length of head hair is intermediate between the short- haired African Negroes and the long-haired Caucasians and Mongolians. Baldness Absent Subm. + ++ +++ No. % No. % No. s% No. % No. % Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. 731 90 122 80 112 93 194 93 72 91 40 12 3 10 1 3 8 3 5 1 30 12 4 4 3 4 8 3 2 4 12 7 1 1 3 1 5 1 0 4 The lack of age correlations also limits the value of data on baldness, but some meaning can nevertheless be extracted. Regardless of age, with an incidence of pro- nounced baldness of 1 per cent among all adult males and of 4 per cent for a moderate condition, it is a clear indication that Fijians are not prone to loss of head hair. 16+ means medium or moderate; ++ means pronounced; .+. means very pronounced. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 61 26 5 11 7 0 0 7 17 4 5 9 0 0 219 27 24 63 21 0 0 27 18 20 30 27 0 0 533 100 91 135 51 1 5 65 65 76 65 65 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 132 80 0 0 0 0 0 92 94 813 153 120 209 79 133 85 0 0 0 0 0 Total 813 153 120 209 79 0 0 0 0 0 14 GABEL: A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS Beard Quantity Absent Subm. + ++ +++ No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji II cheeks skin Solomons cheeks chin Tonga chin lower chk. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 234 22 45 60 22 29 14 38 29 28 370 44 67 44 59 49 94 45 30 38 208 26 64 42 16 13 54 26 27 34 1 0 0 1 0 27 21 2 2 44 34 46 35 12 9 9 7 0 0 52 40 56 43 14 10 .01 813 153 120 209 79 131 131 21 25 0 0 42 49 22 26 0 0 85 7 8 0 0 53 62 25 29 0 0 85 0 0 0 19 0 31 50 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 37 0 18 40 0 0 0 0 Moderate beard quantity is shown by 44 per cent of rjians;the remainder are fairly evenly divided between pesubmedium and pronounced categories. Howells' lrles, which records beard quantity for the cheeks and jI separately, shows a higher frequency of pronounced 6id very pronounced designations. However, his data bcludes many individuals who have no beards at all. Oth series are doubtless influenced by the fact that they utaln a preponderance of young adult; a greater propor- o of older men would have greatly raised the incidence ithe pronounced categories. Nearly all modern Fijians have adopted the Western kactice of shaving. Examination of earlier pictures and Fritten description of Fijians leaves no doubt that the majority of mature men possess luxurious beards when nature is unrestrained. The natives of the Solomon Islands, according to Howells, are a little less bearded than the Fijians. The Tongans are a little more heavily bearded than the Fijians. Some geographical variation is indicated by my data. The interior people of Fiji have the highest incidence of face hair; 42 per cent are recorded as pronounced. Least endowed are the eastern Fijians, where 13 per cent have pronounced beards and 38 per cent are sub- medium. The coastal and northwestern series conform more closely to the over-all distribution. Body Hair 17 Absent Subm. + ++ +++ No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. Tonga 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 243 30 31 20 55 46 57 27 16 20 23 29 328 40 56 37 45 38 82 39 36 46 0 26 162 20 41 27 14 12 46 22 19 24 0 22 The body hair endowment is also not unimpressive. ?rty per cent show a moderate condition, 20 per cent ke pronounced, and 10 per cent very pronounced; none re totally devoid of body hair; 30 per cent are sub- dium. Chest hair among the Tongans is somewhat s in evidence; although the majority range from sub- ledium to pronounced, 23 per cent are described as lfr1ess. The provincial distribution in Fiji follows that of face Grayr Absent Subm. No. % No. % hair: the interior groups are hairiest and the eastern people least so. The anatomical distribution of body hair deserves some comment, even though specific observations were made on the chest. Not infrequently the hair is heavier on the upper legs than on the chest. Occasionally, too, the back of the shoulders is quite hairy as well as the belly. ness: Head + ++ +++ Total No. % No. % No. % Total sample Interior East Coast N.W. t o >-170bservation taken on the chest. Total 80 25 6 24 8 0 Total 813 153 120 209 79 0 10 16 5 11 8 0 621 76 80 52 91 76 176 84 60 76 82 10 37 24 13 11 14 7 8 10 82 10 19 12 16 13 17 8 9 11 28 17 0 2 2 3 11 0 1 3 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 813 153 120 209 79 15 D I ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Grayness: Beard Absent Subm. + ++ +++ No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Total sample 610 75 Interior 72 47 East 89 74 Coast 178 85 N.W. 60 76 61 8 30 20 9 8 8 4 6 8 90 11 20 13 18 15 21 10 11 14 52 6 31 20 4 3 2 1 2 3 Grayness of the hair data without corresponding age incidence is not particularly significant. It is clear, nevertheless, that premature grayness is not common. I would hazard the judgment that on the whole the Fijians show less tendency to grayness than do Caucasians. The higher incidence of grayness of the interior sample of Fijians is likely due to a larger number of older men in that series. THE FACE Prognathism: Total Malar Projection: Lateral Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % No. Fiji I 206 25 306 38 288 35 13 2 Interior 40 26 59 39 52 34 2 1 East 54 45 55 46 11 9 0 0 Coast 47 22 84 40 73 35 5 2 N.W. 18 23 29 37 32 41 0 0 Tonga 63 53 26 22 29 25 0 0 Prognathism: Mid-Facial Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. lo No. lo No. lo Fiji I 517 64 184 23 109 13 3 2 Interior 133 87 15 10 5 3 0 0 East 100 83 17 14 3 3 0 0 Coast 122 58 49 23 37 18 1 1 N.W. 48 61 20 25 11 14 0 0 Prognathism: Alveolar Absent Subm. + ++ No. %0 No. lo No. lo No. FijiI 798 98 9 1 4 2 2 0 Interior 153 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 East 120 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 Coast 207 99 0 0 1 2 1 2 N.W. 76 76 2 3 0 0 1 1 Total 813 153 120 209 79 118 Absent Subm. + ++ +++ Total No. lo No. % No. lo No. % No. lo Fiji I 1 0 2 0 264 32 543 67 3 0 813 Interior 0 0 0 0 62 41 91 59 0 0 153 East 0 0 0 0 25 21 95 79 0 0 120 Coast 0 0 0 0 68 33 141 67 0 0 209 N.W. 0 0 0 0 28 35 50 63 1 1 79 Malar Projection: Frontal Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. 