: A* : -* ''ANTHIROPQLO94L RECQRDS P-4 1~~~~~~~ ::3 ' * .?14 f:';~O . I 4. - *44 ,:' I 44I4 . 4 .. CULTURE ELFMES . XXIII NORTHERN AND iE OSHONI 44 . ' 4- f.000. (-X+@, ..................... ,: 0Det : 0 : 44? 444? 4 4 F '? 2 F ? F '? F ?44 JULIAN H. Al :4r VW ' ?44 4444 * i.k ' ;44 44,4s B .J -U:NI:VERSEDF CALQNIA PRESS BEKBELEY AND LOS-ANGELES < $ 0194 3 t 44~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 ... ... , .. . (.S;~~~~~~~~A ?44 ?44?4 444444 444 .,- +~ 2 * . o . 4f4 -Ai * 44 -, W' k 4- . 4- .J : , , 4 ' i 4'. 44" 4. 44244 V. V V 44444 4444,4 444 #4 44,444 / 444 * / S #' ; - ;Es~1~~ I," :t i ?' -4, : ? " ? ?: ? ", . : i i,? I : f I ;X~ 11~~ . I; " - " I I I > 1,4 i37, I g,fi '1 , BP CULTURE ELEMENT DISTRIBUTIONS: XXIII 1, NORTHERN AND GOSIUTE SHOSHONI i BY JULIAN H. STEWARD ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Vol. 8, No. 3 w ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS EDITORS: A. L. KROEBER, E. W GIFFORD, R. H. LoWIE, R. L. OLSON Volume 8, No. 3, PP. 263-392 Submitted by Editors June I2, 1941 Issued July 30, 1943 Price, $I.25 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON, ENGLAND The University of California publications dealing with anthro- pological subjects are now issued in two series. The series in American Archaeology and Ethnology, which was established in 1903, continues unchanged in format, but is restricted to papers in which the interpretative element outweighs the factual or which otherwise are of general interest. The new series, known as Anthropological Records, is issued in photolithography in a larger size. It consists of monographs which are documentary, of record nature, or devoted to the presentation primarily of new data. MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA CONTENTS 3 and informants . . . . . . 1 abbreviations. phic discussion ....... stence nting. ant foods .......... od preparation ....... ings houses. ation . . . . . . . . . . . . ns . try. ng . ry .. . . . . . . . . . . and adornment . . . . . . . co and smoking . . . . . . . al instruments . . . . . . . age and kinship relations ches or transvestites . . . . ical organization . . . . . . rty . . . . . . . . . . . . . re . Lcustoms . . . . . . . . . . 1' puberty rites . . . . . . . [customs . . . . . . . . . . ,ion . . . . . . . fllaneous . . . . . . . . . . lendar; astronomy . . . . . . element distributions list is used in the element list ............................ stence, elements 1-660 (Hunting, 1-473; Gathering, 474-545; Agriculture, 546-552; ;storage, 553-564; Food preparation, 565-660); Dwellings, 661-782; Sweat houses, ;Navigation, 844-858; Fire making, 859-882; Miscellaneous implements, 883-995; dressing, 996-1046a; Weapons, 1047-1167; Basketry, 1168-1258; Weaving, 1259-1304; !y, 1305-1325; Burdens, 1326-1347; Cradles, 1348-1369; Mutilations, 1370-1399; and adornment, 1400-1686; Games, 1687-2006; Money, 2007; Tobacco and smoking, 2055; Musical instruments, 2056-2120; Marriage, 2121-2161; Kinship relations, 172; Berdaches or transvestites, 2173-2179; Political organization, 2180-2207; >ty, 2208-2211; Warfare, 2212-2256; Birth customs, 2257-2373; Girls' puberty rites, 427; Death customs, 2428-2490; Religion, 2491-2683; Dances, 2684-2859; Miscellane- 860-2936 (Calendar, 2860-2861; Astronomy, 2862-2879; Whirlwind, 2880-2882; Omens, 92; Various, 2893-2906; Sign language, 2907; Naming and terms of address, 2908- Page . . 263 * . 263 * . 265 * . 266 * . 266 * . 266 * . 271 * . 271 * . 272 * . 273 * . 273 * . 273 * . 273 * . 273 * . 273 * . 274 . . 274 . . 275 * . 278 * . 278 * . 278 * . 278 * . 279 * . 279 * . 280 * . 280 * . 280 * . 280 . . 281 * . 281 * . 287 * . 291 * . 291 . 292 . . 292 ,denied by all informants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 ?hic notes on the element list ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 re cited .... .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . 391 i t~~~~~~~~~~iii ] e1 ba: .I. 1 t 01 I y sti nn - - - - - - - - 0 . . 0 CULTURE ELEMENT DISTRIBUTIONS: XXIII NORTHERN AND GOSIUTE SHOSHONI BY JULIAN H. STEWARD INTRODUCTION material in this paper was collected among and Gosiute Shoshoni of eastern Idaho *era Utah in 1936 while the writer was .special study of sociopolitical groups people.