ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 5:3 A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE BY GEORGE M. FOSTER UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY AND LOS ANGELES 1944 A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE BY GEORGE M. FOSTER ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Vol 5, No. 3 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS EDITORS: A. L. KROEBER, E. W GIFFORD, R. H. LoWIE, R. L. OLSON Volume 5, No. 3, pp. 155-244, 2 maps, I5 figures in text Submitted by editors November 5, 194I Issued December 30, 1944 Price, $I.OO UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON, ENGLAND MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA CONTENTS Page on0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 phY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . 156 fe..........ife ........... 157 ography .157 groups. .159 iti ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~161 siing. .163 egetable food ... scellaneous foods .166 al culture .167 lothing .167 apons. .168 ols. 169 bical instruments and dance ac-cessories .171 sketry notes .172 division and craft specialization .172 hip and property ............. . 173 values; trade; transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 ne..........ine ...0....... 174 .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. ..... 176 e organization .176 ainship .176 ip notes.178 cy and childhood 180 ~~~~~~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; 181 ty and menstrual observances .182 - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~186 . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 188 figres1988 .sing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 nE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 ing games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 ing luck and superstitions . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 tellaneou201 laneous . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . 201 ardinal Directions, Colors, Counting .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 s and months ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 of the week ..... . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 nal directions ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 of day . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 end the Supernatural .204 8upreme Being .204 r P. n205 rspirits.205 soul and the hereafter.206 l laneous cosmological speculations.207 F: ~~~~~~~~~[iii] iv ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Ghosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Initiation ceremonies ............................. Hulk'ilal-woknam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Taikomol-woknam . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ki6il-woknam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doctoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shamans (lam"imi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonshaman doctors ............................ Bear doctors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miscellanea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modern religious developments ......................... - Ghost Dance ................................. The Pentecostal movement .................... Relative Cultural Position of the Yuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix I. The Huchnom ............................... Appendix II. Wailaki String Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Bibliography .................................... Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAPS 1. The boundaries and principal subgroups of the Yuki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Round Valley ................................ .... FIGURES IN TEXT 1. Mush paddles ........... . .- 2. Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Fish-spear gig ................................. 4. Cane whistle .... ............................... 5. Bone whistle ......................... . 6. Floor plan of dance house during feather dance . . . . . . . . . . . t . . . . . 7. String figure: "Rat House" ............................ 8. String figure: "Diamonds" ............................. 9. String figure: "String Your Fingers Up" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. String figure: wrist loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. String figure: "Catching a Gray Squirrel" ..................... 12. String figure: sun or moon .......................... . 13. String figure: deer snare ............................ 14. String figure: deer snare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15. String figure: bow .................. .. - .-.-.. .y 40' 20' 123000' 400 -tribal boundaries sIb-group) boundaries o exct location ofv x aWoximate -c t-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-0 NMLAKI~~ NORT RN M Q aI'skry/ t x -4 0' 2 ' 1 2 Map 1. The boundaries and principal subgroups of the Yuki, with village sites located. 1, u1csifmulhant; 2, mnuniu.kom; 3, hasikat; 4, uklamol; 5, witukom; 6, ukoxntftam; 7, suk';a; 9, nunlacV; lO, lilta'; 11, kicvil; 12, nuica;1,ykt 4 utt 15, d bbukth 6 i 17, titam; l8, mulcal; 19, ktaNaDos Rio , 3 4 X 14 A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE BY GEORGE M. FOSTER INTRODUCTION Wappo,' Coast Yuki,2 Huchnom, and Yuki matic isolation, plus somatic dissimilarity, leads the Yuki-speaking peoples of northern Kroeber5 to believe that the Yuki are nearer to ia. The Wappo are dialectically most being autochthonous Californians than any of the t and also geographically separated from other modern natives of the state. body, being located south of Clear Lake, The primary aim of this report is to recon- at with Pomo, Patwin, and Miwok peoples. struct as fully as possible the life and manners ining three groups occupy contiguous of aboriginal Yuki culture. This culture exists ending from the Pacific Ocean to the today only in the minds of a handful of septua- ge divide, lying to the north of Pomo genarians, and even to them many points are hazy umerically, and probably culturally, most or forgotten. For this reason, I write princi- t were the Yuki proper, with whom this pally in the past tense, save when referring to concerned. present-day carry-overs which are sufficiently in- people are interesting from both cul- teresting to mention. Acculturation was not stud- physical standpoints. Possessed of a ied formally, but the reader will from time to rial development, even for California, time find present life contrasted with ancient lay a fairly elaborate ceremonial or- ways. ion. Artifacts and techniques are of the Kroeber estimates the aboriginal Yuki popula- Rituals include the Taikomol-woknam, tion at about 2000. Today, ten full bloods and Ien?s school; the secret Hulk'ilal-woknam, several dozen mixed bloods--white-Yuki, Yuki-Negro, dance; an obsidian ceremony, Kicil- and crosses between Yuki and other Indians--are and a complicated series of girls' pu- found. Most are living on the Round Valley Reser- 6ts magically coupled with acorn-fertility vation on land allotted by the government; those ces. Besides these, there is a surpris- more than sixty-five years of age receive the ong belief in a personal deity, who not state old-age pension, and in recent years many ted the world but punishes and rewards have worked on Work Projects Administration proj- ngs according to their conduct. This ects, principally recording folklore. On the .accounts for the unusual emphasis laid first of each month, the Indian Service distributes 'gious matters by the Yuki today. limited food rations to families needing aid; this oally, the Yuki are noticeably different includes nearly all. Men work in the hayfields remaining Californians. Gifford de- for the white ranchers, receiving three dollars a them as "low-faced" with a high nasal day, and tend small gardens of their own. I know latively low cephalic index, and short of no Yuki who now hunts or fishes. Most inform- p The cephalic index is 76, the lowest ants felt that the thirty-five cents an hour I ia except for the adjoining Wailaki paid was too low, but when not otherwise employed tature is 157 cm., likewise the shortest found it better than nothing. Most of the Yuki, or the Wailaki (154 cm.). The Wappo and as well as Indians of other tribes in the valley, approximate surrounding peoples in physi- live in wretched cabins, containing iron bedsteads, ements; measurements for the Coast a few chairs, a marble-topped mahogany table, and not available. The Yuki themselves are an incredible number of photographs, a few of which their physical difference, and profess are always surrounded with heavy gilt frames. Coal been able to distinguish strange Yuki ranges are usually in a shed directly adjoining appearance. the back of the house, though a few still prefer i are generally considered to consti- to cook in a separate shelter removed from the parate linguistic family.4 This idio- dwelling. Running water and electric lights are impossible luxuries. The Indian Service has re- cently built several substantial cottages with ilbliography, under Driver. 'Bib1iography, under Driver, concrete foundations, running water, plumbing, 3Bibliography, under Gif ford, 1939. and electric lights, which become the property of ord, 1926:224. the inhabitants upon payment of three dollars a ,1919, Suggests that Yuki is related to . ~~~~~~~~~~~5Handbook, 159. i ~~~~~~~~~~[155] 156 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS month for twenty years. In spite of extreme INFORMANTS poverty, almost every family has an old automo- P i w bile. The modern Yuki are as confirmed travelers Mre. as their parents were stay-at-homes, driving over Ralph loore. e most of northern California to attend camp meet- Tillotson, am e 71, t S of a Witukoh ings, to make the acquaintance of new Indians, ubomUksi p.u159.) his fation and to renew old friendships. The present-day . p T 5* * t1 * n 1l nn n nn ~his mother's two brothers Lamskacmi ', Indian regrets the passing of the old way of life, hi m t b of Indian tradition and standards but he admits Sishuluk, called in English Tom Henley were graduates of Taikomol-woknam (see that the white man's way of life is probably . . . ~~~~~~~~~~both had been dead about forty-fivem easier. And he realizes that he has no choice Tillotson was a very conscientious but to accept whatever is forced upon him. and took a real interest in "setting The material herein presented was gathered in word down right.? He told only of w the summer of 1937 with the financial aid of the sure admitting that there was much h University of California.. I wish to acknowledge the kind aid of Dr. A. L. Kroeber, both in prepa- Moore, age 63, considers himself Wi ration for the field and in writing the manu- script. I wish also to thank Mrs. Gwendoline because he was born at the Hop Ranch. Block Editorial Assistant in the Department of father was Wailaki, his mother's mot rloc, Eltoral ssltantln ne eparmen OI his father's mother Ukomnolm, his fat Anthropology, for her help in the preparation of hal thrsmotHer Ukormonme his this manuscript for press. 6 Lalk(atno'm. His information came pri this manuscript for press.6 from his mother's father's brother, P ther's father, Huncomc Iomi, and Old P ORTHOGRAPHY komno'm. Veteran of all California i A simplified phonetic recording is employed and victim of many an anthropologica throughout. Symbols requiring special explana- Moore knows most about ceremonialsa tion are as follows: but has the bad habit of sometimes t in child ethnologist what he wants to hear, an 6, as in child ' as is necessarily true. He claims to h s, as in show* ., as in show through the Taikomol-woknam by Pike, n as in sing A . ~~~~~~~~~~~nied by all other Yuki.- a nasalized vowel b l ui a, glottallz stope Subsidiary information was acquir ,glottal stop following: *, sonant vowelar spiranChar'les Dorman, age 76, of a whit r, sonant velar spirant, ~, accent Ukomno'm mother. a accent ,' . . ~~~~~~~~~~~~George Moore, age 65, no relation: /, ascending tone (recorded only in songs) G M a x,descee(recorded only in songs) Moore. His mother was Tituimno'm, hiJ -, descending tone Mexican Indian of unknown affiliati Tonal quality, discovered by Mr. H. Uldall, born in Nomlaki territory and brou is slight, even to the ear of the trained lin- Valley when a child of six or seven. guist, and with the exception of several instances Jessie Moore, age about 50; wife in songs, no attempt has been made to render it. Ukomno'm father, Ta'no'm mother. 6 -Cecelia Logan, age about 60. Wii Assistance in the preparation of these materi- C La als was furnished by the personnel of WoDk parents. Projects Administration Official Project No. 65- Little Toby, age about 75. Alni' 1-08-62, Unit A-15. Ta'no'm mother. ECONOMIC LIFE ETHNOGEOGRAPHY The primary unit of Yuki social geography was the rancheria, which most nearly coincides with minds of the Indians exact boundaries "village." Actually it included all places of r known. It is not surprising there- habitation, whether a single isolated dwelling eighty years after the breakdown of or a large grouping of twenty-five houses, out- life it is necessary to approximate buildings, and dance house. A large grouping was sand sometimes location of places. known as a no'hot (to live big). Based primarily ,relative importance of the different on geographical proximity, rancherias tended to and villages also cannot be determined group themselves into larger, unnamed units. These usually centered around a no'hot, in which dwelt f the Yuki territory is in northeastern the principal chief and subsidiary officers. These County, California, occupying the cen- unnamed assemblies were in turn grouped into roughest part of the Coast Range Moun- larger units, without political unity but con- covering about 1100 square miles. scious of a sense of sameness through dialectic aries from less than 1000 feet on the similarity. Definite kinship to these larger River to 7500 feet at the crest which groups was and still is felt, in spite of the com- Sacramento Drainage system from that plete informality of the arrangement. "I am t. As is frequently true in Califor- Witukomno'm," "Toby is Ta'no'm" are phrases still phenomenon of drainage, and not the heard. Names of rancherias were taken from geo- S precise marks, determined tribal occu- graphical features, and the name of the principal ppearing curiously irregular on the rancheria might serve for the group name, as in geography in the mind of the Indians the case of Huititno'm. Or a general geographi- ot and logical, each place and area cal name, such as Ukomno'm (valley people), might obvious and simple relation to all come into use. To indicate affiliation with a a unified aquatic framework. Waterways place or group, the suffix no'm (person of) is 3hallow and rock-strewn to serve as added to the place name. Ukomno'm indicates arteries, and trails from one village "persons of the valley," in the same sense that did not necessarily follow them. But we say "American," "person of America." terms of rivers, streams, and rivulets Of these major subdivisions, each character- Tuki kept his geography straight. ized by minor linguistic variations, six seem to f(acing p. 155) indicates as closely as have been recognized in aboriginal times. The termined the boundaries and principal grouping is not to be thought of as we think of of the Yuki, as well as the important city, county, and state; these concepts are far tures of their habitat. When a too precise. Rather, it is in the sense that we degree of certainty exists, the prob- say "I am a Middle Westerner," "I am a Southerner," aries of the individual subgroups are or "I am a New Englander," and differences in by a broken line. For the TaInoIm, speech were probably about as marked. But in- and Huititno'm, such distinctions did stpad of a national governmental organization for .practical. A number of village sites the whole area, the Yuki had only consciousness ven. I have personally visited those of kind to bind them together. by a circle; those indicated by a cross A Yuki felt a strong attachment to the special imations based upon hearsay. Map 2 (see area in which he was born. I first became aware hows in greater detail the human and of this when doing ethnogeography with Eben Til- tures of Round Valley, the focus of lotson near uksi6mulhant, his old home. Eben's It shows particularly well the impor- great delight upon seeing places where he had atercourses: in the dry west half of once lived, and walking over the ground again, few sites are found, contrasted to the was not easily concealed. "In this canyon I lived d and densely populated eastern half. with my father and sister for four years." "I the favored site was at the edge of once killed a deer on that hillside." "My, I re- floor near a stream. member how thick the berries used to grow on that alley, with an area of 40 square miles, slope." He then explained how good it seemed to set expanse of flat land, and with be on home ground again: it felt right and natu- on of William's, Hull's, Poorman's, ral. The rocks and the trees knew him, and were n, and Gravelly valleys, each contain- glad to have him back; they were friendly toward to 8 square miles, the remainder of him. One finds harmony in one's home that cannot tory is a jumble of mountains, cliffs, exist in an alien place. It is best to die and aE, falls and cataracts, mountain be buried in the ground that knows a person, the doak groves, pine forests and rocky ground that is waiting to receive home its chil- beautiful to the civilized eye as to dren. rthe Indian, to whom it was a paradise fish. [157] -~~~~~ 4 i /~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/~, - /c /Io '_ Qz B ~~~~~~II,\\N'.e/o -- , 0~~~~~~~~.41 ~ \\ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ W jamL t_ former is the name for Eden Valley Witukomnotm or Ukomnotm. 