04 No. %l Total 813 153 120 209 79 Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Tota lI 4 z 0 0 709 87 100 12 809 0 0 0 0 139 91 14 9 153 0 0 0 0 103 86 17 14 120 1 0 0 0 181 87 27 13 209 0 0 0 0 67 85 12 15 79 The facial contours generally include lateral malar projection; two-thirds show a pronounced condition and the balance are medium. The eastern people have high Total cheek bones oftener than do the others. Frontal malar projection is also common but more often moderately so; 87 per cent show medium projection 813 and 12 per cent are pronounced. 153 120 209 79 Slight and moderate total prognathism characterizes most Fijians, but it is pronounced in only 13 of the 813 subjects. A quarter of the series show no prognathism. The eastern people are least prognathic with a zero inci- dence of 45 per cent. The other regional sample are close to the general condition. Mid-facial prognathism has a submedium incidence of 23 per cent and a medium of 13 per cent; the remainder lack the condition, except three individuals who are pro- nounced. The coastal and northwestern groups have more fre- quent medium designations. Alveolar prognathism is almost entirely lacking in all groups. Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Gonial Angles Subm. + ++ No. 0% No. 0% No. % 24 3 459 56 325 40 0 0 97 63 55 36 1 1 65 54 54 45 7 3 110 53 90 43 3 4 49 62 27 34 No. lo 5 1 1 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 Tota 813 153 120 209 79 Palate Shape Parabolic Sm. U Lg. U No. % No. lo No. lo Fiji I 493 61 Interior 94 61 East 81 68 Coast 131 63 N.W. 50 63 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 303 37 59 39 38 32 71 34 27 34 Square No. lo 15 0 1 7 1 2 0 1 3 1 Tota 813 153 120 209 79 Total 813 153 120 209 79 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a I I I I I I I I I I 16 GABEL: A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS A fairly strong tendency to well-developed gonial angles is indicated; 40 per cent show pronounced angles nd nearly all the rest are medium. These proportions "hold pretty much for all groups. Palate shape also attests to the well-developed jaws 14o Fijians; it is a large U in 37 per cent of the subjects; 2 per cent are square and the remainder parabolic. Chin Prominence Absent Subm. + ++ No. 'V. No. % No. % No. % 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 164 20 593 73 54 7 813 36 24 110 72 7 5 153 25 21 89 74 6 5 120 41 20 153 73 13 6 207 11 14 55 70 9 11 76 Total 813 153 120 207 76 Chin Type Median Bilateral No. % No. % Fiji I Interior East Coast I N.W. 673 83 130 85 112 93 162 78 62 82 140 17 23 15 8 7 45 22 14 18 A well-developed chin further typifies most Fijian faces; nearly three-quarters have a moderate chin prominence, 7 per cent are pronounced, and the remain- der are submedium. This range is much the same in the 4subgroups. The chin is commonly median although 17 per cent have the bilateral type. The bilateral chin is least fre- quent in Lau (7 per cent). THE HEAD The back of the head is generally rather flat as the 95 per cent-incidence of occipital protrusion indicates. This is a natural condition; no intentional flattening is prac- ticed by Fijians. Lambdoidal Flattening Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % Fiji I Total Interior East Coast N.W. 754 93 153 100 113 94 188 90 72 91 32 4 00 54 13 6 34 Occipital Flattening Absent Subm. No. % No. % Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. 809 100 153 100 120 100 209 100 79 99 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27 3 0 0 2 2 8 4 4 5 No. % 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Total 813 153 120 209 79 Total 813 153 120 209 79 Median Sagittal Crest Absent Subm. No. % No. % Fiji I Interior East Coast N .W. 600 74 96 63 109 91 160 77 53 57 177 22 46 30 10 8 43 21 24 30 No. '% 36 4 11 7 1 1 6 3 2 3 Parietal Bosses Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % No. % Total 813 153 120 209 79 Total Temporal Fullness Fiji I Interior Absent Subm. + Total East No. % No. % No. 9 Coast 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 563 69 113 74 70 58 148 71 59 75 249 31 40 26 50 42 60 29 20 25 Occipital Protrusion Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % 13 2 4 3 0 0 3 1 0 0 775 95 149 97 116 97 193 92 79 100 25 3 00 43 13 6 00 17 2 413 51 381 47 1 1 130 85 22 14 4 3 66 55 50 42 6 3 82 39 120 57 1 1 40 51 38 48 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 813 153 120 209 79 813 153 A median sagittal crest though not striking is recorded 120 in a number of cases. It has a submedium incidence of 208 22 per cent and pronounced 4 per cent. Among the in- 79 terior people, the crest is more common. Because of the heavy, bushy, and wiry hair of Fijians it is probable that some instances of this feature were not detected by simple palpation, and the incidence may be higher than Total the data indicate. Submedium development of the parietal bosses is rather common occurring in 51 per cent of the series. It 813 is very common in the interior (85 per cent). 