* pgh practically all items of culture, ex- thology, are included in the lists, they regarded as the product of a recon- rather than as complete ethnographies. and shamanism especially require further D attempt has been made to discuss the ace of elements or their interrelation another and with the natural environ- lpt when a mere listing leaves them nintelligible. In these instances, prefatory discussions of certain por- the list treat them briefly. loitical institutions of these locali- of Western Shoshoni of Nevada and Idaho discussed at great length elsewhere 1938), and are therefore only briefly d here. lture types occur in these localities: Shoshoni and Western Shoshoni. (See erd, 1939a.) The former--S-Prom, S- 'FtHl, and NP-Ban1--possessed horses and traits incidental to them. They had ure of band organization, traveled into nd Iontana to hunt buffalo, and had ac- sny Plains elements, especially those Fto hunting and to warfare. There is 6 however, that previous to acquiring E their material and social culture was dlar to that of the Western Shoshoni. Ore Shoshoni lacked horses, had no ac- the buffalo, lived in an infertile en- It, and had an impoverished culture like the Nevada and western Idaho Shoshoni ]ay described (Steward, 1940). Western localities included here are S-GrsCr, iand GS-DpCr. ga1l number of trait presences among shows them to have possessed the most shed culture so far recorded in the Great lstance in the preparation of these ma- 5was furnished by the personnel of Work iAdministration Official Project No. 62, Unit A-15. the meaning of tribal abbreviations Basin. This is understandable since they are near the geographical center of the Basin and thus farthest from neighboring culture areas which had contributed many elements to different parts of the Basin. They are, moreover, in one of the least fertile parts of the area, lacking many natural resources upon which a large number of elements depended. Two other localities were also visited--South- ern Paiute and Ute. Because of the unreliability of the data procured, they have not been incor- porated in the element list. Although the in- formation is too unreliable to distinguish Ute from Paiute, it does distinguish these two from Shoshoni, and therefore mention of them will be found in the "Ethnographic Discussion" and in the "Ethnographic Notes on the Element List." Not more than twenty-four survivors of the once numerous Pahvant Ute inhabiting the region of the lower Sevier River and Sevier Lake now re- side at Kanosh, Utah. The oldest person is little more than forty. All members of this group dis- claimed knowledge of former customs and referred me to JPi, Joe Pihavits, as an authority. Since JPi is a Kaibab Southern Paiute man from northern Arizona who had lived among his own people for twenty years then married into the Pahvant colony where he has lived another twenty years, I pro- cured lists for both groups from him simultane- ously. The substantial agreement of the two lists demonstrated his inability or unwillingness to distinguish differences and, after a day, the task was abandoned. The explanation of the difficulty seems to be that for many years white men in the region have regarded JPi as an authority on Ute lore, being unaware of his Southern Paiute origin. TRIBES AND INFORMANTS (1) S-Lemhi. Shoshoni inhabited the mountains of central Idaho south of the Salmon River, liv- ing in several small, independent villages. These people were without horses and were probably very similar to the Western Shoshoni. They were called Tuka (mountain sheep) dUka (eaters). In the same region, however, were Shoshoni on the Lemhi River. They possessed horses and were like the Northern Shoshoni. They were called Agai (salmon) dika (not to be confused with the Western Shoshoni Agai dUka on the Snake River in western Idaho). [263] ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS The informant, JPe, James Pegoga, a man of about eighty-five years, was born in a Tuka dilka village west of the Lemhi River, but later lived