'latter is a site on Coal Mine Creek, a sonlal (tule lake), alniTkinotm rancheria on Sstance south of Dos Rios. In prewhite the north side of the Poonkiny road at the divide y seem to have come little north of the between Round Valley and Dos Rios. (Map 1:20.) rk, but after the arrival of the first they crept north (or, more properly, 3. The third major subdivision, Ukomnotm (val- Yen by the soldiers) to the site of the ley people), inhabited Round Valley north of the h. There they founded olkat (tree flat), Hop Ranch, as well as Hull's Valley, Bluenose gest rancheria. Fifty years ago this Ridge, William's and probably Poorman's valleys. to number fifty houses--twice the size Place names follow: average nothot. Today it is visible only llow depression surrounded by a slightly oniuis (red ground), a nothot at McCombre place mi of earth--all that remains of the at the edge of Round Valley and due east of ose. Covelo. (Nap 2:11.) vllage sites, called han6, are distin- titwa (wide hill), either a smaller rancheria eas a series of marks of this type, some slightly north of onu's, or another name for the same rancheria. (Niap 2:12.) across for common dwellings, and twice ukst (cool water) a big rancheria, but not a r dance houses. no'hot at Frank Logan's in the northeast part of vailable list of Witukomno'm rancherias Round Valley. Named after an unusually fine spring. (Map 2:15.) hulpotin (grass snake rancheria), a small lhant (crayfish creek fork), on Coal rancheria at Frank Logan's gate to the main road. ek, a nothot with a dance house. (Map (Map 2:16.) mulkuis (short creek), a rancheria on Short cm (grapevine valley) in Rodeo Valley, Creek at the place the Sacramento Valley highway with a sweat house. kiame also used for leaves Round Valley. (Map 2:18.) surrounding rancherias. (Nap 1:2.) sonkas (tule point), a rancheria 1/2-mile 'ut (chaparral hole), a small rancheria south of mulkuis, at the edge of the valley floor. xdistance west of olkat, and politically (Nap 2:17.) to it. (Nap 2:5.) ukomki5..no'm (small valley people), the term Wt (buckeye-soaking hole), a small ran- for all inhabitants of Poorman's Valley. 160 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS lilt'am (falling rock), a small rancheria at reputedly possessed no dance houses, i Mark Hurt's place at the northeast edge of Round a meager ceremonial life. Popular beli Valley. (Map 2:19.) wise credited them with being poor hun namol a site at Jim McGetrick's place, 1/4- fishermen, who maintained themselves p mile west of lilt'am. Probably not a rancheria. on Indian potatoes. Women from the surrounding area came to gather 4. Situated along Black Butte Cree and bake Indian potatoes. Until recent years a rounding slopes were the Huititnom hole 4 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep was eoundinamed wer one of the lar visible evidence of this activity. (Map 2:20.) people), named after one of the larges 6ochohanuk (little oak under water), a spring ias. They shared with the Suk6altdt and rancheria at Felix Pina's place west of most lofty and rugged of Yuki terrain-- namol. (Map 2:21.) tainsides from the crest of the Coast- muthot (gulch big), probably a rancheria Valley divide to the west. Though lac slightly west of the preceding. (Map 2:22.) flat grounds and lowland oak groves of mamolsismol (acorn soaking), a rancheria at groups, they were blessed with a supera the old Indian boarding school in the extreme of deer. Names of only four rancheris north end of Round Valley. (Map 2:24.) nu' (sand), a no'hot at Melinda, 1 mile south- obtained: east of Covelo. (Miap 2:14.) huitit (middle ridge), a no'hot on t olamtu' a rancheria 1/2-mile south of nu'. side of the stream, below Black Butte. (Map 2:13.5 suk'huii (fir thicket) a rancheria s totimu5l, a rancheria at the edge of Round upstream, from the huiti. (Map 1:15.) Valley, due west of nu'. (Map 2:3.) pilil (snow rock), a rancheria still onwis (land old), a no'hot due west of Covelo south than the preceding. (Map 1:16.) near present airport. (Map 2:2.) titam (mountain), the no'hot farthes 6lkat .(tree flat), a rancheria of the same on Black Butte Creek. (Map 1:17.) Tit name as the Hop Ranch group, situated 1 mile used interchangeably with Huititno'm as northwest of the present Indian school on the for this Yuki subdivision. valley floor. (Map 2:25.) h6k'i (north), a no'hot at the site of the old 5. Farthest north lived the SukMlt gristmill in the extreme northwest part of Round (nicely shaped pine tree people). Thi8 Valy tMap 2:1.) cupied the uppermost reaches of the Eel; u'w'(t bitter water), a no'hot slightly north- from the Eel River ranger station north west of the old Agency. (Map 2:23.) Kroeber habitants have long been dead, and surv lists Hunchisutak (holding forehead) as its last know little about the area, which was p chief. always sparsely populated. Steelhead f unkits (small valley), Hull's Valley. good here and Indians (mostly non-Yuki lanhamis, either a rancheria in Hull's Valley, jore up attergtsesno h Or a synonym for the same.' Journey up at the right season of the impalac (open ridge), Bluenose Ridge. Either only place name recalled was mu'l6al (c rancherias or place names here are the two follow- rancheria 15 miles upstream from the ra ing: tion (map 1:18). It is popularly calle lilta' (rock on a hillside), at the west end of town" because of the abundance of fish.> Bluenose. (Map 1:10.) Culturally these people had intercou nulila (black-oak acorn top), at the east end directly with the Pitch Indians, a Wail of Bluenose. (Map 1:9.) living to the west, and with whom they kicClukom (flint valley); no rancheriastare re- confused by the Psurviving Yuki. membered. Kroeber (Handbook, 164) lists six. 6. The Onkolhkomno'm (ground in snot kicil (gravelly flat), a no'hot on the south 6 h nouont gon nao bank of William's Creek (which is not in William's people) lived at the headwaters of the Valley), 2 miles above the junction with the Eel of the Eel River, separated from the re River. One of the largest rancherias yet to be Yuki region by a 4000-foot ridge. Thet seen. About twelve house pits remain, and an survivors of this group. Geographicall, equal number have been destroyed by highway grad- situated, with Gravelly Valley and Lake ing. Strangely, the dance house is situated on in the center, they were undoubtedly n the opposite side of the creek; there is no known Early contact with white invaders ]howev reason for this irregularity. (Map 1:11.) physical separation from the main Yuki nuickat, short distance above kicil on resulthe in theyvirt undonxten t William's Creek. (Map 1:12.)reutdnth ruanoxsec c yuikat (chaparral flat), a rancheria above From the outlet of Round Valley to t nuickat on William's Creek. (Map 1:13.) River lived a group, Lalk2tno'm, that i to assign to any of the six major divisi Occupying most of Round Valley and surrounding comprised a number of rancherias and nat lands, the Ukomno'm, from the standpoint of In- The Ontitno'm (tableland people), mn dian economy, were the most favorably situated. no'hot of the same name (map 2:10) ands Judging from rancheria sites still remembered they rancherias, lived about 2 miles to the were also the most numerous, with the Witukomno'm Lalkiitno'm, at the edge of the valley, next. The subgroups in William's Valley were con- unassignable to a major subdivision. I sidered culturally inferior to the others, and cally they were most like Witukomno'm, 1 FOSTER: A SUI4MkRY OF YUKI CULTURE 161 1proximity to both Ukomno'm and with reference to the language of subgroups other makes this affiliation uncertain. than that of the speaker. Strange dialects sounded ions of other tribes.--The Yuki ap- complicated, and their speakers were thought to ar terminology in naming alien groups: make them so simply for the sake of effect. Til- lotson thought the Huititno'm were especially tno'm (rock black people), Orland, Elk guilty of this; conversely, they considered their dstone Creek Nomlaki. dialect to be the most pure of all Yuki speech. o m(ogmutipepe,PsThose who spoke the k'oni hot (talk high) were (salt people), Stonyford (Salt Pomo) also said to halsi. K'oni hot was a refined (no translation), Wailaki and Athabas speech, spoken by the well educated--those who leral. had gone to the Taikomol-woknam. It was not a 'o'm (lake black people), Kato. secret language, since some of both sexes knew it Iom (ground dust people), Sherwood thoroughly, and those of lower class were ac- (fast quainted with some of the expressions. The dis- ,(tsie ptalkers) Little Lake Pomo. tinction is similar to that in our own society be- D(outside people), Redwood Indians tween a college graduate and one whose schooling (leaf under valley), Potter Valley has ended at the fifth grade. An interesting commentary concerning language 'im (water gray people), Lakeport Pomo. came to light while Tillotson was trying, mostly mriations.--Dialectic differences in vain, to make me understand Yuki grammar. subgroups included speed in speaking, Teaching me the language was not to be thought rds feor the same thin s or act, and of in the same sense as everyday ethnography--it vergent accents. The Ukomno'm and was a special gift of a magical nature which he lwere regarded as fast talkers, while made to me as a token of friendship. Just as the and Huititno'm spoke more slowly. An ability existed for a famous singer to pass on phonetic difference follows: small, his songs to a protege at his death (see p. 192), mnotm), iunsil (Ukomno'm). An example so could a man pass on his knowledge of language ference is: hot, pukholt (Witukomno'm), to a student from another culture. Tillotson ex- ititno'm and Ukomno'm). An example of plained that for the present I would learn a lit- epressions is: to quiet a child, u'lai tle Yuki, but not very much. But in a few years 'm), 6i.i8 (Ukomno'm), k'iha (Huititno'm), he would die, and his knowledge of the language 'm; Wailaki word). In calling a would pass to me. Then I would think about it, ;are the following: my child (either have it on my mind constantly, and if I should be Li (Huititno'm); my son (lit., "my in company with other Yuki, could join right in ther"), iktil-em)k'un, and my daughter "just natural like," even though I had never heard child my mother"), il'il-enk'an many of the words I would use. Though a man might cd Tamno'm); my son (lit., "my child instruct several people in the art of Yuki con- Tl-k'un, and my daughter (lit., "my versation, only the one to whom he passed on the xr"), ikt 'un (Witukomno'm). power would ever really understand it. s of Spanish origin pertaining to FOODS shing, and domestic animals have crept . teech. Examples are (Spanish in par- Yuki economy was one of hunting, fishing, and speech. Example) aoe; (panishint pcar- gathering; no form of agriculture was practiced. mapkto (lapat asho canisirt (ca A first-fruits ceremony was not observed but an ks; maskla (a mscada), handkserchilef zrd means an elaborate, deco rati ve acorn "sing," held winter and spring (p. 192), (camisa), shirt; pantola ta- was believed to insure abundance of vegetal crops. sa kca (ca), shi rt; k(panta- A youth avoided eating any of his first kill of horse; woha (oveja [lit., or ewe"t]); game or first catch of salmon. Violation of this hs (cuchillo), knife; hido (jarro, a taboo would result in poor luck for the remainder La (cuchillo), knife; hodoh(jarro,. cup; siya (silla), saddle; ranceri of hist ), house or village (group of buildings); Hunting ,corn; piholi (frijoles), beans; Deer.--Two principal methods were used: (1) labaza), pumpkin; santia (zandia), bows and (2) snaring. In spring and early summer, ; papos (papa), potato; tunika (tunica), deer travel in groups, making practical communal ro (vaquero), cowboy; papel (papel), hunts. Snares of rope were placed in deer paths, word for "sun, recorded vamtiously as frequently in series in low gaps between hills. lotson), pilant (Ralph Moore), The hunters then advanced up the hillside, singing y), and pilant (Kroeber), may possibly and shouting, driving the terrified quarry into from the Spanish pelota,meaning "ball." the dangling 1oops, to be strangled immediately, Ls strange to find for "moon" a true Yiiki or dispatched with blows from stones or clubs. 'Swol, and for "sun" a borrowed one. Group steiking of deer was also practiced, sev- bAilsi (to put more with) was used eral men advancing from the leeward toward a graz- eli origin, ing or otherwise unsuspecting animal, and letting arrows fly at the same instant. 162 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS A less common method was that of running down body with scorched pepperwood leaves deer, a practice made possible by the animal in- ing were also considered beneficial. stinct to travel in a wide circle. One hunter songs were remembered. Some women re took up the chase, and others spread themselves sessed power to bring good luck by wa at intervals along the probable course of the nets in deer licks. Ralph Moore's mo prey, taking up the chase in turn until either was so gifted, and habitually receive the catch was made or the animal escaped. Driv- work part of the catch, a basket, or ing game over cliffs, or into snowbanks, was re- article. In view of the general feari ported, but the technique was distinctly second- contamination, this practice seems a ary. to the usual hunting pattern. When several men made a kill, slaughtering Roasting of deermeat in strips was took place immediately, each man carrying home best parts were cut in pieces from 12. one portion. The killer took the heart, head, long, 2 inches wide, and 3/4-inch thi and shoulders, giving the choice haunches and in the sun with or without smoke, dep loins to his companions as a mark of friendship. the relative number of flies. From t The kidneys were removed first to prevent spoil- a week was required to properly jerk ieg of the rest of the carcass. Great care was was stored in baskets till needed, t taken of the eyes, which were sucked out of their Old people pulverized their share and sockets and swallowed; if they were to break and soup. Scraps and entrails were eaten, the fluid fall on the ground, it was believed and bones roasted and cracked for the- that bad hunting luck would persist for yearS to Thin slices were pounded, wrapped aro come. Other than this, there seem to have been and roasted, or a hand spit used when no definite slaughtering restrictions. to keep off ashes. Blood sausage, a In individual hunts a man frequently made use cacy, was made by filling the paunch of a deer-head disguise--the head, antlers, and scraps of heart, liver, and other edi nape of a buck placed over the hunter's head. adding salt, and closing the top with Creeping from the leeward side, leisurely and It was then roasted in warm ashes for cautiously, a skillful imitator could often come hours, tested with a sliver inserted within range of his prey. It was not without ter, and when blood no longer adhered attendant danger, however, even as in modern deer had solidified, and was ready to be a hunting, as the following account indicates: Once Eating restrictions were imposed u while stalking deer, Lamskabmi Tom, with only his females. Heart, ears, and tail wereu head showing above the brush, was sighted by ing a tail caused bad luck to the hun Frank Peters. His disguise was so good that ing his seeing the white spot on the Frank thought he was a real deer, and was about the tail, a valuable method of spotti to shoot him. Only his timely emergence into an Touching ears prevented their twitchi open glade, revealing white man's pants beneath animals, and thereby a hunter would n the antlers, saved Lamskacmi Tom from an untimely the quarry. end. In killing, no distinction was made as to sex Bear.--Bear were occasionally hunt and age of deer, fawns being especially prized by not favorite objects of the chase. W old people lacking a full complement of teeth. clubs, bows, and spears, it was a ri Since it was believed that deer souls were im- and there was more than an even chance mortal, there was no thought of depleting the successful. George Moore described o supply--for each deer killed, another would be requiring a five-man team: born to take its place. This belief still per- sists among the older Yuki, who consider the A hibernating bear was located, and white man's game laws both burdensome and ridicu- entrance a hole about 1 foot deep was lous, which were placed two 6-inch staves 1 To insure luck in hunting, some general pre- to reach above the cave entrance, wher To insure luck in hunting, some general pre- tioned two men, each holding one of t cautions were followed. The taboo on a boy's Two other men, bows in hand, stood on first kill and the care to properly dispose of of the entrance. Another man, the br the eyes have already been mentioned. Ordinarily, with a burning torch entered and pr before hunting, a man avoided his wife for one sleeping creature. kroused, the bear, night, arose early, sweated and bathed, and de- groggy with sleep, ambled toward the parted without breakfast. Though considered of hunter just ahead. As the hunter rea magical benefit, the first three practices are trance, the stake men spread the poles of obvious physical benefit, and the last gave 'V" through which he stepped; then the -i ncentive t the4, h+kunter to p until se s-e brought to the vertical position again ful In cae of los ofhniglc,adco the entrance. The bear, halted by the IU .. ncase o ossot untlg lcx, Gotor pondered on his next step, and was in sang over the hunter's paraphernalia. He re- time shot. ceived no pay, but expected choice cuts from the deer if luck followed. Singing and rubbing the When bears were killed in the open, FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 163 tter of chance; a hunter was sur- less shy and easier to catch. Special arrows, .there was not time to run. Stories with a crossed stick point 4 inches in diameter st of the terrible, slashing wounds in place of a flint point, were used. A hunter ged animals in hand-to-hand conflict. shooting into a covey could stun three or four s were never eaten, both because they birds with one shot, which he picked up before ered semihuman, and because they ate they recovered. A sling was also used. A more rational Yuki volunteered Quail fences were never used, though the Yuki a grizzly bear was too tough for were aware of the practice in the Sacramento Val- ian. Brown and black bears were oc- ley. Simple snares were placed in quail paths. but not often, eaten. Corrals of brush 1 foot high and 4 feet in diame- ter were made, and quail lured inside with scat- e animals.