ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 12:1 THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA I: THE EARLY HORIZON BY ROBERT F. HEIZER UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY AND LOS ANGELES 1949 THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA I: The Early Horizon BY ROBERT E HEIZER l ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Vol. 12, No. 1 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS EDITORS: E. W. GIFFORD, R. F. HEIZER, R. H. LOWIE, R. L. OLSON Volume 12, No. I, pp. I-84, 9 plates, I9 text figures, 5 maps Submitted by editors April 29, 1948 Issued April, I949 Price, $1.50 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY AND LOS ANGELES CALIFORNIA CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON, ENGLAND MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA CONTENTS introduction . .1 .... ...... ....... .. ...... . . . Cultural classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Physiographic background ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Description of sites ..................... . ..................... . . 7 Nature and physical character of the mound mass. . . . . . . . . , .. ......... 12 Buril complex of the Windmiller facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Burial posture .13 Orientation of skeleton . . ...... . . . . . . 13 Mortuary offerings .............. ... . ... .... ... . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . 13 Grave pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Cemetery locations . . . . 15 Material culture . . , . 17 Selbas(Olivella and Haliotis).17 . t.Shell beads .Oiel .n .aits . . . . . . ......... ... .. ... . ... .. .. . ... . ... . .. ... .. ...... . 17 Haliotis shell ornaments.. . .. ... ..... . . 17 Charmstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Quartz crystals .19 Mortars and pestles.. ........... ................. 20 Metates and manos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Flaked stone implements. . . ........................... 20 'Large ceremonial C?) blade . . 23 Obsidian flake knives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Polished flaked implements . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Sandstone "palette".. ........................ 23 Ojects of ground slate.. ........................ 23 Large steatite bead .24 ' Hammerstones .24 Tubular stone "pipes" .24 Perforated biotite ornaments .24 b Chrysotile asbestos splinters .24 Obsidian "bangles" .24 ,t' Unworked colored stream pebbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 iw Baked-clay objects .25 Bone implements .25 Objects of antler, turtle carapace, canid teeth .28 Evidence of head-taking. ................ . 28 Unworked animal bones ih graves ............. . 29 Evidence of basketrky. . ............... . 29 Economic complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 'Ceremonial complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Aesthetic complex. . . .............. .......... 32 Technological aspects. . . ............................ 33 Flaking technique. . . ............................ 33 Stone polishing .33 Drilling. .33 FFDilng;...... ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Bone working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Shell bead applique . ................. . 33 Plastic arts .................... ...... ....... ... ........ . 33 Skin dressing .33 Commercial relations .34 Comparative notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Antiquity of the Windmiller facies culture .37 Appendixes I. Tables . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 II. Preliminary report on the skeletal remains, by Russell W. Newman . . ........... . .. 49 Bibliography ............. . 51 Archaeological specimens, figures 5-15 ....... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 55 Plates ................ .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .. . 73 MAPS 1. Central California sites ........... facing 1 2. Physiographic provinces . ........... 6 3. Site C.107 .............8 4. Sites C.142ad C.68 .............9 ;5. Sites C.142, C.143, C.144 ............ ;10 * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iii S.' S. 3 S.2 SACRAMENO 0 266~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.2 \ 2 ~~~~~~~~~S.56S1 SAN FRANfCISCOA 0 -o~~~~~~~~~~~~~S6 -v~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-6 O@n \ *356 t l~~~~~~~~~~o miles Map 1. Central California Sites THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA I: The Early Horizon BY ROBERT F. HEIZER INTRODUCTION Although brief accounts have appeared of the archae- Fenenga, who most generously has made available to me cal remains recovered from sites of the lower Sacra- his excavation data on sites C.56 and C.107. Mr. Fenenga to Valley (C.107, C.56, C.68, C.142, etc.),' there has is preparing a companion paper on the Middle horizon nuntil now no opportunity to analyze the excavation culture which succeeds, and is in part an outgrowth of, and to present the culture as a whole. Particular the Early Central California horizon. His analysis will rest attaches to this group of prehistoric settlements include sites excavated by the Sacramento Junior College e they yield evidence of the oldest culture horizon and the University of California. discovered in the Sacramento Valley proper. The After the death of J. B. Lillard, President of Sacra- atigraphic position of the Central California Early mento Junior College, in 1940, the archaeological col- tare horizon was proved at site C.107. Its antecedence lection of the Sacramento Junior College Museum was further attested by evidence of local physiographic deposited in the University of California Museum of An- e which has involved occupation deposits, develop- thropology, where it is known, most fittingly, as the nt of calcareous hardpan caps over site deposits, and "Lillard Collection." Early in 1948, after this report eme degree of calcareous mineralization of all bones, was finished, Mr. Harold S. Gladwin, Director of Gila an and animal, contained in these sites. Pueblo, was generous enough to send to the Museum of The present report constitutes a summary of the cul- Anthropology all of the skeletal material and artifacts e of the Central California Early horizon more readi- which had been placed in the Gila Pueblo collections by available than that which appeared in the Sacramento J. B. Lillard. This considerable amount of material has or College publication of 1939 cited above. Final in- now been reincorporated in the Lillard Collection, and lye analyses of individual sites are promised but all California archaeologists will thank Mr. Gladwin for it awalt time and opportunity. his thoughtful action in making the collection complete. None of the four sites here discussed has been com- The present study was began in 1940 with the encour- etely excavated. Sacramento Junior College first exca- agement of the late Dr. Edgar B. Howard, a member of ted site C.107, that investigation being followed with the University of Pennsylvania Museum's Committee on 'ditional work by the University of California. Site C.68 Early Man. In 1945 the University Museum, through first excavated by Elmer J. Dawson, who, with Egbert Mr. Malcolm Lloyd, made a grant to aid in the prepara- Schenck, published his observations in 1929. The Uni- tion of this report. To all of these I express my appreci- rsity of California did some excavating here on a small ation for their assistance. e in 1938. Site C.56 was dug by Sacramento Junior The excavations by the University of California of ollege and C.142 by the University of California. All sites C.107, C.142, and C.56 were supported through the ilections made by the Sacramento Junior College, E. J. Department of Anthropology Research Grant 217 from awson, and the University of California are in the Uni- the University Committee on Research. rsity of California Museum of Anthropology (UCMA) Mr. E. W. Gifford, Director of the University of Cali- Berkeley. All catalogue numbers with the prefix 1- fornia Museum of Anthropology, has been of constant 12- refer to the UCMA catalogue; those preceded 'by aid in the preparing and care of the collections utilized - are in the Lillard collection (see below). here. I have been assisted by James Bennyhoff, who pre- I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Franklin pared most of the final copies of the charts and diagrams, and by John Goins and W. B. Schwarz, whose excellent drawings comprise the illustrations of artifacts. 1Heizer and Fenenga, 1939; Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, Finally, to Dr. A. L. Kroeber under whose guidance .23-43, 74-76, pls. 5-15. See also Kroeber, 1936, 1938. Site num- tfld wo was dn an whoe uner failed hisahel rs with a prefix C- are those of the University of California sur- the field work was done and who never failed in his help- y; those with an S- prefix indicate the Sacramento Junior College ful advice, criticism, and encouragement, I acknowledge rvey. my indebtedness. 1 CULTURAL CLASSIFICATION In earlier publications dealing with Sacramento Valley "province" because our pr~ovinces are essentially archaeological sites a simple threefold culture sequence geographical subdivisions within horizons. To what ex- was proposed. These cultures were called Early, Transi- tent these provinces are culturally distinct must yet be tional, and Late Sacramento. This conception proves use- demonstrated, but we feel that the regional differences ful so far as it goes, but each year sees more sites inves- are not based simply upon different environments (e.g., tigated, many of them stratified, and it has become in- littoral as against interior) but are, rather, divergences creasingly difficult to visualize and discuss these vari- which, evolving through spatial separation of groups, able site manifestations as simple equivalents in one or resulted in regional subtypes. Here our chart loses any the other of these single cultures. In simplest terms, we pretense of exhibiting time relations between provinces are faced with the difficulty of conceptualizing an ever- of the same horizon--that is, we cannot now state whether increasing mass of data and we need some systematized Alameda is earlier or later than, or contemporaneous scheme whereby cultures and their variants may be clas- with, Colusa or Delta or Marin. Our "facies" is more or sified. less similar to "focus," designating a group of settle- This problem is not new; it has presented itself in ments which may be distinguished from another group other areas where masses of data became too difficult within a province, again on the basis of recurrent trait to manipulate without a classificatory framework. The assemblages. A series of closely related settlements Midwest and Southwest have produced the McKern and becomes a facies; communities within a facies are gen- Gladwin (Gila Pueblo) systems. Both have been attacked erally assumed to be contemporaneous. Our "settle- and defended, and both are being used by archaeologists. ment" is, of course, the familiar "component" or "com- A careful assessment of these classificatory techniques, munity," replacing our older term of site, which had to with a critical discussion of taxonomy in archaeology, carry additional qualifying terms, since more than one has recently been presented by J. 0. Brew,2 who pleads horizon settlement can occur at one site. Where only for more reports based on the "narrative approach" one occupation period is represented, we have a pure without primary emphasis on making cultures fit into a culture site, and the terms "site" and "settlement" mechanistic taxonomic scheme. are synonymous. Stratified sites (multi- or series- The chart presented in figure 1 is open to most of the settlement sites) are very abundant in the Interior objections which may be leveled at the McKern and Glad- Valley, and this method of referring to different hori- win systems, but in the present state of Central Califor- zon settlements at the same site makes description nian archaeological knowledge it does represent a dis- much simpler. The capital letters A, B, C, etc., in con- tinct advance. We are now abandoning our earlier, over- nection with settlement numbers or names refer to simplified classification of cultures by expanding them stratigraphic-cultural deposits, A being latest and upper- into what appear to be related intracultural groups. When most, B and C indicating successively deeper and older this classification no longer serves, we shall abandon remains. it in favor of one that permits inclusion of new data. Finally, we can now classify two settlements in the The present classification, made up in a series of in- uncertain category. One of these, Strawberry, is a formal conferences at Berkeley, represents the ideas of deeply buried occupation level just south of the city of local workers as of early 1946. The introduction of a Sacramento. It yielded a number of unique material new series of terms ("horizon," "province," "facies") culture forms and is presumably ancient, since it was is intentional, since to employ either the Midwest or covered by 18 feet of river-laid alluvium. The other Gila Pueblo terms would imply strict semantic equiva- settlement, Tyler Island No.3, is also ancient. It is lence. The term "base" is the rough equivalent of known thus far from a small series of "fossilized" "pattern" or "root" and refers to fundamental or es- human burials lying imbedded in an old terrace remnant sential elements. Our label "Californian" has reference which rises out of the peat near the edge of one of the to the Central Californian type of culture as the term saucer-shaped islands of the interior delta. is used by Kroeber,3 and the determinants include such Wherever time differences can be demonstrated by elements as the stone mortar, charmstone, shell beads stratigraphic position we have indicated these hr the and ornaments. Our term "horizon" is roughly equiva- chart by a horizontal line. Thus, all three horizons are lent to "phase," and we carry over our older terms of distinguished on this basis, as are several facies of "Early," "Middle," and "Late" to represent broad tem- different provinces. Provinces, whose nature is basi- poral levels (i.e., time periods) which have been observed cally geographic, obviously will show no direct stra- stratigraphically and which exhibit distinctive trait assem- tigraphy, but it may be possible to infer, by use of the blages or cultural complexes.4 We have selected the term comparative technique, time differences between them. Our present assumption is that provinces within a single horizon are contemporaneous. The Interior prov- 2Brew, 1946, pp. 32-73. ince facies of the Central California Middle horizon 3Kroeber (1923; 1925, chap. 59) has shown that only Central California has what might be considered a native culture, since Northwestern California has been colored by the Northwest Coast, group of contemporaneous burials (in a single-period cemetery) and Southern California has many ties with the Southwest. with another series of intracontemporaneous burials from the same or a different site. On the basis of similarity or difference, 4See Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939; Heizer and Fenenga, aided by stratigraphy, we determine horizon, province, and fadies. 1939. We have proceeded from the first on the basis of assem- Were it not for the abundance of stratified sites, the present pic- blages of artifact types associated with burials, matching one ture of culture sequence would rest on much less certain grounds. LY CENTRA MIDDLE CENTRAL I HISTORIC LATE CENTRAL CALIFORNIA HOR CALIFORNIA CALIFORNIA TRIO ES HORIZON HORIZON Phase I Phaso I I N AREA "b :b t6 T tb itb oq %lb co Zo ru to to Ck 0 404z? q lo Z 0 tn 'b zi :b ot am 0 0 oi Cl A '-K Z, Zt ?d 4z m cn (n ?n (.4 -b ?b -b lb l%b ;b cn C,* ZZ 'b cn cn :Z cl? 'b (4 ci % 4 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS represent localized culture manifestations which have not The Early Central California horizon has been described yet been invested with time seriation. Middle horizon in print as the Early Sacramento Culture. It is known from communities are abundant and widespread, hence this a small series of four geographically restricted communi- Middle period may have been of fairly long duration, and ties and has not been assigned a province designation. All the several facies could therefore represent local subcul- are similar enough in content to fit within a single facies tures, some of which, but not all, were contemporaneous. called Windmlller, the name of the site where first identi- Time differences between facies will be difficult to de- fication of this horizon was made by stratigraphy. It is the termine until more archaeological work is done. oldest known culture of the lower Sacramento Valley. PHYSIOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND Central California comprises parts of three major accumulation in excess of fifty feet thick. This depth physiographic sections (map 2).5 These are, in order indicates that the historic environment of sedimenta- from west to east: (1) the California Coast Ranges; tion has prevailed for a considerable period, since tules (2) the California Trough or Great Valley of California, do not grow in water much more than ten to fifteen sections of the Pacific Border province; and (3) the feet deep and a conservative estimate places the period Sierra Nevada section of the Sierra-Cascade Mountains required for the accumulation of one foot of peat at province. The California Trough or Great Valley sec- about seventy-five years. tion is further subdivided into four subsections called: The Victor Alluvial Plain, lying above sea level and (1) the Delta Country or Delta Tidal Plain; (2) the Victor to the east of the Delta Tidal Plain, is from 12 to 16 Alluvial Plain; (3) the River Flood Plains and Channels; miles wide, rising to the east between 5 and 8 feet per and (4) the Arroyo Seco Dissected Pediment. These mile. The Victor Plain forms a relatively flat cone be- four land forms have been produced by the Mokelumne tween Laguna Creek and the Calaveras River, the apex River and other streams subsequent to the tilting of the of the cone being situated close to the Mokelunne Sierra Nevada block in the Pleistocene epoch. River where it debouches from its canyon. This cone The Mokelumne River, the stream most closely as- is a typical alluvial fan built by an ancestral Mokelumne sociated with the settlements of the Early Central Cali- River. Upon this old cone are impressed several inter- fornia culture horizon, is one of the many drainways that mittent and ephemeral drains, which are old channels flow westward along the tilted volcanic plain of the of distributaries on the initial slope of the plain. Bear Sierra Nevada. It joins the San Joaquin River near that Creek and jahant Slough are the principal streams of river's confluence with the Sacramento about twenty this class. The surface of the central part of the Victor miles east of the head of Suisun Bay. The Mokelumne Plain is covered with brown alluvium which is under- drains an area about 47 miles long and 16 miles wide lain, at a depth of from 2 to more than 6 feet, by a and has a course about 130 miles in length. The lower partly consolidated substratum comparable to the older or western portion of the Mokelumne River basin lies red alluvium of the upper (easternmost) portion of the on the central valley plain in northern San Joaquin and Victor Plain where it abuts on the Arroyo Seco Dis- southern Sacramento counties. Here on the plain the sected Pediment. river grade is flattened to an average of two feet to the This dissected upland region is one of flat-topped mile between the Sierran foothills and tide water, and mesalike ridges with broad, flattened summits of in this reach the stream is commonly bounded by ill- poor drainage and thin, sterile, red-colored soil strewn defined remnants of natural levees along each rim of with coarse gravel a,nd rounded stream cobbles. This the river trench. Our site C.56 lies on one of these intricately dissected pediment, 8 to 15 miles wide, which natural levees. lies at the western foot of the Sierra Nevada, is most The Delta Plain forms the lower (western) part of conspicuous at its eastern or Sierran margin; on its the Mokelumne area. Under natural conditions, i.e., western margin, contiguous to the Victor Plain, it con- prior to levee building and land reclamation by drain- stitutes a belt 4 to 8 miles wide, with small rounded Ing, leveling and filling, it was a tidal marsh traversed hills and ridges. These are the "red lands" of Bryan.7 by the meandering sloughs of the San Joaquin, Mokelumne, Of the evidence of Sierran uplift to the east and sub- and Sacramento rivers. Most of the sloughs have now sidence in the Delta peat lands, Stearns says: been confined by artificial levees and the enclosed The conditions here afford an excellent illus- "islands"' reclaimed for cultivation. These "isands, Th odton eeafoda xeletils "islnds recalmd fo cutivtion Thse "slads, tration of the theory of isostasy, for long periods if we disregard the sloughs, form an extensive and fertile of unloadifg of the mountasy block have always plain of which the greater part is at or below mean sea unload th untan blocehae always level. Along the eastern edge of the Delta Plain and be- been followed by uplift, and subsidence has al- tween the Mokelumne and San Joaquin rivers are six ways accompanied the deposition and subsequent "blind" sloughs, which head near the zero or sea-level loading of the valley floor. contour and extend westward into the south fork of the Archaeological site locations support Stearns's con- Mokelumne River. These are probably to be interpreted tention. The base of one of our sites (C.68) lies about as remnants of abandoned distributaries of the Mokel- four feet below present mean sea level. Since the pres- umne which have been succeeded by the river as it formed ent land level near the site is now at mean sea level and the Victor Alluvial Plain and established its course there is abundant e'vidence of intensive sedimentation farther north. The thick deltaic alluvium6 is replaced in which has buried the site, the only conclusion possible the marshy sea level island areas west of Lodi by peat is that subsidence has occurred since occupation by the Early horizon group.8 5Taken largely from Piper, Gale, Thomas, and Robinson, 1939; Stearns, Robinson, and Taylor, 1930; Cosby and Carpenter, 1937; Bryan, 1923, pp. 7-45, 68-79. The geology of the whole Interior 7Stearns, et al, 1930, pp. 15-25. Valley is treated by Clark, 1929. Schenck and Dawson (1929, pp. 293-305) give an excellent survey of the geographic and biotic 8Bryan, 1923, pp. 79-89. Stearns, etal (1930, p. 32) says: background of the region discussed here. "Evidence that subsidence has occurred in this area since the ad- 0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~vent of the Indians is found in the mounds formerly inhabited by 6At Thornton one well record shows 234 feet of alluvium, them that are now below sea level." 5 4!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0 a 0 C-)~~~~V C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C C) IQF~~- 0 CO~~~~~~~~p (I) a aD /%, DESCRIPTION OF SITES Site C. 107 (Windmiller C community). This strati- feet (65 in.) of calcareous accumulation refuse, with bur- fied site lies in the overlow bottom of the narrow Cosum- ials occurring at the depths of 6 to 66 inches from the nes River valley (pl. 4,g), and is located in the Northwest surface. There is a loose topsoil cover, not more than quarter of the Northwest quarter of Sec. 15, T.6N., R.6E, 6 inches deep, underlain by an extremely compacted MDB and M (Elk Grove quadrangle sheet), about 4 miles cementlike calcareous "occupational hardpan"" 12 to southeast of the town of Elk Grove. Sites along the Cosum- 18 inches thick (pl. 4,a,d ). The upper surface of the nes River are either on the "uplands" which parallel the occupational hardpan is fairly smooth, but the lower stream or on small natural clay elevations which rise out surface is irregular and becomes less compacted at of the alluvial floodplain. C.107 is one of these bottom- depth until it grades into the unconsolidated refuse de- land sites, the altitude of the crest of the site being 9 feet posit. Base of the site is a reddish brown sandy clay. above the valley floor (map 3). The river, which now Site C.68 occupies, at present, an unfavorable situa- flows 200 yards to the west of the site, has been diverted tion for aboriginal settlement. The nearest fresh water by man, in the historic period, from its ancient course is 1.2 miles away and the fact that the land level is at about 400 yards east of the site. mean sea level indicates a marshy terrain with a tend- The natural elevation itself is composed of a highly ency to accept overflow waters. The problem of living compacted sandy, reddish brown clay in which were dug on such a plain surface would present so many diffi- grave pits that contain extended burials accompanied by culties that settlement by recent Indians would simply artifacts of the Early Central California horizon. The not be considered. There are no Late horizon communi- grave pits are filled with the sandy red-brown clay and ties in the proximity of site C.68. We may infer from the bones are very heavily mineralized (pl. 4,b). Cover- these evidences that physiographic alteration by allu- ing the natural clay elevation which contains the clay- vial filling and shifting of water courses has taken place filled grave pits is an accumulation deposit which is soft, since the site was occupied by the Early horizon culture black, ashy "kitchen-midden" refuse containing burials group. of the Middle and Late culture horizons. This superfi- E. J. Dawson of Thornton excavated site C.68 in 1921, cial refuse layers reached a maximum depth of 84 inches exhuming between 75 and 80 burials. His notes indicate on the west slope and averaged 36 inches on the crest of that all burials were extended and lay with the head the elevation. Although Late and Middle period burials pointed westerly, though whether the skeleton lay on the occurred in pits; these never penetrated into the clay dorsal or ventral side is not stated. The University of subsoil, presumably because it was too difficult to ex- California excavated in 1938 a total of 17 burials from cavate. The compaction and induration of the subsoil con- this site. taining Early horizon graves is therefore likely to have Site C.56 (Phelps settlement). This site is located already occurred by the time the knoll was occupied by about 1.75 miles southeast of site C.68 within the "big the Middle horizon group. Late and Middle human bone bend" of the Mokelumne River in the Northwest quarter material is markedly different from that of the Early of the Northeast quarter of Sec. 3, T.4N, R.5E, MDB period, being less mineralized.' 