on the Lemhi River, the mountain people gradu- ally having amalgamated with the Lemhi band and acquired horses. The list, therefore, is a com- posite of practices of both peoples. These people are now at Fort Hall. Nine days were spent on this list, AP, a young S-FtHl man, interpreting. In discussion and notes to S-Lemhi, I have frequently referred to Lowie's study of them (1909) but have not undertaken to cite refer- ences to all elements. It is interesting to note that although many Iroquois hunters were brought by trappers into this general Idaho region prior to 1832 (for example, Irving, 1898, 1:122), not a single ele- ment of culture can be positively traced to them, unless it be Humfreville's mention of the birch- bark (pp. 285-286). (2) S-FtHl. These were Shoshoni called Bohogue (bohovi, Artemisia tridentata; gue, butte; referring to buttes north of the Snake River). They had wintered with Bannock on the Snake River in the vicinity of Fort Hall, Idaho, where the reservation is now located, but from spring to fall had ranged widely. The environ- ment is arid and salmon do not come up the Snake River above Shoshone Falls, nearly a hundred miles to the west. But these Shoshoni possessed horses and, after buffalo became extinct in Idaho in 1840, made trips to Wdyoming and Nontana, frequently in company with S-Lemhi, NP-Ban, Nez Perce, Flathead, and Wyoming Shoshoni. As is noted at several places in the list, many practices formerly resembled those of. West- ern Shoshoni. The infiltration of Plains ele- ments has been continuous and depended upon an increasing number of horses and contact with Plains tribes. The latest major importation from the Plains was the sun dance, borrowed in 1901. The list does not represent the culture at any stated period but when possible the approximate time of change in each element has been noted. The informant was SB, Silver Ballard, a Fort Hall Shoshoni of about sixty-four years. Six days were spent on this list, AP, Adolph Pahvitse, interpreting. (3 NP-Ban. The Northern Paiute-speaking Bannock lived at Fort Hall in close association with the Shoshoni. Often they wintered together, traveled together, and intermarried. Sometimes, however, the two groups pursued independent courses. There is no record of when this asso- ciation began. The Bannock have retained their own language to this day, however, and a surpris- ing number of differences between them and S-FtHl appear in the lists, though in general the cultures of the two groups were similar. To what extent these differences were only apparent and resulted from using only one informant for each group it is impossible to say. The informant was WH, White Horse man of approximately eighty-four yes assisted by his sister-in-law, a woi Bannock than Shoshoni ancestors, wb. among Bannock and married a Bannock preted. Six days were spent on thi (4) S-GrsCr. These were Shosho (pine nut) dUAka (not to be confuse& Nevada Shoshoni so designated) liv Creek and in the Goose Creek Mount eastern Utah. Their habitat is t northern limit of the pine nut (P and was, until the post-Caucasian. northern limit of the black-tailed Both species were very important economy. The locality is west of! of extensive grasslands and in mitted few if any horses. Buffal existed here in small numbers unt extinct in Utah about 1832 but p of major importance. S-GrsCr is included among West They were uinmounted, had access resources, and possessed a cult in minor details from other nei Shoshoni. The informant, GCJ, Grouse Cr man claiming to be 105 years old-, at Grouse Creek, and subsequenti Lake City and other localities the Fort Hall Reservation. In s his mind was alert. His English yield all but a few points with Three days were spent on the li ably complete except toward the hurried. (5) S-Prom. Shoshoni with ho trated in at least two bands on Utah. One, called Huk'undtka (h name has also been applied to shoni in Idaho, whom I have dis ever, as Kamu diuka, rabbit eate region of Promontory Point andt River on the northern shores of The other, Pankwi (fish) dika, tile Cache Valley. Both were N relying on-the buffalo which quent trips to Wdyoming, and