153 120 209 79 . A narrowness in the temporal part of the head is indi- eated. Sixty-nine per cent of the subject show sub- wedium temporal fullness, whereas the remainder are toderate. This condition is not marked and may best be 1described as a discernable tendency. Cranial Asymmetry Absent Left Right No. % No. % No. % Fiji Interior East Coast N .W. 813 100 153 100 119 100 208 100 79 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 813 153 119 208 79 ; iji I Interior East N.W. j Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. IFiji I Interior East .Coast N.W. 17 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Facial Asymmetry Absent Left Right No. % No. % No. % Fiji Interior East Coast N.W. 806 100 153 100 117 98 206 99 78 99 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 1 0 0 Total 807 153 119 208 79 Cranial and facial assymetry are generally lacking, at least in any marked degree. Normal asymmetries of the face and head were ignored in this description. Eye Folds: Internal (Cont'd.) Absent Subm. + ++ Total No. % No. %o No. % No. % Solomons 80 94 2 22 3 33L 0 0 85 Tonga 63 57 33 30 9 8 6 5 111 Eye folds are not a feature of the Fijian facial make- up. The external fold is present in only 2 per cent of the total series. The median fold shows a 96 per cent absence. The eastern groups exceed the other provinces with a 10 per cent occurrence. The internal eye fold has a total presence of 4 per cent and is also commoner in the east (14 per cent). Eye Obliquity EYES Eye Folds: External Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % Fiji 804 98 5 1 4 1 Interior 152 99 0 0 1 1 East 119 99 0 0 1 1 Coast 209 99 1 1 1 1 N.W. 78 99 0 0 1 1 Eye Fold: Median Absent Subm. + No. % No. 5 No. % FijiI 782 96 3 i 25 3 Interior 152 99 0 0 1 1 East 108 90 1 1 10 8 Coast 202 97 1 0 5 2 N.W. 78 99 0 0 0 0 Eye Folds: Internal Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % Fiji I 778 96 4 0 30 4 Interior 151 99 0 0 2 1 East 102 85 1 1 17 14 Coast 203 97 0 0 6 3 N.W. 78 99 0 0 1 1 FijiII 116 89 7 5* 7 5* ++ No. % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ++ No. % 1 3 2 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 ++ No. % 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. 1% No. % Total Fiji I 251 31 358 43 201 25 3 1 Interior 92 60 46 30 14 9 1 1 813 East 33 28 52 35 45 38 0 0 153 Coast 47 22 102 49 58 28 2 1 , ,, n N.W. 27 34 32 41 20 25 0 0 lGU 208 79 Total 813 153 120 209 79 Total 813 153 120 209 79 130 Total 813 153 120 209 79 Eye Opening Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % No. % Tota Li Fiji I 0 0 75 9* 737 91 1 2 813 Interior 0 0 24 16 128 84 1 1 153 East 0 0 13 11 107 89 0 0 120 Coast 0 0 9 4 200 96 0 0 209 N.W. 0 0 7 9 72 91 0 0 79 Some degree of eye obliquity is present in the ma- jority of cases; 43 per cent show a submedium condition;a 25 per cent are medium and three individuals have pro- nouncedly oblique eyes. The remainder, or 31 per cent, have no obliquity. In the east, the natives depart from this total distribution in opposite directions. The in- terior groups have much less eye obliquity; the eastern people, a great deal more. The other provinces are qui close to the total frequencies. Eye opening height is preponderately moderate (91 pe cent). The remaining 10 per cent with one exception show submedium eye opening. Regional variation is not great. The eastern and interior groups have a little higher frequency in the submedium class. FOREHEAD Brow Ridges Absent Subm. No. % No. % Fiji I Interior East Coast N .W. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 148 19 16 10 28 23 42 20 19 24 + TT No. % No. % No. % 364 44 69 45 42 35 99 47 40 Brow ridges are a marked feature of Fijians in gener- al. None of them lack some supraorbital development. 295 36 64 42 50 42 67 32 6 1 4 3 0 0 1 0 +++ Total 813 153 120 209 51 19 24 1 1 79 Forty-four per cent have medium brow ridges, 36 per cent are pronounced. and 1 per cent are very pronounced II I I 18 GABEL: A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS The other 19 per cent are small. The interior and east- ern groups share a little higher incidence of pronounced brow ridges; the other regions are nearer the total dis- tribution of variations. Forehead Height Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % No. % Total Fiji I 0 0 444 55 369 45 0 0 813 Interior 0 0 90 59 63 41 0 0 153 East 0 0 68 57 52 43 0 0 120 Coast 0 0 110 53 99 47 0 0 209 N.W. 0 0 46 58 33 42 0 0 79 Forehead Slope Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % No. % Fiji I 8 1 280 34 460 56 65 8 Interior 0 0 53 35 87 57 13 8 East 0 0 38 32 72 60 10 8 Coast 4 2 78 37 113 54 14 7 N.W. 2 3 27 34 47 59 4 4 Tonga 1 1 70 60 45 39 0 0 Total 813 153 120 209 79 116 Forehead height is submedium in more than half the cases (55 per cent); the others are all medium. There is no significant variation among the subgroups. A sloping forehead is quite characteristic of the Fijian head; 56 per cent are moderately sloping, 8 per cent are pronounced, and 34 per cent are submedium. Only 1 per cent have foreheads with no recession. Regional differ- ences are very slight. NOSE Nasion Depression Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % No. % Total Fiji I 1 0 170 21 579 71 63 8 813 Interior 0 0 41 27 103 67 9 6 153 East 1 1 32 27 85 71 2 2 120 Coast 0 0 45 22 144 69 10 10 209 N.W. 0 0 18 23 56 71 6 6 79 Root Height Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % No. % Fiji I 1 0 63 8 555 67 194 Interior 0 0 16 10 96 63 41 East 1 1 3 3 77 64 39 Coast 0 0 10 5 157 75 42 N.W. 0 0 4 5 57 72 18 Root Breadth Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % No. Fiji I 0 0 1 0 258 32 554 Interior 0 0 0 0 38 25 115 Total 24 813 27 153 33 120 20 209 Root Breadth (Cont'd.) East Coast N.W. Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % No. % 0 0 1 1 53 44 66 55 0 0 0 0 67 32 142 68 0 0 0 0 24 30 55 70 Nasal Septum Straight Concave Convex No. % No. % No. % 777 99 0 0 36 4 153 100 0 0 0 0 118 98 0 0 2 2 196 94 0 0 13 6 78 99 0 0 1 1 Total 120 209 79 Total 813 153 120 199 79 Bridge Height Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % Fiji I 0 0 54 7 644 79 Interior 0 0 13 8 124 81 East 0 0 1 1 98 82 Coast 0 0 10 5 173 83 N.W. 0 0 7 9 60 76 Tonga 0 0 21 22 81 70 No. % 115 14 16 10 21 18 26 12 12 15 9 8 Total 813 153 120 209 79 111 Bridge Breadth Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % Fiji I 0 0 0 0 265 33 Interior 0 0 0 0 29 19 East 0 0 0 0 72 60 Coast 0 0 0 0 62 30 N.W. 0 0 0 0 23 29 Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. ++ No. % 546 67 124 81 48 40 147 70 56 71 Nasal Profile Concave Straight Convex No. % No. % No. % 14 2 625 77 173 21 0 0 123 80 30 20 1 1 88 73 31 26 4 2 171 82 34 16 1 1 59 75 19 24 Total 813 153 120 209 79 Total 812 153 120 209 79 Moderate nasion depression characterizes the ma- jority of noses (71 per cent). Pronounced depression is recorded for 8 per cent, and submedium occurrence in 21 per cent. Only one individual lacks any depression. This distribution does not vary much among the 23z 79 Y provinces. A well-elevated nasal root is also characteristic; 67 per cent show moderate elevation and 24 per cent pro- nounced, whereas 8 per cent are submedium; one indi- Total vidual is without any elevation. The interior Fijians %0 have a little higher frequency of low nasal root (10 per 68 813 cent), whereas the eastern people, with a 30 per cent 75 153 incidence, excel in the pronounced category. More striking is the breadth of the Fijian nasal root. (continued) It is pronounced in 68 per cent and moderate in the ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS remainder of the series. Pronounced breadth is com- moner among the interior people (75 per cent) and least preponderant in the east (55 per cent). The nasal septum is nearly always straight; the only departure from this condition is a 4 per cent incidence of convexity. Regional differences are not significant. Nasal bridge height is commonly medium (79 per cent) in the totality of noses. Fourteen per cent are pro- nouncedly high and 7 per cent are submedium. The several provinces do not depart very far from this dis- tribution. The Fijian nose shows a strong tendency to broadness of the bridge. Two-thirds show pronounced breadth of bridge and the remainder are medium. Pronounced broadness increases in the interior groups (81 per cent) and shows a marked decline in the east (40 per cent). Nasal profiles are most often straight (77 per cent), but convex noses are not uncommon (21 per cent). Con- vexity is slightly more frequent in the east (26 per cent), whereas in the coastal people its incidence drops to 16 per cent. Nasal-Tip Thickness Subm. + -++ No. % No. % No. % No. % Total MOUTH Lip Thickness: Subm. + No. % No. % Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Tonga 19 10 1 1 4 12 2 7 1 1 10 428 43 83 88 39 97 53 28 69 42 49 84 Membranous ++ +++ No. % No. % 364 100 36 119 36 7 45 65 30 57 46 6 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 l a 0 0 Lip Thickness: Integumental Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji II Solomons 4 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 608 114 100 164 55 1 0 75 75 83 78 70 I 0 201 38 19 43 24 26 12 25 25 16 21 30 20 14 No. % 0 0 0 0 0 106 73 0 0 0 0 0 80 86 Lip Eversion 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 344 42 55 36 80 67 94 45 27 34 461 58 98 64 39 33 114 55 52 66 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 Nasal-Tip Inclination Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % No. % 812 153 120 209 79 Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. 12 0 8 0 1 1 0 7 0 1 333 63 77 63 26 Total 41 41 64 30 33 444 88 35 138 51 55 58 29 66 65 Lip Seam Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % 33 4 1 1 14 12 6 3 3 4 429 79 77 105 44 53 52 64 50 56 343 73 29 94 32 42 48 24 45 41 Compressed No. % Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Medium Flaring No. % No. % 198 24 25 16 70 58 42 20 16 20 615 76 128 84 50 42 167 80 63 80 Total 813 153 120 209 79 The nasal tip is pronounced more often than not, 58 per cent showing this condition. The remaining 42 per cent have tips of medium thickness. Thicker tips occur more often in the interior (64 per cent) and in the northwest (66 per cent), least often in the east (33 per cent). Usually the nasal tip is not inclined downward. Slight and moderate inclination has a combined incidence of only 10 per cent. Flaring nasal wings are a common condition (76 per cent). This incidence rises to 84 per cent in the interior and drops to 42 per cent in the