0 and M (New Hope quadrangle sheet). It is situated about Site C.107 was excavated by the Sacramento Junior 900 yards west of the river in the overflow plain. Prox- College intermittently from 1935 to 1937. Skeletal mate- imity to the river, which deposits a heavy silt load rial was not systematically saved, so a check of sex de- upon overflowing its normal banks, has raised the land termination, age, and anthropometric observations can- level slightly, and the site's summit is now 9 feet above not be performed. The University of California excavated sea level. The midden is approximately 300 feet in there in the summer of 1937. A total of 168 burials bear diameter, rising above the surrounding plain to an ele- full and complete field recording; of these, 59 are Early, vation of 30 inches. 15 Middle, and 94 Late Central California horizon. The upper site deposit consists of 12 inches of loose, Site C.68 (Blossom site and community). This is a dark-colored (ashy) topsoil. No burials came from this pure-culture site of the Early Central California horizon surficial layer. Under the topsoil is a calcareous "oc- lying in the alluvial plain, 1.2 miles south of the Mokel- cupational hardpan" stratum 14 inches thick. A few umne River and 1.5 miles northwest of the town of Thorn- burials were found imbedded in this, which indicates ton (formerly New Hope). It is located in the Northeast that calcareous cementation and consolidation is post- quarter of the Southeast quarter of Sec. 32, T.5N, R.6E, occupational in time (cf. site C.68). Below the hardpan MDB and M (New Hope quadrangle sheet). The site itself layer is a somewhat hardened or compacted refuse is a mound measuring 93 by 68 feet, the long axis run- deposit averaging 28 inches in thickness; it is in this ning in a northeast-southwest direction, the elevation stratum that most of the burials were found. The sub- rising only 24 inches above the valley floor, which here soil is an undisturbed yellow sandy loam which bears is at mean sea level (map 4,b). no evidence of man's activities. Since interpretation of the midden profile is a pedologic Burials occur from depths of 18 to 54 inches, and a problem, this is left for the report of Dr. S. F. Cook and total of 73 were excavated by Franklin Fenenga for the Dr. Hans Jenny."l The midden deposit consists of 5.5 Sacramento Junior College in 1938. All of these lay in Measuring 280 feet in diameter. " The term "occupational hardpan" is used here to denote ?0Cook an ezr14 al .a calcareous hardpan layer which occurs in habitation site de- an He 'r 97,tbe1 posits. It may or may not be a true hardpan in the pedologic "See p. 40. sense. a~~~~~~~~~~~~ C-) 9D 9~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~c t&j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t ~~~~~~~~~~3 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ L Z:~~~~~~ (- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C It~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1.~1O kad0 0 6' Nftlo*. ~~~~~0.0" 16O' 0S6wX~~~~~~~~~~~t ag 25 FEEFT Map 4. Sites C.142 and 0.68. a. Site 0.142, showing extent of excavations by hachured area. Occupation deposit bounded by 1' 6# contour line. b. Site C.68. Total area west of dotted line excavated in July, 1947. .0ID~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- rL~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r LA.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- HEIZER, CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 11 extended (prone) position and belonged to the Early ho- human burials, burned clay pieces, charcoal, and an oc- rizon, except two which were flexed and lay close to- casional stone and animal bone. Burials are found to a gether at a depth of 24 inches. There were no artifacts maximum depth of 38 inches, the majority occurring in association with these two flexed burials; the bones under 30 inches and almost without exception lying in were yellow in color, light in weight, and unmineralized, shallow pits dug into the tight yellow sandy clay which and the disturbance of the hardpan layer shows that they constitutes the base of the site. were intrusive into the deposits. They are thus late in- The University of California excavated, in 1937 and trusions into an Early horizon deposit and may be omit- 1938, a total of forty-four burials from site C.142. Of ted from further consideration. these, five were intrusive Middle horizon flexed burials Site C.142 (McGillivray settlement). This Early Sacra- lying at the same level with, or just under, the gray mento culture community was discovered by a farmer soil horizon.' 3 In addition, in the immediate area of when he was digging an irrigation ditch. There is a very the site five Middle horizon cremations had been in- slight surface elevation to mark the site outline, the truded from the surface, as were the five burials of this highest point of the elevation being only 12 inches above period. The evidence of intrusion in the form of pit out- the surrounding land level (map 4,a); surface indications lines and the dissimilarity of accompanying artifacts sub- of the site deposit are scarcely noticeable. The site is stantiate here the later time of the Middle Central Cali- in the Southeast quarter of Sec. 29, T.5N, R.5E, MDB fornia horizon. and M (New Hope quadrangle sheet), about 1,000 yards It may be suggested that the slight elevation upon which south of the Mokelumne River. Just north of the site and sites C.142, C.143, and C.144 are based might have been extending to the west is a depression called Fogg Lake, high enough until recent times to become islands in times which is filled with tule and rushes (pl. 4,e). The south of not too severe river flooding. Thus Middle horizon rim of the depression, running in an east-west direction, people might have selected these high spots as burial Is slightly higher than the surrounding land, and it is along places. The resulting association of interments of two this rim that site C.142 lies, with C.143 about 100 yards different horizons may therefore be purely fortuitous, west and, some 150 yards to the northwest, C.144 (map 5). this association depending upon a similar desire of two A fairly loose topsoil cover not more than 6 inches peoples to inter the dead in some spot above the reach of thick overlies a distinctly gray-colored stratum. The floodwaters. gray layer is about 10 inches thick and is indurated, but not to the extent that it may be called hardpan. Below this lie 30 inches of brownish red mixed soil containing B3Burials nos. 24, 29, 30, 33, 34. NATURE AND PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF THE MOUND MASS One of the most puzzling features of these four sites pits. The ash would have thus derived from surface oc- is the nature of their Early horizon deposit mass. At cupation debris which, as suggested in the description of site C.107 there is no stratum which can properly be site C. 107, has disappeared through erosion. The same called an Early horizon occupation deposit. Burials lie conditions prevail at sites C.143 and C.144, both of which in pits dug into the clay substratum at depths ranging await full excavation. from six to eighteen inches. The pits are filled with clay We may generalize by saying that sites C.107 and C.142 which is slightly but noticeably discolored by small are primarily cemetery areas chosen by the Early ho- amounts of finely divided charcoal. This would suggest rizon people because of their elevation and that these ele- that there was no appreciable layer of ashy midden de- vations also served as living spots where fires were oc- posit in Early horizon times, since if there had been, casionally built. There is no evidence of long-continued, the grave-pit fill would contain midden material. When intensive occupation of these spots, which seem at most the top occupation stratum (dark, ashy midden refuse) to be only temporary camping areas. is removed and the surface of the clay substratum is Conditions at sites C.56 and C.68 are considerably swept clean, one gets the impression that this was an different. At both, ash concentration, greater numbers Qld exposed surface which was perhaps camped on oc- of animal bones (remains of food), and a higher incidence casionally (as evidenced by occasional stones and ani- of unworked stone fragments than at sites C.107 and C.142 mal bones imbedded in the clay surface), but which give abundant evidence of intensive occupation. Occasional served primarily as a spot for interment of the dead. whole or broken artifacts (lost or rejected pieces) turn up C.107 may therefore be an Early horizon cembtery in excavating. The site C.56 deposit reaches a total depth rather than an occupation site. The possibility should of 54 inches, and the mound base of site C.68 lies 65 be kept in mind that there is a hiatus between the time inches below the highest point of the present elevation. when the clay elevation was used as an Early horizon These deposits look much like the mound mass refer- burial spot and the time of its intensive occupation by able to either of the later horizons, but they differ from people of the succeeding period (Middle horizon, Morse these in their extreme compaction and concentration of facies). This is indicated strongly by the extreme degree lime. The refuse deposits of the earlier horizon differ of mineralization of human skeletal material in Early from those of the later in the absence of large ash pits horizon graves and the lesser amount of mineralization (fireplaces) and housefloors, and in the relatively small of Middle horizon skeletal material. The two series of amount of animal bone and shells (freshwater species, graves are simply of different time orders. There is yet Anodonta, Margaritifera). Both sites C.56 and C.68 have another possible interpretation of the site C.107 strati- basal deposits which were anciently higher than the sur- fication which could be argued. This would assume some rounding land; systematic auger borings indicate that fairly thin Early horizon occupation deposit on the old the base deposits drop away to greater depths as one clay surface which has eroded away, leaving only the leaves the immediate site area. Thus, the present top- harder objects (stone, animal bones) as residual remains ography of a sea-level floodplain is a physiographic fea- on the surface. This does not seem to be so, however, and ture which has evolved since man occupied this region.14 all workers familiar with site C.107 feel that this ex- From the foregoing we may conclude that both domi- planation should be considered only a very remote pos- ciliary and cemetery site situations in Early Sacramento sibility. An aggraded midden deposit would almost surely culture times were selected by reason of a natural rise leave more detrital remains. of ground. This indicates an ancient environment re- The site mass of C.142 represents the type of deposit sembling that prevailing today. The river flooding was which possibly once capped the site C.107 knoll. The then, as now, a problem most easily met by living on a mass, down to an average depth of about 40 inches, is spot high enough to escape inundation, but physiographic definitely disturbed and contains finely divided charcoal conditions differed from those of the present time, since or ash flecks in only sufficient quantity to tinge the par- the terrain, though essentially level, was relieved at ent material so it appears brown rather than yellow like some points by knolls or rises which obtruded from the the undisturbed base from which we assume it is derived. surface. At present there are no such natural elevations Only occasionally does a rock fragment, burned clay in the site C.142-C.68-C.56 triangle. chunk, or animal bone occur in the excavation of this disturbed material. It is difficult to understand why, if '4There is no real necessity to suggest a rising land surface this stratum is a true refuse deposit, it does not con- through alluvial deposition. Since the present land surface is at tain more evidence of man's activities. The most rea- 0 ft. 0 in. (mean sea level) one would then be forced to assume sonablore evinterpretat an's hactiities. disTurbed zontrea- wsea-level fluctuations or a different configuration of San Francisco sonable interpretation is that it is a disturbed zone which Bay. The simplest explanation is, as Stearns suggests, to assume became mixed with a slight amount of ash and camp ref- isostasy and the depression of land levels to adjust to sediment use while being turned over during the digging of grave load, thus maintaining a constant land level. 12 BURIAL COMPLEX OF THE WINDMILLER FACIES Under this heading will be discussed specific aspects west position is noted in 100 per cent of the C.56 burials.16 of the interment complex. These include: (1) burial pos- At C.68 the 17 burials dug by the University of California ture; (2) orientation of the skeleton; (3) mortuary offer- were oriented west; the same orientation may be safely ings; (4) grave pit; (5) cemetery locations. The tables in inferred for Dawson's 75 to 80 whose direction he notes Appendix I treat exclusively burials which were associ- as consistently westerly. At C.142 all the skeletons were ated with artifacts. Burials without associated artifacts also oriented west, the only variants from true west be- are discussed below in the text. ing 4 whose position varied only 10 to 15 degrees north or south. C.107 again shows the most divergent series, with three Early horizon flexed burials, two of which BURIAL POSTURE were oriented east, the third west. Twenty-one extended As table A, Appendix I, shows, the Early horizon people burials of C.107 are oriented southwest. Out of a total of held rather firmly to the idea that a properly interred 155 burials there are 23 variants (14.8 per cent) from corpse was laid fully outstretched, or extended, face down, west orientation; of these the majority are directed the arms lying straight along the sides with the hands westerly. either beside the innominates or lying under the pelvis. In nearly all burials the legs were tied together at the MORTUARY OFFERINGS ankle. In some, but not all, the wrists were apparently tied together loosely. This description of the normal Somewhat arbitrarily this report deals primarily with burial holds for all Windmiller facies settlements burials which are associated with artifacts. Of the 71 (C.107, C.142, C.68, C.56). , burials from site C.56, 24 (33.8 per cent) were unaccom- There were no variations in the standard posture of panied by artifacts. C.142 with 44 burials had only 8 (18 the burials found at C.56 (fig. 2,a), but differences were per cent) without artifacts; C.107 with 59 Early horizon noted in the other three communities. C.107 produced burials had 5 (8.5 per cent) without grave offerings, and six exceptional burials, of which three were fully ex- of the 17 burials excavated from C.68 by the University tended, lying dorsally, and three were flexed. C.68 yielded in 1937, 6 (35.3 per cent) were unassociated with arti- extended burials predominantly (fig. 2,b), but for the facts. The 43 skeletons not accompanied by artifacts all majority we lack specific data on ventral or dorsal lay ventrally extended and oriented westerly (west to placement. The University of California excavated 17 southwest). Combining the numbers of burials with arti- extended burials at C.68, of which 13 lay ventrally and facts (197) with those lacking artifacts (43) we have a 4 dorsally. Table D, Appendix I, treats only burials with total of 240 Early horizon burials from our 4 sites.1 7 artifacts. Of those excavated by the University 7 were Eighty-two per cent of Early graves contained imperish- ventrally extended and 4 dorsally extended. To judge able artifacts. This is a higher association than is gen- from this sampling, the percentage of dorsally extended eral in Middle horizon sites where the percentage varies burials is higher here than at any other Windmiller between 25 and 50. facies settlement.'6 C.142 produced 2 dorsally extended Accompanying artifacts (pls. 2, 3) may be either ob- burials (fig. 3). Posture variants thus number 12 (8 per jects, such as shell beads which adorned clothing or re- cent) of 150 burials with complete records. There ap- galia worn by the corpse, or artifacts which were placed pears to have been no regular position for the head, which in the grave, either offerings by friends or relatives or may lie face down or on the right or left side of the possessions of the deceased in life. This last class prob- face. ably includes quartz crystals, bone tools and implements, and the like. The presence of one or two projectile points ORIENTATION OF THE SKELETON in a grave may also indicate that the person was killed by a weapon bearing the point.' 8 The most common mor- Here, as in posture, we have a nearly invariable prac- tuary accompaniment (see table A, App. I) is shell beads, tice. The body is oriented with the head west. A true culture forms. Our present opinion is that C.68 is the latest of 5In 1947 the author, with a crew of six University students, the known Windmiller facies components. excavated practically the entire visible site area of C.68. A total 'of 76 adult burials was recovered. Eight infant burials and 5 cre- '6Fenenga (Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, p. 40) states nirations were found. Artifacts were associated with 50 burials that orientation is "usually slightly south of true west." This (60 per cent) and with 4 cremations (80 per cent). means only about 5 degrees on the compass and may be considered Orientation and burial posture were variable, as may be seen in true west. the following summary. l 7The total includes Dawson's 40 burials itemized in Table D, Position N S E W App. I, but ignores an additional 35 to 40 dug by him from the same Extended ventrally (prone) . 3.. 3 0 1 38 site, which he notes simply as "lacking artifacts or associated Extended dorsally (supine) . 3.. 3 0 1 21 with only one type of artlfact." Dawson was primarily interested Extended on side . 1................ 0 0 2 in multiple artifact type associations and did not make special Flexed and semiflexed3 0 ............... 3 2 record of those accompanied by a single artifact or even several ;The information from this excavation is so extensive that it will eape fasnl ye be treated in a separate report. The conclusion arrived at in the l 8This assumption is not necessarily correct, however. To present report, written six years before the 1947 excavations, date, only three Early horizon skeletons have been found with a frseems justified, since the C.68 material, although identifiable projectile point imbedded in one of the bones. Two are from C.107, as Early, shows many decided resemblances to Middle horizon the other from 0.68. [' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~13 0 OC) CY) 0 0) Co ci) Li~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/ 1 ' I m~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~* t' ; C 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ u B~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- llJ ;Z .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C TH I H I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ HEIZER, CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 15 S I TE C.142 EIJJJ:exccvaled lo 2 feel CD:cremahion ,<~~k Fig. 3. Excavation and burials, site C.142 followed by flaked projectile points and quartz crystals. We may conjecture that graves were not always Artifacts are concentrated on the upper part of the skele- marked, since in all settlements we have noted burials ton, particularly in the neck region, along the sides and which cut through earlier interments. The later diggers under the chest. Rarely, objects are located in the pel- simply broke the bones of the older burial and threw them vic region and between the lower legs. back in with the grave fill of the later interment. This accounts in part for the presence of dissociated, often GRAVE PIT fragmentary, human bones and artifacts. Not all incom- plete or disturbed skeletons are ascribable to disloca- Some sort of a pit was prepared to receive the corpse. tion as a result of grave digging. Many C.107 skeletons The nature of the deposit of the Early horizon burial strata were badly broken up, perhaps the result of their lying makes it impossible to estimate how deep the grave was in shallow graves and subject to pressure from walking originally dug, but It is our opinion that a shallow pit, persons or animals for a long period of time (pl. 2). All from 12 to 30 inches deep, was ordinarily used. With Early culture sites have yielded some incomplete skele- primitive wooden or stone tools it must have been a con- tons. siderable task to excavate a pit 2 feet deep and 5 to 6 feet long. Not uncommonly the pit was too short, and thle CMTR OAIN lower legs were bent up on an angle so steep that the feet CMTR OAIN protruded over the edge of the pit (p1. 1 ,>,e). There is one As suggested earlier, C .107 and C.142 are pretty clear- clear instance of cutting the lower legs off at the knee in ly burial knolls rather than habitation spots. Probably order to make the corpse fit the pit (Burial 1, C.142). There these cemeteries lay some distance from the village, the is no evidence of heaping earth on top of the grave, sites being selected because of their elevation. It is thus 16 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS not strictly accurate to refer to a cemetery as a com- present in C.68 and C.56 but absent in C.142, the other ponent, settlement, or community, but the use of these is present in C.142 but lacking in C.56 and C.68. Taking terms may perhaps be allowed on the ground that the re- intersettlement differences in the broad view, there ap- mains are probably those of inhabitants of a single set- pears to be nothing to indicate repeated trait presences tlement. A site which might be inundated was avoided, or absences which would tend to range one site specifi- perhaps because people might die and require burial in cally with another. For this reason we have grouped all time of flood; hence the cemetery site was selected with four Early horizon components under a single facies. an eye to its high-water mark. The forms of Early horizon material culture look as much At C.68 and C.56, however, burial took place in the like results of local, village specializations of basic village area, the graves being dug through midden deposit. forms as like representatives of different time periods. The elevation factor is thus satisfied at these sites in The only factor which seems to weigh against this inter- the form of a raised mound accumulation but with a sig- pretation is the restricted area of the C.142-C.68-C.56 nificant difference between the pairs of sites. At C.107 triangle. The conception of three groups of people liv- and C.142 burial was away from the village, at C.68 and ing at the same time in such close geographical proximi- C.56 within the domiciliary area. This may indicate time ty yet maintaining specialized implement forms would differences between the pairs of sites, a suggestion which imply a virtual absence of contacts and cultural exchange can be tested by observing intercommunity differences between villages situated at most only two miles apart. in burial artifacts. Total absence of a stone, bone, or shell artifact type In intersettlement differences, however, there appears at one or two sites may simply mean that further excava- to be no significant consistency between any two sites of tion would reveal its presence. At any rate, observable the Windmiller facies or between any one site and the site differences may be theoretically interpreted as evi- other three. For example, table A, Appendix I, shows dence of time differences, which cannot now be demon- two culture traits, turtle carapace ornaments and coni- strated because a consistent pattern of site-to-site dif- ally drilled "pipes," lacking in C.107; one of these is ferences is not apparent. MATERIAL CULTURE SHELL BEADS (OLrVELLA AND HALIOTIS) rizon interments.22 The single occurrence of type 3b Olivella beads in the Early horizon (C.142) is interest- Shell beads are abundant in Early horizon burials. ing because it furnishes a link with the Middle horizon Abalone (Haliotis spp) and olive shell (Olivella spp) are ing beseri frishes a lin th e horizon the only shells employed for beads (and for larger orna- (allacies) whrer ments). The evidence seems clear that the raw shells Olivella bead form. Haliotis shell beads, again of specific form, occur in themselves were not imported and manufactured in the all Early horizon cemeteries. Three types-of abalone Delta region into beads, since whole shells, shell rejec- shell beads occur, in the following percentages In graves tage, shell blanks, or incomplete beads are not found in of Windmiller facies cemeteries: .107, 64.8 per cent; Delta sites.'9 Either the Windmiller facies people of the 0.142 42.2 per cent; 0.56, 30.0 per cent; 0.68 23.5 per interior made journeys to the seacoast to make their C.1 nid type oCcre is shw in table 2. shell beads or contemporaneous coastal groups were es- tablished and were manufacturing beads for interior trade. TABLE 2 The latter explanation is more probable and suggests that we may expect to find a contemporaneous coastal culture Types of Haliotis Shell Beads in Burials when excavation in the proper sites is prosecuted. California archaeologists have learned to look upon shell-bead types as valuable culture-period indicators T since each horizon employs highly distinctive forms.2 d Type C.68 C.107 C.56 C.142 Olivella 0shell beads of four types occur in the four ex- cavated Windmiller facies settlements. If we lump the la .12 26 14 19 four types, C.68 leads quantitatively, with 47.0 per cent 2 0 4 0 0 of the burials containing Olivella beads; then, in decreas- 3 ......._0 4 0 1 ing order, C.107, with 31.5 per cent; C.142, with 31.1 per cent; and C.56, with 23.4 per cent. Occurrences of Type la (rectangular to square, centrally perforated) each type are shown in table 1 and types are illustrated Haliotis beads are the standard bead of this material, just in figure 5,a. as type la is of the Olivella shell. Type 2 Haliotis beads are rectangular to square with straight or concave edges TABLE 1 and two perforations. The surfaces at the edges are Types of Olivella Shell Beads in Burials sometimes incised with short lines, a decorative feature also present on some larger Haliotis shell ornaments. (Figures in columns give number of graves) Type 3 Haliotis beads are round and flat with a fairly Site large central perforation. These are highly characteris- Type SCi68 t e tic of Middle horizon sites, and we may note here another _____________ 0.68 0.107 0.56 0.142 link with the preceding Early horizon where they occur la .19 13 6 11 infrequently. lb 1 0 2 0 Site differences in bead types of Olivella and Haliotis 2b 7 8 1 6 (e.g., Olivella types 3b and lb only in site C.56, Haliotis 3b ....... 