--Rabbits were snared with tered grain and then clubbed. A trap consisting suspended in paths, shot with ar- of a 4-foot hoop covered with a net was laid on ed with slings. Cottontails, when the ground and raised on one side with a trip. ets, were speared with long, sharp Seeds scattered beneath attracted a covey, and ractice still followed by Yuki boys when the concealed hunter deemed he had suffici- al drives were not employed. ent number, he released the trip with a string. were killed with slings, bows, or Other edible birds included blackbird, lark, eath in their inflammable houses. grouse, pigeon, dove, and robin. Birds killed uirrels were killed with bows, but probably not eaten included bluejay, redheaded smoked out of their holes with tufts woodpecker (feathers used for baskets), yellow- clubbed as they emerged. hammer (feathers valued), duck and geese. Slings, rrels were killed with bows or blunt arrows, and in later days, poisoned grain were used. Little attention was paid to cooking: were hunted with dogs, which treed birds were thrown on coals, and, in the process until the hunters arrived. Since of cooking, most feathers burned off. The vis- own in prewhite times, this may be cera congealed and, on opening, dropped out in a 1 trait. It is also possible that solid ball; this as well as the flesh was eaten. duced by the first white settlers. Roosting birds were taken at night by building a eaten, but details are lacking. fire under the trees and clubbing them. wood rats, and squirrels were some- Birds not eaten included buzzards, crows, wn from their dens by thrusting in eagles, hawks and owls. il it came into contact with the ani- isting it, catching the fur and Fishing heavy downpours, drowned or half- nts were sometimes found at the Salmon, of which there were three main varie- eir holes. ties, appeared at various times throughout the ng of these small animals was simple: year, providing a year-round occupation. Black entire carcass was thrown on coals salmon in the fall were followed by winter and ; a more careful method was first to spring salmon in those seasons. Trout and steel- n the animal. heads were more plentiful in suimmer, and were more easily caught in lower water. Although ig- --Animals killed, but not eaten, norant of the use of fishhooks, the Yuki possessed r, fox, wolf, coyote, flying squir- adequate techniques for taking fish--gigging mole, gopher, and weasel. All were (spearing), nets, and poisoning. heir hide. Snakes and lizards were The gigging fisherman stood or sat, often on were used principally by sorcerers a crude platform composed of several poles laid ration of their potions. Beavers on flat rocks at the edge of the stream. When a e not killed. salmon appeared broadside, he grasped his spear supposed to have been occasionally shaft in both hands, lunged forward, pierced the hills in prewhite times, and tradi- fish, drew back quickly to loosen the detachable they were hunted much as deer. No gigs from the shaft (see p. 171 for gig descrip- s ever seen an elk in the wild state. tion), swung the catch to the shore and removed hly dead animal was found, it was the gigs. Fish were also gigged at night by bterm "freshly dead" was used in a firelight. Gigging was great fun, an efficient sense than that which one is likely method for taking large fish, but had the disad- vantage of bruising much of the meat, making preservation more difficult. Gumerous birds were hunted for food, Brush weirs or dams, with a small opening at portant of which was the quail. Two one end for the fish to pass through, were built ere recognized, valley, which was the at likely places. A dip net 18 inches wide and fatter, and mountain, which was the 3 feet long was placed at the downstream side, 164 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS and the fisher lay on a platform waiting for Poisons were used either singly or t salmon. Night fishing was made easier by placing pending on what happened to be growl white rocks on the stream bed around the opening, stream; they did not spoil the meat the dark shadow of the prey thus being made more food. Soaproot was considered the I visible. No firelight was used. Fish descend- ful, but because of its ubiquitous ing the stream reached the dam, nosed along un- most often used, quantity making up til the opening was reached, and passed through. Diving after salmon in large pools Once safely inside the net, the fisherman swung ing them to the surface in the swi it to shore, and dispatched the catch with a showed aquatic proficiency, but was blow on the back of the head. method of providing food. Use was also made of a corral, a circular To preserve it, a salmon was gutt brush pen 4 feet in diameter, built on the down- tail removed, split into two halves stream side of the dam opening. When a salmon bone removed, leaving two filets. N had entered the corral, the fisher clamped a with unbruised flesh, were less like large, coarse basket similar to a pack basket than gigged ones. The filets were d on the upstream side of the hole and, with a 2 sun on rude frames, bushes, or rocks; foot stick, prodded the fish through the gate driven away by smoke from small fire and into the basket. Although efficient, this All guts and bones were burned or. was considered a cold, wet way. into the river, not because of magic A salmon trap of woven willows 6 feet long, but because dogs and babies might c 8 inches in diameter at the mouth, and tapering Trout were not stored, but eaten soo to a point, was sometimes placed on the down- ing while still reasonably fresh. stream side of the dam opening. A trapped salmon Fishing was an important social found itself in quarters too cramped to back eral families frequently went togethe against the force of the stream. or three days, fished a-length of st After a couple of days of weir fishing the pared the catch for storage, and di brush was removed to allow fish to ascend and produce before returning home. Like! descend the stream. it was believed that fish souls were Two types of nets were used. Dip nets with and for each one caught, another wou 12-foot handles were employed to catch salmon as take its place. There were no elabo they fell back in an attempt to jump a falls. al precautions followed to procure 1 Seining nets, with rock sinkers and tule floats, a fisher might avoid his wife for a were made from 3 to 4 feet deep and sufficiently before fishing. long to cross from bank to bank--20 to 40 feet. Cooking of fish: Fresh fish-were One man at each end held the net, while others coals. Dried-salmon filets were wa from upstream splashed and shouted, frightening ashes, sprinkled with water, wrapped the fish toward the seine. Thirty fish in one and-roasted, resulting in a soft, t drive was considered a good catch. This method ency and delicate flavor. Dried fist was used principally foi spring salmon--the crumbled and boiled; this was consid stragglers who had remained until the low summer ferior method. Small fish were neit waters. At this time salmon are sluggish and nor cleaned; they were simply thrown easily driven. and cooked, then eaten, bones, heads; Trout were caught in a variety of ways. A all. special fine-meshed net 8 inches long with a The Wailaki were considered to be string fastened to mouth and tip was placed at ermen: they could "feel" the preseno the dam opening downstream. A school journeying muddy water with their gigs, which- downstream entered, causing the string to vi- not do. More and better fishing watq brate, thus indicating its presence to the fisher, ably the reason for this skill, a who then lifted the net to the shore. As many nized by the Yuki themselves. A few as three dozen fish were caught in a single even- still fish in the old manner, but I ing of this kind of fishing--night was best time Yuki to do so. for this method since t-out ran thickest then. Two types of lamprey eels were kn Poisoning was another favorite method, several gray and a large black. Only the 1 weeds being used: lilmil, best, but unidentified; eaten. It was taken with bare handr kicilwoimuk, unidentified; lip, tarweed; nus, to the bank with a short stick. Su soaproot. A quiet pool in which there was little snails, frogs and toads were not ea' or no flow of water was essential. The weeds In aboriginal times the Yuki did. were pounded between rocks to a moist pulp, and to the coast, but mussels and surf thrown into the water in large quantities. About quantities were traded through theX an hour, depending on amount and strength of the tween the years 1875 and 1925 it wa& narcotic, was required to stun the fish, which thing for a wagonload of Yuki to tra then appeared floating belly up on the surface. coast to spend several days camped a FOSTER: A SUMMAARY OF YUKI CULTURE 165 f fish, night fish, sardines, abalone Scrubby-mush-oak acorn (mili). For soup only. ), mussels, and kelp. Mussel Rock, a A miniature oak (moyi). About 5 feet high, ce below Westport, was the favorite with equally miniature acorns. Rarely used be- tes in the vicinity have recently cause of small size. oh strong pressure to bear that the s been virtually given up. Acorn flour was prepared in the typical and often-described Californian manner. A basket hop- Vegetable Food per, mortar and pestle, winnowing basket, and several watertight baskets were required. A ant crop of acorns was insured by the woman seated herself on the ground, the hopper be- (acorn sing), a ceremony consisting of tween her legs and resting on the mortar, legs y periods of dancing, winter and crooked on the hopper rim to steady. She used p. 192). Acorns were gathered in right and left hands alternately to stir and fter the first frost; the season lasted pound. The resulting meal was placed in a win- bout two weeks. Entire families, or nowing basket and "fanned"--tapped gently with cseveral families, went out together fingers, causing the coarse particles to rise to three days. Private ownership of the surface. These were put back into the hopper imnown. The land and its produce and pounded again with the next batch. Fine flour cheria belonged to all inhabitants, was placed in another receptacle. A half-day of farther back in the mountains were pounding-was average for one batch. ipped by the first to arrive. Leaching was done in a creek bed in a shallow picked from the ground are superior sand basin. If in no hurry the leacher used cold ey are ripe. However, when slow in water; otherwise hot water. Each basinful was y were knocked down with a "seven"- tasted to tell when sweet. The resulting soggy ,ck, or an ordinary pole. In aboriginal mass was scooped out with the hands, the sand k baskets were used to gather acorns; washed off, and placed in a basket receptacle. cent times horses and prosaic gunny Water used in washing was caught in another bas- been used. The few acorns still gath- ket, the sand settled to the bottom, and the brought home in motor cars! liquid, containing a weak solution of acorn, and drying was a tedious process. poured into another container, to be used as a cracked between two rocks, or with base for soup. -the shells pulled off with the thumb- About fifty years ago, when all houses were the kernels spread in the sun. One or not near streams, a substitute leaching technique .were required for drying. appeared. Four forked sticks were placed in the were stored in a variety of ways: (1) ground in a rectangle 3 feet square, and standing * pits normally situated behind dwell- about the same height. Rim sticks connected the were 2 feet across, 2 feet deep, and forks, and on the resulting elevated frame a shal- oak leaves and pine needies. The low basket was woven. Leaves and sand were then kinds of acorns were kept separate. placed on this, resulting in a satisfactory arti- ike baskets 4 feet high and 4 feet wide ficial basin. When built near a well, this ar- with small pine branches on a frame- rangement worked as well if not better than the right sticks. These were found in earlier original after which it was patterned. At houses. Only unshelled acorns were present, the small quantity of flour made is them. (3) Rough baskets of odd sizes ground in a handmill and leached in a washtub on were also used for storage. a gunnysack-cheesecloth foundation. varieties of acorns were known, each Soup consisting of wet mush and water was to be best for certain purposes: boiled in baskets with hot stones. About one hour was required. It was eaten with crooked fingers oak acorn (kaimi). The largest vari- or mussel-shell spoons. At following meals it for "black" bread. Good for soup, was eaten cold until the supply became exhausted, iBhtly bitter. As the name indicates, when more was prepared. Not all of one leaching principally on valley floors, especi- was cooked at one time; each batch was divided imd Valley. into about three cookings. Lacking salt, acorn Bread is of the "brown" variety, so soup was flat tasting, but to the Yuki it was the rse i of ht color. staff of life. Yuki soup was thicker than that oak acorn milk). For soup only, which of the Sacramento Valley Nomlaki and the Concow ly bitter. Maidu, resembling that of the Wailaki in con- I acorn (mosom). Same ty-pe and use as sistency. ling. ~~~~~~~~Acorn bread was a great delicacy. Paradoxi- kacorn (b6kisi). These trees grew cally, the black variety was made from valley-oak hills, requiring traveling to obtain, acorns, and the brown variety from black-oak er than black-oak acorn, thus requiring acorns. Earth ovens 2 feet deep and as wide were aching. For soup only. 166 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS rock lined, fired, the ashes removed, leaf lined, ashes and eaten like celery. Angeli the dough added, more leaves put on top, then raw like celery. sticks and dirt, and finally a fire built on Several varieties of berries were top. All night was required for proper baking. These include: the red manzanita, the The average loaf was 1 1/2 feet in diameter, and manzanita, a sweet, sticky manzanita,: 1 foot thick, and lasted, with other food, four huckleberry, raspberry, deer berry, days for six people. Larger loaves were baked- berry. for festive occasions. Black bread was "black Manzanita berries were eaten diree as a crow's inside, and very sweet.?? The last the bush, or allowed to dry. Women baking occurred about thirty-five years ago. as pinole, pounded them, after which Since then, hogs have been fattened on valley eaten without parching. K'u6cuk (man acorns, thus destroying the supply. Red earth was a cider-like nonalcoholic drink was added to the dough to serve as a leavening ing fresh berries and adding water. agent. were sun-dried, and boiled as needed. Clover was eaten raw or steamed in flat bas- ries (probably toyon berries), a star kets with hot rocks. The season lasted from the were parched. The Yuki believed that. first of April until June. Early in spring, ries grew in their territory than in when the food supply was nearly exhausted, it neighbors. Distant fields look greeni was not uncommon for the Yuki to graze on all tive as well as civilized peoples. fours. White residents in Round Valley report Nuts used include the sugar pine, that this practice was abandoned about tentyears hazelnut, peppernut, and buckeye. Mel ago. Several varieties were eaten: pine Ruts, frequently climbing trees them down. They were scorched, causi Bear clover sp'ots). to open out, allowing removal of the, Salt clover (sakmil). Resembles alfalfa; tapping the scales loose with a rock tastes salty. seeds were stored for winter. Hazele ttam. Red blossoms. Tastes much like -salt nuts were gthred fo-in therfal ed clover. nuts were gathered in the fall, dred Mountain fillery (nai'). Grows in hills, hulled, and roasted or stored as occaa pin. Grows in valleys and hills. Much like manded. Buckeyes were roasted, causi ttam. to drop off. They were sometimes po pinmi. Small, red flower. leached like acorns, longer soaking be huspal. Doubtful category. Bitterish leaf, because of their poisonous quality. but sometimes eaten. od was described: after hulling, slice Anise "clover" (muisan). a basket and submerge in running water weeks; then boil, mash with a stick, All varieties of seeds were called pinole. hot. This sounds like a recent innova Women gathered them in summer and fall into a terned after mashed potatoes. tightly coiled basket,7 dusting the seeds with a twined beater. Pinole^was stored in baskets Miscellaneous Foods in dwellings; different seed varieties were kept separate. When needed, seeds were pounded like Under this general category comes a acorns, placed in a winnowing basket with hot ety of worms, insects, fungi, eggs, coals, tapped to insure even parching, and the Most interesting from the standpoint o resulting sweet-tasting flour eaten with the and eating is the so-called "army worm hands. Pinole seeds included two varieties of worm is little more than an inch long, tarweed, various sunflower seeds, dandelions, with a black back and reddish undersid and clover. ( peared every three or four years, in Anise root was dug in fall, dried, crumbled, believed to be a special gift from Tai and eaten like pinole, but it was not a common cipal deity--see "Religion"), indicatin food. In recent times, barley and wheat have had been pleased with the conduct of t been used for pinole. Its approach was heralded by a loud ci Various tubers, called "Indian potatoes," and der, and immediately afterward it appe usually the size of one's thumb, were dug with a fusion on all ash-tree leaves. This sharpened wild mahogany stick. Baking was the nal for everyone--men, women, and chil principal means of preparation. Frequently sev- rush out, carrying all possible contah eral women went in together, baking their gather ing shallow baskets partially filled c ing in one large oven. In taste, tubers are the people stood beneath the trees, ca said to resemble the sweet potato. Owing to the pu, pu, pu, pu," and the obliging won short season, May and June, this food was of crawled down to the lower limbs from w limited value. Soaproot shoots were roasted in were shaken off into the water and dro like their Pomo neighbors, who maintain Kroeber, Handbook, pl. 2,a. most gravity on the arrival of the army FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 167 re gay and joyous. People went to the rock), a surface crust of almost pure salt near ughing and singing--to be other than the village of Cheetido. Cakes were broken out, pleased would offend Taikomol. When and pulverized with a pestle and mortar. It was worms had been gathered, a clap of thun- "the same as table salt, only dirtier." Salt e the first occurred, and lo, the few re- that came from the Pacific Coast was whiter, and worms disappeared. "Sounds funny, but very strong. In true aboriginal times, the lat- e. I know; I've seen it." ter source was unimportant. Salt was eaten only really strict food rule observed had chiefly on meat, and frequently small chunks were ith the army worm. The first worms were eaten straight. and eaten communally after a mitslamsimi ctor; see "Religion") had thanked Taikomol Incidentals pertaining to food.