east. Fijian lips are Negroid in thickness in many instances. Membranous lips are thick in 45 per cent of the series, medium in 53 per cent, and submedium in 25 per cent. Thickest lips occur in the interior and coastal areas where the pronounced type registers 65 per cent and 57 per cent, respectively. In the east, lips are more moderate in thickness, and the pronounced category drops to 30 per cent. Integumental lips also tend to be heavy but not so much as the mucous parts. Twenty-five per cent of the total Fijians have thick integumental lips and the remainder are moderate. Howells' Fiji II series classes 80 per cent as very pronounced and the remainder as pronounced. The Solomon Islanders, with an 86 per cent incidence of very pronounced, have the heaviest lips of all. Lip eversion varies largely between moderate and sub- medium, 55 per cent and 41 per cent, respectively. The in- terior and coastal Fijians show this trait a little more often than the others, whereas the eastern people have least lip eversion. The lip seam is present in nearly all cases, but not to a pronounced degree. Fifty-three per cent are submedium and 42 per cent are moderate. The eastern groups are definitely less endowed with this trait. The other provinces vary but little from the total distri- bution. Total 813 153 120 209 79 Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Total 813 153 120 209 79 133 85 .Fiji I Interior East Coast *N.W. No. % 731 90 147 96 109 91 186 89 71 90 57 6 6 16 6 7 4 5 8 8 24 0 5 7 2 Total 813 153 120 209 79 24 2 0 8 1 3 0 4 3 3 3 1 0 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 812 153 120 209 79 Nasal Wings Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. ++ No. % Total 813 153 - 120 209: 79 8 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 2 0 20 GABEL: A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS TEETH Bite E-E No. % 518 64 94 61 73 61 130 62 49 62 50 38 37 45 Subm. over No. % 274 34 59 39 45 38 76 36 23 29 77 59 45 54 + over No. % 13 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 4 0 0 0 0 Caries Subm. (1-4) + (5-8) ++ (9-16) +++ (17-x) No. % No. % No. % No. % 80 10 16 10 10 12 29 14 9 11 58 3 4 16 6 7 2 3 8 8 22 3 1 1 2 1 8 4 1 1 8 1 3 2 4 3 3 1 0 0 Total 807 153 120 207 76 131 83 Total 813 153 120 209 78 Crowding Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % 84 88 83 86 81 115 14 13 2 19 12 0 0 17 14 3 3 25 12 4 2 14 18 0 0 No. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tooth Eruption Complete No. % 796 98 153 100 119 99 199 95 74 94 Incomplete No. % 15 2 0 0 1 1 8 4 2 3 from around Suva and have more access to the Western processed foods. Total Tooth crowding is quite uncommon to Fijians, a condi- tion consistent with their generous jaw conformation. Crowding is noted in only 16 per cent of the series, and 813 most of it is slight. 153 Tooth eruption is complete in nearly all the subjects. 120 A 2 per cent incidence of incomplete eruption is entirely 209 due to the immaturity of some of the young adults. No 78 pathological suppression was noted. Some wear of the teeth is recorded for more than three-quarters of the series, but lacking age incidence, the data has limited meaning. The Fijian diet is not Total abrasive the way, for instance, it is for the Indians of our Southwest, where the staple food is ground in stone mills. 811 153 120 207 76 Wear Absent Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % No. % F Fiji I 184 23 443 54 Interior 27 0 58 0 ; East 2 6 0 6 9 0 Coast 60 0 120 0 N.W. 12 0 47 0 144 18 42 37 0 31 24 0 1 28 0 1 17 0 2 5 0 0 0 0 Total 813 153 120 209 78 EARS Ear Helix Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % Fiji I 230 28 511 63 72 9 Interior 45 29 99 65 9 6 East 29 24 74 62 17 14 Coast 58 28 128 61 23 11 N.W. 24 30 51 65 4 5 No. % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 813 153 120 209 79 Darwin's Point The jaws of Fijians have a rather distinctive frequency of edge-to-edge bite. I recorded this as 64 per cent, but lSowells' series indicates a 38 per cent incidence. The quality of Fijian teeth as reflected by frequency of caries is excellent. Nearly 80 per cent of the total show no tooth decay. The soundest teeth from this stand- point occur in the interior, the east, and the northwest. The coastal people show the highest incidence of caries, a interesting point since many of this sample come Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % Fiji I 761 94 36 4 15 2 Interior 150 98 3 2 0 0 East 112 93 6 5 2 2 Coast 187 89 13 6 4 4 N.W. 77 97 2 3 0 0 Under No. % Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji II Solomons 2 0 0 1 1 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Absent No. % 645 78 130 84 100 83 153 73 62 80 Fiji I 685 Interior 134 East 100 Coast 180 N.W. 64 Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. ++ No. % 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Total 813 153 120 209 79 2 1 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Ear-Lobe Type Soldered Attached No. % No. % Free No. % Ear Slant Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % Total 80 10 531 65 202 25 813 47 31 74 48 32 21 153 3 3 85 71 32 27 120 9 4 141 67 59 28 209 5 6 52 66 22 28 79 Ear-Lobe Size Subm. + ++ No. % No. % No. % Fiji I 176 22 Interior 49 32 East 16 13 Coast 31 15 N.W. 20 25 457 56 178 22 66 43 38 25 76 63 27 23 123 59 55 26 47 59 12 15 Ear Protrusion Absent Subm. + No. % No. % No. % Fiji I 2 0 262 32 463 57 Interior 1 1 47 31 90 59 East 0 0 31 26 77 64 Coast 1 0 75 36 114 55 N.W. 0 0 26 33 49 62 The Fijian ear is a moderately distinctive appendage from a racial standpoint. The helix shows moderate development on the whole and is submedium otherwise +++ Total except for a 9 per cent incidence of pronounced appear- No. % ance. Regional variation is small. The Darwin's point is noted in a number of cases: 4 2 0 813 per cent to a submedium degree and 2 per cent medium. 