po traits. Approximately the first halfl from OD, Old Diamond or Ray Di- more than eighty, who was born', Point. He subsequently joinedi and moved to Washakie, Utah, to this day in contact with The second part of the list, "Dwellings," is from RP, Rachq1 Shoshoni name, Posiats, louse) through his mother who had mot The use of informants from ties for this list does not i, because the Promontory and Cac were in close association with, 264 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XXIII--STEWARD: NORTHERN AND GOSIUTE SHOSHONI ts with Wyoming Shoshoni, which began irst acquired horses, have, as among ini, produced an infiltration of is which has continued to the present ast should be considered a composite 'wo bands. swere spent on these lists, SE, Seth of about fifty and a shaman, inter- contributed information on shaman- ia accredited to him. 1.V. Gosiute are indistinguishable Shoshoni. Their name is from gosip a list is for Skull Valley, which . settled at the few sources of water. me contact with Utah Lake and Sevier with Shoshoni of Salt Lake Valley, 1 had a very impoverished culture rNevada Shoshoni and are therefore Lh Western Shoshoni. Lon is from M, "Nioody" or NiUdiwak, renty-six, who was born in eastern of Wendover but was reared in Skull I.information is from his maternal who had lived in Skull Valley. Three t an interpreter were required. pCr. People also commonly designated )ccupied the comparatively fertile ralley on the southwestern edge of the Desert. Except for Deep Creek Valley, ,''is the least fertile of the entire much of it being occupied by vast .salt flats. Rainfall is slight, ,dible seeds limited, and game scarce ie Deep Creek Mountains. Surrounded 3hoshoni with impoverished cultures from contact with other peoples, the )ntent of the Deep Creek Gosiute Sho- Ls the smallest of any group. Information was from FB, Frank Bonamont, a man of about sixty or seventy, who has always lived at Deep Creek where he was born. Because, how- ever, the Gosiute Reservation was established at Deep Creek and he has long associated with people coming to live there from a hundred miles in all directions, it is probable that some elements not known aboriginally to Deep Creek have crept into the list. Three days were required. All informants, except JPi, were good and most of them were old enough to have witnessed much aboriginal life in their childhood. When the in- formation was not based on the informant's own observation, it is generally indicated. TRIBAL ABBREVIATIONS (The two-letter abbreviations are those employed for comparative aild map use in later work con- nected with this Culture Element Distributions survey; the longer abbreviations are those used in this paper.) Ss S-Lemhi Shoshoni, Lemhi: bands Tuka-dUka and Agai-duka. Sr S-FtHl Shoshoni, Bohogue, of Fort Hall. Ba NP-Ban Northern Paiute-speaking Bannock, of Fort Hall. Sq S-GrsCr Shoshoni, of Grouse Creek: Tuba- dUka band. Sp S-Prom Slioshoni, Promontory Point, Cache Valley, HukiindUka, Pankwi-dlka. GS GS-SklV Gosiute, Skull Valley. GD GS-DpCr Gosiute, Deep Creek. 265 ETHNOGRAPHIC DISCUSSION SUBSISTENCE (elements 1-660) Hunting (1-473) Geographical location as well as posses.sion of horses placed the Northern Shoshoni upon a very different subsistence level than the Western Shoshoni or foot Indians. The former were able to take bison in their own country and, when these became extinct about 1840, to journey east- ward across the Rocky Mountains into bison ter- ritory. Salmon from the Salmon River and the lower Snake River, both accessible to Indians with horses, also provided important quantities of food. Most Western Shoshoni dwelled in vast, arid deserts, which supported litt]e game and which were difficult to traverse extensively on foot. Consequently, these people were forced to live to an extraordinary degree upon small game and seeds. Simpson (pp. 52-53) writes of the Gosiute, "They live on rats, lizards, insects, grass- seeds, and roots, and their largest game is the rabbit, it being seldom that they kill an ante- lope." The introduction of the horse radically al- tered certain hunting methods, as pointed out subsequently. Hunting ordinarily lacked ritual and involved, besides supernatural powers of some individual hunters, very little magic. The most common magic was a plant placed in the animal's trail. JPe, however, described a Snake River man who put the dried and pulverized heart of a hawk, called po:pi, on a stick and placed it on the trails of deer or antelope to prevent the ani- mals eluding him. See also elements 34 and 2679. Deer.