--Famine was generosity. Furthermore, they had to be relatively rare among the Yuki, though the end and eaten unsalted. Were this ritual of winter usually found food supplies running low. d, they would not reappear. Two meals daily were eaten, the principal one at shoppers were taken in fire drives. A sunset, and the other in the morning. The former oup of people assembled on an open hill- might consist of meat, soup, pinole, and special a circle, and fired the grass in a ring. delicacies depending upon the particular seasonal cing flames drove the insects toward a offerings. For breakfast, cold left-overs were center, where they were finally burned to consumed. "Piecing" during the day, or roasting and in the process, parched sufficiently part of a catch while hunting was common. At big ng. gatherings men were usually served first, but at worms were taken on rainy spring days by home all persons ate together. If the gathering a short stake into the ground, moving it were small, all assembled around the soup basket, forth to disturb the earth, thus driv- dipping in with crooked fingers or mussel-shell orms to the surface, where they were spoons; if large, separate baskets were provided ,and boiled, baked, or parched. An for every two or three people. fied worm, called "bible worm" because A Yuki grace is given on page 205. eaflike" appearance, was roasted. Cater- and slugs were not eaten, according to MTRA UTR S' statements. MXTERIAL CULTURE ypes of mushrooms were eaten raw or . m in ashes. Tree fungi were boiled or Yuki material culture has almost entirely dis- Seaweed and kelp in small quantities appeared. A few pestles, hopper baskets, patched ded from the Huchnom before the period winnowing trays and beads comprise the list of journeying to the coast. Eggs of quail, things I observed in Round Valley. In the course d grouse when found were roasted and of this paper, mention is made of the use of vari- Honey was taken from hollow trees. Yel- ous articles, and limited descriptions are given. t larvae were eaten. The insects were Here I give fuller data, based principally upon ut with dry grass and the "eggs" (prob- informants' descriptions, and checked by museum ive) gathered. There were two varieties specimens when possible. g gum known: h6amcak from milkweed and C In pine gum. Clothing ewhite times salt was obtained from the (the Stonyford Pomo). During the lives In aboriginal times, clothing was extremely ldest living Yuki and those of their sketchy. Men went naked, or at most wore a short this transaction was amicable, but ac- deerskin covering around their hips. In really to legend it was necessary to fight for freezing weather, a deerskin cape was pulled over tolege (see p. 190 for an account of this). the shoulders and fastened in front with a buck- ethe veracity of this tale, the Yuki and skin thong; more rarely, a rabbitskin blanket was have been on good terms for many years. employed. Moccasins were uncommon, and possibly er numerous Yuki journeyed to Stony- did not exist in prewhite times. Those described are they remained for a week or ten days-- had a hard sole of elkskin and pulled up around red guests of a dance invitation from the the ankle. Ralph Moore stated that a few wealthy returning home laden with the season's people imported them from the Sherwood Pomo, but did not make any themselves. Hair nets were some- ~of salt. To show their good will, the tmswr;cif n te epce e ih t behind presents of beads, baskets, and times worn; chiefs and other respected men might let their hair grow long and braid it. Ordinary 'times the Stonyford people returned the men singed theirs off at the shoulders. Deer mar- oming to 6lkat with presents of salt, re- row was used to grease both skin and hair. Facial for a few days of dancing and "tbig time" hair, rare, was plucked out as it appeared. ting Women wore a fringed apron, either in one piece lsalt itself came from the kumlil (salt tied at the side or in two pieces. The 2-inch 168 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS fringe served a dual purpose: it was decorative sulting in greater range; smaller ar and, being soft, would not chafe the thighs as blunt points have been described in would a rough leather edge. Women allowed their with quail hunting. No distinguishi hair to grow long, coiled it in two braids, one ownership are recorded--"a man just on each side of the head, and tied the ends with knows his own arrows"--but most arro buckskin. painted red around the feathers. All Both sexes might wear buckskin wristbands and drying, placing of feathers, hardeni headbands as ornaments. Combing was done with pitch, and painting, four or five da the fingers, or with a piece of fish vertebra. quired to complete a batch of arrows. Both the nasal septum and the ear lobes were A Yiuki held his bow in the left pierced, and bones the size of one's little fin- ward, thumb and little finger inside ger, polished and undecorated, inserted in the and the other three fingers outsidej holes. Hairpins of manzanita were used, but seem and over. The arrow butt was grasped to have been principally employed along with hair thumb and index finger of the right nets in supporting dance headdresses. Tattooing release), and the shaft laid between styles and techniques are discussed in the sec- and index or index and middle fingera tion "Infancy and Childhood." hand, the flint point vertical. At t of release, the bow grip was relaxed Weapons hit the bow, and not the hand. Bows.--Wild mahogany, briarberry, dogwood, Quivers.--Quivers were made of fo and yewwood were used. A shaft of correct size the-skins of other small animals. CQ was seasoned by drying and rubbing with deer mar- was never used; it was feared he woul row, and then worked to desired dimensions with whole works." The animal selected wa a flint knife. To make more limber it was placed rump to head, resulting in a seamless in a tree fork and bent back and forth, or worked the hair inside, to be suspended over in a like manner over the knee. Final polishing shoulder. This position made for e was with coarse joint-grass (Equisetum ?). Bows shooting--the hunter reached over his were from 3 to 3 1/2 feet in length, oval in grasped the arrow butt with his right cross section, and t'apered toward each end. Deer as the arrow fell into place on the f sinew chewed to make it soft and sticky was ap- the left hand he drew and released t plied to the back, and additional wrappings were made at the grip and the ends to make them firm. Spears.--Spears, used for-bears Some bows were painted red or gray. The string enemies, were reputedly from 5 to 10 was made of tendons from both sides of a deer's with blades from 3 to 6 inches long. backbone. These were chewed, rolled on the adorned with eagle feathers on each e thigh, and a loop knotted on each end while the painted around with red circles. sinew was still moist, which became strong when the string dried. Cruder, unbacked bows were Daggers.--Daggers were described a used as toys and for small game. knives 1 foot long with rounded handi tionally they were used only by Indi Arrows.--Elderberry and dogwood shoots aver- (See p. 218.) aging 2 1/2 feet in length were peeled, dried, straightened by hand, worked with a flint knife, Clubs.--Mountain mahogany was pref and polished with joint grass. No stone straight- cause of its hardness and because of ener was used but two short sticks held in one knob formed by its roct. A club was hand were used to apply greater pressure at a long, scraped and polished, and paint given point. Eagle or yellowhammer feathers rings when used in war. from 3 to 4 inches long, split from the quill, were fastened three to an arrow with chewed sinew. Slings.--Slings for war and hunti This sinew wrapping also strengthened the butt, of a diamond-shaped patch of elkhide notched to receive the bowstring. Besides accu- otherwise buckskin) 2 inches by 4 in racy, feathers were believed to give greater skin or cord 2 feet long was tied to speed. Percussion-chipped flint points from 1 folding the ends of the diamond over to 2 inches long were mounted by inserting the wrapping firmly; cutting would weake pitch-smeared stem in the end of the shaft, from where strength was needed. Sometime which the pith had been gouged out, and wrapping diamond-shaped hole was cut in the e with sinew. Bone points also were reputedly vent the stone from slipping out. A used. Several types of arrows were made: hunt- end of one cord passed over the middl ing arrows for large game were heaviest and had the right hand, and the knot on thee the largest points; war arrows with points of other was seized with the thumb andi more moderate size were longer and thinner, re- A sling was swung around the head se FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 169 cord released, in turn releasing Mush paddles.--The typical form is "barbed." e; the loop remained on the thrower's Two museum specimens are shown in figure 1: a, ger ready for reloading. Good sling- the barbed form, b, the unbarbed. Both are un- equisized, sun-dried, clay pellets and decorated. em in a general utility buckskin bag. the same size, shape, and weight were Brush.--Soaproot was soaked, pounded, shredded for continual accuracy. A novice or and fastened to a 3-foot stick. The brush sec- ist simply used stones. Ordinarily tion proper was 8 inches long, and from 2 to 3 with a special knack for it were inches in diameter. Chicken-hawk tail feathers Evidently slings were deadly missiles on a 2-foot stick were used to dust feather costumes s of experts. tumes. was not used on weapons; it was con- dangerous material best left alone for Spoon.--Mussel shells, traded in through the cidentally injuring oneself. Sherwood Pomo, were used. Tools Knife.--Any stone possessed of a natural edge, or one that could be easily touched up, was em- --Any roughly round rock about 12 ployed. Most valued were 8-inch blades; shorter oss and 3 inches thick, with a slight blades from 4 to 6 inches were reputedly hafted. llow on one side, might serve as the ce for the hopper-mortar combination. Awl.--A deer ulna from 3 to 8 inches in length zuse deepened the natural hollow, but was used for basketmaking and buckskin sewing. A was made to do this before using. museum specimen is 5 1/4 inches long, sharpened on the distal end, with the knuckle forming the --Fifteen specimens in the University awl butt. Two postwhite specimens consist of ia Museum range from 4 to 16 inches nails, one inserted in a 2-inch wood handle, the Some regional peculiarities existed; other in a 2-inch horn handle; these are listed mno'm favored a 16-inch type, and the in the catalogue as basket awls. 10-inch size. The "bulbed" shape is al, but the simple, tapered shape oc- Wedge.--Anciently elkhorn wedges were used; no 4-inch specimen is tapered, and was informant had ever seen one. sed by a poison doctor (magician) in ngredients to make poison. Maul.--Stones crudely shaped like a large pestle, but with shorter handles, were used. b Fig. 1. Mush paddles. a, typical, "barbed" form; 18 1/2 in. long, 3 1/4 in. wide at the blade, 4 1/2 in. long from barb to bottom. b, unbarbed form; tapers gradually from handle to 2-inch wide blade; 23 in. long. hoppers.--These were said to be twined Skin scraper.--These were made from oak or ma- wise manner contrary to the usual coun- hogany wood about 7 inches long, 2 inches wide, sve fashion for basketry.8 flat on one side, and slightly convex on the other. *, pls. l25,gs 127,a,b,d. 170 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Fire set.--A buckeye hearth, a 2-foot elder- spliced with additional sections, and; berry spindle, and dry grass tinder comprised a tween two trees to prevent shrinking palm drilling set which was carried in the same while drying. utility bag used for sling balls. Flint and steel is postwhite. "Best of all just get fire Rabbitskin blankets.--These were ra from a neighbor." Fire was carried on trips and even in aboriginal times. "Rabbitskinu across rivers in a basket (with earth hearth ?), are mighty warm--warmer than deerskins but could not. be transported far this way. Tule mats.--Tule mats, in checkerw String and cord.--String and cord were made reputedly were woven in aboriginal ti from a nonnarcotic variety of "marihuana," that is, hemp, by rolling the fiber downward on the Pipes.--Four museum specimens of w thigh.9 Light string served for nets, string lustrated in figure 2. Kroeber?0 sli figures, and general utility; heavy cord was type evidently somewhat longer. "strong enough to hold a horse." 9Barrett, 1908:249, gives the botani. Sinew cord.--Sinew cord was chewed, shredded Apocynum. out to the right length, rolled on the thigh, 10Handbook, pl. 30,f . Fig. 2 P _ 1~~~~~ _ ~~~ 'A FOSTER: A SUN1iARY OF YUKI CULTURE 171 hspear.--A fir pole from 8 to 12 feet Musical Instruments and Dance Accessories speeled, smoothed, and charred to make le in water. The gig proper (from museum Split-stick rattles.--These were used in com- s) consists of a nail about 3 inches mon dances and in the Taikomol initiation, and o which are tied two antler barbs; pitch consisted of split elderberry sticks, undeco- added and burnt on with hot rocks to rated. A museum specimen is 23 1/4 inches long ight. (See fig. 3.) A cord runs from each and 1 inch in diameter. Cocoon rattles, used only by doctors, were made by fastening four or five gravel-filled Attacus cocoons on the end of a stick from 14 to 18 inches long.11 - a Cane whistles.--Five museum specimens range in length from 7 1/2 to 8 3/4 inches. The pith has been removed, pitch used to stop one end, a notch cut in the top, and a pitch lump placed below the notch to tune. Two cane whistles were sometimes tied together forming a double whistle, or simple Pan's pipe. (See fig. 4.) b s eto;c o lvto. b he are twop1fo Fasticks - he Fig. 4. Cane whistle. a, oross section and sidE pole televation b, top elevation. er, carved on the end to fit the hollow he gig. When a spear is driven into a he gigs stay in place, and when the Bone whistles.--These were of deer or panther pulled back, they slip off and the barbs bone, and were made' like the common cane whistle. selves in the meat. Gigs are from They were used in the Taikomol initiation and 4 inches in length. Aboriginally, bone blown by the chief to represent the voice of re used before nail points were substi- Taikomol. (See fig. 5.) b Fig. 5. Bone whistle. a, cross section; b, top elevation. Length, 6 1/4 inches. See "Fishing." Flutes.--Elderberry shoots from 12 to 18 inches long were bored, four holes drilled on top, and nets.--These consisted of plaited mouthpieces cut obliquely. The index and middle ahes long, with ropes on each end, finger of each hand covered the holes in playing. fastened around a pack basket, or tied They were evidently played simply for fun; no men- 'round loads of firewood. tion is made of use in courting. ills.--These were pump drills of the 11Kroeber, Handbook, 420, fig. 37,d. 172 ANTIROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Drum.--Half of a hollow log 6 feet long and Basketry Notes 2 feet wide was placed over a corresponding ex- cavation in the ground behind the dance-house Many more Yuki baskets are to be i center post. These were danced upon or beaten University Museum in Berkeley than it with a club. ley. Dr. Isabel Kelly has described tion,14 and illustrations are given Dance paraphernalia.--Dance paraphernalia are important types. A few odd notes fo similar to those of the Pomo, but generally Dogwood was used as foundation mat cruder in workmanship. They include the follow- bud was used in sewing. Knife root' ing: sewing (this does not check with Dr.4 Yellowhammer headband.12 Museum specimens alysis) and was dyed as follows: ri indicate great uniformity; they average 21 inches peeled, placed in water, as-hes added long, 4 1/2 inches greatest width, and from 2 to put to steep; this is not an abori 2 1/2 inches for width of quills. Tips are Basketry types included: pack ba black, quills a dull orange. basket;16 boiling baskets (most coil Eagle-down headband. Eagle down was woven in- of this type, but those illustrated to a string some 20 inches long, forming a soft were considered by informants to be mass about 1 inch in diameter which was tied use in boiling); cradle, resembled P around the forehead. general features, but less well mad Hair nets. These were 20 inches long and basket;18 basket for parching pinole; doubled. They were tied on the head as a base basket.20 for all other accessories. Feather topknot. A museum specimen consists of a twig ring 3 inches in diameter to which are LABOR DIVISION AND CRAFT SPEC attached feathers rising 9 inches. Corresponding Division of labor generally foll Huchnom and Pomo examples average 12 inches in lines that would be expected. Men, height. sible for obtaining all animal fo Forked-feather headdress.13 These were stuck for the manufacture of necessary ea in the hair net at the rear of the head; dancing ing, although primarily a male acti- caused the forks to vibrate. times engaged in by women. They mi Hairpins. Wooden museum specimens are from trout, but rarely gigged or netted f 18 to 20 inches in length. ing and drying of salmon was the wor Necklaces. A museum specimen consists of sexes, while the preparation and ca seven haliotis pendants, about 1 3/4 inches in spears, and gigs was the task of mal. diameter, fastened with black thread to the neck. ing was principally a female occupat Woman's dance skirt. A museum specimen con- aided, especially when it was neces sists of four rectangles of thin buckskin, 13 oaks to shake down the acorns. How inches across and 22 inches long, fringed to would never deign to dig for roots. within 1 inch of the top which forms the waist- firewood and carrying water was praci band. For the first 2 inches four fringes are sexes. Bundles of sticks 4 or 5 fe wrapped together in Xerophyllum, then a 1/2-inch tied, and packed home with the aid unwrapped space, another 1/2-inch of wrapping, Water was transported in baskets on and then the four strands separate, each being or the head. Women were the best ba individually wrapped. Four inches from the bot- and held a monopoly on coiled ware. tom two dark brown pine-nut beads are found. On baskets were sometimes fashioned by' the ends of some fringes are bits of colored rag. bringing in food, for example from a Kroeber suggests that this may be a Lassik speci- or fish-drying spots, the labor was' men that was traded into Round Valley. On the Building of houses, both dance and whole it is more elaborate than most Yuki tech- the responsibility of the male sex; nology. fell the task of keeping them clean. Dance cape. A museum specimen is of burlap The position of women, though ard covered with eagle and hawk feathers. Capes of this type were said to be tied around the 14See Bibilography. shoulders in such manner that the back was cov- 15Ke11y p1. 125,h. ered. Another cape consists of a net covered 16Kelly, pl. 1265d,h. with eagle and hawk feathers, with two holes ' through which the arms are passed, so that it 17Kroeber, Handbook, p1. 35. covers a dancer's chest. 18Kelly, pl. 125,c,d. 19No illu8trations;* were similar- 1See Kroeber, Handbook, 267, fig. 20,c. winnowing baskets. 