0 0 153 The ear lobe is somewhat distinctive with a 65 per 1 1 120 cent incidence of the attached condition and 10 per cent 0 0 209 soldered. The remaining 25 per cent is free. This dis- 0 0 79 tinctiveness is more marked among the interior groups where the soldered type of lobe increases to 31 per cent. Ear-lobe size is moderate in more than half the series, pronounced in 22 per cent, and submedium in 22 per cent. ++ Total Small lobes are commoner in the interior province. No. % Moderate ear protrusion is the commonest form followed by submedium. Marked projection is recorded 86 11 813 as 11 per cent. 15 10 153 Ear slant either is lacking or slight in most instances; 12 10 120 the series is rather evenly divided between these two 19 9 209 categories, the zero category having a small majority. 4 5 79 Moderate slant is noted for 8 per cent. BODY BUILD Body Build: Endomorph 1 2 3 4 5 6 No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. 260 32 49 32 30 25 77 37 26 33 334 42 66 43 54 45 82 39 34 43 126 15 26 17 21 18 28 13 9 11 46 6 53 54 10 5 68 33 4 6 4 8 7 8 4 2 3 12 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 3 Total 811 153 119 209 79 Body Build: Mesomorph 1 2 3 4 No. % No. % No. % No. % 5 6 No. % No. % .01 2 1 1 o a o a 1 1 .02 33 4 11 7 2 2 9 4 2 3 Body Build: Ectomorph 1 2 3 4 5 6 No. s% No. % No. % No. % No. % No. 1% 351 43 54 35 49 41 84 40 39 49 195 24 56 37 33 28 51 24 19 24 110 14 13 8 15 13 36 17 11 14 88 11 15 10 12 10 18 9 6 8 68 8 15 10 11 9 19 9 4 5 1 .01 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Total 416 51 78 51 55 46 118 56 38 48 332 41 67 44 52 43 74 35 39 49 65 8 8 5 13 11 17 8 2 3 813 153 120 209 79 Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. 1 I 0 0 1 1 0 0 o 0 Total 131 16 27 18 14 12 29 14 15 19 227 28 41 27 38 32 67 32 14 18 419 52 73 48 65 54 104 50 47 59 813 153 120 209 79 Fiji I Interior East Coast N.W. Total 813 153 120 209 79 22 GABEL: A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS Variations in body build have been expressed with the Sheldon method of somatotyping. 18 Accordingly, the Fijians are primarily and definitely mesomorphic, with endomorphy the second strongest component, and ecto- ,morphy, third. About 80 per cent of the total series had a mesomorphic rating of 5 and 6 which leaves no doubt es to the prevailingly athletic physique. Endomorphy is seldom pronounced so that obesity may be described as .io more than occasional. A pronounced linear build is likewise relatively infrequent. The Fijian subgroups do not vary markedly from the over-all pattern. SUMMARY The preceding data may be summarized from three ipoints of view. The first will emphasize the physical features that are common to most Fijians. At the outset jIt should be pointed out that a "typical" Fijian does not eist, except as a statistical abstraction. The racial composition of the Fijian is complex and far from being iomogeneous. There is no doubt, from the physical and cultural evidence, as well as the geographical location, gthat Fijians are related to both Melanesians and Poly- Iesians. The second point is to give a precise indication iifthese affinities with Melanesia and Polynesia. A third toncern of this analysis is the geographical variability ithin Fiji. This consists of a regional breakdown of the jian data into interior, eastern, coastal, and north- estern divisions, in order to demonstrate some of the al variation of the Melanesian-Polynesian ingredients their possible meaning. Body (pl. 1).-In general size and appearance, the Pjian is tall and well proportioned. His body is fairly and well muscled, that is, predominately athletic in build. Obesity is relatively uncommon except in moder- te degrees. This rather tall stature allies the Fijians Fore closely with the Polynesians. Shoulder, chest, and p diameters also indicate that Fijians are generously edowed. The Fijians who occupy the mountainous interior of 4w main island are less tall than the coastal and eastern ople; they also have narrower shoulders, relatively eper and narrower chests, whereas their arms and legs e somewhat shorter. The eastern Fijians are tallest all subgroups. Skin Color.-Most Fijians have either medium- or k-brown skin on the exposed facial surfaces. The ore protected body areas show higher frequencies of edium brown and light brown. The Fijians are defi- tely less dark than the Melanesians but are darker, on whole, than the Polynesians. The interior hill tribes are darker than the eastern d coastal groups. The lightest average skin shade oc- rs in the east. Hair (pls. 6 and 7).