0 0 0 1 type 2 only at C.107, and type 3 absent in C.68 and C.56) may indicate either personal preference for a particular Tplasal bpitor n21 mbead form, or may be a reflection of temporal differences Type la (small 0. biplicata or 0. pyrcna)2 may occur between, or even within, settlements. in Late and Middle horizon settlements, but with the ex- ception of one C.68 and two C.56 burials, large whole 0. biplicata shells with ground spires (type lb) are not HALIOTIS SHELL ORNAMENTS typical of Early horizon interments. Type 2b rectangular These are fat disk and bar-shaped shell pieces made beads of 0. biplicata are found only in Early horizon of the iridescent abalone shell (fig. 6,]2-g) They were sites. These are larger, thicker, and have a bigger cen- used as articles of personal adornment in the form of tral perforation than the type 2.a.1 form with a very small spangles or as pendants which were attached by an ad- perforation which is found only in Middle and Late ho- hesive affixed by sewing, or hung from a cord. Eighteen separate types, delimited on the basis of 19Shells of the clam (Saxidomus), so much used by Late horizon form, perforations, and decorative features, occurred in groups for beads, were not utilized at all by the Early culture the four Windmiller facies settlements (C.68, C.56, peoples. C.107, C.142). Of these eighteen types, ten types are 20Schenck and Dawson (1929, pp. 374, 402) recognized this fact. limited to single sites, four occur in two sites, two are For the lower Sacramento Valley region see Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, tables, passim and pls. 11, i2 (Early), 22, 26B 22Fenenga (in Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, pp. 40, 42) (Middle), 26A, 28 (Late). See also Heizer and Fenenga, 1939, fig. by error listed Olivella beads of type 2.a.1 from four Early ho- 1, pp. 391 -392. rizon burials in C.56. These are smaller than the usual type 2b pieces, but are clearly related to them rather than to the 2.a.1. 2 'Type lc, small 0. pvcna with diagonally ground spire, is in- form, as shown by the thickness of the shell and large central cluded here with type la. Type ic occurred only at C.107 (2 in- perforation. They are simply small-sized variants of the typical stances). 2b form. 17 18 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS shared in four sites, and the last one is noted for all ornaments are commonly found in the neck region; they four sites. Types are illustrated in figure 6,a. probably served as necklace pendants. The percentage occurrence of Haliotis ornaments in Almost all Early horizon Haliotis ornament forms relation to total number of burials with associated arti- are limited to this horizon alone, as are the shell-bead facts is as follows: C.56, 40.4 per cent; C.68, 27.4 per types already discussed. cent; C.107, 31.5 per cent; C.142, 22.2 per cent. Site C.107 had 17 graves containing 10 types of Haliotis or- naments; in decreasing order are C.68 with 7 types from CHARMSTONES 14 graves, C.142 with 6 types from 10 graves, and C.56 A large number of charmstones of several types with 6 types from 19 graves. (figs. 7-9) and materials has been recovered from Wind- miller facies deposits. C.107 produced the largest numbe TABLE 3' 35.1 per cent of graves contained these objects; C.56 follows with 19.1 per cent association; C.68 with 11.8 Types of Hallotis Shell Ornaments in Burials per cent; and C.142 with 4.4 per cent. Site C.107 yielded (Figures in columns give number of graves)* 19 Early horizon graves containing 93 charmstones of 10 types, and in decreasing order come C.56 with 9 grave Site and 15 charmstones of 7 types, C.68 with 6 graves and Type Sie Total 3 types and C.142 with 2 graves and 3 types. Table 4 C.68 C.107 C.56 C.142 graves shows the occurrence in graves. A.1 ......... .. 1 1 .. 2 B.l.a. .. | .. 1 .. .. | 1 TABLE 4 B.(1) . . . 2 .. .. 2 Types of Charmstones in Burials B.(1).1 2 (Column figures give number of graves)* B2 .. .. ... .1 C.1 .... .. 2 .. .. 2 Site Total C.(1) ... . .. 4 4 Type C.68 C.107 C.56 C.142 graves C.(1).a . .. 6 1 4 2 13 A1 |. 5 | 86 C.(2).1.a . . .. 3 .. 7 10 A.3 ... .. 6 .. .. 6 C.(2).a ... 13 5 14 .. 32 B C.(2).a1.. 2 3 .. 4 B.1 .. ..... 7 8 6 1 6 C.(2.1. ..... .. .. 2 . . 2 B.1.a ....... . .. 6 ..6 C. (3).a ...|2 .. 1 .. | 3 B2 l..b ... 6 | 6 | H.2 ... .. 1 .. 2 3 B.3 ....... 1 3 .. .. 4 H.2.a . . . . 3 3 BA ........ 1 .. 1 1 3 H.3 .... .. ... 3 1 4 C .... 4 .. .. 4 *More than 1 type may occur in a single grave. 0 3 C.3....... .. . . 11 The most frequent forms are C.(2).a (32 grave occur- E.1 ... 2 .. 1 3 rences); C.(1).a (13 grave occurrences); C.(2) (10 grave E.2 ... .. .. 2 occurrences). These are all circular in shape and with one or two central perforations. Their position In graves was almost invariably near the head and in close prox- F2.1 .. .. 1 .. 1 imity to the ear-opening (pl. 5,f). They commonly oc-- F . 2 ___.._.._1_..___1_ curred in a matched pair or pairs. Ordinarily the cen- *More than 1 type may occur in a single grave. tral perforations were filled,23 and the convex (reverse) surface was smeared, with asphaltum. We are fairly cer- tain that these pieces were the facings for wooden ear- It will be seen from table 4 that of the 16 types of plugs. These facings were affixed either on one or both charmstones, 11 types are limited to single sites, 3 types ends of each earplug. No stone earplugs or lip plugs have occur in two sites, 2 types occur in three sites, and none been found in Early horizon sites thus far excavated, but Is common to all four. This indicates a certain amount these do occur commonly in Middle horizon settlements of specialization by the separate community groups in and rarely in those of the Late horizon.24 Type B and H charmstone forms. With one C.56 burial there was found a charmstone ince the perforations are filled with the adhesive material, (type A.1, of blue amphibolite schist) which is Identical they served no real purpose. It looks as though the disks were received by trade in finished form and used as facings even with the prevailing type from 0.107. A single such defi- though the holes were an unwanted and objectionable feature which nite crosstle has interesting possibilities of interpreta- marred the concave surface. tion. If we are to assulme that this type A.1 piece indi- 24Stone earplugs from Middle horizon graves often have a cates that the two sites were contemporaneous, why then Hallotis disk facing, but the latter is rarely perforated. iS there not more evidence of exchange of ideas of form, HEIZER, CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 19 TABLE 5 already illustrated.26 Similar pieces occur in Middle and Late horizon communities. The double-ended form Materials Used in Charmstones appears to be the only one which occurs in all three cul- (Figures in columns give number of charmstones) tures. These phallic charmstones occur widely in Cen- tral California, being recorded from a number of Sacra- mento Valley settlement deposits of the Middle horizon.27 Material Site On the Central coast double and single-ended phallic C.68 C*107 C*56 C*142 specimens occur in Late horizon deposits. Andesite .... ....2 .. .. I illustrate here (fig. 10,c) a complete phallic charm- -Amphibolite schist . . 70 1 .. stone on exhibit in the State Indian Museum on the Sutter's Mottled limestone ...... 1 10 1 .. Fort grounds in Sacramento. It is labeled as coming from Alabaster ..... ....... 1 4 10 1 near Rio Vista, and is made of blue amphibolite schist. Diorite, andesitic tuff .... 1 4 1 1 It is almost certainly an Early horizon piece and there- Soapstone, steatite ...... 2 .. fore deserves mention here, notwithstanding the fact that Gray schist.5 .. .. 2 nothing further is known regarding its provenience. 6 Granite .......... |.. 3 .. .A limited number of unfinished charmstones have been found. One, of a quartzite pebble, is shown in figure 9,h. Six type B charmstones -(fig. 8,L), with well-finished sur- raw materials, or actual objects? The villages would faces but lacking the usual perforation, came from a not have been too far apart for personal contacts to have C.107 grave (p1. 3,d). No unworked masses of amphibolite been fairly frequent. On the other hand, if site C.56 were schist, alabaster, diorite, granite, or limestone, from 'slightly later in time than C.107, 25 this would explain which charmstones might have been made, have been the general cultural similarities, as well as the specific found in any of the Early horizon sites. differences such as a different choice of charmstone materials (amphibolite schist for C.107, alabaster for C.56). The single type A.1 charmstone found at site C.56 QUARTZ CRYSTALS but originating at site C.107 might then be accountedQURZCYIL for as an oddity which, coming from an old grave at site A noteworthy and characteristic cultural item in the C.107, had been acquired by some site C.56 inhabitant. Early horizon complex is the abundance of clear quartz This reasoning has some support in the finding of another crystals as burial accompaniments. An average of one type A.1 charmstone of amphibolite schist in a burial out of every four graves contained quartz crystals. In form of the Late horizon (Phase 1, Hollister facies) at a dis- they may be either the complete crystal or "cores," tant site (C.138) some 35 miles to the southwest. This i.e., crystals which have had their crystalline facets ;last artifact was definitely a curiosity; its presence here flaked off. These last are ordinarily the size of the end 'is best explained in terms of its discovery by some Late of a man's little finger. One grave at site C.107 (burial horizon inhabitant of site C.107 while he was excavating no. 180) contained 16 complete quartz crystals. This was a pit or grave and its subsequent transportation to its exceptional, however, the average number per grave in second resting-place in site* C.138. C.107 and C.142 being about 4. Dawson found 109 crystals Early horizon charmstones are characteristically per- with nine burials in C.68.28 C.56 produced 13 whole crys- >-forated near one end (types A,B) and we may presume tals from seven graves and 238 crystal "cores" from that they were suspended from a cord. Generally they are twelve burials. too large anld heavy to have been worn habitually as pend- Most California Indians of recent times believed charm- ;ants; if carried, they were probably held in the hand. These stones and quartz crystals to be magically potent, hence i charmstones bear no evidence of heavy duty utilitarian they were ordinarily owned and used by people with spe- usage and probably served some ceremonial function. The cial powers, that is, by shamans.29 In Windmiller facies use of charmstones and quartz crystals by recent Cali- sites there is no significant correlation of crystals and fornia Indians for magical purposes apparently has deep charmstones or occurrence in the same graves. Granting roots in the archaeological cultures. Unless we assume that crystals did have some special esoteric significance, ethat an extremely high percentage of shamans who owned we may note here again an ancient generalized utilization charmstones were buried in our four Early horizon ceme- contrasting with a recent, i.e., ethnographic, individual- teries, and there seems no reason for such an assumption, ized use of magically endowed items such as we noted we may have evidence of an ancient picture of ownership for charmstones. Neither quartz crystals nor charmstones and use of charmstones and quartz crystals very differ- ent from that of the modern California Indians. Appar- ently these objects w ere anciently in fairly general use 26Hent ersand Feneng , i.e1, nos.a25, 26; Lillard by any individuals who wished to use them. This is, of Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, p1. 14, h-i. course, mere speculation, but the abundance of charm- zw stones is an outstanding feature of Windmiller facies 27Specimens in UCMA. See also Blake, 1873; Rau, 1884, fig. burials. 319; Beardsley, 1947. Charmstones of phallus form come from three Early settlements, six specimens in all: C.107, 4; C.56, 1; 28Schenck and DawFson, 1929, pp. 392-393. Note also that site C.142, 1. They are classified as type E, and several are C.B8 produced more crystals than all of their other sites com- __________________ ~~~~~~~~~~~bined (i i . p. 347). 2s"Slightly later" is used advisedly, since the cultures of both sites are very similar. 2SHeizer and Treganza, 1944, pp. 331-332, map 4. 20 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS are limited to graves of either males or females. They is probable that this implement Is of ceremonial, rather occur with adult skeletons of both sexes and not rarely than profane or utilitarian, significance. Numerous blue with skeletons of adolescents and Infants. schist charmstones occurred with the same burial in Projectile points were occasionally made from clear which the pestlelike stone was found. quartz crystals. A C.107 grave produced a splendid speci- men measuring 12 cni. long, type SAa (fig. 12,x). T-he source of these crystals is unknown; it was prob- METATES AND MANOS ably the foothills of the Sierra Nevada to the east,30 or Two stone metates (p1. 5,) from the red clay subsoil the Lake County area to the northeast where clear crys- of C.107 may be attributed to the Early horizon. C.56 and tals lacking plane crystalline faces occur naturally.3 C.68 yielded no metates. The two C.107 metates are frag- The sharp edges of some crystals have been worn down, mentary; roughly half of each remains. One is 16 cm. as clearly illustrated in figure 15,1, No obvious rea- long, 25 cm. wide, 6.5 cm. thick at one edge and 2.5 cm. son occurs to us for this. thick at the center. The grinding depression is ovoid, about 5.5 cm. deep. The other metate is 25 cm. long, 19.5 cm. wide, 4.5 cm. thick at the edge, and 1.5 cm. thick in the center. The edges have been worked so the The stone mortar is present, though not abundant, in shape is more or less squared and the bottom is smoothed. communities of the Windmiller facies. Schenck and Daw- The depression is ovoid with the deepest point in the cen- son report one fragment from C.68,32 and the University ter. of California recovered a rim fragment there in 1938. In July, 1946, A. E. Treganza found a broken metate in The first of these, of tough diorite, indicates a mortar C.142, but it was lost in transit. He describes it as having with shaped exterior, rounded lip, and a diameter of straight sides, a concave grinding surface, and a smooth- about 22 cm. inside the cavity. The other piece, of vesic- pecked flat bottom. It was dug from the mound mass and ular basalt, is nearly identical with the first. C.142 and was not a burial accompaniment. C.56 yielded no evidence of Early period mortars.33 No distinctly recognizable manos have been found, but b5uried in the Early horizon clay stratum at C.107 was a number.of round, flattened stream cobbles have been a rough cobble mortar made of an igneous rock. The disk- recovered which may have been so used. These are all shaped cavity is 3 cm. deep and 13 cm. in diameter; it roughly fist-size. From C.107 came a bifaced "mano" bears a heavy coating of iron oxide, which indicates its 11 cm. long, 7.5 cm. thick, and 11 cm. wide, with a wedge- use as a paint grinder. The outside measurements are shaped cross section. Another, of greenish quartzite, is 18 cm. diameter and 10 cm. height. round and flattened, 9 cm. in diameter and 4.5 cm. thick. Also from C.107 came an unusual mortarlike imple- The flat surfaces show peck marks rather than the smooth ment made of gray andesite, 8 cm. high. The upper or top grinding surface which would result from metate wear. It surface (21.5 cm. x 25 cm.) is worn, as though the slab is problematical whether this should be considered a mano were originally a metate which was later used for a spe- or a small anvil. cial purpose served by the long U-shaped groove. The grbove is 60 mm. wide at the top, 53 mm. deep, and 20 cm. long; its sloping walls are highly polished. It is im- possible to say what use this implement served or the Chipped Implements (figs. 11-14), which are probably manner in which it was employed. to be identified as projectile points and knife blades, are A long, unshaped, subrectangular cobble of brown common burial accompaniments in graves of the Early quartzite from the red clay subsoil of C.107 has been horizon. The typology of chipped implements (fig. 11,a used as a pestle. It is 25.5 cm. long and 9 cm. in diameter. follows that of W. D. Strong. It is not very satisfactory, Only-the point shows evidence of grinding, but the smooth, since occasional examples do not strictly conform to the Coliieal tip is clearly a pestle point which was worn in a type. Such intermediate or doubtful forms are arbitrarily stone mortar. disposed of by assigning them to one or another shape From C.107 came a pestlelike stone implement, a long, group. The percentage of burials with chipped implements flattened,cylinder, of blue amphibolite schist measuring in Windmiller facies communities is as follows: C .68, 37.5 cm. long'and 6.5 cmfl. in diameter. One end is rounded, 41.2; C.107, 40.7; C.142, 31.1; C.56, 25.5. Site C.107 yielded the; other has a chisel point. This schist is used only for 22 Early horizon burials with flaked implements of 5 types, charmstones in burials of the Windmiller facies,34 and it and in decreasing order come C.68 with 21 burials and 12 -______________ types, C.142 with 14 graves and 7 types, and C.56 with 12 burials and 11 types. 30Durrell, 1944. Summarized, class NA chipped implements (fig. 11, b-w) occur as burial artifacts from each settlement, in 3lInformation from Dr. Olaf P. Jenkins, Chief, Calif. State Div. a total of fifty-five graves; class NB has a single occur- Mines and Geology. rence in C.56; class SA (figs. 12, 13,a-g) is noted in all 32Schenck and Dawson, 1929, p. 386. We recovered fragments of at least 8 mortars from this site in 1947. 35After Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, pp. 12-13. Table 6 ?3The intrusive Middle horizon burials of site 0.142 were ac- shows only types in burials. Two or more examples of one type companied by stone pestles of the type used with a wooden mortar. often occurred in the same burial. This accounts for the discrep- See Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, pp. 8-9, 36-37. ancy in totals between thin and the three following tables which treat the total number of chipped implements recovered, regard- 34Site C.107, 70 specimens; site C.56, 1 example. less of association. HEIZER, CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 21 CLASS I CLASS II CLASS m 12igm. 412 01 21 4 51 71 9012224567890133333 10C 1411)Fg0.Wihsadfeunce fcipdpit,alsts 9 8 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _______________________8 0 7 7 .0 6 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ __________________________ 6 5 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5 z 14 A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 122 wt.in gms. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2021 2 223 24252627 28 2930 31 32 33 3435 36 TABLE 6 straight, or concave base) is the most characteristic Types of Flaked Stone Implements in Burials Early horizon form. This is followed by class SA (con- tracting stem), class SB (parallel-sided stem), class SC (Figures in columns give number of graves)* (expanding stem), and finally class NB (triangular). C. t 68To/7)take the next whole nuMaterials.--Since the later cultures in our area em- Type Sit Tot10 5 12gale ployed obsidian almost exclusively for chipped points and . C. . . blades, it is a matter of interest to note the variety of NAa ..... 12 .. 7 ... 19 additional materials used by the Early horizon people. NAbl...... 9 5 3 2 19 Table 7 shows materials employed for flaked implements NAb2 .......TA 3 2 3 1 9 from our four settlements. The totals include both grave NA;b3 .'es 7 1 .. .. 8 items and dissociated specimens recovered from the NBa . . . . . . . .t.. .. 11 .. 1 mound mass of Early horizon deposits. As table 7 shows, obsidian is the most frequently used SAa ....... 7 3 16 4 30 material. The occurrence of all other materials combined SAa2 ... .. .. 1 1 does not equal that of obsidianh. SAb ...... 1 .. .. .. 1 We are apparently dealing here with a people who SAc ... .. 1 1 2 could obtain obs idian as easily as more refractory mate- SBa ......... 4 5 12 3 24 rials. It seems probable that the use of slate, flint, chert, SBc.1 .. .. .. 1 SCal ...... 1 .. 4 1 6 TABLEs 7 SCa2 ..... .. .. . 5 .. 5 SCa3 ..... .. .. 1 .. 1 Materials Used for Flaked Stone Implements SCa4 . 1 ; * . 1 (Figures in columns giv number of implements) SCal6.. .. 1 4. .. 2 TABLE_______ ________7_ SCb3 .2 .. .. .. 2 Total *More than 1 type may occur in a single grave. Material Site imple- C.68 C.107 C.56 C.142 ments four communities, with a total of 34 grave occurrences; Obsidian.36 9 30 7 82 class SB (fig. l3,h-g, a'-c') from all four communities Quartzite .... ... . 1 3 1 | 5 from 25 burials; and class SC (fig. l4,S.,s) is found in all Flint and chert ..... .|7 9 20 4 |40 communities except C.107, with a total for six subclasses Slate, schistose, basalt |4 13 8 7 |32 from 17 graves. It appears that class NA (leaf-shaped, Quartz crystal ......|.. 1 2 .. | 3 pointed at both ends, pointed at one end with convex,-lI 22 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS TABLE 8 Weight of Flaked Stone Implements (in grams metric) Weight Average weight by sites Type Number of points Total Average Range C.68 C.107 C.56 C.142 NAa ........ 22 296.2 13.5 4.4-28.3 (8)* 15.6 (4) 13.7 (9) 11.7 (1) 11.5 NAb......... 16 177.8 11.1 5.2-35.9 (9) 8.0 (3) 22.0 (3) 9.8 (1) 10.0 NAb2 ........ 17 213.2 12.5 6.0-20.0 (5) 13.1 (7) 13.1 (5) 11.2 .... NAb3 .10 186.0 18.6 6.5-31.5 (6) 12.3 (3) 26.9 .... (1) 31.5 N-Ba . . 4 28.5 7.1 3.0-13.0 (1) 7.2 .... (2) 4.2 (1) 13.0 SAa. ... | 39 583.7 15.0 4.5-32.7 (7) 13.9 (8) 19.7 (17) 12.8 (7) 15.7 SAa2 . 1 12.5 12.5 .... .... .... .... (1) 12.5 SAb .1 27.5 27.5 .... (1) 27.5 .... .... SAc .5 92.7 18.5 9.4-31.5 (2) 23.3 (1) 16.7 (1) 9.4 (1) 20.1 SBa .27 342.3 12.7 4.2-28.0 (2), 16.1 (6) 14.1 (15) 13.4 (4) 10.0 SBc .... | . 1 5.2 5.2 .... (1) 5.2 .... .... .... SCal .. . 6 95.7 16.0 4.8-36.4 .... (1) 25.7 (3) 8.4 (2) 22.5 SCa2 .9 67.9 7.5 5.2-15.0 (3) 9.6 .... (6) 6.5 .... SWa3 . 1 3.7 3.7 .... .... .... (1) 3.7 .... SCab . . 2 38.4 19.2 .... (1) 26.5 .. .