--Shoshoni without horses hunted deer with methods similar to those previously de- scribed for Western Shoshoni of Nevada. In the Fort Hall and the Lemhi regions, deer were scarce and were taken with difficulty with the bow. People usually had to travel some distance into mountainous country for them. Guns later facilitated hunting deer. Although pursuit of deer on horseback would not seem feasible, WH, NP-Ban, claimed to have taken them in this man- ner. Lewis and Clark (3:18) observed that Lemhi men ride down and kill a mule deer. Western Shoshoni elements in deer hunting not used in these localities were: driving through V-wings into a pit, into an enclosure with a pit, or into traps, nets or snares; hunting by relays; driving with dogs; and shamanism. Buffalo.--These had once occurred in all lo- calities described, but were rare except in Idaho and S-Prom territory. They became extinct in northern Utah about 1832 and' mounted Shoshoni thereafter or Mountains to hunt them. Local 4 could not be ascertained in deti is largely about hunts in Monti where, using no surrounds, imp' over cliffs, horsemen set out d the chief to ride down animals 4 by one. Bonneville observed in this manner in 1832 (Irving , NP-Ban rationalized failure toa by saying that when two killed one another, they could not be should be scalped. This beliei to other species. Antelope. --Antelope shamans,1 munal drives of Shoshoni laokind sentially like those of Nevada;. minor elements were lacking: ti enclosure; shaman's use of notc stuffed hide to accompany his ii ence pointing sticks toward the participating in the dance; seg belief that antelope come to th being driven; and, in a few looZ solid-fence corral. The mounted Shoshoni tended t relays and surrounds for sham though shamanism was involved t Lewis and Clark (2:345-346) obi the Lemhi River hunt antelope U horse relay; they had little sUo (Irving, 1898, 2:195-198) saw Ut hunt antelope on the Bear River, for clothing. The "chiefs" prep medicines and some "consulted tb mals they had sacrificed." The' round on horseback, the hunters'd narrowing circle until men, wON clubbed the animals. SB, S-FtHQ man saw an antelope hunt in whiq a hoof rattle went, without pre3 into the prairie. The people di around him and clubbed them. Tk dreamed of charming antelope wil WH's wife, a Shoshoni from I the Snake River in western Idab lowing account received from hu was a doctor and antelope shaU The shaman sent his two son& scouts. After discovering the | turned and said, "There is a in PFor elements 48-82 the data are entered under note 47. [266] CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XXIII--STEWARD: NORTHERN AND GOSIUTE SHOSHONI ire." They never said, "There is a big It there." That night, the people made If sage bark while the shaman sang and The shaman accompanied his song by beat- ether two sticks which had been broken by e and brought in by the scouts. The next a little boy placed piles of sagebrush rcle while other persons strung the bark om pile to pile, forming the corral fence [8o note 51]. That afternoon, they drove ;elope into the corral and the shaman shot them. The meat was divided for an evening During the night, the rope fence alone d the antelope. In the morning, the iwent out to kill the other antelope with arrows. They were told not to wear ,s because the loss of them would permit lope to escape. Young antelope were and permitted to escape, but never went . The kill was divided equally among Ient. The heads were piled up and cooked eneral feast. sin hunting methods used by individuals lope hunting were also crowded out by the tion of the horse. Thus, planting spears s (note 100) had not been used for sev- erations by NP-Ban. Ambushing from ?d use of antelope disguises were less among Bannock than among unmounted Sho- the south. tain sheep.