13Kroeber, Handbook, 268, fig. 21,a. 20Ke11y, pis. 125,g; 126,a,b,d. FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 173 inferior to the men. Life was consid- them the best grounds, but actually to prevent otperative venture, and its success de- them from taking too much. pon continuous hard work on the part of Springs were owned by villages, and were s. Women probably worked somewhat cleaned, deepened if necessary, and lined with an the men, simply because of the nature rocks. A good spring was thought to be a gift onomy. But they were individuals, just from Taikomol, and its waters superior to rivers as their husbands, and had their place and wells. Ralph Moore's father refused to drink il, the dance house, and ritual. A so- pump water, preferring to walk half a mile to his oh looked down upon the female sex favorite spring. t accord to one of them the status, even The concept of true private property within cal, of chief. the family was ill developed. Certain things were specialization was about as limited as naturally used by one sex, and others by the other, ble and still be said to exist. Certain but ownership in the usual sense of the word was bly chiefs and doctors, neither hunted unknown. Houses were the joint property of a man d; their position allowed them to live and his wife, with emphasis upon the former's efforts of others. In the preparation claim. The wife owned most of the baskets, in- tensils there were recognized experts, cluding all coiled ware, pestles, mortars, her can hardly be considered true profes- own clothes, inherited beads, and skins. The hus- because they also engaged in the regular band owned bows, arrows, fishing paraphernalia, suits of hunting, fishing, and gather- dance regalia, and his inherited beads and obsid-- ewise, nonexperts were able to and did ian. Material possessions of the Yuki were not iceable, if inferior, objects. such as to make property concepts an important lizations of men included bowmaking, the factor in society. e of mortar and pestles, netmaking, and ,f slings. Good bows were highly valued, WEALTH; VALUES; TRADE; TRANSPORTATION paid for with clamshell beads or with Specializations of women seem limited Wealth was represented by a variety of utili- ery and basketmaking. Individuals of tarian and nonutilitarian objects. A rich man m night specialize in storytelling and owned hides of beaver, otter, mink, panther, bear, ing. and occasionally elk. The last mentioned was usually made into armor as soon as it was ac- quired. Existing in memory only are very fine OWNERSHIP AND PROPERTY bows, traded in from the north through the Wailaki, and too valuable for practical use. Though no eCt sense of ownership did not prevail. living Yuki has ever seen one, their universal ne should want when others had plenty and positive belief in them indicates their ex- nkable as evidenced bty the distribution istence at one time as true wealth articles. Bas- at to relatives and friends at the con- kets and hunting and fishing equipment were all bf a successful hunt, and by the feeding considered of value, though because of their utili- 'persons by neighbors. tarian nature, of a low order. orial ownership, specifically for the Clamshell beads, magnesite, dentalia, and ob- .and more generally for the major sub- sidian formed perhaps the true standard of worth. s communal. Though unmarked, boundaries Clamshells from Bodega Bay were traded in from by all, and social disapprobation the Huchnom and Sherwood Pomo, both as raw shells poaching. Within the subdivision, land and as finished beads. Two sizes were recognized, reduce was the property of-all, and pri- a thin variety, worth about $1.00 per hundred, ming of acorn trees or seed fields was and a thicker, valued at $2.00 per hundred. They "First come, first served" was the rule. were strung in lengths of from 2 to 8 feet, both ion of good fishing spots is not quite types being kept separate. Since the larger beads t apparently prior rights were recog- were about twice the thickness of the smaller, it tatements such as "Only a selfish man was really length that determined value. When ing without asking others to go with used in payment, both counting and measuring were est that so long as a man stayed at a done. The long sets were double looped and placed pot no others could join him except by over the head and one arm; shorter loops-were worn en. in the customary fashion. Clamshell beads are the group had a bad year, it went to an ad- only ones that the Yuki speak of in English as ea bringing small gifts and asked per- "tmoneytt; other objects were of the nature of o gather. This procedure was known as jewels. (to burn with), and is most nearly Baked magnesite cylinders known throughout cen- as "to sponge off." Permission was tral California as "Indian gold" were obtained, rused, but a group from the host party ultimately, from the Southeastern Pomo. Two col- Ft with the visitors, ostensibly to show ors were known, ivory and white, as well as various 174 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS gradations and mottles. They were from 1 to 2 venison, fish, skins, and rope. Wit inches in length and 1/2-inch in diameter. Only ritory, trade consisted mostly of di, the finished product was known to the Yuki; al- of that which had been obtained from though all informants were conversant with the Transportation was via the human preparation of clamshell beads, none knew how tQr which necessarily limited transf magnesite beads were made. Magnesite beads were Dogs were small and temperamentally valued at from $5.00 to $20.00 each. loads. When entire families moved, Dentalia were obtained from the Sherwood Pomo. summer, everyone shouldered what he Lengths were from 1/2 to 1 inch, the latter size or rafts were unknown. In summer, t being specially prized by women. They were to cross rivers waded or swam. In w strung on short loops, never with other types of transported live coals in a waterti beads. Whereas even the poorest families had swimming and pushing it ahead of th clamshell beads and a piece of magnesite, only across, a fire was kindled, the swi the wealthiest possessed dentalia. himself, then returned; loaded his Small pieces of obsidiafn (wai') were worked and as many of their implements as p into arrow points and awls; larger chunks were ried them across, and repeated the p kept for their own sake. The origin is unknown. everything had been safely brought o Tillotson thought they came from the Nomlaki; Ralph Moore suggested Mt. Sanhedrin, lying to MEDICINE the south of Witukomno'm territory. In view of the Yuki name for the mountain (wai'lil obsidian C o i \ . ., ' ~~~~~~~~~Causes of illness are discussed in rock), this seems more likely. Wail was so rare ." H a {1 I *9 q n n- *1 n Tl ~~" Doctors." Here are considered aiiLK that it possessed no definite value. It was not t 1 . n .11 ~~~~~nonmagical and nonsupernatural charae used in trade or payment, and was buried with nontagic an nsperntal k harle the person who had obtained it. o a of empirical knowledge. Theoretically, through luck in hunting, skill possible to draw a hard-and-fast line in trading, and *industry in the manufactureof tion between the two classes of dise, in trading, and industry in the manuf Acture of the simplest of afflictions may have beads, a poor man might become wealthy. Actu- .g of the supernatural, never ally, this never happened. Wealth stayed in fami- savorin lies and the phenbmenon was recognized by the fundamental distinction remains: some I l l.1 required the assistance of doctors, Yuki. Rich men remained rich, and their children r likewise; poor men died poor, and their children could be self-treated, or tended by occupied the same status after them. The custom one's family. The basic axiom foreh of burning or burying articles of value at the was "try anything, try everythng, e death of a person (see "Death") was the principal c o t c factor which prevented any Yuki from becoming contain efficacious properties. Ange really wealthy. wood, and pepperwood were most common The principal trade as has become apparent, employed in the treatment of almost lne ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~Seii ailments andue traset folecm pprn, was with peoples to the- south. Salt from the Specific ailments and treatments foll Northeast Pomo, clamshell beads, kelp, and sea H R food from the Huchnom, and dentalia from the Sherwood Pomo comprise the most important arti- pepperwood. leaves crushed and the ar Sherwood Pomo comprise the most important arti- tea, made from an unidentified weed cles. Relative poverty of the Wailaki, and the flower, drunk. A rattlesnake button formidable barrier offered by the Coast Range hatband supposedly prevented headache separating Yuki from Wintun, probably prevented Earache. Wormwood leaves wrapped any great interchange with these peoples. The and the steam allowed to rise into t extent of aboriginal exchange is difficult to de- rock placed on ear; warm bear oil wh termine; with the tribes to the south it seems or lukewarm water, put in ear passage to have been at least regular, if not heavy. Toothache. Believed a worm enter. Credit, at least with the linguistically similar and bit the tooth neive, causing pain TT 1 l n A stel 1 t * * ~kept for such an emergency and placez Huchnom, was mentioned. A Witukomno'm, receiving ketfrscanmrgcyndpcd tooth. Also, manroot cut, dried, and' a gift from a Redwood, would give nothing at the cavity. moment, but later he would make the just return. Stomachache. Wormwood-bark tea d This was actually an extension of the Yuki friend- Sore eyes. Eyes washed in wormwo to-friend trade. Gifts were freely made from fusion; young, juicy oak galls squee time to time, as evidences of friendship, and no a wild-sunflower-root' infusion also formal mode of repayment was expected. But if Irritated eyes were distinguished fr after a reasonable length of time the donor had Stewed manzanita leaves and oak-gall not - cv aL presen of aproiatl equal - ---- ___remedies for the latter. no reeie a prsn.fapoxmtl qa Sore throat? cough, cold. Drank Value, he would not hesitate to show his con- plcdaputic fwrwo se tempt toward the donee. crushed wormwood leaves and inhaled; Possessed of no natural articles prized by gelica leaves, either with tobacco or outsiders, the principal Yuki exports were dried FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 175 Boiled and chewed manzanita and ing. A shallow hole was made, a fire built and yes. In olden times, periodic plagues allowed to die down, angelica and pepperwood tribe. leaves laid on top, and the patient, wrapped in tion. An unidentified plant was used a blanket, thus allowed to steam. Several magi- te. cal home cures were known. The navel cord of a baby was saved, and for headaches, toothaches, .*The patient was steamed and forced and other minor ailments was moistened and quiet until improved. squeezed over the baby's head. A mother and her limbs, unset, were put in bark splints baby wore a necklace of roots and twigs of an- tightly, the victim hoping for the best gelica to ward off disease. ere washed with wormwood tea and if . The Yuki practiced-tattooing to remove or attempt was made to bind them with prevent pain; this usually took the form of marks -t arteries were recognized by spurt- on the arm to cure rheumatism. Ralph Moore once ,.and inevitable death accepted. and inevitable death accepted. treated a bad arm by tattooing his initials on the spot that was most painful, and claims that aches and pains were treated by steam- . he has not been bothered since. SOCIETY VILLAGE ORGANIZATION of more simple construction than some. from 30 to 40 feet in diameter, dug om Village organization was an enlargement of the of 4 or 5 feet, provided with one stoui basic social unit--the family. Clans did not post, fir beams, earth covered, and po exist, and blood relationship was the strongest an entrance, smoke hole, and wood open bond the Yuki knew. All branches of one family erably it was situated beside a stre did not live in the same village, but in the ing could take place after sweating. small rancherias few people not related either sweat house as such; the iwil han se by blood or marriage were to be found. Since poses of singing, dancing, doctoring, there was a strong taboo against marrying a blood and lounging. relative (see "Marriage"), village exogamy, with In the summer months, families wenb the exception of no'hots (the largest rancherias), days or weeks at a stretch, gathering, was found in practice if not formal theory. and hunting. From time to time some These large rancherias consisted of as many as home with the fruits of their labors, twenty-five individual dwelling houses, and nor- the summer rancherias were comparative mally were comprised of several lineage groups. except for very old people. Toward fa It was here that the ti'ol hot (chief big) and began working homeward, and preparatio lesser functionaries lived, that the dance house ter began. Acorns were hulled and sto was situated, and that most of the major social kets, meat and fish dried, firewood ga and religious activities of the immediate neigh- repairs made on buildings. The term borhood centered. Inhabitants from smaller ran- winter) referred to the season when al cherias, often no more than a quarter of a mile were at home--the time of the Taikomol removed, considered themselves a part of the no'- storytelling, of singing and dancing. hot almost as much as those who lived there, and not mean that there was a formal dich had free access to all of its facilities. Just warm and cold seasons; certain seasons how many of these parasitical units clustered weather simply lent themselves best to around the host is difficult to determine. The economic and social activities, and it- number possibly ranged from two to six or eight, fectly obvious to follow such natural and fluctuated from time to time depending upon the popularity of the captain (chief). The num- CHIEFTAINSHIP ber of dwellers in one group ranged from single families up to a probable maximum of a hundred T p and fifty in the largest nohot. The power of the Yuk chef (tol Individual houses were crude bark and pole through Spanish into "captain" by mode shelters some 10 feet in diameter and 8 feet was considerable--more so, I feel, t high, dug out to a depth of about 1 foot, and neighboring tribes. Old Yuki today f without center pole. Dert was piled part way up old order orke smothly'because of t the outside to keep out drafts and rain, and a ing effect of the captain's power, and pack basket weighted with a stone served as a nized ability to make offenders fall i door in cold weather. A fire pit was placed in Principal qualification of a chief the center, beds of leaves and pine boughs cov- speech. When asked what a ti'lol did, * . . ~~~~reply that he "preached" to his people ered with skins on the sides, and storage baskets replyithatbheu"preached"ato hispol in the rear. Such a dwelling accommodated as function obviously was that of harmon many as eight people. Old Yuki recall them as putes. Standilng on the roof of the d farl war an cofotale he told his villagers to be good, tok fairly warm and comfortable. A few larger houses resembling a small dance other, not to fight, to respect others house were built with a center pole. A chief spect authority, to gather acorns and might dwell in such a home or perhaps two fami- to watch out for danger and to workf lies--brothers their wives and children, and eral good of all. "And they minded hi' I~~~~~~~ social and religious functions it was older dependents. Structures of this type were soc anad religs. ftions it was probably confined to the Witukomno m and Onkolul- wmanagedsaffairs. It was he whod komno'm, the subgroups in closest contact with messnges toninite he who sad the Huchnom who favored such buildings. food was abundant, he who decded on t Behind most houses was a small rough shelter songs and dances. When people were h n ffi S~ his duty to see that they were f ed; at used principally for preparation of acorns in hduty to sie thatbthyawer fed;lat bad weather. Present-day Yuki cabins usually re- death he visited the bereaved family tamn this feature in the form Of a crude lean-to could hlp, and offered the services against the back wall, where washing, cooking in to make things easier. All evidence f hot~~~~ ~ wethr an io osaepromd captain as a leader who was looked up The dance house (iWil nan, poison house) was byhspol. Caatrwsrqie of th tyia ceta Caiori tye though person, for unless he led an exemplary [176] FOSTER: A SUMMAaY OF YUKI CULTURE 177 ld force him to resign. Some men was addressed as "my father, you." When he came the position preferred to decline to visit a family, food might be offered, and the live up to the requisites of such a people maintained respectful silence until he ex- n indication that chieftainship was plained his visit. To ask why he had come was manding no ordinary man. the worst possible breach of etiquette. nary powers of the ti'ol are diffi- Descent through the male line was, in theory, ermine. Since the government has the rule. But the number of other possibilities ious cases for the past eighty years, indicates that the line of succession was not too remember actual cases in which the strict. When a new chief was to be selected, his supreme authority. Nonetheless, qualifications of several'eligibles were consid-7 ts agreed that a criminal could be ered and the one best suited elected. In aborig- to death by men appointed for the inal times the potential captain was decided upon lly, it is more likely that the chief while he was still a boy, and his entire training ieved party know that he did not ob- directed toward giving him the best possible back- ir doing away with the offender. In ground for the job. During the Taikomol-woknam, B of lawlessness the chief's decisions while other children learned to sing, dance, and y public opinion sufficed to cause to better themselves in crafts, he was instructed in the responsibilities of chieftainship and the of war fell in the special province art of harangue. In selecting his successor the ief (see "Warfare"), but the captain chief called a meeting in the sweat house of all council meeting to determine if cause important men and women from the no'hot and sur- sufficient, to consider offers of rounding rancherias. Sweating and smoking occur- demnity, and to arrange all general red before deliberations were begun. When the tters. Only rarely did he fight. candidate was finally decided upon, and it seems A principal concern with war was to probable that the choice of the old chief was most thorized raids by younger hotheads. often the deciding factor, he was henceforth called function in the Taikomol-woknam is "chief," even though he might not assume duty for n the section on ritual. many years. ain is always thought of as having Unfortunately this ideal picture did not always man, but whether this was due to con- work out. Old chiefs might die before the' suc- 3 from his people, or whether he be- cessor was chosen; the elected boy might be killed because of his wealth, it is difficu-lt through accident; or there might be no especially hunted and fished little, and food, suitable heir. Men were preferred, but at times s, baskets, and rope were presented women served. Thus, while a new captain was young, 8s people. his mother might act as regent. Or a dead chief's rmant mentioned that a chief spent sister might serve until a male successor could be time making beads'; leisure afforded appointed. Even daughters are supposed to have from necessity of the daily chase held this position. All informants agree that fe- him to so maintain his wealth. male captains never harangued the populace in the te times a chief probably had sev- 'manner expected of a male; they named a man to do which, because of the nature of Yuki this for them. ld have been of material advantage. One puzzling fact not entirely explained was nency toward polygamy, for chiefs as the belief that young boys were preferred to older h men, seems to have been less marked men as new chiefs. I believe that the habit of ighboring tribes. Within the memory selecting a ti'ol's successor while he (the ti'ol) ii no chief has had more than one was still in his prime and his sons necessarily ehief's wife aided him by supervising youthful, coupled with possible instances of pass- connected with preparation for "big ing over an older brother in favor of a more capa- had to be assembled, cooked, laid ble younger one, may be the cause of this illusion. rtioned, and the overseeing of this Certainly when a man assumed chieftainship he was lot. ordinarily an adult with many years of experience wa recognized by his dress. Whereas behind him. t virtually naked and had their hair The connection between the chief and dance ,e often appeared in a bearskin robe, house is clearly brought out by events taking ,her finery, and wore his hair long. place at his ordination. At this time it was cus- -told of an eagle-down "pad" some 3 tomary to erect a new building, and the procedure .ameter worn on the forehead as a followed definite rules. A mits-lam6imi (sky doc- igna; possibly this refers to the tor; see "Doctors"), upon the advice of Taikomol, eadband described on page 172. More indicated the most auspicious spot, and the men ewas probably made of yellowhammer set to work digging out the hole, carrying dirt the chief than by others, away to the edges in baskets. Meanwhile a suit- ~as all distinguished men in a village, able oak tree for the center post was decided upon, 178 ANTHEROPOLOGICAL RECORDS and the new chief mounted to its lower branches, Uncle class.