(1)11.9.. SCb3 1 8.1 8.1 .... (1) 8.1 .... .... .... *Figures in parentheses indicate number of specimens. and, other nonglassy materials is to be explained in the information on average weights of Early horizon terms of cultural preference, percussion flaking method, chipped points as a whole; table 8 summarizes average apd sources of supply. Either the large-scale exploitation weights.by type. Harrington notes weights of eight Gypsum 0of the obsidian quarries36 and the import of the prepared Cave chipped points.37 These eight pieces range from l'blade-blanks was not yet established at this time, or the 4.8 gm. to 13.0 gm., and average 8 gm. Vaillant (quoting Early horizon population residing on the south bank of Kidder) states that Anasazi dart points range from 4.8 gm. the Mokelumne River preferred to use the cryptocrystal- to 11.3 gm.38 We suggest that the weight curve in figure line rocks because these materials were traditional and 4 can be broken down into three weight classes (table 9): 'thefr flaking techniques (see discussion under "Techno- Class I, dart points; Class II, spear points; Class m, logical Aspects") were adjusted to them. I am inclined knife blades or possible heavy spear points. to accept the latter explanation and point to the limited Early horizon use of obsidian as a purely cultural feature TABLE 9 reflecting a still earlier period when obsidian was not Weights of Flaked Stone Implements by Classes known or used. i a.--From the time of excavation of the first Early horizon burials (at C.107) it was obvious that Class or points Weight (in gm.) the chipped implements tended to run to large and heavy forms. The technique of flaking is excellent and well con- Range Average Total trolled, so large size and weight cannot be attributed to I. Dart points.... 87 3-12 8.3 722 crudity resulting from technical inability to produce re- II. Spear points ... 51 13-20 16.0 819 fie pit. IISea ons5I 2-0 10 81 'Figure 4 summarizes, without sacrifice of detailed data, II. Knife bade . .. 24 2136 2.0 67 86For obsidian sources see Heizer and Treganza, 1944, pp 37Harrington, 1933, p. 92. ;30340, map 1. 38Valllant, 1931, pp. 300-302. See also Kidder, 1938, p. 156. HEIZER, CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 23 Since concrete evidence of the type of throwing weapon SANDSTONE "PALETTE" itself has not been recovered, it cannot be proved that the This piece made of a fine-grained sandstone slab, is atlatl was the weapon used by the Early horizon people. Th si pieces recovered from any ot N sems robble hoeve tht itwas ifwe udg bythe one of the most singular pieces recovered from any of the It seems probable, however, that It was, if we judge by Early horizon deposits. The rectangular slab (pl. 5, weights of Early horizon penetrating points. These are sufficiently close to the weights of points definitely known is nicely smoothed on both surfaces and all corners are to be atlatl dart points.39 squared. It is 58 cm. long, 28 cm. wide, and 4 cm. thick. Patination.--Obsidian, highly resistant to chemical al- The rectangular depression measures 31 cm. by 9.5 cm. teration, exhibits no surface patina. But most of the chert and is 1 cm. deep. The top surface and depression are flint, and slate chipped implements are noticeably altered heavily caked with red pigment. in surface color and texture through chemical oxidation or other alteration. Sometimes the surface patina is one mil- OBJECTS OF GROUND SLATE limeter thick (fig. 12,a ). These metamorphic rocks are not by nature particularly subject to rapid alteration, and which chipped points were fashioned (e.g., fig. 11a the patina of the chipped points and blades of the Early Theimost charactristic ue ofathis rock, howevr,,wa). . . . . . ~~The most characteristic use of this rock, however. was Sacramento culture must be viewed as additional evidence of~~ ~~ it niut0 for making ground and polished objects of the three types of its antiquity. discussed below. Community differences in occurrence of ground slate objects are noteworthy. They were entirely LARGE CEREMONIAL (?) BLADE lacking in C.142, occurred only once in C.56, yet at near- by C.68 were found in 5 burials. C.107 leads with 9 grave Unique to the Early horizon is the obsidian blade shown occurrences. in figure 14,w, from a grave at C.107. The material is less opaque than most of the other obsidian implements TABLE 10 at C.107. This may indicate a different quarry source and foreign origin of the large blade. It now measures 15.5 Ground Slate Artifacts in Burials cm. long, 6.0 cm. wide, and is 1.5 cm. thick. (Figures in columns give number of artifacts) Site OBSIDIAN FLAKE KNIVES Artifacts C.68 C.107 6 C.142 C.6 C.10 C.56 .4 About 8 thin, subrectangular obsidian flakes, averag- Rectangular pendants, ing 6 cm. by 4 cm., with one long, retouched edge prob- perforated.2 1 ably served as knives or scrapers. These came from two Cylindrical "pencils" C.107 graves. These pieces deserve emphasis since they and rodsi. "pei3 8 represent practically the only examples of partially andri al 3 . flaked implements from Windmiller facies settlements. Cylindrical rods, perforated ... 2 1 Flat abrading stone .. 1 POLISHED FLAKED IMPLEMENTS One flaked implement.from each of three Windmiller Rectangular pendants, perforated.--There are two facies settlements (C.68 C.56 C.142) has been ground pieces from C.68 (fig. 15,~) and one from C. 107 (fig. 15,g). fandessettleme (C.68, Ch6 Concav has befe gro The C.68 pieces measure 1 mm. by 55 mm. by 2 mm. and and polished. 1 The conc'ave surfaces of the flake scars have a small biconically drilled hole near one end. The are still visible. These three pieces may be evidences of have a small biconicallyfdried hol nears o ped. Tep purposeless industry, a possibility suggested by their C.1i7 pice is ntperforate btars a pecked depres- rarity, and may reflect the general emphasis on polishing sion which was apparently the start of a hole near one rarity, and may reflectthegeneralemphasisonend. It is longer than the C.68 pieces measuring, though of stone materials (e.g., charmstones), or on the other 1 X ^ } . ~~~~~~incomplete, 11.6 cm. in length, 16 mm. in width, and 6 mm. hand, they may be survivals of a nearly forgotten trait in thickness which earlier was m6re generally practiced. Their pres- Cyicndcsa ence is sufficiently unusual, however, to deserve ex- Cylindrical "pencils" and rods.--These are pointed plicit mention. rods of ground slate whose cross section ranges from Numerous flaked points have their basal edges smoothed round to oval or subrectangular. There are two tpesv dif by grinding, a feature commonly associated with some of ferentiated by size, one large, the other small. Grave the more ancient chipped flint forms of North America. occurrences total 11 from 2'.sites (C.68, C107). The small form (fig. 15ccr,adbteC6 The practice here may reflect a survival of this ancient a C 7 these rods are ,ostently) occurs at both C.68 trait. and CA07; these rods are consistently 5 mm. in diameter, the lengths ranging from 9 cm. to 11.8 cm. There are 9 grave occurrences with a total of 19 pieees; one end of 3s a these is pointed the other blunt and somewhat flattened, 9Cressman and Krieger (1940, p. 43) give, the weight of atlatl p ' dart points from the Oregon caves as ranging from 2.0 to 6.2 gim. with scratches or scorings on the flattened end. These The range and average are somewhat smaller than those proposed would be well suited to employment as simple projectile for the Sacramento Valley points identified as dart heads. points, awls, or perforators. The large form is similar to the small type. From two 4?Patina of artifacts is well treated by Service, 1941. burials at C.68 came 9 examples 15 cm. long, 12 mm. ^1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~wide, and 6 mm. thick (fig. 15,?). From site C.107 are 4Schenck and Dawson, 1929, pl. 91b (site 0.68). 3pitdtp fclnrclsaepit hc r o 24 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 6.5 cm. and 11. cm. long with diameters of 9 mm. and 16,c), made of white tuff, has a diameter of 50 mm. at 12 mm. (fig. 15,J). These must originally have been much the bowl end, 20 mm. at the stem end, and is 85 mm. in longer, judging from their diameters. A final example, length. In both the perforation is conical,42 with hole from C.1Q7, is unique in size, measuring 23 cm. in diameters tapering from 20 mm. to 10 mm. and from length, 16 mm. in width and 12 mm. in thickness. One end 36 mm. to 8 mm. Each piece is thick-walled (11 mm.- is pointed, the other flattened and scored for binding 14 mm.) and neither bears any evidence whatsoever of (fig. 15,). interior charring, discoloration, or dottel ashes. Cylindrical rods, perforated.--These are not very dif- Specimens closely comparable in size and drilling ferent from some specimens of the group (large form) come from certain Basketmaker sites;43 they, too, show just discussed, but are here set aside because of a drilled no signs of use in smoking. It seems possible that the hole near one end. Sacramento Valley pieces were shamans' sucking in- From a C.56 burial came two broken slate rods 1 cm. struments; they may have some connection with stone in diameter (fig. 15,g,D. Both are broken at the perfora- tubes so used by recent Indians in southern California, tion, and one has the tip missing. Probable length of the northwestern Mexico, and Baja California. most nearly complete piece is 15 cm. and, since they are otherwise similar, it may be presumed that they were an PERFORATED BIOTITE ORNAMENTS identical pair. Flat slate abrading stone.--This unique specimen (fig. These pendants are noted only from C.107 and C.68 16,a) from a C.107 burial shows abundant signs of use. (fig. 16,b). They are commonly about 30 mm. in diameter, The edges are rubbed, there are surface scratch marks roughly circular in shape, and about 3 mm. thick. They and hollows or wide grooves resulting from repeated are perforated near one edge. Source of these green bio- scratching of pointed objects. It is made of a flat piece of tite plates was probably the Sierran region immediately laminated gray slate 10 cm. square and 1 cm. thick. On to the east of the Mokelumne area. two opposite edges are V-shaped ground notches. CHRYSOTILE ASBESTOS SPLINTERS LARGE STEATITE BEAD Thin, long aggregates of asbestos crystals of a blue- A thick circular ring of gray-green steatite (fig. 16,f) green color have been recovered from Early horizon came from a C.107 burial. It is 2.7 cm. in diameter, 1.3 graves in C.107 and C.68. They probably came from a cm. thick, and the central biconically drilled hole is 11 single source, presumably the Sierra Nevada to the east. mm. in diameter. The piece is unique for the Windmiller The pieces are unworked, and were probably brought home facies, and the material is also rare in this horizon. as mineralogical curiosities. Steatite was extensively employed by the Late and Middle culture horizon groups in this area. OBSIDIAN "BANGLES" These are slender prismatic flakes (average length HAMMERSTONES 11 cm.) of natural origin which may be found in quantity Only two clearly identifiable hammerstones have been around certain Napa Valley and Clear Lake obsidian out- recovered. One, from C.144, is made of jasper, tan choco- crops. They were used by the recent California Indians late in color (fig. 16,J). It was originally a stream cobble chiefly as tinklers tied to skirts.44 Twenty specimens of flattened cylindrical form. Both ends are much worn occurred in five graves of the Early Central California and pitted. It is 4 cm. thick and 6.5 cm. long. The pitted horizon (C.107, 4 graves; C.56, 1 grave). These flakes ends indicate its probable use in flaking flint or obsidian are extremely numerous in Middle and Late horizon implements. The piece was found in general digging and burials, their abundance being partly explainable in terms was not associated with a burial. of the almost exclusive use of obsidian by these later From the C.56 mound mass comes a long, flattened peoples. The C.107 pieces (fig. 14,u,v) were heavily coated pebble whose ends show abrasion of the sort ordinarily with red ochre; those from C .56 are plain (fig. 14,t). characteristic of flaking hammerstones. It is 12 cm. long by 4.5 cm. wide and 2 cm. thick. UNWORKED COLORED STREAM PEBBLES TUBULAR STONE "'PIPES)) A relatively common item accompanying burials of the Windmiller facies is one or two smooth quartzite From C.142 came two tubular stone "pipes." Each oc- stream pebbles, which are generally about the size and curred with an extended burial which lay on the back (i.e., shape of a slightly flattened hen's egg. They are naturally dorsally). This posture is atypical for the site, and one colored (red, pink, light green, light tan, white) and were may speculate whether this correlation between stone no doubt selected by the Indians partly because of their "pipe" and dorsally extended burial is not evidence that pipe owners were marked persons who were accorded 42Tubular pipes from Middle and Late horizon sites are in- special burial posture. In one interment there occurred, variably biconically drilled. An additional example which is almost besides - -- thepipe,-afew Haliotis beads of tye la- and ---a- identical with the 2 specimens from C. 142 was recovered from the beside the ipe, few alioti bead of tpe laand adeeply alluviated Strawberry occupation-burial deposit just south quartz crystal; the other burial contained only a pipe. In of the city of Sacramento. The collection is unpublished but is each, the pipe lay near the head. described by H. and F. Riddeli, MS on file in UCMA. Both pieces are conical. One is of blue steatite (fig. 3idradGene,11,fg 4 crgr 91 .20 16,@) with a bowl-end diameter of 40 mm., stem-end43idradGeny,19,fg9;Mceo,14,p.20 diameter of 22 mm., and length of 70 mm. The other (fig. 44Kroeber (1925, p. 76) cites their use by the Yurok. HEIZER: CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 25 attractive color. C.107 yielded six burials with such peb- occasionally bear a smoothed surface indicating hand- bles; C.56, six; C.142, seven. The trait is present in C.68, molding. A large angular piece with twined basketry im- but the number of grave occurrences is not recorded in pression, in a private collection, is reported to have come Dawson's notes. from the surface of C.142, and there is little reason to The pebbles are unworked and are therefore artifacts doubt this in view of an almost identical piece from C.68 only in the sense that their natural form was such that (fig. 5,). they were picked up, retained, and considered of sufficient Middle culture horizon deposits produce a greater va- value as possessions to have been repeatedly selected as riety and frequency of baked-clay objects than Early ho- grave offerings. They can hardly have been slingstones, rizon sites. S.66 yielded 1 flat perforated disk, one cache since they are too heavy. The stoneless floodplain might of 6 baked-clay objects in three matched pairs (2 longi- induce a man who happened to be in the gravelly area some tudinally grooved and 4 loaf-shaped), 1 tule-impressed, miles to the east to carry back with him these nicely and 3 plain, spool-shaped objects. The perforated disk shaped and colored stones as curiosities.45 They may and plain ball forms, known only from single occurrences have been weapons, serving as throwing stones, which a in one Early horizon deposit (C.68), carry over to Middle man carried with him for special purposes in hunting or horizon times, but the small pecan-shaped form with cut war. Their employment in some ceremonial or magical groove is unique to the Early horizon where it is known context is not to be overlooked as a possibility, particu- from only the C.68 and C.107 communities. larly since they repeatedly occur (as offerings?) with the Late horizon sites excavated since 1937 by the Sacra- dead. mento Junior College and the University of California49 have yielded a great number of baked-clay objects all of which are in the University collection,50 awaiting study. In conclusion, it now appears likely that the Late Cen- The occurrence of hand-molded objects of fired clay in tral California elaboration of the baked-clay art has a the Early Central California horizon is of considerable vertical or local, rather than horizontal or outside, dern- interest, not only because the trait can be construed as vation. But there remains the problem of the origin of the near-pottery in a presumably ancient horizon, but also Early horizon baked-clay forms, rare as they are.5 because it may represent the germ of the Late Sacramento culture magnitude of molding and baking clay objects.46 B My 1937 analysis of the baked-clay art of the lower Sacramento Valley is deficient chiefly on interpretative Only 59 bone implements52 were recovered from the grounds because the three Central California culture ho- four communities of the Windmiller facies. In view of rizons had not then been clearly defined. Instead of a the amount of the deposit excavated and the number of simple twofold sequence, wherein the earliest horizon burials found, it is apparent that bone was not a material was recognized from only one site (C.107) and in addi- particularly favored for implements in the Early period. tion was but ill defined,4 we now recognize three suc- The later cultures (Middle and Late horizons) operating cessive culture horizons, each of which is known from a in the same area apparently utilized, bone more exten- series of scientifically excavated settlements. sively, although in these horizons we may be dealing with In emendation of my earlier hypothesis that the baked- the special factor of deeper refuse accumulation deposits clay trait is more or less directly derived from the cer- containing larger numbers of discarded or lost imple- amic complex of the Anasazi area, it is proposed here ments. The nature of the deposits may partly explain the that the practice of Late horizon cultures of molding paucity of bone implements in Early Sacramento culture and baking clay objects may be an outgrowth of the sites, yet in Middle and Late burials the bone objects tend small-scale practice originating in the Early horizon.48 to be more numerous and of more varied types than those The following forms are known from Early horizon set- of the Early horizon. This observation is submitted as tlement deposits: C.107, 2 small (1 in. long), well smoothed, evidence of significantly less interest of the Early people pecan-shaped balls with a cut or cord-impressed groove in bone as a tool material. traversing the longitudinal exterior surface and 2 bicon-- cally shaped balls (fig. 16,); C.68, 8 grooved pieces iden- 49In July, 1937, a University of California summer field party tical with the last except that they exhibit variations in un auly, sUpersion Californian ummerafic test length from one-half to one and one-quarter inches; a flat, under te autho supervsoexcavated seven stratigraphic test thin ounddisk ith enterperfratio; 1 lain lay all; pits In site C.6, the Late horizon focus of the baked-clay art. Sev- thin, round disk with center perforation; 1 plain clay ball; eral thousand baked-clay objects were recovered, each assignable and an angular piece with twined basketry impressions to a 12-in. level in a stratipit. When these are analyzed, we should (fig. 16,g,,). No baked-clay objects were found with bur- learn something about type sequences in the Late horizon, where ials in C.56 and C.142, although the site deposits show the art reached its zenith. evidence of baked-clay fragments and chunks which may "In 1947 Mr. Russell Newman, with a crew of eight University students, conducted extensive excavations at site C.6. His collec- 5This custom of carrying home unusual mineral specimens is tion includes several hundred pounds of these baked-clay objects. known from other evidence (cf. the zincblende and malachite in New collections from Walnut Grove, Isleton, and west of Rio. Vista site C.68, Schenck and Dawson, 1929, p. 394). will aid materially in defining the distribution of types of baked- clay forms. 46For a general discussion see Heizer, 1937, which gives ad- ditional references. 51Cf. Ford and Quimby, 1945, pp. 31-32. 47As presented by Lillard and Purves, 1936. 52Antler and bone implements are separately discussed. The total of 59 here, however, includes fof convenience 3 antler 48See also Heizer and Fenenga, 1939, p. 383. implements of the flat spatula class from 0.56 and 0.107. 26 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS TABLE 11 Bone Artifacts in Burials (Figures in columns give number of artifacts) Site Total Artifacts bone C.68 C.107 C.56 C.142 artifacts Human bone objects Skull receptacle ................. Fibula dagger .................... Radius whistle ...................1 Short bone tubes Bird-bone ....................... 2 21 5 Mammal-bone ................... 5 5 Bone awls Bird-bone ..................... 5 5 Mammal-bone ......... 7 2 .. .. 9 Flat bone or antler spatulae ........... 3 1 .. 4 Long, cylindrical pins Bipointed ... 2 .. 2 One end flattened, other end plain .. 4 1 .. 5 Wide, heavy, split animal-bone tubes .. 2 .. .. 2 Flattened bone tools, blunt end .......... 1 3 2 .. 6 "Dagger" of cannon bone .. ............... 1 .. 1 Bipointed gorge hook ... .. 1 .. 1 Single-piece curved fishhook ...........1 .. .. .. 1 Notched bone point ................1 .. .. .. 1 Perforated "needles" Bipointed, cylindrical ..............1 .. .. .. 1 Flat, thin, long .................... .. 1 5 6 Objects of human bone.--From C.107 came a unique Short bone tubes.--Ten pieces only were recovered from piece, a calvarium used as container, the edges showing our four settlements. Numerically they are evenly divided cutting, chipping, and smoothing marks (pl. 5,I). It may between tubes made of bird bone and of heavier mammal have been of ceremonial use.53 The skull from which it bone. The bird-bone tubes (fig. 18,h,m) average 38 mm. as made may have been that of an enemy brought home in length and 7 mm. in diameter; the heavier animal-bone after a battle. tubes (fig. 18,g) average 69 mm. in length and 11 mm. in A fibula dagger or poniard, 32.7 cm. long, was recov- diameter. All the heavy animal-bone tubes came from red from a C.56 burial (fig. 17,g). The point is sharpened C.107; the other three communities yielded only bird-bone d the proximal end of the bone furnishes an enlarged tubes. All were probably beads, though in a C.107 burial ip. This end has a perforation angled at about 45 de- (No. S.166) a mammal-bone tube was found resting on the rees.A malar bone, which suggests Its possible use as an ear-tube. A radius whistle (now lost) came from a C.142 burial.r5 Bone awls.--It was believed for some time that there was about 8 cm. long and was made of the proximal end were no awls in Early horizon sites, but we were in error a human radius. There was a single oval perforation, on this point. Bone awls are rare; only fourteen specimens t no evidence of a clay or asphalt stop. Aside from the exist, and many of these may be specialized tools which ee questionable whistles from C.68 (described below served purposes other than basketmaking, the function der "bone awls"), this human-bone whistle is our only usually ascribed to archaeologic bone awls in this region vidence of this class of object, so abundant in Late horiz- where coiled basketry was so extensively used by later sites. Middle horizon settlements furnish heavy mammal native groups. ne whistles while the Late horizon forms are almost From C.107 came two fragmentary awls, flat and thin, variably of thin bird bone. with tapering, more or less blunted, points. They are 65 mm. long and 9 mm. wide. Both appear to have been fash- 53When found, the skull case contained red ochre and rec- toned from a fortuitous splinter of animal bone. From,the lar Haliotis shell beads. Type A charmstones of blue am- same settlement came two short, broad awls of split ani- pibolite schist occurred with the burial. mal tibiae, one of which (fig. 18,w has a cut end. The most complete specimen, whose tip is missing, measures 73 "iIllustrated in Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, p1. 10,i. mm. long and 20 mm. wide (fig. 18,.). Two coyote ulnae 66Described, by misprint, as from site 69 in Heizer and Fen- from 0.68 have been fashioned into awls by the simple ex- nga, 1939, p. 391. pedient of grinding a beveled point on the distal end of the HEIZER, CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 27 bone (fig. 18,A). Also from C.68 came three awls made tion of the pieces described below as "perforated, flat, from fortuitous splinters (lengths of 2 complete pieces, thin, long needles." The C.68 piece (fig. 18,) was found 11.5 cm. and 6.5 cm. respectively) and one awl of the in the mound mass without association; it is 14.2 cm. long, split leg bone of some. animal (coyote?), with a sharp 1.2 cm. wide, and 5 mm. thick. beveled point. This piece is 16 cm. long and 9 mm. wide. "Dagzer" of cannon bone.--This unique Early horizon Bird-bone awls made by grinding a beveled point like a piece from site C.56, represented now by the handle end quill pen occurred only at C.68. Four specimens were fragment, is formed from a split cannon bone with the recovered by E. J. Dawson, but three of these may pos- epiphysis nicely ground down (fig. 18,e). It is 8.2 cm. long sibly be fragmentary whistles, the slanting break occur- and 3 cm. wide; the original length may have been as much ring at what appears to be the edge of the ovoid opening. as 20 cm. Its function may have been that of a dagger or The other piece, however, is definitely an awl of this perhaps a scraper but its use carmot now be determined, type (fig. 18, j). From C.68 comes another slender awl since the working point is missing. of bird bone also from a fortuitous splinter; it measures Long cylindrical or elliptical pins.--Five pieces of 5 cm. in length and could not have served any heavy duty this class were recovered, four from C.107 and one from purpose. Generally speaking, awls recovered from set- C.56. Two of the C.107 pieces (shown in fig. 19,_,g) are tlements of the Windmiller facies are an unstandardized,. now lost58 but their measurements are recorded as 22.5 scrappy lot which do not compare well with the abundant, and 20.0 cm. long with an elliptical cross section 17 mm. well-made, basketry awls of Middle and Late horizon by 14 mm. The remaining specimens are, respectively, sites. 