-In several respects the hair is e most consistent endowment of the Fijians. In nearly instances it is black, frizzly, and coarse. The only parture from this condition is an occasional instance dark brown and a few instances of rufous shade. Curly is a more common exception in the east. The coastal d northwestern people are nearer to the interior condi- n of frizzly hair. All in all, the hair form is definitely elanesian. Hair length conforms to the general 18W. H. Sheldon, The Variation of Human Physique, Harper and ., 1940. Melanesian condition, that is, intermediate between short Negroid and long Caucasiod or Mongoloid. Considerable beard and body hair is common to Fijians (pls. 8 and 9). Moderate to pronounced beard is shown by nearly three-quarters of the total series, and body hair is even more prevelant. General hairiness is also exhibited by the Solomon Islanders and the Tongans in the comparative data. The interior tribes of Fiji are more hairy than the other groups. This prevelence of body and face hair seems to conform to parts of Mela- nesia where it may be regarded as an Australoid element. Its presence in the Tongan data does not seem to be representative of other Polynesians, who are generally described as more glabrous. Head (pl. 2).-Moderate brachycephaly is the com- monest head form of Fijians, although the total range is great. In this respect the Fijians resemble the broad- headed Tongans, and are quite distinct from the longer- headed Melanesians. The Fijian head, despite its general brachycephaly, is rather compressed in the temporal area and submedium in parietal elevation. The back of the cranium is characteristically flattened, a natural con- formation as no deformation is practiced. The interior mountain tribes of Fiji have narrower heads and lower cranial indices than do the coastal and eastern groups. The interior people also have lesser head heights and a higher breadth-height index. Forehead (pl. 10).-Moderate to strongly developed supraorbital ridges are a common Fijian endowment. Similarly are low and sloping foreheads. These features have been observed in western Melanesia, where, like hairiness, they suggest Australoid of archaic Caucasoid elements. Face.-Broadness characterizes the Fijian face. Bizygomatic breadth locates them nearer to the Poly- nesians than to the narrower-faced Melanesians. Strongly developed malars are common, and they tend to project laterally more than frontally. Widest faces appear among the eastern people. Bigonial and bicanine widths show that generous breadth includes the lower parts of the face, a condition born out by strong gonial angles. Face length falls between the long-faced Tongans and the definitely shorter-faced Melanesians (pls. 3 and 4). Some prognathism is common among Fijians, both total and mid-facial, but the condition is not universal nor pronounced. The eastern Fijians are the least prog- nathic (pl. 10). Eyes.-Dark brown is the prevailing eye color, al- though many subjects have medium-brown eyes. Eye folds are only occasional and eye-opening height is usually moderate. Slight eye obliquity is common, more so in the eastern sample. Nose (pl. 4).-Great variability marks the nasal area. The commonest condition is a broad and moderately long nose. Medium nasion depression is frequent; the root is wide and moderately elevated. Bridge breadth is often pronounced and the nasal profile is straight to convex. The nasal tip is characteristically thickened and nasal wings are usually flaring. On the whole, there is a great deal of Melanesian in the Fijian nose; it is Negroid, but not pronouncedly. Those aspects of the nose which may be termed Negroid are commoner in the interior hill people and the northwest and least evident in the east. Lips (pl. 5).-Thick and moderately everted lips occur in nearly half the series. This Negroid combination is more manifest in the interior and least in the east. In- tegumental lips tend to be heavy. 23 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Teeth.-The condition of the teeth is generally excel- lent. Most Fijians have broad, roomy jaws that permit complete and uncrowded tooth development. Dental caries are very infrequent. A rather high incidence of edge-to-edge bite is interesting. Ears (pl. 5).-The ears are usuallymoderate in length and tend to protrude. Ear lobes are commonly large and are more often attached or soldered than free. 24 CONCLUSIONS On the whole the Fijians are predominately Melanesian but with numerous Polynesian affinities that vary with locality. The Melanesian qualities are in part Negroid or Negritoid and in part Australoid. The Negroid resem- blances are best illustrated by frizzly black hair, broad noses with depressed nasion and flaring nostrils, thick lips, and dark pigmentation (pls. 11 and 12). Australoid elements are general hairiness, strong brow ridges, low, sloping foreheads, compressed parietal and temporal areas, and some prognathism (pl. 13). The presence of Australoid suggestions need not mean that they come from Australia, but that they form a part of the Mela- nesian make-up. This interpretation of the Melanesians as a hybrid people conforms with similar designations by such students as Birdsell19 and Hooton.2 Polynesian influence in Fiji is most clearly demonstrated by lighter pigmentation, tall and muscular body build, moderate brachycephaly, broad faces and jaws, high and fairly long noses and strong chins. I found much the same resemblances between Fijians and Polynesians as did Howells;21 however, in my comparisons the Polynesian similarities are outweighed and outnumbered by a greater array of Melanesian characters. The essential Mela- nesian character of the Fijian population is further dem- onstrated by recent blood-analysis comparisons; the conclusions of Simmons et al., identify the Fijians as Melanesian.22 The Fijians who live in the interior of Viti Levu show the most frequent Melanesian traits (pls. 11 and 14). These people are shorter, have narrower shoulders and "9Birdsell, 1949, p. 120. 