--These were scarce in the L1 region. Since buffalo supplied most 4 animal products, sheep were usually nth guns in the vicinity of Yellowstone Teton Range where they were more plenti- her Shoshoni, however, not having access lo, went to more trouble to take sheep. d most methods known to Western Shosholi ;driving with fire, driving into enclo- traps; relays; fires to signal hunters; Mountain sheep's habitat made them dif- o surround or to drive, except with dogs; e infrequency of ambushes. Most often, ted alone with about five dogs which imp up cliffs and distracted them while them with the bow, S-Lemhi and S-GrsCr. concealed hunter thumped logs together NP-Ban, thumped his gun case, to imi- fighting, which attracted rams (ele- .--Great Basin communal hunts were for -tailed jack rabbit which, in aboriginal gd not extend into Idaho (WH's wife was in when she first saw a jack rabbit thought to be a fawn) and were rare in rritory. Later, when jacks became very in these regions, they were communally Methods used were borrowed from the re, however, they were somewhat differ- ithose used in Nevada. da, long nets were placed end to end something of a semicircle (element 117). S-GrsCr used nets about a hundred yards long and placed several to form an arc but left short spaces between the ends of the nets instead of making them meet. Pits occupied these spaces. They were used in the snow, an old man caring for each net while boys and girls drove the rabbits. For GS-DpCr, Egan (pp. 235-237) described two kinds of rabbit drives: (1) The brush was fired in a circle 1 mile in diameter, men, women and children, armed only with clubs, closing in on the rabbits as the fire spread inward; (2) six or eight nets, each 2j feet high, 150-200 yards long, with meshes of 2 inches or less, were placed end to end to form an incomplete circle, with an extra net on each side of the opening to form V-wings; people with clubs drove the rabbits into the opening, after which it was closed with the nets which had formed the wings. An adaptation of'the second method spread to S-Prom and to Idaho. S-Lemhi, S-FtHl, and NP-Ban set up a net, 4 feet high, to form a corral (ele- ment 114) about 25 feet in diameter with an open- ing 3 or 4 feet wide. Two fences of sagebrush about 2 feet high converged to the opening. S- Prom used a similar arrangement, having a pit, however, in the corral so that the rabbits could reach the net only with difficulty. Another de- vice used by S-Prom and the Rabbit Eaters or Bannock Creek Shoshoni to the northwest of them was a long rope supported at intervals by sticks arranged in an arc. Closely spaced nooses, held open by straws, hung from the rope. A crowd drove the rabbits to the nooses. (This could not be used on a windy day.) GS-SklV placed a single short net about 20 feet long across a rabbit trail. Three or four men drove rabbits to it. Gosiute rabbit nets,according to Simpson (p. 54), were of native flax, about 3 feet wide and of "very con- siderable length. A fence or barrier, made of wild sage brush plucked up by the roots, or cedar branches, is laid across the paths of the rabbits, and on this fence the net is hung vertically, and in its meshes the rabbit is caught." When jack rabbits became numerous in Cache Valley, instead of using nets, a crowd merely surrounded the animals and killed them with clubs. Snares, traps, nets, etc.--These were usually for small game and consequently were somewhat more important where people did not have access to buffalo. Spring-pole traps were used infrequently; they were usually for small game. Nooses and snares were generally like those in Nevada and were used for rodents and sage hens. S-Lemhi, however, used them for wolves and foxes (Lewis and Clark, 2:374). Sage hens were often taken with nets, old rab- bit nets usually being draped over withe wickets placed over a creek or spring. GS-SklV, however, claimed to have arranged brush instead of a net over water to trap sage hens. Nooses were not used for waterfowl and but rarely for large game. 267 