29.2 cm. and 21.8 cm. long with one pointed end and one Flat bone or antler spatulae.--These pieces have been flattened or beveled end (figs. 17,d 19,. The central referred to as sudatores or strigils. Four examples are diameter of each is 9 mm. The C.56 piece of this class known, three from C.107 and one from C.56. Similar pieces (fig. 19,?) is 23 cm. long. also occur in some Middle horizon sites."6 Wide, heavy, split animal-bone tools.--The two ex- The largest example is from C.1-07; although fragmen- amples of this group come from C.107. These are rough tary, it is 39 cm. long, 3 cm. wide, and 3 mm. thick. It service implements, judging from their rugged construc - appears to be made of antler (fig. 17,L). A similar speci- tion. Of flattened cross section, with one end rounded to men from C.107, a fragment showing a curved cross sec- fit the hand and the other pointed for a working tip, they tion and rounded end, is 26 cm. long and 4 cm. wide and is may even have served as weapons. Both are now fragmen- also of antler. The third piece from C.107 is very thin, tary, measuring about 20 cm. long, 1.5 cm. wide, and 1 cm. being fashioned probably from a scapula blade. It is 22.5 thick. cm. long and 3.5 cm. wide at the broad end, tapering to a Bipointed gorge hook.--This is the sole evidence for point at the other. bone gorge hooks of the Early horizon. The piece (fig. The C.56 spatula (fig. 17,~) is made of antler (probably 18,), measuring 8.8 cm. long, 10 mm. wide, and 5 mm. elk) and is complete. It has a concave base and lenticular thick, was found dissociated in the deposit mass of C.56. cross section and measures 32.8 cm. long and 4.5 cm. Single-piece curved fishhook.--A single specimen wide.57 (fig. 18,) came from the burial of an adolescent male Long bipointed cylindrical pins.--Four of these well- (No. C.9) in C.68. It is unlike other single-piece bone or fashioned "pins" were recoverd, two from C.107, two shell fishhooks from the Santa Barbara and Humboldt Bay from C.142. The C.142 pieces (figs. l7,g., 19,) are 28.2 localities, which are the only sites outside our area known cm. and 20.5 cm. long respectively; each is 8 mm. in to yield such hooks.59 diameter. The longest bears definite wrapping marks The hook lay in the grave with a notched bone "point" which appear to have been of a very fine twisted string. lying along the shank of the hook proper in such a position These binding impressions, occurring for about 4 cm. as to suggest that the two were originally bound together.80 near one end, completely encircle the object, indicating The hook itself is 6 cm. long and 22 mm. from tip to out- that it was not bound to a shaft but was probably a wrap- side of shank; the end is somewhat enlarged to permit at- ping to which feathers or some other decorative mate- tachment of the line. The bone "point" is described below. rials were affixed. The two fragmentary C.107 pieces are The only other single-piece curved bone fishhook known similar but show no traces of wrapping. from our area comes from site C.117, a Late horizon Flattened bone tools with blunt ends.--This appears to settlement. It is in the private collection of Mr. S. Martine be a specialized Early culture horizon form. Six pieces of Sacramento. comd from three settlements (C.107, C.68, C.56). Three Notched bone "point."--This is a difficult piece to de- C.107 specimens came from one burial. All are fragmen- scribe, and the reader is referred to the illustration in tary, now measuring 7.2 cm., 10 cm., and 11.5 cm. in length, 1.1 cm. average width, and 4 mm. average thick- 58Between 1940 and 1942 a number of complete artifacts were ness. Two C.56 pieces (fig. 19,de) are somewhat curved stolen from the Lillard Collection, which in this period was in the and appear to have been formed from a split animal rib. Sacramento Junior College without curatorial supervision. Among They measure 19 cm. and 22.5 cm. long, respectively, the stolen pieces were all of the phallic charmstones, several ob- and each is 1 cm. wide. One has a sharp point, the other sidian blades, and a number of bone objects. is blunted. Since both are somewhat irregular (i.e., broken 56Santa Barbara types are illustrated by Gifford, 1947, p. 110; or unfinished) on the broad end, it may be that they were Woodward, 1929; Robinson, 1942; and Orr, 1947, p. 127. The Hum- originally perforated. If so, they would fit the classifica- boldt Bay hooks, of bone, are in the collection of Dr. H. H. Stuart r of Eureka. Examples are on exhibit in the State Indian Museum, 56Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, pp. 45, 48, 51 (listed as Sacramento. "sudatores"). See also Gifford, 1940, p. 172. 6?As illustrated, Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, p. 66, 57Illustrated, ibid., p1. 10, L p1. 20, k. 28 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS figure 18,&. The bone piece is 5 mm. thick, 7 cm. long, TABLE 12 9 mm. wide at center and somewhat less on the ends, one of which angles off slightly. Both ends, like the shank end Artifacts of Antler, Turtle Carapace, Canid Teeth of the fishhook with which it was associated, are slightly (Parenthetical figures are actual specimen counts; plain bulbous or enlarged, presumably to allow a line to be tied figures show grave occurrence) securely. We may be in error in supposing that the two pieces Total found comprise a compound hook. It may be that the curved Artifacts Site occur- fishhook is complete in itself, the notched bone "point" C.68 C.107 C.56 C.142 rence being a separate shank with a wooden barb attached. In Trident_fish-spear evidence may be cited the definite scoring on the angled Trident fish-spear end, which may have served to hold the binding of the points of antler 3 5 1 .. 9 base of the wooden barb to the bone shank.6' Antler "wedge" It may be observed that similar "points" occur com- (scraper?) .wh 1 .. .. .. 1 monly in settlements of the Middle Culture horizon and Antler tines with that no instances of single-piece curved fishhooks are cut base . .. 3 2 .. 5 thus far recorded from this culture. Rectangular turtle- A possible separate fishhook barb (fig. 18,J) comes carapace pend- from C.56. It shows binding marks at the thinner and ants.2 .. 6 .. 8 flatter end, which is angled. Canid teeth . 8 (40) 2 (8) 1 (2) .. 11 Perforated bipointed cylindrical "needles."--From C.68 came a perforated implement worked down from some heavy mammal bone. It is cylindrical and made of al at C.68.63 In site C.56 a single point was found in the solid, dense bone 1 cm. in diameter, with a drilled hole mound deposit without association. Of the five C.107 pieces, 3 mm. in diameter 8 mm. from the end. It has been three occurred in one burial and one each in two burials. broken, its present length being 9 cm., but originally it Antler wedge (scraper?).--This implement (fig. 18,a) may have been 20 ci. long, judging from the fact that comes from site C.68 and would unquestionably be classed tayheprne possess show no .dimitio in diat as a wood-splitting wedge except for the fact that the butt Perforated flati thin, long "needles."--There are six shows no batter marks. It is probably to be classified as of these pieces, fivfrom a single grave at C.142, the a hand tool, perhaps for scraping skins. It is 14 cm. long, other from C.56. The C.142 pieces are all similar, being with an expanded base 5.5 cm. wide, and tapers gradu- widest at the perforated end and tapering gradually to ally to a rounded chisel point. thdestip and were perforatedesumably maderinggraale ron Antler tines with cut base.--Three antler spikes from (fip1,) andwTheir measurements are as follows lengths one burial in C.107 average 7.6 cm. in length and 1 cm. in (fig. 17,,a4). Their measurem . are a t tip end diameter. Two are plain, one has a filed notch across 32.2 cm., 34 cm., 31.7 cm., 20 cm. (broken at tip end, the flat base. Their function is not obvious; they may have estimated original length 30 cm.), breadths at perforated been raw material saved for making implements. end, 1.6 cm., 2.0 cm., 1.1 cm., 1.3 cm., 1.7 cm.; thick- Tw te savedhfor poing implements. ness averaging about 6 mm. The C.56 piece (fig. 19,h) is Two tine ends with worn points from the general mound fashioned from a large rib. It is 20.5 cm. long and 1 cm. mass of C.56 may have served as pressure flaking tools. wide. Actually similar in all respects except the drilled Rectangular turtle-carapace pendants.--Only two set- hole near one end and the sharp point are the two pieces s y from C.56 described above under "flattened bone tools pendants. Two from C.68 (fig. 5,t,e) measure 3.2 cm. by with blunt ends." 2 cm. and 3.8 cm. by 2.5 cm. The smaller has a single These flat needles may have been used in matmaking. hole near the edge, the larger has four holes, one in each corner. Six pieces in three pairs, two with rectangular Haliotis shell bead, and one with rectangular Olivella OBJECTS OF ANTLER, TURTLE CARAPACE, bead, applique, came from a single burial at site C.56 CANID TEETH (fig. 5,.,c). These pieces are all trapezoidal in form with This is a miscellaneous classification of implements a single perforation at the narrow end. and sis oramentscelas nedofs theseifiaterial. Typlemns aCanid teeth.--From two C.107 burials came eight drilled and ornaments fashioned of these materials. Types and cyt et hc rbbysre sonmns occurrece in raves re shon in tble 12 coyote teeth, which probably served as ornaments. Occurrence in graves are shown in table 12. Trident fish-spear points of antler.--The trident is From eight C.68 burials were recovered forty undrilled an exclusively Early horizon tool, evidenced from three coyote teeth, and a single burial at C.56 yielded two teeth. of the four excavated settlements. The individual points These bear no evidence of cord attachment, but absence average 7 cm. in length, and are cylindrical with a defi- of direct evidence of attachment does not preclude their nite curvature. The base on the outside of the arc is use as pendant decorations. notched for attachment to a chamfered or mortised shaft end, as illustrated by us earlier.62 Our evidence for the EVIDENCE OF HEAD-TAKING reconstruction employing three points rests upon finding threen points intis approimat poito in a child'sburi- Burials in which the skull is lacking perhaps constitute thre pontsin hisappoxiatepostio ina cilds brl- archaeological evidence of the recent California Indian practice of head-taking in war. There were three such 6Cf. Schenck, 1926, fig 4. 62Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, p1. 20,jji. 63lllustrated, ibid., j HEIZER, CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 29 burials from C.107 and one from C.142. Also from one monness is a possible reason for rare occurrence in bur- C.107 Early horizon burial came an extra skull, which ials. The coyote teeth, discussed elsewhere, were prob- was clearly a grave offering; it may also have been an ably objects of personal decoration. enemy's head. EVIDENCE OF BASKETRY UNWORKED ANIMAL BONES IN GRAVES In an area where basketmaking had an ethnographic The presence of unmodified animal bones in graves climax, it is of some interest to determine the historical is a common Early horizon culture trait. Table 13 sum- depth of the trait and the ancient weaves used. For the marizes occurrences-. Late horizon there is abundant archaeological evidence of basketry in the form of carbonized remains and impres- TABLE 13 sions on baked-clay objects.67 No charred basketry has been encountered in any Early horizon site so far exca- Unworked Animal Bones in Burials vtd vated. (Figures in columns give grave occurrence) From two settlements (C.68, C.142) have come two large, subrectangular, hand-molded objects of fired clay Site which bear surface imprints of basketry. Both appear to Animal Bone C.68 C.107 C.56 C.142 have been pressed when moist against a flat, closely Bear (Ursus americanus): twined basket surface and then fired, thus preserving for us evidence of at least one contemporary textile technique. claw s .1 .. The C.142 piece is rectangular, measuring 11.3 cm. long, Deer (Cervus): astragali . 2 2 6.9 cm. wide, and 3.8 cm. thick, and the twined basketry Raptorial birds Halco, impressions occur on the flat surfaces, sides, and squared Cathartes, Haliaeetus): e nds. The second example from C.68 (fig. 5,L) is of simi- wings, crania, legs, feet . 3 2 3 4 lar size and shape. Beaver (Castor): mandibles . 3 3 1 1 Beaver The several heavy flat, eyed bone needles described on Coyote (Canis): teeth .......................35 .. 2 .. page 28 were probably used in making twined mats of rush Duck or goose (Anser): or reeds. mandible .................... .. 1 2 .. Fine two-ply twisted string (probably of Apocynum or Asclepias fibers) is attested by impressions in asphalt The significance of these various animal remains has on the ends of charmstones and bone objects. already been discussed within the larger context of "ani- The rarity of sharp-pointed bone awls has suggested mal ceremonialism."64 The single occurrence (C.68) of to us the possibility that coiled basketry was not present bearclaws may be evidence of regalia, possibly a skin in Central California in Early horizon times. Coiling must cloak.65 The unworked deer astragali may have been dice, have entered Central California from either the east though none bears special markings. In recent times un- (Great Basin) or south (Southern California). The close modified deer astragali were used by the Pomo as dice,66 twining shown in the textile impressions on the two baked- and sites in Napa Valley and the lower Sacramento Valley clay objects frorn C.68 and C.142 reminds one of recent yield sufficient numbers of these distinctive bones to in- Northwestern California and Pomo fine-twined basketry.68 dicate that they were collected and preserved. Their com- 67Heizer, 1937, p. 40. A detailed analysis of archaeological 64Heizer and Hewes, 1940. textile materials from evidence 6f clay impressions and carbonized fragments is now being made by William J. Wallace, and A. E. Tre- 65This trait (burials associated with bearclaws) is reported ganza. from the buried Concord site and C.141, both of which seem to fit fairly well within the Middle Central California horizon. 68Kroeber (1923, p. 131) long ago made a guess that twined "6Cf. Culin, 1907, fig. 155. basketry preceded coiling in Central California. ECONOMIC COMPLEX Any attempt to sketch the economic pattern of the Early of the fact that a contracting stemmed or rounded base horizon people is limited because most of our knowledge of blade is difficult to haft firmly as a knife. The weapon the culture is based upon the mortuary complex. It must be used is unknown, but it has been suggested7' that the determined, therefore, to what extent artifacts occurring atlatl may have been known to the Early culture horizon with burials represent, on the one hand, special grave of- groups, this suggestion being based on the large, heavy ferings (objects of ceremonial use or made expressly for size of the chipped points. This theory is likely to re- burial with the dead) and, on the other hand, items of an or- main unproved unless some certain evidence of the spear- dinary workaday nature used in life by the deceased or by thrower, such as stone weights or bone shaft-engagement some of the burial party, which were placed in the grave hooks, is recovered in future excavations.72 as offerings to, or belongings of, the dead. It is suggested here that hunting was more significant We may with some reason eliminate as utilitarian ob- than seed gathering as a food-securing technique. The jects (artifacts which served directly as work tools for idea, however, remains only a working theory based upon manufactures or food getting) the following: shell beads the interpretation of evidence thus far collected. The only and ornaments (Olivella. Hallotis), charmstones, quartz possibly contradictory evidence is the relative scarcity crystals, rectangular sandstone palette, tubular stone of animal bones which represent the leavings of food, but "pipes," flat perforated biotite ornaments, chrysotile bones are present in sufficient numbers to indicate that a asbestos splinters, obsidian "bangles," unworked col- large number of animals were successfully hunted.73 The ored stream pebbles, various objects of bone, turtle- following animals, all known to be of recent occurrence in shell, teeth, and certain ground-slate forms. These are our area, have been identified from osteological remains all referable to the aesthetic and ceremonial or non- recovered from sites C.107, C.56, C.68, and C.142: mule utilitarian aspects of the culture of the people responsible deer (Odocoileus), tule elk (Cervus nannodes), beaver for the Windmiller culture facies. (Castor cf. subauratus), coyote (Canis cf. ochropus), jack- Although there are two thick refuse accumulation de- rabbit (Lepus cf. Californicus), lynx (Lynx cf. fasciatus), posits of this period (settlements C.56, C.68), finds of racoon (Procyon), bear (Ursus), antelope (Antilocapra). dissociated artifacts are quite rare. It is difficult to say There is no indication of the dog, either of his bones why more broken or rejected objects are not found, but or activities in the form of gnaw-marks on food bones. this is the fact, and real enlightenment as to the ordinary The historic absence of the dog Is apparently reflected household articles of these people is still to be achieved. anciently in this region.74 The remains of seed-grinding implements are extremely Various types of bone tools, many with blunted ends, rare, and it may be suggested that seeds, such as the indicate specialized implements for doing specific work, acorn, were not very important as a food item. The hy- but these uses cannot be guessed. Few tools are suffici- pothesis of a Central California group which did not place ently sharp-edged to have served as knives, and the round- greater dependence upon acorns than on any other single ed tips do not suggest their utility as perforators. They food resource will seem revolutionary, but this is never- may have served any number of purposes ranging from theless suggested by our present evidence.69 Further fish scalers to matmaking tools. indications that the historic acorn complex was lacking, or Fishing Is attested not only by the presence of salmon at best undeveloped, are the scarcity of cooking-stones vertebrae, ribs and jaws of smaller species, and' plates (for stone-boiling), the near absence of bone awls, which of the sturgeon, but also by a peculiar trident fish-spear would indicate a slight development of basketry (in which and two types of angling hooks. The trident tips are made acorn meal is cooked), and the near absence of large fire of antler and are attached by binding in a basal notch to pits where stones were heated (pl. 5,g). Elsewhere in this the end of a shaft. They are attested from all settlements paper will be found the data on the mortar and metate seed- except C.142. From C.56 came a straight, bipointed gorge grinding implements. Both implements are known, but are hook (not with a burial but found in the mound mass as a dis- rare. Indeed, they are found so seldom that one also famil- sociated object), and from C.68 the single-piece curved bone iar with sites of the later horizons, where these implements hook. Large net sinkers are not recorded, and of nets there are abundant, reaches the logical conclusion that the Early is no indication. Two-ply twisted string was known, and culture people were not much interested in seeds. could have served as net cord. The small baked-clay balls Chipped points of obsidian, chert, flint, and other cryp- with cut groove would have served nicely as fishline sink- tocrystalline rocks may have served either for projec;tiles ers, but there is no evidence that they were so employed. or blades for knives or spears. They are relatively com- mon grave items. Because only three human bones with 7'Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, p. 74: Heizer and Fen- projectile points imbedded in them have been found in any enga, 1939, p. 397; Heizer and Fenenga, 1941. Windmiller culture facies settlement, we may believe that 7 * . , 70 t ts J s s 772 ?From three Middle culture horizon sites have come "?boat- warfare was then weakly developed Thne chipped points warfare was then weakly developed.70 The chipped points stones" identical with those identified elsewhere as atlatl weights. probably were tips for weapons used in hunting or were ha bflted as knives. The former use is more likely in view 73Grateful acknowledgment for identifying mammal bones is here expressed to Dr. L. C. Eiseley (University of Pennsylvania), 6@For the recent acorn complex of California see Merriam, Dr. B. Schultz (University of Kansas), Dr. R. A. Stirton (Univer- 1918; Gfford, 1936; Kroeber, 1925, passim. sity of California), Miss Sheilagh Thompson (University of Cali- 70In cemeteries of Middle and Late horizon settlements bones fona,adD.Hlead Hwr LsAglsMsu) with chipped projectile points imbedded in them are common. Cf. 74Heizer and Hewes, 1940, p. 601; Kroeber, 1941, p. 7. (In the Schenck, 1926, p. 242, p1. 48, g, for instances at Emeryville summer of 1947, after this was written, the partial skeleton of a shelimound on San Francisco Bay. Emeryville is a Middle horizon dog was recovered from site C.68. The ancient presence of the site of the Coastal Province. Note also the suggestion of head- dog is thus attested; its recent absence must be due to local ex- taking and trophy (?) skulls (supra). tinction.) 30 CEREMONIAL COMPLEX One of the most striking features of the Early culture This is a widespread trait of the war complex in recent horizon is its ceremonial development. Not only does California Indi_an culture.76 this imply a previous history, it is also interesting be- Unworked animal bones (chiefly those of raptorial birds) cause this culture has a fairly respectable antiquity. We found in graves suggest an ancient use of regalia similar submit that there is nothing extraordinary in a "cere- to that of recent California Indians.77 monialized". American culture several thousand years The "skull cup" (pl. 6,p), if judged by its single occur- old. There will be, however, those whose "intuition" rence, is hardly to be considered an ordinary utilitarian advises against accepting our age estimate because the object. When found, it contained powdered red ochre and cultural remains include an abundance of objects of cere- Haliotis beads of type la. This unique specimen reinforces monlal usage.75 This, we believe, should not constitute the general impression that the Early horizon culture any deterrent to acceptance of an age estimate, since the had a highly ceremonialized flavor. ceremonial items (for example, charmstones, or plum- The rectangular sandstone palette served for grinding mets, and quartz crystals) are of types which have hemi- paint. Here again there is evidence of attention to form spheric spatial distributions and are therefore presump- and of considerable effort to produce an object whose use tively ancient. They are, furthermore, tenacious and en- was probably directed toward religious activity. during traits in Central California, being known from the The generalization to be drawn from the evidence earliest recorded cultures to the ethnographic present. above is that the Early culture horizon groups must have Among those objects recovered which belong to the had a rich pattern of ceremonial or religious activity, ceremonial aspect of life we list: charmstones, quartz which entailed, at least for nonperishable items, a great crystals, sandstone paint "palette," skull cup, and un- deal of manufacturing effort. These material items are worked animal and bird bones accompanying skeletal re- abundant and were commonly selected as grave offerings mains. (see Table A, App. I). On the assumption that all of the Charmstones are made, almost invariably, of lithic four cOmmunities under consideration were roughly con- materials chosen for their color and beauty rather than temporaneous, we note extreme local, or village, speci- for ease of working (pl. 6,a). Thus, blue amphibolite alization in forms and materials used for charmstones, schist, the characteristic material of C.107 charmstones, though the essential element, the charmstone itself, is is dense and difficult to work, but yields a finished ob- common to all settlements. Quartz crystals are more ject of real beauty. Banded translucent marble (alabaster) common than charmstones. Both these items are often was favored by the people of the C.56 settlement, and the used as grave offerings and as such they are found with appearance of these long, polished, banded plummets the remains of men, women, and children alike, not limited evokes aesthetic appreciation in any sympathetic person to association with any one sex or age group. This is pos- of the present day. These charmstones, therefore, are sibly evidence that charmstones and quartz crystals were art objects upon which extra care and effort were expend- owned by families or lineages and were placed in family ed. Since they are not battered, worn, or chipped in any graves. This would suggest that about 17 per cent78 of way, there is every reason to assume they had no ordi- the families of all four settlements owned such items, an nary use but were carefully guarded from injury and incidence which would be an acceptable figure for the breakage. Early horizon charmstones are almost inva- numbers of initiates in a restricted ceremonial organiza- riably perforated, clear evidence that in use charmstones tion. The activities of such an association might theoret- were suspended. Asphaltum traces near the