--The term kup, reco where he remained while the tree was felled. sister's child" by Gifford, is actua This was considered a test of bravery, though name for a sibling's child. pains were taken to cause the tree to fall up- hill, thus minimizing the danger. The man re- Parent class.--The term k'ili is mained astride the trunk while it was cleared of addressed; k'il, for child spoken of branches, and rode it into the no'hot, dismount- (son) and k'ilmusak (daughter) when ing ohly upon its erection in the center post is necessary. hole. Upon completion of the new structure the sky doctor blessed it; if he did not supervise Spouse class.--Gifford records ti the building it was feared it would fall in on and tmusp wife). On the basis of the dancers. On this occasion the chief took an and formal inquiry, I am sure the te oath pledging himself to the service of his iwop and musp. The term it-iwop me people, and then assumed his full role. and it-musp, 'my mother." The number of Yuki captains at any one time is impossible to tell. In aboriginal times there Parent-in-law class.--Gifford's f were certainly more chiefs than major subdivi- (excluding nicknames) contain the su sions; possibly the people under one man ranged According to my informants, this is a from fifty to three hundred, but this is admit- Thus, when a manrspeaks of his fathel tedly the roughest of estimates. Captain John uses the term owil; when speaking of, Brown was the last, and he held sway over all in-law and one or more of his brothe the Yuki, since by his time they had concentrated or more brothers, he uses the term o in much reduced numbers, in Round Valley. The same-holds good for the other three presence of other tribes on the reservation at The convenient form mos-kima is U the same time helped to make the Yuki conscious speaking to either or both parents-in of their unity in a manner not realized in ear- brothers or sisters; mos is the seco lier times. Since his death about 1900 there has plural, and a term of respect. been no central authority. As mentioned, lack of the integrative force of the ti'ol is believed Grandparent-in-law class.--The te by the old-timers to be the cause of the present equals son's son's wife or son's da sad state of the tribe. band; am'6ankan, daughter's daughter' Actually, two separate levels of chieftain- daughter's son's wife. ship were called by the term ti'ol. The ti'ol h6tek (for short, ti'ol h6t, chief big) was the The prefix "i" normally indicates important official, and all remarks heretofore usually compounded with the noun. have been with respect to him. The ti'ol u'nsil "en" before k'un, k'an, ktic, and kti (chief little) or ti'ol miwatol (chief helping) before iwop and musp, which also meant is rather obscure as to function. He may have The term i-kaint is used as a mark been the head man in a small rancheria which in addressing any older, unrelated recognized the authority of the titol h6t. Ralph Moore suggests that he was directly appointed by the latter, and served for life, or during good BIRTH behavior. Or possibly the ti'tol u'nsil was simply recognized as the most important man in the small Pregnancy and birth accounts rela rancheria. Since such a group normally consisted a variety of possible procedures, de of blood kin, no formal appointing machinery individual superstitions and special would be necessary. surrounding each birth. The Yuki se' been fully acquainted with the physi processes of conception. No informa KINSHIP NOTES any supernatural methods of inducing all agreed that it was necessary to Kinship terminology agrees substantially with course. Only one contraceptive was r that recorded by Gifford.21 The sibling-in-law mistletoe. When eaten, it was belie class and the grandparent class are omitted by abortion and temporary sterility. Gifford since his data agree, as do mine, with A woman knew of her pregnancy thr those of Kroeber22 on these points. Minor addi- of the menstrual flow. If physically tional points follow. continued her daily chores until the seventh month. There seem to have b cific taboos beyond general and obvio tions. A woman would not pound a6on 211922:119-120. fear of magical injury but simply bez 221917 372-37-3. work was too heavy for her. The Wai: FOSTER: A SU1MA.RY OF YUKI CULTURE 179 ination to determine the sex of unborn everything she touched became unclean. This was s unknown. One informant stated that most strongly marked during the first ten days, 's abdomen rapidly grew large, her on each of which she was steamed, as described be a boy, whereas if it remained above, to remove the remaining blood. Certain girl would be born. restrictions lasted for three months, however. ;ocurred in dwelling houses, the mother During this period the mother remained at the by several women, and men ordinarily back of the house and performed no labor other uded. If possible, a girl went to her than attending to her baby. The woman was lim- mome for her first parturition. Mid- ited to a vegetal diet, and had to eat apart from d a special class; the chief require- the rest of the household. Meat and grease were that of having given easy birth to taboo, not because of danger to the mother, but herself. If a woman's time arrived because, through woman's contaminating influence, was away from the village, and no quali- if eaten they would bring bad'luck to the hunter were present, her husband might assist who had made the kill. A salt restriction was not labor. My informants said that women recorded.24 Hair combing and washing were forbid- reclining, but Kroeber reports a den. A scratching stick or the palm of the hand sition. It is possible that a sitting substituted for scratching with fingernails. (See as the earlier method which gave way "Girls' Puberty" for beliefs concerning this pro- tion times to the reclining position cedure.) A bird-quill drinking tube used during tural means of assisting delivery were the unclean period prevented contamination of the Besides the midwife, it was good to have food basket--an important factor if there was a ther women who had gone through labor shortage of baske-ts in the family, necessitating mplications, as well as a person whose their use for other purposes. been easy. The midwife might hasten At the end of the ten-day period the mother by kneading the mother's abdomen, and washed in warm water scented with wormwood or pep- f serious difficulty she was steamed perwood leaves, as did all women who had come in of wormwood coals in a shallow pit contact with her. At the end of three months th wormwood or angelica leaves and a the mother washed in a stream, after which all lanket on which the woman's hips were formal restrictions were considered removed. Doctors were never called in to aid The father observed a mild couvade, both for n, nor was any drink given the woman. his and the child's well-being. For the three bilical cord was cut with a special months he engaged in no important activity. If fe used for that purpose only and kept he touched the mother during the ten days immedi- family heirlooms; string or sinew was ately following the birth, he became unclean and tying. The child was washed in warm had to remain absolutely quiet, following the placed in a basket--not the cradle-- same food restrictions as she, and bathing at the moss, fur, and soft buckskin. A buck- end of the period. Otherwise there were no food or necklace of angelica root was limitations. Hunting and fishing were forbidden. ound the neck of mother and child to Wilere this rule disobeyed, the man would have bad illness. luck for the rest of his life. If he should kill terbirth was taken outside and buried a deer through some fluke, the child's eyes would event animals from unearthing it and roll upward, as do those of a dying deer, and al- t its becoming cold. If the former hap- ways be weak and watery. One informant stated woman would henceforth be barren, and that the baby would turn into a rock. If the tter, the child would catch cold. One father chopped wood, the child's head would split said that if any small rodent dug out open. Unlike his wife, he could sweat and bathe ta the child would sicken and die. in the stream, but could not smoke, travel, or e navel stump dropped off, it was gamble. apped in leaves and buckskin, and put These paternal restrictions, common to many y. If this procedure were not followed, northern California tribes, were among the first coident or some other reason, the child things to be disregarded following white contact-- sed to become nahamahili (half witted, more so among the Yuki than neighboring tribes. d he was called by this term, as a mark Tillotson was married to a Pomo woman from Upper tion. If a child became ill, the stump Lake, and was visiting his wife's parents when ened and squeezed over his body. Adults their first child was born, about 1898. He was adache by folding it in a damp cloth or amazed and annoyed at the strictness with which wrapping it around the head. he was forced to obey the old customs. At that ately following birth, a mother and time it was customary for a Yuki father to rest book, i8o. 2 4Kroeber, Handbook, 180, is in disagreement . 180 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS only two weeks instead of the former three but it was customary to give them a months. After this, hunting could be followed basket, deerskin, or beads. A. speo with good results. The explanation affords an the godmother-godchild nature, exis excellent example of Indian rationalization: so the child and the midwife. She cal much white blood was already in the tribe that (mine), and he called her i-kan (my the old magic was no longer very powerful. did favors for each other, exchang when the woman was old, she looked Beliefs and attitudes concerning birth.--Twins grown child for support. Thus, tho (molsam) were considered lucky. Mothers of twins present was small, an able midwife were held in high esteem, and were denoted by a eny found herself in an enviable po special word: molsamsac. Nevertheless, twins declining years. were more work than single children, and ordi- When a chief's wife gave birth, narily not preferred. Immediately following in- mary to give a feast at the end of tercourse, a woman lay on one side for it was months' confinement. The chief supp believed that if she lay flat on her back, the supervised the arrangements, and in male semen would divide, forming twin embryos. his own rancheria. The feast was nc Likewise, a prospective mother would not lie on iFequired, and depended upon the whim her stomach; the pressure would cause a dichoto- As feasts went, it was considered un mous fetus. The Yuki consider twins among them- selves to be more rare than among whites, and none knew of any cases of triplets. INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD Ralph Moore said that twins had only one soul between them, and were thus actually a single Infants were placed in a cradle person. If one died, which frequently happened, four months. This was a semi-Pomo t due to the hazards of primitive childhood, his in that the top bow curved out hori strength would pass to the survivor, making him stead of vertically. It was made by doubly strong. Tillotson disagreed, saying that and certain persons were recognized if one twin died, no matter what his age might Children were nursed for from two to be, the other would soon follow. A man and his wife resumed intercou Small babies were preferred to large ones. months after the child's birth, but- Women were sometimes angry at their babies if lieved that the woman would not beco they were unusually large, "but then, at that so long as nursing continued. "But time one can't do much about it," one mother are different. Babies come every y philosophically remarked. No special signifi- formerly three or four children was cance was attached to babies with cauls. Breech number, ten and twelve are now not presentations were considered extremely unlucky, mother who has had many children is probably because of obvious physiological dan- and is said to sa'ktom (to catch chi gers. Old people are amazed at the number o Very rarely babies were born with one or more spring who fall into this category. teeth. This was not considered unlucky as such, Illegitimate children (hilikoci), but was somewhat dangerous, or at least uncom- creasingly numerous, were aboriginal fortable, to the mother, since the child was same word was used for an orphan, a likely to bite when nursing. Such babies were this was as great an insult as mocki weaned as quickly as possible. relatives. True adoption did not oc Birthmarks were believed to be caused by con- mother died during labor and the inf tagious prenatal influences. If a pregnant might be cared for by her parents ot woman were cooking and got a smudge of soot on But the child never became the legal her face, her baby was likely to bear a similar one other than its true parents, as mark. (For an example, see under "Humor.") for example, with the Huchnom. The s All informants denied infanticide under any this rule was made clear when portion circumstances, although they believed other reservation land were deeded to the tribes practiced it. Tillotson told of a Coast heirs. Indians reared by others tha Yuki who smashed his two children's heads against ents tried to claim title to their b rocks, because their crying irritated him. He land, but were firmly and not too po died in San Quentin prison a few years ago. The minded that the land, due to the Indi Huchnom were also accused of occasional infanti- against adoption, could not possibly cide. An illegitimate child was frequently When a woman bore a child of questionable its grandparents, who regarded this a pater nity, her husband built a fire of fir and solution to an unfortunate circu-mstn tarwood leaves and steamed himself, thereby turn, they expected the child to care claiming the child as his legal offspring, their old age. M4idwives received no stipulated compensation, Nothers rubbed their infant babiesa FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 181 i grow strong. During the full moon, a to prevent wrinkles from showing up plainly on t carry her baby around the house to old women. to the moon's rays, or a group of Men were rarely if ever marked on the. face. ould hold hands and circle a house, Horizontal bars were incised on the chest, arms, dancing. This was supposed to aid and around the wrists. To tattoo, a flint needle was the Indian substitute for cod- or deer bone-awas used--in postwhite times, a Each milk tooth that fell out was steel darning needle. The skin was scratched, an e hand with charcoal, swung around the ink composed of charcoal and grass juice, or pine times, and thrown toward the rising gum rubbed in, buckskin bound over the wound, and practice was believed to insure the in a few days the healing was completed. "It of a new tooth. hurts a little, just like a vaccination." The he usual primitive custom, children exact person who tattooed and the compensation chastised. This is one of the few are not known. Women were considered most skill- 11 in force today, and George Moore ful, but men sometimes took over the task. d that the present generation of be- uths would be better off if they were closer parental surveillance. NAMES t's play was designed to fit them for of adulthood. At the age of five or The manner in which names were given and used were given miniature pack baskets and is not entirely clear. In postwhite times at company their mothers into the field least, a great amount of latitude was allowed. d firewood quests. No mention of dolls Names served two primary purposes: means of iden- d, but it is hard to believe that tification and means of addressing a person. Among id not play with effigies of some type. the Yuki, there were three possibilities in refer- ilowed masculine pursuits. Toy bows ring to or speaking to a person: (1) his real were fashioned, with which equally name; (2) his nickname; (3) a term of relation- deer" and "bear" were hunted. One boy ship. The first was probably used least frequent- a boulder rolling downhill, shout- ly, although names do not seem to have been con- deer," and his companions below sidered secret. Friends ordinarily used nicknames, se their missiles as it passed by them. while related people addressed each other with s served as bears, and were attacked kinship terms. Tillotson could not remember hav- bly more enthusiasm than the genuine ing been called anything except i-kili (my child) 1Oak galls thrown into streams made ex- by his mother. imon, and from the banks were-speared Until a person was named, he was simply called Ags. sak (baby). Naming was done by the one who first toys were few. Deer scrotum