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Deadfalls were predominantly for catching burrowing rodents, especially ground squirrels, called by Shoshoni, zip. They were of two types, the "figure-4" and the two-stick type. The first was described by Simpson for Gosiute (pp. 53-54): A heavy stone supported by "a kind of figure 4, made as it ordinarily is for a trap, except that, instead of a piece of wood, a string is used, tied, and provided with a short button, which, being brought around the upright is deli- cately held in position by a spear of dried grass or delicate piece of wood, which, pressing against the button, rests at the other end against the ground or stone." It was placed over holes of rats, which, "coming in contact with the long or lower piece of the figure 4, bring the stone upon them." Egan's description (p. 237) of the GS-DpCr deadfall may be the same or a similar arrange- ment. A rock is supported by "two sticks about three and a half or four inches long fastened to- gether at their centers by a string that will allow them to spread apart about four or five inches in the shape of the letter 'H'."? The other or two-stick type (element 159) was arranged in two ways. Figure "a?? below shows the usual form, in which a slender upright supporting the rock rested on a large horizontal stick. A string with bait attached passed around the base of the delicately balanced upright. Figure 'lb" shows the GS-DpCr type, in which the horizontal stick had a sharpened end on which bait was im- paled so that a slight movement dislodged the vertical stick. A related type, figure "c"?, described by U-Pahv and SP-Kaib, had the large rock supported at one end by two superimposed small rocks; the hunter pulled the last away by means of a string. BAITa a amr--O b ,NGI C Pitfalls were unknown among all tribes except S-Lemhi, where they were used for sheep and other species, and S-GrsCr, who placed pits be- tween the ends of rabbit nets. Decoys and disguises.--The main disguise was the antelope head and skin, used principally for driving sage hens and for stalking antelope. Waterfowl drive.--Ordinarily young birds which could not fly were driven and clubbed to death. Adult mud hens, which S-Prom said can only get into flight from the water, were also driven. Crowds of varying size, usually under an informal leader, participated, both sexes driving. Dliscellaneous. --The rodent skew0 thrust into a burrow and twisted in the rodent to draw it out. Eagle catching. --Aeries were comn individuals, but NP-Ban said that i: cult to defend a claim. The most common method of takin8 was to climb up or down the cliff t1 NP-Ban related a story similar to o Nevada. A man, who coveted his fri lowered his friend to a nest. Then the rope, stranding him, and return take his wife. The man remained at: ing part of the food brought for th When the eagles were fully grown, 4 legs and was flown gently to the giX U-Pahv version is that the man cliii the nest on a rope braided of some His friend abandoned him. He remail had lost so much weight that the adi could carry him down. Some men (S-; pernatural power for climbing. Young eagles were also taken fro trees. Adult eagles were caught from p1. Thus, S-Lemhi built a domed brush I bait on the roof. The eagle aligt4 was seized through a hole, certain: plucked, and he was released. S-Pr pit with skin laid across a stick. an opening, near which a deer carcs' Two men waited inside, frightening- with a stick, and when an eagle cat the legs, then broke its neck. Ors fall, a brush-covered pit was covet1 The carcass was laid about 15 feet- eagle shot with an arrow. Fishing.