hole, bearing ically range from those of practicing shamans to those the imprint of fine twisted cord, are often preserved. of an occupational group whose efforts were directed Whether these pendants were worn around the neck on toward hunting or fishing for ceremonial purposes.79 ceremonial occasions or perhaps were suspended in cer- This is all speculation, but it is the sort of thing which tain sacred places for special reasons, we shall never one familiar wlth California ethnology might find not too know, but the principle of suspension does notably char- unreasonable. Its purely speculative nature results, of acterize charmstones of this period. course, from the fact that our data are from a dead cul- Quartz crystals have been discussed elsewhere (pp. ture seen through a time gap of several millennia. But It 19-20), and their inclusion here as items of ceremonial is also worth noting that charmstones, quartz crystals, usage rests on the observation that the use of such crys- birdskin regalia, and other items mentioned above are tals with religious connotations has a world-wide distri- part of the recent Central California Indian culture and bution. Recent California Indians commonly consider them that a cultural stability of these elements through a very sacred. long time period is thus implied. The two tubular stone "pipes" from C.142 graves are unique. They may have served as smoking instruments, 76Kroeber, 1925, pp. 843-844. yet there is no evidence of a cake or charred residue which is found in pieces of similar shape from Middle 77Heizer and Hewes, 1940. and Late culture horizon settlements. These may have 78Calculated from table 1. Total number on percentage basis served as sucking tubes used in curing illness. would be for 400 persons. The taking of heads, presumably those of fallen ene- 7Kree,12,p.63,96 ae 189 p 0,3335 mies, is suggested by the absence of skulls in a few graves, cites er 1ndian testimon , no three-qarters of89 ap cetuy0l, on3-the sacred nature of California charmstones. They were used by the 7 5Perhaps we shall all be surprised at the nature of the burial Chumash and Wappo for curing the sick, bringing rain, and putting accompaniments if a cemetery of the Folsom culture group is out fires in the mountains, and in connection with securing luck in ever discovered. They may inclulde some rather elaborate items, fishing, hunting, and war. 31 AESTHETIC COMPLEX The mortuary remains of the Early culture horizon pierced for wearing wooden tubes or plugs or spoals with group show a love of ornament which is closely similar a facing of iridescent Haliotis shell. The style of cloth- to that of more recent California Indians. Beads of shell ing is difficult to determine, though there is some indi- are common, the most abundant being made of Olivella cation of a garment with a definite neck and wrist-length and Haliotis. Beads of clamshell (Saxidomus), which axe sleeves, suggested by the repeated occurrence of lines the standard ethnographic variety, are completely lack- of rectangular shell beads and small ornaments at neck lhg. The most common Early shell bead shape (regard- and wrists. Abalone shell pendants were worn strung as less of species employed) is rectangular with a center a necklace. No evidence of footwear, hats, tattooing, perforation. These were not worn in strings or necklaces, scarification, etc., has been noted. Red paint occurs in but were sewed like sequins to a garment foundation. The graves in the form of powder or molded lumps, and we only bead Which may have been strung linearly was the may Infer from the presence of this pigment that body simple spire-lopped Olivella (type la), and here the ar- painting was practiced. chaeological evidence points equally to the application of Charmstones were sometimes palinted, those from these beads as individual ornaments on a garment sur - the C.56 settlement most often exhibiting evidence of face. Pendants of stone (slate, biotite), carapace, or this practice. From C.107 came two charmstones with shell (Haliotis), with a single perforation for stringing, Olivella beads affixed to one surface with asphaltum occur In all sites, though not in large numbers. We may (figs. 7,c, 8,). presume that persons of each sex had the ear lobes 32 TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS Attention is directed here to several technological as- tions In the same manner as stone. The few bone arti- pects of the Early culture horizon, most of which have facts recovered are nicely smoothed and polished and are been briefly mentioned elsewhere. to be considered equal in workmanship and finish to bone tools of the later local cultures. Incised decorations on FLAKING TECHNIQUE bone, so characteristic of later local cultures, are com- FLAKING TECHNIQUE pletely absent. It is apparent from inspection of the-chipped points and blades that a percussion flaking technique was em- ployed. Edges may be refined by pressure flaking and SHELL BEAD APPLIQUE some implements may have been fashioned entirely by A notable decorative technique of the Early horizon pressure chipping, but percussion flaking was the most A nothe deofatie techniqueiof to E surizof frequent technique. This fact may account, at least in part, is seen in the use of shell beads affixed to the surface of for the employment of more or less refractory materials charmstones (figs. 7,_, 8,e) and turtle-carapace pendants (slate chert, flint) rather than the obsidian which was in an asphaltum mastic (fig. ). This is not inlay, (salatle, Two percussion hammerstones and several since the recipient surface is not lowered or depressed.80 available. Two percussion hammerstones and several doubtful antler flint-flaking tools have been recovered. Later cultures in the lower Sacramento Valley area and on San Francisco Bay possessed this applique technique, but employed different adhesives than asphaltum, such as ST'ONE POLISHING fish glue or perhaps plant gum. Numerous ground or polished stone implements are found. Charmstones, ground slate "pencils" and pend- ants, tubular "pipes," and the sandstone "palette" may PLASTIC ARTS be listed as having been produced by this means. Charm- stones were roughed out by pecking, then polished by Wet clay was modeled into various forms (perforated rubbing on an abrading stone. Slate, which is soft, was disks, angular lumps, flat circular shape with fingertip probably rubbed Into the desired form. Pecking and pittings) and then intentionally fired. The number and grinding were thus the two techniques for producing variety of baked-clay forms noted in Late horizon set- polished implements. A pebble bearing a shallow, wide, tlements do not occur in the Early culture horizon. pecked groove is shown in figure 17,d. DRILLING SKIN DRESSING Charmstones all exhibit biconically drilled perfora- tions. These appear to have been made with a solid, A slight indication that skin dressing was an Early conical tipped shaft drill rather than a perforator held culture horizon trait is to be seen in the limited number in the fingers. A quartz crystal hafted on a shaft and of scrapers of horn and bone. The few bone awls recov- twirled between the palms would have served, but we have ered could have served as perforators for sewing skins no indisputable drill points. The two tubular "pipes" for clothing. Stone scrapers are known to occur, but are from site C.142 are conically drilled. not found in sufficient numbers to indicate an emphasis on scraping of hides. BONE WORKING There is evidence of bone sawing by the common scor- 80True inlay occurs in the Santa Barbara region, as does ap- ing technique. Bone was drilled with biconical perfora- plique. 33 COMMERCIAL RELATIONS Much has been said about raw materials and manu- A point in favor of this hypothesis Is the use of cen- factured goods which were apparently introduced to the trally perforated Haliotis shell disks as facings for wooden Mokelumne region from outside. These items, when tak- ear ornaments. Again, the rectangular Olivella shell en together, are evidence of trade relations. beads, though also perforated, are used for applique. Ac- Obsidian is apparently from the Napa Valley quarries tually, the ideal shell form for such facings or applique rather than from those of the Clear Lake region.8' Each work would be imperforate disks and rectangular pieces area produces a distinctive type of obsidian which per- unmarred by holes. It would appear that the Delta people mits specific determination of ultimate source of mate- obtained beads and ornaments in finished form from rial. Settlements of Windmiller culture facies yield only groups living on the coast which controlled the supply finished chipped implements, and there is little evidence sources of the shells. These they used in lieu-of more of raw material chunks or chipping rejectage. This would desirable unperforated ones. indicate that lithic materials were valuable and were im- We may therefore assume resident coastal groups con- mediately converted into finished products. In Late ho- temporaneous with the interior villages, but of these there rizon settlements, grave and cache finds of numbers of is no hint in sites thus far excavated in the Central coast rough obsidian blanks are not uncommon, and one infers region, Early culture horizon settlements being apparent- that either this was undisposed stock of some aboriginal ly very rare. Possibly some shoreline sites of the Early entrepreneur, or obsidian was then more easily available period have been destroyed through subsidence or aggra- than in the Early period. There is some variation in dation,85 but in some particularly favored spot there amounts of obsidian in different sites. Of flaked imple- must remain sites of this culture horizon awaiting dis- ments in C.68 those of obsidian comprised 71.8 per cent; covery. figures for other sites give 58 per cent in C.142, 45.6 Middle and Late culture horizon sites are mapped by per cent in C.56, and 18.5 per cent in C.107. One possible the score, but known Early culture sites can be counted interpretation of these percentages is that obsidian was on the fingers of one hand. Physiographic change may rare at first, becoming more plentiful as time went on in part account for this rarity, but there is also the possi- and regular commercial relations became established bility that the people of the Early culture horizon were a with distant groups. This, assumption would place C.107 numerically small group aggregating, say, several hun- as the earliest and C.68 as the latest in our series of four dred in the interior and a similar number on the coast. settlements. From the abundance of habitation-burial communities of Since the Windmiller facies settlements lie on the more recent cultures it is pretty clear that Central Cali- stoneless alluvial plain, it is certain that the wide variety fornia did not achieve its optimum population density of lithic materials82 found in these settlements (in addi- until the Early horizon period was long past. tion to obsidian) was brought in from outside. Some of the The curious fact has been discussed that individual stone probably derives from the Sierra region to the settlements of the Early culture horizon yield imple- east83 and some probably comes from the Coast Range ments of one particular type of stone, whereas this region which borders the Great Valley on the west.84 It stone is either very rare or lacking in other settlements is thus apparent either that the Early Sacramento people of this period. This may indicate intersite time differ- were extensive foragers or that they had trade relations ences or it may simply reflect mode or fashion; a group with Sierran and Coast Range groups who could supply of people may favor one material to the exclusion of all these varieties of stone. It is impossible at present to or certain other materials. If these differences do re- decide which of these two explanations would best account flect time, then different supply sources available at the .for the presence of foreign lithic materials; on purely moment to one-or the other of the several Delta groups speculative grounds, I incline to the theory of trade re- inay be inferred. A careful determination of the source of lations. these various rocks and minerals may be our best clue to areas in which to search for equally old remains. 8BHeizer and Treganza, 1944, p. 304 (Napa Valley and Clear Lake). 82These include amphibolite schist, quartz crystals, sandstone, 85Some San Francisco Bay sites have undergone subsidence. marble, alabaster, flint and chert, slate, diorite, vesicular basalt, The clearest example is the Ellis Landing shellmound (Nelson, steatite (very rare), quartzite, biotite, asbestos crystals, malachite, 1910). As inspection of fig. 1 shows, this is a settlement of the and red ochre. Ellis Landing facdes of the Coastal province of the Middle Cen- tral California horizon, and therefore later than our Early ho- 83Quartz crystals, marble, alabaster, quartzite, biotite, asbestos rizon settlements (Gifford, 1947, p. 57). Nelson (1909, pp. 315- crystals, malachite, steatite (?), and red ochre M?). 316, 322-323) gives evidence for the removal of Bay shellmounds through shore erosion and lists several sites which have been 84Sandstone, obsidian, chert, slate, steatite (?), red ochre (M). covered by alluvial deposition. See also Beardsley, 1947 (MS). 34 COMPARATIVE NOTES We had expected to analyze the distribution of the dis- the Californian and Southwestern occurrences is so great tinctive traits of the Windmiller culture facies in an at- that direct connection is difficult to conceive. tempt to determine, if possible, cultural relationships If the atlatl was used by the Early Sacramento people, outside the immediate lower Sacramento Valley region. this would indicate the presence in the Central Califor- This has not proved worth while because a large number nia area of a widespread western North American weap- of material forms are unique, and others are so gener- on attested in the Basketmaker horizon, west central ally distributed in time and space, both locally and out- Nevada (Lovelock Cave), and southern Oregon.95 This side our immediate area, that distributions soon become distribution includes the Central California area, and meaningless element lists. in itself offers reasonable grounds for the inference that The few culture traits selected for comparative dis- the atlatl was known here at an earlier time.96 tributional analysis do, however, offer some indications Charmstones are apparently a Californian phenomenon, of relationship. The container made of a human cranium at least in a western North American perspective. There (C.107) is an outstanding example. The only similar piece remains the possibility, pointed out by several authors from western North America appears to be that from in the last century, that the similar plummets of the southern Oregon described by Cressman8e as a "skull- eastern United States are historically connected with those cap which had been cut off and drilled with three holes, in the Californian areas. F seemingly for the insertion of a suspending cord." A num- In more restricted perspective, the Early Sacramento ber of long bone "foreshafts," sharp at one end and culture has what must be considered a close relative in beveled at the other, from the same locality in southern the Oak Grove culture discovered in the Santa Barbara Oregon (Lower Klamath Lake) are similar in most details mainland region by D. B. Rogers.97 The Oak Grove cul- to our bone implements from C.142. This type is also in- ture exhibits the unusual supine and prone burial posi- teresting, since it occurred at Clovis, New Mexico, in tions, but burial accompaniments are rare and of crude association with Folsom points,87 and is apparently old form (leaf-shaped heavy points, flake scrapers, bone in Florida.88 The period of the Oregon finds is not defi- bodkins, metate, and mano) and are not specifically like nitely known, but it has been estimated as the beginning any of the Early Sacramento culture forms. Oak Grove of the Early Postpluvial (8000-5500 B.C.). sites, like those of the Early Sacramento culture, lie in The use of human bones for artifacts (fibula dagger, locations which at the present time are unfavorable for C'.56; whistle of radius, C.142; skull cup, C.107) is also habitation; they contain calcareous hardpan levels, are noted for the Lower Klamath Lake area, 89 from Level 3 extremely indurated, and yield heavily mineralized bones. in Deadman Cave, Utah (period estimated as 1500 to 3000 The Oak Grove culture has not yet been identified years ago),90 sporadically in the Southwest,9' and from south of Santa Barbara, but there are suggestions of its Mexico.92 Specific types do not carry through from one presence to the north of this region. At a Point Sal coastal area to another, and it does not seem likely that such a midden, George F. Carter adduces its presence in the general practice indicates connection between Central lower levels,98 and there is a possibility that it may be California and the regions far removed to the south and identified in the deepest strata of the Buena Vista Lake north. region sites in the southern San Joaquin Valley.99 If these The flat rectangular sandstone "palette" with a rec- identifications hold, one might infer a distribution of tangular depression in one surface is unique for our area. the Early Central California culture type extending from There are no comparable pieces on record from Oregon the Mokelumne River region as far south as the Teha- or Nevada and, although the Santa Barbara Channel re- chapi and present along the coastal strip between Santa gion produces slab implements with squared corners, Barbara and Point Sal. This distribution would imply none of these are specifically like the C.107 piece. From presence of the culture on the Central coast between Pecos and Snaketown94 come palettes which do re- San Luis Obispo and San Francisco bays, but of this there semble our specimen, but the geographical gap between is so far not the slightest evidence. ________________ There is no evidence in the Central California interi- or or Central coast of the interior desert and littoral 86Cressman, 1942, p. 101. cultures of Southern California which have become known through the work of the Southwest Museum group 87Cotter, 1937, p. 14, pl. 2. E. B. Howard, who inspected the and Malcolm J Rogers of the San Diego Museum. On the specimens at Berkeley, thought they were very similar to the asi ofmthe norernmost manies o ots tue Clovis pieces. basis of the northernmost manifestation of this culture 88Jenks, 1941, pl. 24. 95Cressman, 1942, pp. 69-70, 1944. 89Cressman, 1942, p. 101. 96Woodward, 1937, proposes its ancient presence in the Los 90Smith, 1941, pp. 41, 42. Angeles region. 1KlKuckhohn and Reiter, 1939, p. 138. 97D. B. Rogers, 1929, chap. 9. See also Heizer, 1939; 1941. r 92Vai1lant, 1935, p. 246. 98Carter, 1941. 93Kidder, 1932, figs. 48, 49. @Wedel, -1941, pp. 88, 145-147. The mooted Tranquillity site (Hewes, 1941, 1943, 1946) does not seem to fit into the known Cen- 94Gladwin eta. 1937, chap. 10. tral Valley culture sequence. f.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 36 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS type (at Topanga Canyon, western Los Angeles County), after America was discovered, and these historic datum Edwin Lemert and I have suggested'00 that a line just points may prove useful in determining historic culture south of the Santa Barbara region may represent an an- levels. This has been possible in Central California where cient cultural or ethnic boundary between Southern and such a datum is presented by the ethnographic record of Central California which has persisted to the ethnograph- Francis Drake's sojourn among the Coast Miwok in ic period.'0' If there is some real basis for this theory 1579.104 A third point of attack on the time problem or if it can be demonstrated by further archaeological might be a careful study of prehistoric trade relations investigation, it presents a major problem of the time and imported objects. Southern California archaeological relations between the sequential cultures of Southern and sites yield material evidence of long continued economic Central California. The very nature and simplicity of exchange relations with the Hohokam and Anasazi culture cultural forms in Central California make it difficult provinces of the Southwest.'05 Perhaps the oldest evi- here, as elsewhere in the State, to trace clear correla- dence of this trade is to be seen in a Pacific Coast tions or to attribute dates.'02 Several approaches to Olivella shell from Ventana Cave, southern Arizona. There this time problem are suggested. First, we need more is a probable range of several millennia during which archaeology and fuller publication of results. Stratified trade was carried on, and it is possible to anticipate at sites will almost certainly be discovered, and these will least in the later Southwestern horizons, for which we supply the most necessary key to basic time relations. have dendrochronologic dates, a direct cross-chronology Geologists, soil chemists, and geomorphologists working between the Southwest and California in terms of actual together may also produce answers regarding elapsed year dates. Once all these approaches can be explored, time. Until the present this group has not been interested some sort of dated sequence can surely be established. in attacking the difficult problems of dating. A second There will be inconsistencies, lacunae of data for criti- approach is to determine sequences by working from the cal areas or periods, and other difficulties, but the ulti- present back in time.'03 California natives had contacts mate goal of a time scale more exact than the one with with Caucasians in the sixteenth century, half a century which we must now be satisfied is sufficient justification for increased effort toward this end. 0 Heizer and Lemert, 1947. This site has since been excavated (July, 1947) by a joint University of California expedition of the Ber- keley and Los Angeles Departments of Anthropology. A report is '04Helzer, 194i^, 1947. See especially the introductory re- being prepared by A. E. Treganza and C. G. Malamud. marks by Dr. A. L. Kroeber in the 1947 paper. A preliminary attempt to distinguish the historic and protobistoric Late Sacra- '?1K'roeber, 1920, 1923, 1925. mento culture phases has been made (Heizer, 1941k). An applica- tion of the 1579 and 1595 Central Coast time datum points, which 102For the early Southern California cultures there are two derive from the accounts of Sir Francis Drake and archaeological opposed chronologies. The Southwest Museum group favors one evidence of the wreck of Cerme-no's ship, has been attempted by which correlates cultures with pluvial periods, whereas Malcolm Richard K. Beardsley, 1947 (MS). Rogers (1939, chart at end) places the whole archaeological pic- m ture in one quarter of the time (since 2000 B.C.). My impression 1085ee my brief account (Heizer, i94lt) which is further use- is that the first chronology uses excessive dates and the second ful for its bibliographic citations. A much fuller report, but writ- is too compressed. ten from the viewpoint of the Southwest proper, has recently ap- peared (Tower, 1945). On the general subject of Southwest-Cali- '03For a general statement see Kroeber, 1923, pp. 139-142. fornia connections see Heizer, 1946; Gifford, 1947, pp. 61-62. ANTIQUITY OF THE WINDMILLER FACIES CULTURE The archaeologist is ever under pressure to make age horizon) at 750 A.D. and Late Sacramento (Late horizon) estimates of his cultures. The same interest which leads at 1000 A.D.'09 My chronology is still nearly twice as the archaeologist to investigate prehistoric cultures also extended as theirs, and this discrepancy is not subject impels any person Interested in archaeological remains to adjustment of a few centuries added or subtracted to to ask their age. This should be clearly understood. The harmonize them, but is of the order of magnitude which archaeologist is notoriously reluctant to make age requires acceptance of one or the other. guesses, but he is at the same time more concerned than The Oak Grove culture of Santa Barbara has not been anyone else with this very problem, since one of his chief subjected to anything more than its discoverer's intuitive purposes is to establish a chronology. The exactness of "dating,""10 and we are completely in the dark as to its this sequential scheme is as much a measure of the nature actual antiquity. The Oak Grove culture is, nevertheless, of the remains as of his ability. the oldest horizon known from the Santa Barbara region, It is well known that Californian archaeology consists and it was succeeded by tWo cultures, the last of which of unspectacular remains without masonry ruins or pot- represents the archaeological manifestations of the tery from which fine temporal-stylistic distinctions can Chumash tribe."' be deduced, or timbers from which a tree-ring chronology During the summer of 1947 A. E. Treganza and C. G. can be derived. It was not until forty years after scien- Malamud recovered 6 fully extended burials from the tifically conducted archaeology was instituted in Central Tank Site in Topanga Canyon. One of these burials was California by Nelson and Uhle that the sequence of cul- ventral, 6 were dorsal. The material culture, however, tures, of which the one under present discussion is the is of the San Dieguito--Lake Mohave type which has been oldest yet known, was determined. Stratification is the dated by long and short chronologies by the Campbells"2 basis of all earth sciences, and the investigation of this and M. J. Rogers."13 Whatever its actual dating, the To- feature of Californian archaeological sites has produced panga culture is relatively old, 14 and the recurrence of notable results. Differences in cultural-stratification the extended burial position is, I believe, the clearest levels have been recognized and their temporal signifi- evidence thus far produced of real antiquity, in Califor- cance has been investigated in detail. Thus we may now nia, for this mortuary trait. Thus the Topanga culture point to a firmly established sequence of Early, Middle, appears to me as offering potential support to what other- and Late Central California culture horizons. The geo- wise may seem the excessively long chronology which graphic limits of these are not yet fully defined, but they is proposed below. 