were asked for the privilege, either a relative or a tuffed with gravel, sewn together and friend. Boys were commonly named by males, and 8sticks which c6uld then be used for girls by females, though this was not an invari- Bull-roarers, at least in postwhite able rule. The name given was either that of the used as toys. Arrow shooters were bestower or one which he liked, and seems to have 2-foot willow switch. A short length had no special social significance. Children of was knotted on one end, and a wooden important families were named earlier than those ed to receive the cord. This was of ordinary families; many persons would want to a recent innovation (since reservation name the child, so all tried to ask fori-the privi- lege first without running the risk of offending ,at which tattooing was first done is the parents by rushing matters. The name be- Probably it was started at some stower was expected to present the child with a e puberty, and continued until the in- gift, the value of which depended upon the impor- d endured the pain as long as he felt tance of the child's family. rth while. Women were tattooed with George Moore was given his Indian name, Notwita, t and jagged lines on chins and a Wintun word meaning "go to Round Valley," when few or no marks were placed on the he was three years old, by an old Nomlaki chief. B body. The chief, who was a friend of his mother, gave says that women's facial tattooing him a string of beads 8 feet long, including a nt on the cheeks, and less precisely small piece of "Indian gold" (magnesite). In re- fashion than in the Northwest where turn, his mother the following autumn gave several tomary to cover the chin almost solidly, baskets, including a large one. This reciprocity remainder of the face clear. Cheek was simply a mark of friendship, and was neither seems to have reached its climax in required nor expected. George's wife Jessie was of the Yuki and Wailaki.25 Facial niamed by her older sister when she was about five served both to beautify young women and years of age, and has never had an Indian name. r,Handbook, 173, fig. 45,g. George's oldest daughter was to be called Georgia, 182 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS but the doctor who delivered her, a white man itin-hawoin yiiimol (mine who cooks fo partially but not fully acquainted with the In- called their husbands itin-iwap (my dian custom, immediately requested that the child be named Garnet. The Moores did not like it, but bowed to tradition. This particular case was PUBERTY AND MENSTRUAL OBSERY doubly hard to bear, too, because instead of sending a present the doctor sent a bill for For boys there was no ceremony that fifty dollars. (The figure quoted by Moore is formal entry into the status of manho probably high.) girls, however,. puberty was the most c A feast might be given at the time a child period of life, and if custom was not was named, the size of which again depended upon adhered to by observing the hamnam-wok the relative importance of the parents. For a dance), misfortune would befall both chief's child, everyone in the rancheria con- tribe, for the size of the following tributed and partook of the food; for a common varied in direct relation to the suce family, the affair was limited to close friends dance. Thus, a girl's first menstruat and relatives. Examples of real names follow: matter of concern, not only for her family but for the entire local group, Male names (probable): ansiu nanak (wood- one gathered both to enjoy the festi. pecker head); listaha si (find him quick); ip- make sure that nothing occurred that sakansiC (red boy); lilpalh6plam (light seaweed) the gods. (lil pal, rock leaf = seaweed); 6uumi (pick up When a girl's first menses appeared acorn mush); wasit mntil (bear shooter); milki shelter was built and in this she was (cutting meat); hulpalmi (eye digger); huilpash . w (sore eye); silpakil (take hide off); lacamtaisi covered with a deerskin or blanket. (grasshopper cutter); kukisniusi (little stick bad winter months she remained in her roaster); alkuikis (small wood stick); simptk'- old woman, known as the hamnam hanpyo olmil (buckeye talk); sishudluk (squirrel eye); pointed by the girl's mother to take a han6amcomi (crow down feathers with); calh'olmi the smoothness with which the hamnam- (dance feathers with); ansmi (blood with); ried out depended upon her. The cere milmufi6mi (deer play with). vided into three principal parts: (1) Female names: mumohltpuihic (short spirit); period of singing and dancing, follow musak'sonli (little cedar girl); musak'saki until the appearance of the second me (rough little girl); musak'potra (roan little second four-day dance period, culmina girl); salil (shell come off). a feast known as mamiaki. Three or four times every twenty-fo Nicknames were, and are, informally given by the girl was removed from under her ace anyone who thinks of one that tickles public to dance. She and the old woman faced fancy, and once accepted they are rarely changed. placed their hands on each other's sh Following the Indian ~idea of humor, these names danced back and forth anrd around and are usually obscene, referring frequently to the times a third woman placed her hands o act of sexual intercourse, or to some bodily shoulders from the rear and the three peculiarity. Vulgar nicknames were used by both rounding them would be a circle of wo sexes without any feeling of indecency; this is hands, sang, and danced in position. not so today. kept time by beating a mush paddle wit stick, and others aided by tapping on Male nicknames (probable): sonu'somi (wrinkled baskets. Sometimes the girl and her " skin), refers to a woman's genitalia; pilwasi (as the old woman was known) seized op (standing in the snow), refers to intercourse; of a mush paddle and danced. Behind t tatkoi (that's good') applied because the ex- of women were the men, seated or stand pression was constantly used by the namee- ing acorn songs, patting their thighs- sampalho'si (wags his ears); mipan-wilak (toes but never dancing. Dancing was reser together), refers to the webbed toes of the man for the girl and secondarily for thee so named; si6uhi (sitting on his buttocks); women. At night firelight was prohib malw6sak (penis bent over); k'ask'ansi (buttocks wmno At nih firelight-was phus chafing); minsilkaowok (big liar); malh6t (big dagru oteaonco-adtu penis); han6t4ntstil (shakes his forehead); tunity was afforded the men for caress ust'6t (low pressure urine), women. However, the extreme licentiou has been reported26 was vigorously deni Female nicknames: silpitna6hil (looks at geni- informants. talia), sitinlili (quivering buttocks); wiltasomi Songs sung by the women were wordle (crackling vagina); cilak (legs spread out); most Yuki songs, and to ears accustomed hata.mi (small vagina); hu"wolp'u (wringing deer music they sound childishly simple. On snare net). in a monotone, alternating e, o, e, o, A man might call his wife ot (old woman), or Another is slightly varied: e he o, edE 2 6Kroeber, Handbook, 195 . FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 183 !* <' and ends with the same startling They were invisible to all except the shaman, but * The purely hamnam-wok songs were no one ever expressed disbelief in them. The doc- by the women; when singing, the men tor was willing to show them to skeptics., but corn songs. If the girl became ex- since blindness was supposed to result, no one ;he returned to her bed, and the assem- ever requested it. people continued to sing until they too The girl was not allowed to partake of this feast. But she doubtless felt compensated at the the intervals between dances, and be- prospect of being allowed to come out from her first and second four-day periods, the month's confinement, from which she emerged "light supposed to lie as nearly motionless as as a white girl." This release was accomplished When it was necessary to go outside, ritually by first steaming and then washing her in dcompanied by her "manager," and her warm water mixed with acorn gruel. Food taboos, ept carefully covered with a basket or however, lasted for at least a year more, at the prevent her seeing "things." The sun end of which time a second washing took place, ered most dangerous of all. But just terminating the last vestige of puberty. ght see in it is not clear. "About If there were two hamnamsi girls in a rancheria ars ago a girl was being hamnamsied. at the same time, they went through the ceremony she went outside she wasn't careful together. There was no taboo against taking up at the sun. She screamed and im- more, but the small size of each village made iPt went crazy, and remained that way for an uncommon event. f her life. She saw some kind of a Throughout this description, the close associa- as." Cecelia Logan stated that it was tion with vegetal food supply as exemplified by for a person to see the girl's face acorns has been evident--acorn songs, acorn mush *s period, so the head covering served paddles for singing and dancing, acorn pounding, protection. A girl could not scratch winnowing, soaking and cooking, and acorn ritual th her nails, but must use a scratcher bathing. If the performance were properly carried of a 2-inch piece of willow tied to out, "God" would be well pleased and there would iwith a short length of string. Use of be an abundance of acorns, manzanita berries, 1s was believed to cause sore streaks worms, and other foods. If it were not, famine n. Combing of the hair and bathing would result. Old people today explain the cur- dden. Food taboos were after the cen- rent scarcity of acorns as being due to the aban- ornia pattern--meat and grease. Hot donment of the hamnam-wok; the last one occurred not allowed--their use might cause about forty years ago, and that in much modified to loosen and fall out. The girl had form. of special baskets and use a drinking In addition to collective danger, the girl iquids; there was danger of tuberculo- faced individual evils through neglect of any or a8 rule were violated. all parts of the hamnam-wok. She would be sickly, aiki was held at the end-of the second her menses would be irregular, she would have od and, including its preparation, re- difficulty in parturition, she might become a ral days. Women brought baskets transvestite, and would probably end up by being inspected by a mits-lam6imi (heaven struck by lightning, or at least meet death in determine which were satisfactory; some form. "Girls today aren't doing it, and lots d been made or touched by a menstruat- more die than used to."? were thrown out. Those approved were The dire results that might follow failure to lh acorns, which the women immediately observe these rules are illustrated by two accounts: ound, winnow, and soak, a procedure :two days. In the meantime the shaman 1. Once a girl didn't follow instructions care- -heaven to determine the proper places fully--several times when she went out she uncov- t ovens, which were then dug by sev- ered her face. However the singing and dancing men, filled with the freshly prepared continued as usual. But the spirits told the doc- left to bake overnight. On the fol- tor, who already knew it, that things weren't go- ming the last dance was held, at which ing right and that the girl was going to die. The ioctor danced with the girl. Before doctor was sad and said, "Take me, 0 spirits. I coudbtthe mits-lam- am old and the girl is young. Let her. live. Take y could begin.toeat me." The spirits listened to the doctor, and im- equired to offer bread to Taikomol, mediately he fell over dead. The girl lived to a id by extending his hands skyward, ripe old age. each a fragment of a new baked loaf, 2. One girl didn't believe in the hamnam-wok, "This is yours, father. We bring and didn't do things the way she was supposed to. ,' Upon this invitation the hanwaii-no'm While she was camped by a lake, she went for some l1e), the spirits who were responsible water, and a water devil pulled her under. She oduction and control of food, would ap- lived with the water people for a year, and they Bt swarming over the doctor and then told her if she didn't tell her people where she . ,. . . . .l , ~~had been she would live for a long time. But on to the people, whom they lightly stung. her return home, her people urged her so much to 184 ANTEROPOLOGICAL RECORDS tell them where she had been that she finally twenty to thirty. This seems excess did. In a week she died. The hamnam-wok is inclined to accept Cecelia Logan's e very strict. eighteen for boys and sometime soon for girls as being more nearly corra At subsequent menses women were considered un- Matches were arranged either by o clean and required to follow certain rules. Men- the young people, and considerable 1 strual huts were not used; the woman retired to allowed. A boy could inform his parl the back of her home, where she remained until choice, and if they approved, they a she was ready to rejoin her family. Bathing was. girl's parents with formal overturea forbidden until the last day, as was cooking and parents made matches and informed th eating out of utensils used by the rest of the of them. It was considered generou8 family. Special bedding--tule rushes when avail- children to accept their parents' de able--was brought in fresh each day, and the old they had a serious objection, they removed and burned. A man could not have inter- refuse, "and the whole matter was dr course with a menstruating woman; it was be- absence of tales of elopements subs lieved that he absorbed her blood, which was ex- statement. Sometimes a grown man t ceedingly poisonous. Consumption or other sick- to a young girl, and from time to t' ness would result, and if a man developed a gifts to her father on the underst wasting illness with no apparent cause, he was (the father) use his position to in suspected of having violated this taboo. While marry him. But if upon reaching pu his wife was ill, a man was supposed not to hunt. rejected her suitor, it was his bad Even though he would not touch her, her blood was out the gifts he had made to her would somehow contaminate his, and he himself After the preliminary arrangement would not be quite normal. It was believed that of the groom visited the girl's pare a deer could smell this in a man, and would not presents of pinole, game, skins, and come near him. which were returned in kind on subsed In a manner not quite clear to the few re- by the latter. This process was kns maining Yuki the moon was connected with men- (to give things). Periodic exchangek struation. A girl would not look at a new moon until the wedding--an interval of ng because "it has sharp horns which would cut her months to one year. On this day, bo [vagina] causing the blood to flow," thus bring- gathered at the girl's home with the ing on her period before it was due. cious treasures. The groom began by Soon after white contact, menstrual rules around his bride's neck, and she rec were relaxed so that women were not forced into like manner. Following this, the g complete seclusion. Eventually they were even placed beads on the bride's parents,. allowed in the dance house for dances, but could cated. A further exchange of gifts never participate because "the whistles and skins, baskets, and feathers, after-l voices of the singers would choke up.." couple were considered formally mrr After puberty a slight-brother-sister taboo The amount of property that char was enforced. This was chiefly evidenced through commensurate with the economic posit" restrictions on vulgar joking, which, as one in- parents, and the idea of bride price formant pointed out, is not really unique among volved. Residence after marriage fo; Indians, where we have dignified it with the strict rules. It was apt to be matrf term "taboo." "It's the same as with white time, then patrilocal, and as soon a people. You don't say vulgar things in front of the young couple set up their own h your sister,a " and I had to admit that many men, ally after the birth of their first ! at least, are more restrained in the presence of A moderately strict parent-in-law their sisters than among other women. Men did not talk to their mothers-in was absolutely necessary; they weres to be together unless other peopleaw MAnRRIAGE and would not look one another in th they met on the trail, they greeted Three types of marriage were recognized by briefly or turned their faces and ac the Yuki: (1) tr'6sili marriage, in which gifts had not noticed each other. A girl- were exchanged by both families; (2) association father-in-law as much as possible. resulting from either sororate or levirate; ful second person plural of the pers (3) "common law" unions. Although the first was mos was used when addressing parents' considered most ideal, all three were socially children-in-law. A boy and his fath sanctioned, and children resulting from any were and a girl and her mother-in-law, al legal. terms, nevertheless showed respect b Age at the time of marriage is difficult to "mos" in addressing each other, and ascertain. Most informants insisted that men from obscene joking. The restraint f were from twenty-five to thirty, and women from but it was due to deference and not FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 185 e, husband and wife conversed with their and mothers admonished their daughters to have in-law more freely, but the "mos" address nothing to do with men. Promiscuous girls were d, now firmly ingrained in the speech whipped by their parents--"especially if the man as well as avoidance of improper talk. were not approved of"--and were considered some- n husband and sister-in-law there ex- what less desirable as wives. After marriage, moderate joking relationship, extending faithfulness on the part of husband and wife was vulgar remarks. Bodily contact, which a hoped for. Marriage, apparently, was not the his sister would avoid, was allowed, but fragile phenomenon reported for other California se was forbidden. tribes, and once married a couple were expected rting, love songs were used and a form to live together until death. In Yuki there is tion was employed to determine the out- no word for divorce. The stern measures adopted 'ne's suit. A youth doubled a 12-inch by both families made the thought of separation C Indian potato stalk, wrapped it tightly even more distasteful than living with a nagging small stick named after the girl, laid and faithless spouse. In a tr'6sili marriage or ground, and watched it slowly untwist. the levirate, if a man beat his wife the best pos- he free ends he unwound it, and if the sible solution involved large payments to her re a loop around the stick it was a family; if this was not immediately forthcoming, e omen. Girls also used this device. he ran the risk of being killed by her irate male erty, children were watched to see who relatives. A girl's parents however were respon- the