--Many species of fish,- Chinook salmon, could be taken in i River in Lemhi territory. The sma of the tributaries of the Salmon R pecially favored. Chinook salmon, lampreys, and redfish do not ascew River above Shoshone Falls about a; west of Fort Hall so that S-FtHl as tained these species only occasioni traveling west. Trout, suckers, .. however, occur in waters in the vie Hall. Grouse Creek had only a few S-GrsCr obtained salmon only when the Snake River. S-Prom rarely Vil River but took several species fro River. U-Pahv got fish from the S Fish Lake. The Snake River is ordinarily t to permit successful fishing excep calities. Townsend wrote (1839:26 observed that the Indians often a in the 'big river,? where it is wi they generally prefer the slues, 9 Across these, a net of closely woj 268 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XXIII--STEWARD: NORTHERN AND GOSIUTE SHOSHONI placed vertically, and extending from Ito several feet above the surface. A Indians enter the water about a hundred re the net, and walking closely, drive n a body against the wicker work. Here iently become entangled, and are always he spear is then used dexterously, and brown out, one by one, upon the shore." ,devices were most highly developed in region. The most important were nets, B, and harpoons. op net (element 281) without handles below; S-Lemhi) was held by a man a small stream; other persons drove o him. This net had a willow rim and of nuhuwanap, a red-bark plant. With ig. "b"; NP-Ban) it could be used in ams or in falls. Ross (1855, 1:269) Shoshoni used scoop nets from scaf- eth (in Schoolcraft, 1851:214) said r Shoshoni scoop nets were "precisely a is used in the United States." b al form of net (figured below; el. 280) a the spring by the NP-Ban, being the bottom of a stream in shallow water. dl poles were planted in the stream porting a sacklike net, the exact shape of which is unknown. Wobbling of the poles indicated that fish had been taken. It is not certain whether this was used in conjunction ~~~ ~with a weir. ,.Shc ffi y Seine nets were used for fishing on a larger scale. On the Snake River near Fort Hall o Astoria party observed a "seine 81with meshes in the ordinary manner, trs of wild flax or nettle" (Irving, 3. The S-Lemhi seine was 8-10 feet ring stone weights and being held by ie corners by usually 4 swimmers or men ifts. These were used in streams and iNP-Ban seine (fig. in col. 2 top) was Os 50-60 feet long, 15 feet wide, hav- lcal pole guide at each end, perhaps Kfloats tied to its upper edge, and ne sinkers tied to its lower edge. ,,ere 3-4 feet long, several inches in diameter. Wyeth (in Schoolcraft, 1851:214) said Snake River seine floats were of reeds and net sinkers were "oblong rounded stones, with a sunken groove near the middle." Swimmers drew the seine through a stream. S-GrsCr had a similar salmon net of arqgawan3p (a plant used for cord) made like a rabbit net but with a smaller mesh. This was probably operated like the last. Weirs were of several kinds. Lewis and Clark (2:374; 3:6-8; also, Lowie, 1909:187) describe single willow weirs supporting baskets and double fences with baskets. Ross (1855, 1:269) said Idaho Shoshoni make "wires" (sic) and form bar- riers "in narrow channels." Figure "a," below is a S-FtHl single weir of twined willows sup- porting twined baskets. Figure "b" is the NP-Ban and S-GrsCr single weir of twined willows for sal- ;BAKET |>011-- BAKE N a b mon. The fish baskets were called wos:, S-FtHl, wos, NP-Ban. Figured below is the S-Lemhi double salmon weir called basawos (the space between the fences). Four or five tripods supported closely spaced willows about 5 feet tall on the downstream side, holes being left just above the water through which salmon swimming upstream leaped to enter the basawos. The willow fence sloping upstream and completing the trough prevented the salmon poWNSTREA continuing upstream. For other species, the tri- pods were on the upstream side and the fence on the downstream side was of bent willows (cross 269 a ,_I;q NJ FAM vwwgTR ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS section shown in figs. "a," "b," below). Fi is the S-Prom complicated weir. A harpooner waded or stood on a log at the end of one of passages and took fish attempting to go down stream. Figure "d" is the NP-Ban special fo of weir or basawos. A willow fence blocked deep side of the stream. On the shallow sid the fence formed a corral or basawos, which floored with tightly twined willows which s] off into the water. On each side of the bas men sat all night on a platform. With long poles, they knocked fish up the inclined bas floor until they were out of the water.