15 include the San Francisco Bay region of the Central coast, Just as this report is being put into final form there the Sacramento-San Joaquin delta region to the east of appears M. R. Harrington's monograph on the Borax Lake the Bay, and the Interior Valley floor for a distance of site in Lake County."6 Harrington proposes a date of perhaps a hundred miles to the north (i.e., lower Sacra- about 8000 B.C. for this site, the date being arrived at mento Valley) and for some as yet undetermined distance through the assumption that the flaked points which might south (lower San Joaquin Valley). be called "Borax Folsom" are contemporaneous with The oldest remains reported by Wedel from sites 1 the true Folsom type points found elsewhere under con- and 2 in the Buena Vista Lake region of the Southern ditions which permit their geological dating. The chan- |?? Y I Trait first appears in this mTrait persists In same *horizon and in variant forms m Trait persists In some form iTralit persists but in from earlier horizon ariant forms tainly reminiscent of the true Folsom technique, though "diagnostic," in the sense Harrington employs the word, so poorly executed than any flaker of the Folsom culture of the Borax Lake culture complex. I should hesitate to group would have been reluctant to admit having pro- affirm that the Borax Lake site is either older or more duced them. If the purely geological arguments advanced recent than the four Early horizon sites discussed in this for the antiquity of the Borax Lake site could be inter- report. All look ancient because their present situations preted as indicating the site as somewhat later in time, are explainable in terms of physiographic change since then there may be reasonable grounds for proposing the or during the time they were occupied, but none has Borax Lake site as old, but not so ancient as 8000 B.C. yielded bones of extinct animals. Moreover, because the I see no reason to believe that Harrington's evidence and Borax Lake and Interior Valley sites, though rather simi- deductions are so strong as to point inevitably to the lar, show, each one of them, distinctive traits, a final single conclusion of late Great (Provo) Pluvial age. The decision as to their relative ages does not seem at pres- attenuated Folsom flaking technique at Borax Lake may ent possible. Some tertium quid in the form of an ancient be evidence of the post-Pleistocene survival of the true site geographically intermediate between the two areas Folsom flaking method. A. D. Krieger," 7 in discussing may settle this problem. the Plainview, Texas, finds, has presented considerable Another publication" l9 contains what is still considered evidence of the persistence in time of the Folsom tech- an adequate summary of the three Central California cul- nique, and it is possible that the Borax Lake Folsom ture horizons, the details of which are presented in the points may fall in this category. If we examine the arti- accompanying chart. A few general observations are, how- fact assemblage from the Borax Lake site, it has an in- ever, necessary as an introduction to the problem of age dubitable Central Californian "flavor." Charmstones, of the Early culture horizon. Recorded sites of the Middle stone mortars, metates, and forms of projectile points culture horizon number at least 20; of these 10 are pure- are decidedly reminiscent of the Early and Middle Cen- culture occupation sites and 8 are known to be stratified tral California cultures. The residue of forms distinctive multi-settlement sites which were also occupied by peo- of Borax Lake and not present in the Early and Middle ples of the Late horizon culture group. Middle horizon horizon sites of the Interior Valley includes gravers (?); settlements are known in the Interior Valley from Knights snubnose, round, pointed, and keeled scrapers; crescents; Lanzding in the north to Stockton in the south, and culture and the channel-flaked projectile points. However, the levels attributable to this complex are characteristic of Borax Lake site produced "Folsom-like" points" 8 certain San Francisco Bay and Marin County (Tomales- which can be almost exactly duplicated from our site C .68 Drakes Bay) shellmound sites.' 20 The recently discovered (cf. fig. 11 ,y,w). Since the UCMA collections from the Monument site near Concord, where an occupation stratum Napa-Sonoma-Lake Mendocino county region contain (from which were recovered 9 flexred burials) was overlaid large numbers of gravers (rejects or incidental forms?) by four feet of stratified silt, appears attributable to the and scrapers (snubnose, round, pointed, and keered forms), Middle culture horizon. The San Francisco Bay shell- these may perhaps be eliminated from consideration as mounds and the buried Monument site habitation level "7ellards et aL., 1947, pp. 938-954. "9Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939. See also Beardsley, 1947. "l8Harrington, 1948, fig. 26. These pieces, found at depths of 89.6 in. and 58 in., are not channel-flaked. Rather, they exhibit '20This fitting of the San Francisco Bay sites into the Sacra- the characteristic base-thing trait to which I called attention mento culture column was first suggested by Heizer and Fenenga some years ago. See Heizer, 1938. Cf. Scoggin, 1940, pp. 294- (1939, p. 396) and has been recently demonstrated by R. K. Beard- 296; Heizer, 1940; Fenenga, 1940. sley, 1947. See also Gifford, 1947, pp. 57-58. HEIZER, CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 39 and burials are of particular significance here because Time Chart of Central California Culture both have been subjected to special analysis directed to- Horizons ward estimating the age of the site deposits. Thus, N. C. 122. 310 . ...Lt oio hs I Nelson, E. W. Gifford, and S. F. Cook' have 1HiorinP calculated that the San Francisco Bay sites have a prob- 1700 A(D Late Horizon Phase I able age of three to four thousand years. The one dissent- 1 A H Phase II ing voice is that of W. E. Schenck,' 2 4 whose objections 500 A.D ...... Late Horizon, Phase I would appear to derive from a negativistic attitude rather 1500 B.C . Middle Horizon than from a desire to offer corrective estimates or re- 2500 B.C. Early Horizon (Windmiller vised calculation technlques. Cook's analysis appears to facies) meet, at least in part, some of the variables with which Schenck was concerned. Dr. Earl Storie and Dr. Frank Early culture forms, there is also some evidence of an Harradine of the Division of Soils, College of Agriculture, appreciable time hiatus between Early and Middle period investigated the Monument site soil profile and have occupancy of the lower Sacramento Valley. There are written a pedologic report which will be published with hints of a floristic alteration and an increased tempo of the archaeological report now in preparation. They con- alluviation between the two periods. These, plus the dif- clude that the habitation level and burials have a probable ferences in site locations and the degree of mineral- minimum age of four thousand, and a probable maximum of ization of bones, furnish support to the idea of a strati- eight thousand, years. The minimum estimate agrees graphic nonconformity. It is even possible that the fairly closely with the calculations of the Bay shellmounds Interior Valley floor was abandoned by man during this made by Nelson, Gifford, and Cook. The two sets of fig- interim and that on the valley edges the Early and Mid- ures are directly comparable, since the Monument site dle culture groups met, with a cultural blending which culture is so similar to that disclosed in the lower (not resulted in the absorption of the Early group into the more upper) levels of Bay sites that the two cultures must be numerous Middle horizon population. This theory is not looked at as components of a single culture facies. This inconsistent with what little we know of skeletal types.' 2 7 culture is to be equated on a purely typological basis In any event, Early and Middle cultures are distinctive with the Central California Middle horizon, and the rea- enough so that there is probably a time lacuna between sonable assumption is made here that such equation im- the two. On this assumption it is not unreasonable to pro- plies contemporaneity. This all remains to be proved con- pose that the four sites herein discussed may have been clusively by further excavation, but enough is now known occupied a millennium before the Middle horizon cultures of Bay, Delta, and Valley sites to make the broad devel- blossomed, and a "date" of 2500 B.C. is tentatively ad- opmental outlines clear. Mr. Fenenga's analysis of the vanced for the Early horizon. Middle culture horizon settlements, of which ten have An alternative suggestion to a time gap is that the been excavated, should produce evidence for the state- temporally intermediate components have not been dis- ments given above. covered. If there was no time gap, the absence of such We have, therefore, several bits of evidence which components may be accounted for by alluvial deposition would suggest that the Ellis Landing facies (Coastal prov- which has covered living or burial spots. Subsurface finds ince of the Central California Middle horizon) was in which suggest that many remains lie deeply buried in- operation by 1000 to 2000 B.C. on the shores of San Fran- clude: an Early horizon type charmstone, found about (cisco Bay. There is some evidence to show that the Bay 1873 at a depth of 30 feet while a well was being dug near constituted a local marginal and culturally backward area Woodbridfe 'San Joaquin County, about 11 miles from into which outside influences either failed to spread or Stockton; the Strawberry occupational-burial level spread slowly or half-heartedly.'25 The Bay region covered by 18 feet of alluvium just south of the city of shellmounds may, therefore, have been occupied by in- Sacramento;'29 a stratum of charcoal and animal bone terior peoples and not vice versa.126 On this assump- encountered by a well-drilling crew in 1946 about 400 tion the Interior Valley may have been occupied at a yards northwest of C.56 at a depth of 30 feet;'30 and a somewhat earlier date than the Bay and the beginnings curious drilled object of granite, illustrated first by of the Middle culture horizon may have to be pushed Schenck and Dawson and again in this account (fig. 9,f), back to 1500 B.C. said to have been found near Thornton at a depth of 8 or Although the Middle horizon culture is in some re- 10 feet in the course of well-digging operations.'3' spects a true transition, since it carries over certain Dr. S. F. Cook and Dr. Hans Jenny, of the University ______________ of California, are at present engaged in an intensive "2"Nelson, 1910. 127Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, p. 73. An extensive 1Gifford, 916. treatment of Early, Miadle, and Late skeletal material by R. W. Newman is now partly completed. 'lCook, 1946. '28Anonymous, 1873. L '4Schenck, 1926, pp. 205 ff. '25Kroeber, 1936, p. 112.~~~~~~~ '2Referred to sunra. p. 2. A report on the findings has '26No Bay site has produced evidence of occupation by the dis- '30Samples collected by A. E. Treganza and deposited in UCMA. tiactive Early culture horizon group. A few of the specific Early '1cec n asn 99 1 8,p.3536 zulture elements occur, but not as a well-knit complex. llcec n asn 99 l 8,p.3536 40 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS analysis of earth samples of Central Californian refuse determine the time required for alluvial deposition and deposits of different time periods with the primary ob- land subsidence in the Mokelumne bend region. Such a jective of showing quantitative and qualitative chemical study might also result in some reconstruction of geo- differences between sites.'32 Their preliminary results logical events which would provide an explanation for indicate that such differences are present, and the full the position of Early culture horizon settlements. The publication and interpretation of their findings are striking degree of difference in mineralization of bone awaited with interest.' 33 also offers a possible means of arriving at a rough Other approaches to the problem of dating are as yet time scale, provided the rate of mineralization can be untried. The most obvious approach is geological or geo- determined through controlled experiments simulating morphological: it would take the form of an attempt to natural conditions.'34 All these avenues will ultimately be explored if and when sufficient interest in Califor- '32For discussion of the pedologic problems concerning occu- nian archaeology demands more information. pation deposits see Krieger, 1940, and Roberts and Gardner, 1946. 133Cook and Treganza, 1947, have published the first of a '34Since this was written, a preliminary effort along these series of papers dealing with "chemical archaeology." These con- lines has been made. Cook and Heizer, 1947, and Heizer and tributions are primarily of cultural interest. Cook, in press. APPENDIX I TABLES TABLE A Percentage Occurrence of Main Culture Traits in Burials (0 = nonoccurrence) Site Traits C.6 a C.107c C.56 C.142 (49) (54) (47) (45) Position Extended ventrally .45.4 87.2 100.0 195.5 Extended dorsally .54.5 6.4 0 4.4 Flexed on side or back .0 6.4 0 0 Orientation d West or westerly .............. 100.0 55.7 100.0 100.0 East .0 3.8 0 0 Southwest .. 38.8 0 0 Associated artifacts Olivella shell beads .47.0 31.5 23.4 31.1 Haliotis shell beads .23.5 64.8 30.0 42.2 Haliotis shell ornaments .27.4 31.5 40.4 22.2 Charmstones ......... ......... 11.8 35.1 19.1 4.4 Quartz crystals .23.5 20.4 31.9 30.0 Flaked stone implements .41.2 40.7 25.5 31.1 Objects of ground slate .5.9 14.8 2.1 0 Tubular stone "pipes".0 0 0 4.4 Perforated biotite ornaments 5.9 3.7 0 0 Baked-clay objects .15.3 1.9 0 0 Bone and antler implements 15.3 29.6 8.5 6.6 Turtle-carapace ornaments 4.0 0 2.1 0 Canid teeth .15.3 3.7 2.1 0 Red ochre inburial pit ...... ..... 11.1 11.0 10.8 11.1 aC.68 percentages for position and orientation are on basis of 11 burials with artifacts excavated by the University of California in 1937. Dawson's burials D1-D40 lack information on these points. bFigures in parentheses indicate number of burials. cC.107 percentages for position are on basis of 47 burials. C.107 has 54 burials with artifacts associated, but of these 7 had no recorded or recordable position. See Table E. All C.107 orientation percentages are on basis of 52 burials. dDawson notes "westerly." Some may have been southwest or northwest. 41 TABLE B Burial Associations at Site C.142 (45 burials) Position Associated artifacts m Cd ~ C C Burial No. P- --I --4r 4s - it-jrtl t a) 0 ~~~~0)0) 0 0 ~ ~ ~ 0 _ 4 C Co _ 0) 13 . . .. .. .. . . .. .. x x x x 25 . . . . . . . . . . x x x x x 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x x x x 27 . . .. .. .. . . .. .. x x x x 41 . .. . .. . .. . .. x x 3 . .. .. . .. .. .. .. x x x 2i x 28 . .. . .. . .. . .. x x x x x 21 . .. .. .. .. .. .. x x x 199 .......... x x x x x 8 . .. .. .. .. .. .. x x 6 . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. x x x x x 17 . . .. .. .. . . .. .. x x x 4 . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . x x x x 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x x x 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x 48 . .. . .. . .. . .. x x x x x 5 . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. x x x x 20 . . .. .. .. . . .. .. x x x 18 x x x x 23 . . . . . . . . . . x x 42 . .. . .. . .. . .. x x x x x x x 45 . . .. .. .. . . .. .. x x x x 144 x x x x x x x 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x 37 . .. .. . .. . .. . .. x x 11 x x 'X 38@ @ @ X @ @ . ....... x x x x x 32 . . .. .. .. . . .. .. x x x 44 . .. . .. . .. . .. x x x x x 43 . . .. .. .. . . .. .. x x x x x 1.......... x x x x x x 47 . .. .. .. .. .. .. x x x 46 . .. . .. . .. . .. x x 122 x x x x x 40 . . .. .. .. . . .. .. x x 22 . .. .. .. .. .. .. x x x 49 . . . . . . . . . . x x x x 39 . . .. .. .. . . .. .. x x x x x x 36 . .. . .. . .. . .. x x 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C. x x x 16 x x x x x x Occurrence. . . . . . . . ... . ... . .. . . . x4. C 45 Co Percentage~~~~~~~~~~~~- ocu)ec Co 554410|3. 4. 22443 1144661. TABLE C Burial Associations at Site C.56 (47 burials) Position Associated artifacts ul~~~~~~~~~~~~~l w Q) a~~) l BurialNo. e .0 .0 0 0 ! 10 ~ ~ ~ Cl) 4 ) x) a) 2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~E to x2 Ex (I) 4i c) ci) ci) Ca) 040l) Cl) x 0 x4 + > r Cl) CCl) U) ci) j C o 0 t. 0 ci) 0i ; j ~ 0 of C C?1 F5 H a .. x x X 10 .x x x x 18 .x x X X 57 .x x 27.x x x 2 .x x x 40 .x x X 47x x . . . X 19 . x x x x 49 .x x X 26 .x x X 27 .x x X 62 .x x X X 52.x x 1.x . x x x x 20 .x x x x X 48 .x x X x 61 .x x X X 1 ................ x 22 . x x x 51. . .... x x x x 52. ...............X X 31.X x x x 41.X x x x x 54 ............. . . . x x x x 65 ............. . . . x x x 21 ............. x x x x 29.x x .......... x x 44 x x x .......... x 14. . ........... x x x 45 . . .......... x x x x 53 x x .......... x x 125. x x X x x X 13.X x x X X X X x 36 . . .......... x x x x 58 .........X x x x 6. x x xXXXX 67. x x x 8.x x x x x 63.-x x x Totals Occurrence .,...... 47 47 11 ......14 19 9 15 12 1 5 1 1 5 Percentage occurrence . . . |100 100 |23.4 30 40.4 19.1L 31.9 25.5 2.1 10.8 2.1 2.1 10.8 44 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS TABLED Burial Associations at Site C.68 (51 burials) (C = University of California excavations; D = E. J. Dawson excavations) Positiona Associated artifacts 4-)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i 0 02 oi ov C10 . ................... x xi xxx C602 x x 'A Cl) 0 cto to) C) 0i 02 -6- (J) C14~~~~ . ... .. ....... x x x8 C 102 02 x x x Ci) c)~ ~C) ~ ~ Oc)Cl) 0 0~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ IiI 00 mI &l Y F4 C2~ ) m E' Cili.............x x C6 .x x x Clo ....x.......... . x x x x x C8 . x x x C9 . x x xx C6 . ............ x x x x x x C14 ............ . x x xx C13 . ...... . x x x C12 . ...... . x x x x x C16 . ...... . x x x x x C17 .x............ . x x x x Dl ............ . x x D2 ............ . x x D3 ............ . x x D4 ............ . x x x D5 .x............ . x x x D6 ............ . x x x x x D7 .x............ . x x x x x D8 ........... ... x x x x Dg ............. x x x x x x x D10 ............ . x x Dl . . . . . . . . . . . . .x x x x D12 .x............ . x x x D13 . x x x D14 .x............ . x x x x x x D15 ..x............ . x x x x D16 ............ . x x x x D17. ............x x x x D18. ............x x x x x Dlg9.............x x D20. ............x x D21 ..............x x x D22 ............x.. . x x D23. ............x x x x x x D24. ............x x x x 8Percentage for position and orientation is based on 11 burials with artifacts excavated by the University of California in 1937. HEIZER, CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 45 TABLE D (Concluded) Position Associated artifacts 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~, Burial No. R 13 10 10 C O I O x x 0 a > W z X 1) Eq U ' B~~~i~~~No. ~~~Ci) Ci2 0) D27D * * * 0 * 2 * 0 r U2 --4 U2~4 * oi o- C'd S- ~ 0 --4 ~~~~.-4 l > 0) 0 (1) U2~~~~~C) ,4 ~ ) () Cd 04 0~~~~. , a) 4 > ) l) C/) Cl 0 - 0. 0 0 1-. D29'0 .-.4 . .2 . .. -. . o . 0) ~~ ~ 0) 0)'~-6-i 0) E1) 0 cd to (a S o rx~~ 0 I C) 0' 114 - C4rn H o 4- D307.. ... . ................ x x x D27 . ............ x x x D28 ............. ....... D29 . ............ x x D30 ........ . ....x x x D31 . .x........... . x x x x D32 . . . . . . . . . . . . .x x x D33 . .x........... . x x x x D34 ....... . .....x x x x D35 ........ . ....x x D36 ........ . ....x x D37 ........ . ....x x x D38 ....... . .....x x x x D39 ....... . .....x x D40 ........ . ....x x x x Totals Occurrence .... . . . 7 4 51 24 12 14 6 12 21 3 3 8 8 2 8 2 6 Percentage occu?'rence . 63.6 36.3 100 47.0 23.5 27.4 11.8 23.5 41.2 5.9 5.9 15.3 15.3 4.0 15.3 4.0 11.8 46 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS TABLE E Burial Associations at Site C.107 (54 burials) (C - University of California excavations; S = Sacramento Junior College excavations) Positiona Associated artifacts m Cd X X ?? ? D xm C) x V zd 0 0 a~~) ) (L 4) ; G)~ ~ ~ ~~4 U) o~V2 V2 V (1 (4 4 ) S1d4 ... .d ... _ to ~ ) 0 0 C 4~~~~~~~. x x 0 44 0 0 00 m C)0 2 0P~ S154 . .x x x x x C4 . . . . . x x x S47 . . . . x x x x S205 . . . . . x x Cl .x x x x x x C17.b x x x x x x X C23.0 0 0 x x x x S46 . .0 x x x x x S44.x x x x x x x S50.x x x x x S171 . .x x x x x x x SC8.. x x x x S164 .x x x x x x x x x x x S183 . .x x x x S91 .x x x Clo .x x x x x C9.x x x x x C18 .x x x x x x x C20 . . x x x x x x x x S155 .x x x x x x S162 .x x x x x S210 .x x x S167 .x x x x S166.x x x x x x x S165 .x x x S156 .x x x x x x S60 .x x x S53 . . x x x S18 72 . . . . . . x x x S177 ..... . ..... x x x S179. ..........x x x 15. ..........x x x x x x S27. ..........x x x S30. ..........x x x x x x x S184A. .........0 0 0 0 0 0 x x x S224 . . x x x x x aPosition percentages are on basis of 47 burials; orientation percentages on basis of 52 burials. Discrepancies with Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, are due to re-sorting of data. bo= not recorded. HEIZER, CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 47 TABLE E (Concluded) Position Associated artifacts Cd~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6 Buri No. 0 ' 2 S Cd Cd 208 0 . xx S2 0 00 Q 0 A0 x 0x S2-4 0 - c o c 2 0 0 x 0 0 0~~1 - 1 ' Cd Ea2 (2 t ) (1 c S1081. x x x S218.0 0 0 x x x x S120 . x x x x S19x4 x x x S180. x x x x xxx S227.x x --0 x x S148. 0 .. 0 0 x x x S38 . x x x x x x x 21 . 0 0 0 x x x x C25 . 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 x x x C8 . x x x x x x xx S184 . . x x x x S141 . x x x S83 . .x x x x Totals Occurrence. 41 3 3 29 2 21173517191122 8 2 116 2 6 Percentagec c occurrence . . . . .2. 6.455.7 3.8 38.315c648c31.535.120.440.714.8 3.7 1.9 29.63.7 1.0 cCout disagrees with that in Lillard, eta. 1939, because 2 types occasionally occur in 1 grave. APPENDIX II PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS BY RUSSELL W. NEWMAN The following brief summary of selected anthropo- period. The crania suggest a heterogeneous population metric measurements and observations on the Early the significance of which cannot be ascertained at pres- Sacramento Valley population is presented only as a ent. preliminary report. A comparative study is in progress, Poor preservation of the postcranial skeletal mate- utilizing material from the three known archaeological rial makes it difficult to assess the relative robustness horizons of the area collected since the last general sum- of body type. In general terms the series show only a mary by Gifford In 1926.1 Some of the crania reported moderate degree of postcranial ruggedness, somewhat upon here were included in measurements given by less than would seem appropriate to the often large and Fenenga in 1939.2 Since detailed comparisons of select- prominent cranial remains. Although extremes of gracil- ed series from the three cultural horizons will not be ity and masculinity occur, the bulk of the series is of completed for some time, a short description here of medium height, with a lateral, but not especially rugged, the Early population may be of interest. physique. The series described below consists solely of adult A cursory examination shows fewer gross pathological males from four Early horizon sites. Although an ef- features than appear in later horizons. However, poor fort was made to avoid weighting the series in favor of postcranial preservation may have somewhat distorted any site, the material available is unfortunately quite this picture. Medium-to-large ear exostoses are not in- unequal. All available specimens of sufficient complete- frequent with 11 per cent occurrence in C.68, 18 per cent ness to give a reasonable number of measurements and in C.56, and 27 per cent in C.142. Vertebral lipping, mod- observations were utilized except for those from site erate to pronounced in degree, is observable only in C.68, C.68 from which has come the largest preserved series. where a high proportion of 37 per cent is reached. No evi- The exclusion of female and poorly preserved or frag- dence of periosteal lesions of the long bones, reported by mentary material may have influenced the series some- Stewart3 from Buena Vista and not uncommon in later ho- what towards a higher incidence of masculine traits than rizons from Central California, has been found in any was actually present. Specimens, by sites, are as follows: Early horizon material. Dental caries are rare, although this condition may be obscured by the marked dental at- C.56. . .11 trition characteristic of all adults. Alveolar abscesses C.68. . 19 and the associated loss of teeth are very common. C.107 .. 3 C.142. . 15 Consensus of Selected Cranial Morphologi- T otal ........ 