20Hooton, 1946, p. 621. 21Howells, 1933. p. 332. 22Simmons et al., 1945, pp. 3-4 chests; their heads are narrower and lower vaulted; they have broader noses, thicker lips, are hairier, and have darker skins. This condition, occurring as it does in the mountainous interior, which may be regarded as a refuge area, supports the theory that the Melanesian is the earlier component in Fiji. The eastern Fijians stand in considerable contrast to the interior tribes and are the most Polynesian in appear- ance (pl. 15). They have lighter skins, greater stature. and heavier musculature. Their heads are broader, as are their faces and jaws; their noses are larger, nar- rower. and higher bridged, and their chins are more pronounced. The coastal sample might be called intermediate or a more even blend of Melanesian and Polynesian. The northwestern people resemble the coastal tribes. This means they show fewer departures in either a Mela- nesian or Polynesian direction. This also means they do not tell us whether the legendary ancestors, who are supposed to have first landed in Fiji on the northwest coast of Viti Levu,23 were Melanesian or Polynesian. These data may mean one of three things: (1) the Fijian tradition of a landing at this place eight or ten genera- tions ago is groundless, (2) the immigration did take place but whatever racial traits predominated, whether Melanesian or Polynesian, have been homogenized and obscured by subsequent intermixture and by movements back and forth on Viti Levu, (3) the landing did occur ' the ancestors were already a Melanesian-Polynes; blend when they arrived. 23See pp. 1 and 4 of Introduction. [25] LITERATURE CITED Birdsell, J. B. 1948. Racial Origin of the Extinct Tasmanians. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum, Tasmania, Vol. II, No. 3. Churchill, W. 1911. The Polynesian Wanderings. Carnegie Insti- tute of Washington, Publ. No. 134, Washington. Derrick, R. A. 1951. History of Fiji. Printing and Stationery Dept., Suva, Fiji. Fornander, A. 1878. The Polynesian Race. London. Hocart, A. M. 1929. Lau Islands, Fiji. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Bull. 62, Honolulu. Hooton, E. A. 1946. Up From the Ape. Macmillan Co., New York. Howells, W. W. 1933. Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the Solomon Islands. American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers, Vol. 33. Pt. 4. Roth, G. K. 1953. The Fijian Way of Life. Oxford University Press. London. Simmon, R. T., J. J. Graydon, and G. Barnes 1945. The Medical Journal of Australia, May 26. Sullivan, L. R. 1922. A Contribution to Tongan Somotology. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Vol. VIII, No. 4. Thomson, B. 1908. The Fijians: A Study of the Decay of Custom. Wm. Heinemann, London. [ 26] PLATES PLATE 1. NEAR-AVERAGE BODY FEATURES Stature: 173.3 cm. Weight: 172. 1 lbs. Arm length: 75.1 cm. Leg length: 82. 2 cm. Shoulder breadth: 41 cm. Hip breadth: 29.1 cm. Shoulder-hip index: 71.0 Chest breadth: 28.8 cm. Chest depth: 22.8 cm. Thoracic index: 75.7 Sitting height: 86.3 cm. Sitting height-stature index: 50.0 Body build: Strongly mesomorphic [29] PLATE 2. NEAR-AVERAGE CRANIAL FEATURES Head length: 187.2 mm. Head breadth: 156.9 mm. Cephalic index: 83.9 Head height: 128.6 mm. Length-height index: 68.7 Length-breadth index: 81.1 Minimum frontal diameter: 109.8 mm. Fronto-parietal index: 70.0 [301 PLATE 3. NEAR-AVERAGE FACIAL FEATURES Bizygomatic breadth: 146.7 mm. Cephalo-facial index: 93.2 Zygo-frontal index: 75.3 Bigonial breadth: 109.6 mm. Fronto-gonial index: 100.1 Zygo-gonial index: 74.7 Bicanine breadth: 39.8 Total facial height: 122.3 mm. Total facial index: 84.1 Upper facial height: 71.3 Upper facial index: 48.9 Nasal height: 53.1 Nasal breadth: 45.5 Nasal index: 85.6 [3 1] X i: A: PLATE 4. NEAR-AVERAGE FACE AND NOSE FEATURES FACE Pronounced malars Moderately long face Wide gonia Moderate chin Moderate prognathism NOSE Broad bridge Wide root Moderate length Thick tip Flaring nostrils Straight profile [32 1 PLATE 5. NEAR-AVERAGE LIP AND EAR FEATURES LIPS Moderately thick Pronounced lip seam Moderate eversion EARS Moderate size Small lobe Attached lobe Moderate protrusion [331 PLATE 6. NEAR-AVERAGE HAIR FEATURES Black color Frizzly form Pronounced quantity Coarse texture Intermediate length [34] PLATE 7. HAIR FORM VARIANTS CURLY HAIR [35] WAVY HAIR PLATE 8. PRONOUNCED BODY HAIR 20 per cent occurrence [361 ]? I il . &,A? ? j PLATE 9. PRONOUNCED BEARD 26 per cent occurrence [371 PLATE 10. FACIAL VARIATIONS No prognathism High forehead Moderate browridges Moderate prognathism Low, receding forehead Pronounced browridges Pronounced prognathism Low, receding forehead Very pronounced browridges [38] PLATE 11. INTERIOR SUBJECT (MORE NEGROID) Shorter stature Narrower shoulders Deeper chest Darker skin Narrower head Broader nose Thicker lips [391 PLATE 12. "NEGROID" FIJIAN [401 PLATE 13. INTERIOR SUBJECT (MORE AUSTRALOID) Heavier beard and body hair Lower, more sloping forehead More compressed parietals More pronounced brow ridges More prognathic [411 PLATE 14. "AUSTRALOID" FIJIANS [42 1 PLATE 15. EASTERN SUBJECT (MORE POLYNESIAN) Lighter skin Less beard and body hair Wavy hair Wider head Higher, steeper forehead Less prognathic Higher, narrower nose Moderately thick lips [431 r PLATE 16. "POLYNESIAN" FIJIANS [441