48 cal Observations Age: largely "middle-aged adults," very Preservation within the total group varies by site, rang- fe " ing from good (C.68) to poor (C.142). ~ few "old adults"; based on ectocranial ing from good (C.68) to poor (0.142).stueclsr A small but conspicuous proportion of the crania shows suture closure Cranial muscularity: medium to large a degree of size and ruggedness that approaches macro- Deformation: none cephaly. Such individual specimens are not uncommon Slform : noi o among Western North American cranial series but they Brorig size: mi ovlrg Browbridge size: medium to large are apt to leave an impression of a very large and ro- "Inca" and "Wormian Bones": very rare bust population which may never have existed as an un- Orbital shape: square or rhomboid mixed physical group. Further segregation into morpho- Malars: large and prominent logical groups may isolate the macrocephals as an im- Nasal root: generally low and narrow portant minority in the area, but other and less rugged Nasal profile: generally concave strains were obviously also present during the Early Palate: high but with little torus Tooth wear: usually pronounced 1Gifford, 1926. 2Lillard, Heizer, Fenenga, 1939, p. 73. 3Stewart, 1941, p. 186. 49 50 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS TABLE A Selected Measurements (mm.) and Indices No. Range Mean S.E. S.D. S.E. V. S.E. Glab.-occipital length . 43 174-203 190.45 0.98 6.38 0.70 3.35 0.36 Max. breadth .... .... 43 134-154 144.08 0.81 5.23 0.57 3.63 0.39 Basion-Bregma height. . 30 135-156 145.90 1.01 5.44 0.71 3.73 0.48 Auricular height ...... 31 115-133 124.05 0.83 4.57 0.59 3.68 0.47 Min. frontal diam. ... . 41 88-105 96.99 0.64 4.02 0.45 4.15 0,46 Max. bizygomatic diam. 20 134-153 143.40 1.33 5.78 0.94 4.03 0.64 Gnathion-nasion height 22 109-140 126.04 1.60 7.33 1.13 5.82 0.88 Prosthion-nasion height 26 62-85 76.35 1.06 5.31 0.75 6.96 0.97 Nasal height .... .... 31 48-63 53.03 0.56 3.09 0.40 5.82 0.74 Nasal breadth ........ 30 21-29 26.47 0.32 1.71 0.22 6.45 0.83 Bigonial breadth ..... 36 96-124 110.56 1.06 6.26 0.75 5.66 0.67 Nasion-prosthion angle . 28 83-93 88.11 0.48 2.46 0.34 2.79 0.37 Cranial index ....... 41 66.5-85.6 75.78 0.55 3.48 0.39 4.59 0.51 Height-length index ... 30 71.4-83.9 76.83 0.53 2.88 0.38 3.75 0.48 Height-breadth index . . 30 95.4-108.1 101.20 0.59 3.19 0.42 3.15 0.41 Facial index .... .... 14 81.9-98.5 88.64 1.12 4.05 0.79 4.57 0.86 Gnathlc Index ........ 24 87.4-103.8 97.12 0.70 3.34 0.49 3.44 0.50 Nasal index .... ..... 29 39.6-56.9 50.05 0.74 3.90 0.52 7.69 1.01 Left orbital index ..... 28 82.0-100.0 89.86 0.93 4.82 0.66 5.36 0.72 Mandibular Index ..... 27 69.9-95.2 86.26 1.17 5.96 0.83 6.91 0.94 Cranial module ... b. 30 149.3-166.6 160.23 0.77 4.16 0.55 2.59 0.33 Cranial capacity (cc.) . 34 1374-1793 1588.47 17.90 102.90 12.66 6.48 0.78 Stature (cm.)c . ...... 43 162.0-175.1 169.01 0.57 3.69 0.40 2.18 0.22 aNo allowance for tooth wear included. bCalculated by Pearson interracial formulae. Calculated by Lee-Pearson formulae, utilizing all relevant long bones. BIBLIOGRAPHY ABBREVIATIONS AA American Anthropologist SI-AR Smithsonian Institution, Contributions to A Ant American Antiquity Knowledge AJPA American Journal of Physical Anthropology SI-CK Smithsonian Institution, Annual Reports AMNH-AP American Museum of Natural History, SM-M Southwest Museum, Masterkey Anthropological Papers SM-P Southwest Museum, Papers BAE-B Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin UC-PAAE University of California Publications in BAE-R Bureau of American Ethnology, Annual American Archaeology and Ethnology Reports UC-AR University of California Publications: PM-P Peabody Museum, Papers Anthropological Records Anonymous and A. E. Treganza 1873. Notice of a Stone Implement Found near 1947. The Quantitative Investigation of Aboriginal Woodbridge, California. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sites: Comparative Physical and Chemical Sci., 4:18-19. (See also article by J. W. Analysis of Two California Indian Mounds. Foster in Rept. A.A.A.S., 1868, Chicago.) A Ant, 13:135-141. Beardsley, R. K. Cosby, S. W., and J. H. Carpenter 1947. Temporal and Areal Relationships in Cen- 1937. Soil Survey of the Lodi Area, California. tral California Archaeology. Ph.D. disser- U.S. Dept. Agric., Bur. Chemistry and tation, University of California. MS. Soils, Ser. 1932, No. 14. Blake, M. D. Cotter, J. L. 1873. On Some Recently Discovered Aboriginal 1937. The Occurrence of Flints and Extinct Ani- Implements. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., mals in Pluvial Deposits near Clovis, New 4:221-222. Mexico, Part IV: Report on Excavation at Gravel Pit, 1936. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. of Brew, J. 0. Phila., 89:1-16. 1946. Archaeology of Alkali Ridge, Southeastern Cressman L. A. Utah. PM-P, Vol. 21. 1942. Archaeological Researches in the Northern Bryan, K. - Great Basin. Carnegie Inst., Publ. No. 538. 1923. Geology and Ground Water Resources of 1944. New Information on South-Central Oregon the Sacramento Valley, California. U.S. Atlatls. SM-M 18:169-179. Geol. Survey, Water Supply Paper No. 495. -. and A. D. Krieger Campbell, E. W. C., W. H. Campbell, E. Antevs, C.A. Amsden, J. B. Barbieri, and F. D. Bode 1940. Atlatls and Associated Artifacts from South- Central Oregon. In Early Man in Oregon. 1937. The Archaeology of Pleistocene Lake Univ. Oregon Monographs, Studies in An- Mohave. SM-P, No. 11. thropology, No. 3, pp. 16-52. Carter, G. F. Culin, S. 1941. Archaeological Notes on a Midden at Point 1907. Games of the North American Indians. Sal. A Ant, 6:214-226. BAE-R, 24. Clark, B. Durrell, C. 1929. Tectonics of the Valle Grande of California. 1944. Geology of the Quartz Crystal Mines near Bull. Amer. Assoc. of Petroleum Geolo- Mokelumne Hill, Calaveras County, Cali- gists, 13:199-238. fornia. Calif. Jour. Mines and Geol. 40:423-433. Cook, S.F. Fenenga, F. 1946. A Reconsideration of Shellmounds with 1940. A Reply to "Folsom and Nepesta Points." Respect to Population and Nutrition. A Ant, A Ant, 6:78-79. 12:51-53. and R. F. Heizer ~~~~~~~Ford, J. A., and G. I. Qulimby, Jr. 1947 Th Quntiativ Inestgaton o Abrignal 1945. The Tchefuncte Culture, an Early Occupa- r; 194. The uantittive nvestiation f Aborginaltion of the Lower Mississippi Valley, Mem- I Sites: Analyses of Human Bone. AJPA, oirs of the Soc. for Amer. Archaeol. No. 2, ff ~~5:201-220. Supplement, A Ant, Vol. 10, No. 3, P?t. 2. , ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~51 52 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Gifford, E. W. 1941. The Origin and Authenticity of an Atlatl and Atlatl Dart from Lassen Co., Califor- 1916. Composition of California Shellmounds. nia. A Ant, 7:134-141. UC-PAAE, 12:1-30. 1926. Californian Anthropometry. UC-PAAE, -and G. W. Hewes 22:217-390. 1940. Animal Ceremonialism in Central Cali- 1936. Californian Balanophagy. In Essays in fornia in the Light of Archaeology. AA, Anthropology Presented to A. L. Kroeber, 42:587-603. pp. 87-89. Berkeley, Calif. and E. Lemert 1940. Californian Bone Artifacts. UC-AR, Vol. 1947. Observations on Archaeological Sites. 3, No. 2. in Topanga Canyon, California. UC-PAAE, 1947. Californian Shell Artifacts. UC-AR, Vol. 44:237-258. 9, No. 1. and A. E. Treganza Gladwin, H. S., et al. 1944. Aboriginal Mines and Quarries of the Cal- 1937. Excavations at Snaketown: Material Cul- ifornia Indians. Calif. jour. Mines and ture. Gila Pueblo Medallion Papers No. 25. Harrington, M. R. Hewes, G. W. 1941. Reconnaissance of the Central San Joaquin 1933. Gypsum Cave, Nevada. SM-P, No. 8.ValyAAn,7133. Valley, A Ant, 7:123-133. 1948. An Ancient Site at Borax Lake, Califor- 1943. Camel, Horse and Bison Associated with nia. SM-P, No. 16. Human Burials and Artifacts near Fresno, Heizer, R. F. California. Science, Vol. 97, No. 2579, 1937. Baked-Clay Artifacts of the Lower Sacra- pp. 328-329. mento Valley. A Ant, 3:34-50. 1946. Early Man in California and the Tranquil- lity Site. A Ant 11 :209-215. 1938. A Folsom-Type Point from Sacramento Valley. SM-M, 12:180-182. Jenks, E. A. 1939. Some Sacramento Valley--Santa Barbara 1941. Beveled Artifacts in Florida of the Same Archaeological Relationships. SM-M, Type as Artifacts Found near Clovis, New 13:31 -35. Mexico. A Ant, 6:314-319. 1940. A Note on Folsom and Nepesta Points. Kidder, A. V. A Ant, 6:79-80. 1932. The Artifacts of Pecos. Andover, Mass. 1941. Review of D. B. Rogers, Prehistoric Man 1938. Arrow-Heads or Dart Points. A Ant, of the Santa Barbara Coast. A Ant, 4:156-157. 6:372-375. 1941a. Archaeological Evidence of Sebastian Rod- and S. J. Guernsey riguez Cermeino's California Visit in 1595. 1919. Archaeological Explorations in Northeast- Calif. Hist. Soc. Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. 4. ern Arizona. BAE-B, 65. 1941b. The Direct-Historical Approach in Califor- Kluckhohn, C., and P. Reiter, eds. nia Archaeology. A Ant, 7:98-122. 1939. Preliminary Report on the 1937 Excavations, 1941c. Aboriginal Trade between the Southwest Bc 50-51, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, and California. SM-M, 15:185-188. Univ. New Mexico Bull. No. 345, Anthro. Ser., Vol. 3, No. 2. 1946. The Occurrence and Significance of South- western Grooved Axes in California. A Ant, Krieger, A. D. 11:187-193. 1940. Chemical Alteration of Archaeological Re- 1947. Francis Drake and the California Indians, mains. Soc. for Amer. Archaeol., Notebook, 1579. UC-PAAE, 42:251-302. June, pp. 126-136. Mimeographed. and S. F. Cook Kroeber, A. L. 1949. The Archaeology of Central California: 1920. California Culture Provinces. UC-PAAE, A Comparative Analysis of Human Bone 17:151-170. from Nine Sites. In press. 1923. The History, of Native Culture in California. and F. Fenenga UC-PAAE, 20:125-142. 1939. Archaeological Horizons in Central Cali- 1925. Handbook of the Indians of California. BAE-B fornia. AA, 41 :378-399. 78. HEIZER: CENTRAL CALIFORNIA ARCHAEOLOGY: EARLY HORIZON 53 Kroeber, A. L. (cont.) Bishop Museum, Occasional Papers, 17: 57-65. 1936. Prospects in California Prehistory. A Ant, 2:108-116. Rogers, D. B. 1938. "Lodi Man." Science, Vol. 87, No. 2250, 1929. Prehistoric Man of the Santa Barbara pp. 137-138. Coast. Santa Barbara, Calif. 1941. Culture Element Distributions: XV. Salt, Rogers, M. J. Dogs, Tobacco. UC-AR, Vol. 6, No. 1. 1929. The Stone Art of the San Dieguito Plateau. Lillard, J. B., R. F. Heizer, and F. Fenenga AA, 31:454-467. 1939. An Introduction to the Archeology of Cen- 1939. Early Lithic Industries of the Lower Basin tral California. Sacramento Junior Col- of the Colorado River and Adjacent Areas. lege, Dept. of Anthropology, Bull. 2. San Diego Museum Papers, No. 3. Lillard, J. B., and W. K. Purves Schenck, W. E. 1936. The Archaeology of the Deer Creek--Co- 1926. The Emeryville Shellmound: Final Report. sumnes Area, Sacramento Co., California. UC-PAAE, 23:147- Sacramento Junior College, Dept. of An- and E. J. Dawson thropology, Bull. 1. 1929. Archaeology of the Northern San Joaquin McGregor, J. C. Valley. UC-PAAE, 25:289-414. 1941. Southwestern Archaeology. New York. Scoggin, C. Martin P. S. G. I. Quimby, and D. Collier 1940. Folsom and Nepesta Points. A Ant, 5:290- 1947. Indians before Columbus. Chicago, Tll. 298. Merriam, C. H. ~~~~~~~Sellards, E. H., G. L. Evans, G. E. Meade, n A. D. Krieger 1918. The Acorn, a Possibly Neglected Source of Food. Nat. Geog. Mag. 34:129-137. 1947. Fossil Bison and Associated Artifacts from Plainview, Texas. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Nelson, N. C. Amer., 58:927-954. 1909. Shellmounds of the San Francisco Bay Service, E. Region. UC-PAAE, 7:309-356. 1941. Lithic Patina as an Age Criterion. Papers 1910. The Ellis Landing Shellmound. UC-PAAE, of the Michigan Acad. Sci., Vol. 27, Pt. 4, 7:357-426. pp. 553-557. Orr, P. C. Smith, E. 1947. Additional Californian Bone Artifact Types 1941. The Archaeology of Deadman Cave, Utah. in the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural Bull. of the Univ. of Utah, Vol. 32, No. 4. History. In Gifford, 1947, pp. 115-132. Stearns, H. T., W. Robinson, and G. H. Taylor Piper, A. M., H. S. Gale, H. E. Thomas, and T. W. Robinson 1930). Geology and Ground Water Resources of the Mokelumne Area, California. U.S. Geol. 1939. Geology and Ground-Water Hydrology of Survey,-Water Supply Paper, No. 619. the Mokelumne Area, California. U.S. Dept. Interior, Water Supply Paper, No. 780. Stwr,P.D Rau, C. 1941. Skeletal Remains from the Buena Vista Rau, C. Sites, California (App. A in W. R. Wedel, 1884. Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and North 1941, a.v.). America. SI-CK, 25. Tower, D. B. Riddell, F. and H. Riddell, F. and H. 1945. The Use of Marine Mollusca and Their MS. Archaeology of the Buried Strawberry Site. Value in Reconstructing Prehistoric Trade Copy in files of UCMA. . Routes in the American Southwest. Papers Roberts, R. C. and R. A. Gardner' of the Excavators' Club, Vol. 2, No. 3. Cam- bridge, Mass. 1946. [Pedologic Investigations of Early Central V California horizon occupation deposits.] aillant, G. C. U.S. Div. of Soil Survey, Field Letter No. 1, 1931. Excavations at Ticoman. AMNH-AP, Vol. February, pp. 14-19. Mimeographed. 32, Pt. II, pp. 199-451. Robinson, E. 1935. Excavations at El Arbolillo. AMvNH-AP, 1942. Shell Fishhooks of the California Coast. Vol. 35, Pt. II. 54 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Wedel, W. R. 1937. Atlatl Dart Foreshafts from the La Brea Pits. Bull. Southern Calif. Acad. Sci., 36: 1941. Archaeological Investigations at Buena 41-60 Vista Lake, Kern County, California. BAE-B 130. Yates, L. G. Woodward, A. 1889. Charmstones. SI-AR (1886), Pt. 1, pp. 1929. Shell Fish Hooks of the Chumash. Bull. 296-305. (Reprinted from Bull. No. 2 Southern Calif. Acad. Sci., 38:41-46. Santa Barbara Soc. Nat. Hist., 1890.) EXPLANATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS Figures 5-19 Fig. 5. a. Typology of shell beads of Olivella and Haliotis (a', Olivella type la; b', Olivella lb; c', Olivella type lc; i', Olivella type 2b; e', Olivella type 3b; f', ', Haliotis type la; h'-j, Haliotis type 2; k', Haliotis type 3). b. Turtle-carapace pendant with type la Haliotis beads, site C.56, L-19206. c. Turtle-carapace pendant with type 2b Olivella beads affixed with asphaltum, site C.56, L-19206. d. Turtle-carapace pendant, site C.68, 1-55173. e. Turtle-carapace ornament, site C.68, 1-55170. f. Baked-clay object with twined basketry impression, site C.68, 1-62455. All nat. size. Fig. 6. a. Typology of Early horizon Hallotis shell ornaments. b. Type C.(2).1 ornament, site C.56, L-19078. c. Type H.2.a ornament, site C.56, L-19068. d. Type C.(2) ornament, site C.56, L-19288. e. Type A.1 ornament, site C.56, L-19073. f. Type A.1 ornament, site C.56, L-19063. g. Type C.(3) ornament, site C.56, L-19221. All nat. size. Key to full typology in Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga, 1939, pp. 14-17. Capital letters refer to shape (A, claw shape made of shell rim; B, rectangular; C, circular; H, rectangular with concave edges); numbers refer to number of perforations (plain numbers indicate edge holes and parenthetical numbers indicate central perforations); lower case letters show presence and style of ornamentation (a, surface incising at edge, not milled edges). Fig. 7. a. Typology of Early horizon charmstones. b. Type A.1 charmstone of amphibolite schist, site C.107, L-12450A. c. Type A.2 charmstone of amphibolite schist, broken at burial into 3 pieces, with shell beads of Olivella 2b and Haliotis la attached with asphaltum, site C.107, L-16949. d. Type A.2 charmstone of amphibolite schist, site C.107, L-12465. e. Type A.3 charmstone of amphibolite schist, site C.107, L-12526. f. Type B.1 charmstone of diorite, site C.68, 1-55326. g. Type B.1 charmstone of mottled granite, site C.107, L-12535A. All J nat. size. Fig. 8. a. Type B.l.a charmstone of translucent alabaster, site C.56, L-19161. b. Charmstone of alabaster, like _, site C.56, L-19274. c. Charmstone of alabaster, like a site C.56, L-19269. d. Type B.l.b charmstone of green andesite, site C.107, L-16656. e. Type B.2 charmstone of blue amphibolite schist with type la Olivella beads attached with asphaltum, site C.107, 1-46535. f. Imperforate type B.3 charmstone, site C.107, L-16280. E. Type B.3 charmstone of serpentine, site C.68, 1-55324. h. Type B.4 charmstone of translucent alabaster or travertine, site C.68, 1-49063. i. Type C.2 charmstone of translucent alabaster, site C.68, 1-46462. j, Type C.4 charmstone of granite, site C.107, L-16128. k. Small type B.4 charmstone of translucent alabaster, site C.56, L-19169. All J nat. size. Fig. 9. a. Type C.1 charmstone of translucent alabaster, site C.107, 1-46223. b. Type C.3 charmstone of translucent alabaster, site C.142, 1-45281. c. Type C.4 charmstone of granite, site C.107, L-12550. d. Type D.3 charmstone of blue amphibolite schist, site C.107, L-16303. e. Type F.2 charmstone of translucent alabaster, site C.56, L-19168. f. Charmstone (?) of dark granite found near Woodbridge, 1-56150. &. Type F.1 charmstone of steatite, site C.56, L-19228. h. Unfinished charmstone (?) of white quartzite, site C.68, 1-55341. i. Type B.1 charmstone of limestone, site C.107, L-12534A.j. Type B.1 charmstone of andesite, site C.68, 1-49L,89. k. Type A.1 charmstone of blue amphibolite schist, site C.107, L-12551A. 1. Miniature type B.1 charm, Lone of mottled steatite, site C.56, L-19254. All i nat. size. Fig. 10. a. Charmstone, type E.2, of amphibolite schist, site C.107, L-16302. b. Charmstone, type E.1, of rhyolite tuff, site C.107, 1-46529. c. Charmstone, type E.2, of amphibolite schist, from "near Rio Vista," specimen on exhibit in State Indian Museum, Sacramento. d. Charmstone fragment, type E.1, of amphibolite schist, site C.107, 1-46489 (an identical fragment, not shown, is from site C.142, 1-48808). e. Charmstone, type E.3, of translucent alabaster, site C.56, L-19226. f. Charmstone, type E.2, of amphibolite schist, site C.107 (from same burial as 4), L-11734. All nat. size. Fig. 11. a. Typology of flaked stone implements. b-l. Type NAa. m-o. Type NAbl. k-u. Type NAb2. v-w. Type NAb3. All i nat. size. Fig. 12. a-_, a', b' Flaked stone implements, type SAa. All 4 nat. size. Fig. 13. Flaked stone implements. a-e. Type SAa. f. Type SAa2. &. Type SAc. h-, a'-c. Type SBa. z.Type SBc. All i nat. size. Fig. 14. Flaked stone implements. a-e. Type'SCal. f-m. Type SCa2. n. Type SCa3. o. Type SCa4. p. Type SCa6. 9, , Type SCb2. s. Type SCb3. t. Small obsidian bangle, site C.56, L-19281. E, v. Large obsidian bangles, site 0.107, L-16643, L-16643a. w. Large obsidian blade, site 0.107, L-16992. All 4 nat. size. Fig. 15. a-k. Ground-slate objects. a. Site 0.107, L-16655. b. Site 0.68, 1-55342. c. Site 0.56, L-19047. di. Site 0.68, 1-55334. e. Site 0.68, 1-55303. f. Site 0.68, 1-55305. g.. Site 0.107, L-16352. h. Site 0.68, 1-55301. i. Site 0.68, 1-55310.j. Site 0.107, L-16226. k. Site 0.56, L-19048. 1-n. Quartz crystals. 1. Site 0.107, 1-46326. m. Site 0.142, 1-49022. n. Site 0.68, 1-55485. All nat. size. 55 56 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Fig. 16. a. Flat, side-notched slate piece with scratched grooves, site C.107, L-16330. b. Biotite mica pendant, site C.107, L-16658. c. Rhyolite tuff "pipe," site C.142, 1-49007. d. Pebble with shallow, wide, pecked groove, site C.56, L-19043. e. Pipe, like c, of steatite, site C.142, 1-49001. f. Steatite bead, site C.107, L-16660. g. Pecan-shaped, grooved, baked-clay object, site C.68, 1-49062. h. Grooved baked-clay object, like , site C.68, 1-49062a. i. Biconical, simple, baked-clay object, site C.107, L-16017.i. Hammerstone, site C.144, 1-49000a. All nat. size. Fig. 17. a-d. Objects of animal bone. a. Site C.142, 1-48791. b. Site C.142, 1-48789. c. Site C.142, 1-48793. d. Site C.107, L-16300. e, f. Antler objects. e. Site C.56, L-19272. f. Site C.107, L-16300a. g. Dagger of human bone, site C.56, L-19273. All i nat. size. Fig. 18. a. Antler wedge, site C.68, 1-55161. b-m. Objects of animal bone. b. Site C.56, L-19218. c. Site C.68, 1-49088. d. Site C.68, 1-49087. e. Site C.56, 1-19224. f. Site C.68, 1-49056. g. Site C.107, L-16652. h. Site C.68, 1-49043. i. Site C.68, 1-55209._. Site C.56, L-19238. k. Site C.68, 1-55163. 1. Site C.68, 1-55222. m. Site C.68, 1-55221. All nat. size. Fig. 19. Objects of animal bone. a. Site C.107, L-16301. b. Site C.56, L-19219. c. Site C.107, L-16389. d. Site C.56, L-19290. e. Site C.56, L-19227. f. Site C.142, 1-48794. g. Site C.107, L-16388. h. Site C.56, L-19291. All nat. size. Q Q Q D) 3) I~~~~~~~~ ef al a b c d e Fg 5 Se be tp ooytutecrp4k IyA, ~ ~ ~ ~' ,~~..\. -O 0 6czDEc~O 0 o~~~~~~~~~~ A.l. ~~~~B.(I)* B. (1. B.l.a. B.M1.1 B.,2. C.l1. C. (1) o00 0 f0 KCI 0.0 C.(I).I. C.(l).. C( ). la.C.(2). C.2).o.. C.(2).1. .0 C C.(2).1.aQ. C.(3).aL. H.2. H. 2. H.2.a. H.3. 9~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9 Fig. 6. Hitotis ornaments, typology and specimens X c z c 3 c:4 Q3 0 8 :_ E3 F~~~~~~B-3 .l 0'; 0 0 0 1 0 CA Aig2 7EyrnA.3 A. I D.3~~~~~~. C.2 C.3 C.AE1 *E.1 E-2 F. - - - Am.~~~~ Oa ;, A e ,0 l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Fig. 8 Tpe B ald C charstonese Fig 9. .......ne ..vrou ye 4-~~~~~~~~~~~~i e Fig. 10. Charmstones of phallic form NAa NAbI NAb2 NAb3 NBa SAa SAa2 SAb SAc SBa SBc SCal SCa2 SCa3 SCQA SCa6 SCb3 C.1422 at b C.56 C g1i~/ 2 L-192it133 1 C566Cp L-19186 L-1n 03 I ~~~~~~~~~~~C.56 C-107 A L-1926L-2 C.56 I ~~~~ ~~~~C.56 h7 I- 587 C. 68 ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~L-1 9193 I, U) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C.56 L-19245 ( ~~~~~~'5 1-552 77 41~ ~ L 1~~~~~~~~~~~.O L-19165L195 C.56 C.107 C.56 ( I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C. 107 Ii- C.142/ 1-46646 52 :9'. LI 252~~-1 L16841 L64 J C107~~C10 A-84 1-55226 14A8773 L- 19 2 11 ~~~.4L- 19220 L-12,48q C.68~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.0 C. 56 C. 56~C.5 U C.56~~~~~ QI L-19181 FIg. 12. Lake 1son imleens tyeSa L1168-87 -80 C.56~~~~C 5 L- 19 V y L-t99 L- 191 751523 C. 56 C. 56 L-l 90' 1-55230 C. 68 a b ~~~C -885C. 56 / ~~~~C.107 1-4688A7 C9142 L-I8980 L L92924 C-56~~~~~5 C. 107~~~~~~~C5 J C. 5C.5 C.56~~~~~~~~~~~C5 Ci10 LL-1212 Z 142~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C C.5 L-19199919 C -5266 C56 ~~C-5 L10 6 U C'~~~~~~~~~- L-19170~Fg.1.Flkdson mleet,tye AaadS 64A Llg1~~~~7 C56925L-19180 C56 e ~~~~C.56 1524 C.56 -4018 d 08 C. A L-19210 - ? .0564 b 0. 56 L-19293 L-26 0.56 0. 56 1-48787 m LC.28 0.56L-192A2 / ~~~~~~~k C.56 1-55257 L-19049q 0. 68 0. 56 0p C. 56v .1* j ?1.j... it > \?// . - -4' 7- -?J 7 7 4 ?- 7 m 'C C I ? / p A k K a I n Fig. 15. Objects of ground slate and quartz crystals F I Fig. 16. Groulnd-stone, baked-clay, and biotite objects /11~~~~~~~~~~~~1I II,y i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I I ''~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Iq I 'm- Iiq t I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~II' b 0 hb ': 1! S~~~~[1 Fig. ~~~~~~~18 .1OJcso nlradbn I 'I ii ?Ii?I?1? i II ?III i4??i1fl I1??iII1I ?I I. 41 III'' I' I' ( it111 'I'llill II I') C d Fig. 19. Pointed bone objects PLATES EXPLANATION OF PLATES PLATE 1 a. Burials 9 and 14. L e. Burial 15, c. Burials 18, 19. d. Burial 17. Note legs cut off by intrusive pit (cf. fig. 3 in text). PLATE 2 a. Burial C.21, site C.107. Note unworked colored pebbles and slate "pencils" as burial accompaniments. b. Burial C.22, site C.107. Note type E.1 charmstone at neck and type 2 Haliotis bead as burial offerings. c. Broken type A charmstones accompanying fragmentary burial, site C.107. d. C.107 Early horizon burial. Note type C.2 Haliotis ornament on skull and bone implements at face. e. Burial C.20, site C.107. Note prox- imal end of type A charmstone at right femur. PLATE 3 a. Burial 10, site C.68, showing prone extended position. b. Burial 6, Site C.68, showing supine extended position. Note artifacts in grave. c. Burial 53, site C.56. Note charmstone at neck and human fibula "dagger" at right side. d. C.107 Early horizon burial accompanied by charmstones and bone implement. PLATE 4 a. Calvarium imbedded in surface hardpan layer, site C.68. b. Stratification of site C.107 showing Early horizon burial in compacted red clay subsoil and soft dark refuse deposit above in vertical exposure. c. Cache of cut bear (Ursus) bones, site C.68. d. C.68 extended burial taken out imbedded in hardpan matrix. e. Exca- vating site C.142. Note swampy depression in background and house and trees at river edge. f. Site C.68 with piers whose lighter colored caps show depth of surficial hardpan. y. View of site C.107 showing mound eleva- tion. PLATE 5 a. Early horizon charmstones, site C.107. b. "Mortar" with long narrow cavity, site C.107. c. Sandstone paint palette with shallow rectangular cavity in surface, site C.107. d. Cobble mortar, site C.107. e. Early horizon basin metates, site C.107. f. Skull, photographed at time of excavation, showing position of type C.(2).a Haliotis ornamenit over ear, probably used as facing disk for wooden earplug. g. Cache of fire-broken cooking stones in subsoil, site C.107. h. Receptacle made from human skull. PLATE 6 Skull of burial No. 51, site C.56, 12-7294. PLATE 7 Sull of burial No. 51, site C.68, 12-7603. PLATE 8 Skull of burial No. 91, site C.68, 12-7646. PLATE 9 Skull of burial No. 16, site C.142, 12-5677. 74 (b N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r U) Cu .a h. c d Plate 3. Burials, sites C.68, C.56, and C. 107 :B* :e> Plate 4 Excavation views, site~~~~~~~~~~s C5,C6,C17 . a C _~~ A e~~~lt 5.AtfcsfofieC 0 i:_ _~~~~~~~~ 1 K 0n S Plate 6. Skull of Burial No. 51, site C.56 Height- Breadth Index, 97.28 FdciI Indz .Lnt nz 83 ExenlPltlIdx 2.2CailId.70 Plt 3.Sulo uia o 9 ieG6 h09% I Fa ia Ind exid. 913 Plat 8 Skll f BuialNo.91, iteC 6 Plate 9. Skull of Burial No. 16, site C.142