first object of their wrath, for sible for her conduct, and if she misbehaved they lieved, half seriously, that a boy or a' might beat and even kill her. Actually, each oc- L fall in love with the first person of currence of disharmony presented special problems, ite sex whom he or she cursed. and was settled in the particular way that seemed ge between blood relations, even as easiest. Often a chief used his office to effect s third cousins, was forbidden. No men- a reconciliation. If a husband loved an adulter- ousin marriage, even rarely, as reported ous wife--and it was by no means rare--he might r,27 could be elicited from informants. forgive her and take her back. It was considered taboo were violated, deformed children generous of a man to overlook faults, even to the born of the incestuous union. Ralph extent of losing his wife. Sometimes a husband of a case in which a man lived with might say to an erring wife, "Live with the other n's daughter, and their one child is man. He may treat you better than I." In a situ- tith sores--the obvious result of their ation like this, the form of marriage might be of for Indian law. Since in time of war significance. One informant, impressed with his 3ed divided families, intertribal mar- magnanimity, volunteered: "I lived with a woman for e generally rare. Women captives taken several years, but then she ran away with a man rmed one of the two exceptions to this from Little Lake (i.e., Pomo). I had a big heart, other was the Ta'no'm, who frequently so I just let her go--besides, I wasn't married ied with the adjacent Wailaki. Unre- to her so there was nothing I could do about it." Mons living in a no'hot might marry, Following a death, several courses of action 11 rancherias the consanguine character lay open to the spouse of the deceased, most com- *bitants made it necessary to choose monly involving the sororate or levirate. If a her village. The local exogamy which dead woman was survived by a sister, the sister n small rancherias was thus a logical was expected to live with her brother-in-law. No the blood-relative marriage taboo, and formal exchange of presents occurred, but the mar- ry restriction in itself. riage was considered thoroughly legal. If the was the general rule, and polygyny sister refused to have the man, he was free to go ly limited to chiefs and wealthy men. elsewhere. Provided there were no children he re denied polygyny completely, and in- might marry another girl in the tro6sili fashion, t although four women besides his but if he had children it was difficult to find a er lived in the house of his grand- girl willing to be stepmother to another woman's chief, they were wives neither in name children. Under such circumstances the widower r This denial may be explained in two would simply live with another woman of about his women were old, and hence undesirable; own age, who might herself be an unattached widow, nt's religious bent caused him to dis- with or without children; this is the above-men- truth. In at least a few cases, as a tioned "common law" marriage. the levirate (see below), men had sec- Following the death of a husband, the levirate In general, however, the Yuki did was the rule. If the dead man's brother had no the semi-polygynous character of sur- wife of his own, he was expected upon penalty of tribes. ~~~~~~~social contempt to take his sister-in-law and her ntal chastity was considered a virtue, children as wife and stepchildren respectively. If he were already married, under the Yuki rule - ~~~~~~~~~~of monogamy this was less probable, but he was ibook, 179. expected to contribute to the children's support 186 ANTBROPOLOGICAL RECORDS until either they were grown or the widow re- tattooed and had a man's querulous vo married. If the widow had no children, the duty mistakable though sparse whiskers. of the levirate was optional rather than proper. Indian agent, he was able to give the' "A man lived with his dead brother's wife more cal examination which showed him to for the sake of the children than of the woman." malformation, but apparently void of-4 Orphans and illegitimate children found it virility. He lived. with a family and more difficult to marry than other persons, since did all the menial tasks of a squaw.~, they had no families to make the necessary gift is quoted as saying there were at ones exchanges. The obvious solution of marrying each of these men on the reservation. other in the common-law manner was often employed. Girls were better off than boys since sometimes they were taken as wives by men of at least mod- DEATH erate means. These men considered them good and devoted mates. It would probably be more exact After a death, messengers were di" to say that inasmuch as they had no family to neighboring villages to inform friend back them up in event of trouble they could be tives, while those remaining at home subjected to more abuse than the average wife loud wailing. The corpse, followinga without fear of reprisal. of eyes and mouth, was washed in wa Present-day marital conditions reflect little ably by a near relative of the same of the ancient ideal. One old couple, married in rigor mortis set in, the body was fo the Methodist Church, have lived together for under the chin and hands on ankles, fifty-three years, but they are the wonder of tion it was firmly tied. It was the. the reservation. Frequently a couple will be deerskin, or a burial basket, about married once, but the union lasts only until one of coarsely coiled redbud. or both parties wish to dissolve it, which is Ordinarily, burial occurred on the done without recourse to law. Many old Yuki have day, although if relatives from afari lived for periods of years with as many as four the event was postponed another day. wives or husbands--in tandem--switching from the of contagious diseases were buried i old to the new whenever the spirit or circum- as well as those dying in hot weather stances moved them. The present paper is not an tures above 100 degrees F. are common acculturation study, and no attempt was made to and August in Round Valley.) Custom. determine the exact proportion of illegitimate did not prevent the Yuki from being children--known as "brush rabbits"--which is ap- Burial occurred in a graveyard si pallingly high. One informant considered the ab- hundred yards from the rancheria. If. sence of a chief with tribal authority as the sided near by, he might appoint four principal reason for present conditions. "In diggers; otherwise friends voluntee the old days, people would be afraid to live like service they received no recompense. they do now." was carried through the regular d6or, Transvestites of both sexes were found among times had to be enlarged for the aw the Yuki. Males were known as iwap-naip (man- to the grave, where it was passed to girl) and females as musp-iwap nAip (woman man- ing at the bottom. These lowered t girl). The former were more common. An ipnaip the grave which was 4 or 5 feet deeip (abbrev. of iwap-naip) dressed like a woman, animals from digging down), and placo parted his hair in the middle, spoke in a fal- east. One informant said that he th setto, cooked, sewed, and lived like a woman. because the soul would then be awake George Moore stated that they married and lived rising sun, but this belief was not with men, but Tillotson denied it. Some ipnaips Property of the dead was buried: bead were simply men with feminine bents and talents; on all bodies, a famous hunter had hi at least one case reported was definitely a bow, a dancer his whistles, and an e physi-cal anomaly. It-was believed that offspring her finest baskets. Other objects of. of close relatives might be ipnaips. Girls who placed on top, and the whole covered did not properly follow the hamnam-wok ran the or bearskin. Dirt was then replaced, risk of becoming transvestites. According to stamping continually to insure a ha Ralph Moore, these hunted and fought like men, In aboriginal times there was probabl but Tillotson insisted that, in spite of mascu- oration; the loud wailing of both men line voice and appearance, they lived like other was the only accompaniment to the noi women. Transvestites played no special role in to the replacement of the earth. Me the Yuki social pattern, as they did among the family were buried together--"the Id Huchnom where they were stretcher-bearers in time that way"--but not in a row because i of war. "People felt sorry for them, but then, lieved that if that were done the su ordinarily, it really wasn't their fault." follow, one after the other, in death. Powers records28 one, who wore a dress, was All those who had had contact with 28Powers, 132. purified themselves by washing and by FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 187 Lies with wormwood and pepperwood leaves. to destroy his possessions that might remind sur- everyone who had been present chewed an- vivors of him, thereby causing them grief. All t; the dead body was believed to give property of a dead person not buried with him was -which, though not necessarily poison- left outside, to permit sun and air to remove -best avoided. natural contamination. Friends and relatives on apparently occurred only under one brought gifts--baskets, beads, hides, and the ce. If a person died away from home like--to be burned. If a friend did not bring a impractical to return the body, it gift, it was assumed that he did not care for the on a pyre and burned, the charred deceased--a serious charge. If a family could being returned and buried beside the make no gift at the time of death in another family, Lbers of the family. they might apologize, and make a present at some (1937), burial occurs either in a pur- later date. A wealthy family usually returned all fin or in a homemade wooden box, the gifts in kind, but it was not an obligation. For west. This is relatively the same poor families, death was a double tragedy, for it nth regard to the compass as if the also meant destruction of most of its wealth. sitting up and facing east. Interment Well-to-do families buried enough to do honor to y has become rare, though beads are the deceased, but were left with sufficient re- for this purpose for the older Yuki. serve. tells of a twenty-dollar gold piece Destruction of houses presents a problem. Some the mouth of the corpse,. but this was, informants insisted that the house was destroyed-- unusual, reflecting neither modern burned on the day of the burial--while others inal custom. maintained that this was not necessarily so. Some- was complicated and prolonged, the times an ill person was taken outside, ostensibly edure again being determined by circum- because of fresh air, and placed in a position the individual. Women relatives cut where he could see his grave being dug. In some their hair short and smeared pitch cases, fear is said to have effected a cure. If calp and face. The exact persons who a person had been removed from his home before eould not be determined accurately. death, the house need not be burned, since little ive, daughters, and sisters were "poison" was left in it. Sometimes a house was forced to do so by public opinion, but turned around so that the door faced in the oppo- others, granddaughters, aunts, and site direction, and other times it was deserted rsonal choice was the principal deter- for a month or so and then reoccupied. Motives Blph Moore thought possibly that only behind house burning are obscure. Honor to the put pitch in her hair, while the others dead is one reason advanced; fear of contamination aged theirs short. Hair was sometimes another. Reversing the door suggests fear of re- th the body, or saved among the other turn of the spirit: if it found the door on the psakes. Slashing of arms and body was opposite side, it would not recognize its old iced. haunt. As with other aspects of death, house rage period of mourning-was a year, but burning was governed by the special circumstances greatly. Young people and social rebels surrounding each case. ooner; old people sometimes mourned for A taboo against mentioning the dead by name in a or longer. Often old people spent the presence of surviving relatives was enforced; t years in continual mourning, a new its reason was said to be to avoid reminding a ring before release from the self-im- person of his loved ones. This is difficult to trictions of the last. Exact taboos reconcile with the obviousness of a shaved and ers were impossible to obtain; avoidance pitched scalp. On the other hand, fear of call- blance of a good time seems to have ing spirits of the departed can hardly have been rincipal requisite. Gambling was not the reason, since the Yuki had little fear of due to both sorrow and the more prac- ghosts as such. Nonrelatives could converse free- ief that luck would be poor anyway. ly. If it were necessary to mention a deceased tercourse was avoided for several days, relative, for instance in a business transaction, cause "at a time like that, one natu- permission of relatives was first asked. Circum- sn't think about such things." Sometimes locution was much used. Thus, a dead brother nwished to signify publicly that he might be referred to as "your brother who is no hed mourning, he went to the dance longer here." If a person inadvertently forgot t on his feathers, and danced. Friends himself and called by name a dead man in the tives understood the significance and presence of survivors, he apologized: "My friend, led joined in a final wail. I am sorry. I didn't mean to hurt you," and the , occurred any time up to a month after apology, if sincere, was accepted. Intentionally al1, depending on how much time was re- calling by name a dead person was the greatest of o collect a worthy pyre. Its purpose insults, and might lead to feuds between families, wold: (1) respect for the departed; (2) to be settled only by further deaths and payment. 188 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS The strictness of this taboo was clearly WARFARE brought out when land was allotted to the Indians. Only fear of not gaining title to coveted plots The Yuki have long been considered, induced many older Yuki to name their parents, warlike and ferocious of all California and present survivors who acted as interpreters with the exception, possibly, of the Y remember vividly the painful sessions required Powers poetically describes them as co to elicit this information. The practice today "a pure democracy, fierce and truculent has almost died out, and old Indians are rather disputably the worst tribe among the C ashamed to admit their feelings, not for fear of Indians." 9 Seen in the quiet of mode white ridicule, but because of fear of being tion life, it is hard to imagine this made fun of by the younger generations. Tillot- the mild-appearing people one now finds son, upon direct question, insisted that he did Yuki are intensely proud of their earli not mind mentioning dead relatives by name, and ing propensities and of the recognized when asked about them, did so. But in ordinary they inspired in both neighboring Indi conversation, his most recent wife, Lizzie, dead and the early whites. For a people who two months, was always referred to as "this tle around which to orient the shreds o woman," with a gesture toward her house across shattered culture, it is a source of the road. faction to be able to recall abilities for them respect from friends and fear CRIME mies. Because, of this idealization of myth sometimes takes the place of fact, Crimes ranged in seriousness from wife whip- individual details of a particular ski pingt pingeding (witchcaft and murer. In- be grossly exaggerated. Kroeber's ace ping to poisoning (witchcraft) and murder. In Yuki wars with the Kato 30 indicates a a most cases the chief acted as intermediary ad- affairs in which the Yuki came out on visor to both sides and as final judge. In a affais in of t h ti ham e n case of wife beating, he tried to arrange a rec- end; this period of fighting has been v onciliation, and suggested gifts on the part of forgotten today, and emphasis of glori the husband to his wife's people, in order to in battle iS placed on the Nomlaki en satisfy their anger. A husband's family, anxious in which the Yuki were more often vict to avoid conflict, might likewise contribute. Causes of warfare were: murder by a Theft required return of the stolen property and suspected witchcraft or depredation of an apology. Further payment was not the rule. doctors; poaching upon tribal lands; an A satisfactory substitute for the article might such as breaking of the death name tab also be made if for some reason the original naping or molesting of women. However could not be restored. was so serious but what it could be me, could ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ cl att leas withrea th n fw In cases of poisoning, the poisoner was likely cally at least, with the payment of we wih an event serious enough to cause war to be murdered by the aggrieved family, in whichchief cedi a eting o almen event most people considered the matter settled, the chief called a meeting of all men and no further official action was expected. The cheria, and as many as possible from biggest crime was murder, which in theory was ones. Obviously, the more men who co settled by payment of wergild. Actually, the sum terested, the greater the probability demanded was often so great as to preclude pos- First of all, a satisfactory claim for sibility of payment. Here the chief entered in was decided upon, and a messenger dispa his conciliatory role, trying to effect a com- the offending tribe. Usually a period promise. Often the. family of the murdered personing followed, with the offender counte promise. Olten toe . amI y oce fe murd erea person ' interrupted proceedings by killing a member of lower offer. If the chief felt that a the murderer's family, thus complicating matters, wor hdter fal say, to accep it a and since no actual case of murder could be fol- who had the final say, to accept it a lowed through to its conclusion it was difficult moodohe p. If thenjed fo to say just what would happen. The murderer, if blood reveng e . f the antagoni he escaped with his life, had to cleanse himself blood revenge, and felt that antagoni with angelica and wormwood, just as a warrior enemy was high, they refused the offer, who had killed an enemy. starting hostilities. If, however, t The chief had power to authorize other men to action on the part of fellow tribesmen kill an obstinate troublemaker, but this was ex- hearted, and knew that the number will ceedingly rare. More often he simply let the a war party would be small, they accep injured party know that he had no objections to Ingthe first contingency, preparatic his doing away with such-and-such a person, rec- got under way immediately. Bows were ogn ized as a liability in the community. But the new arrows finished and old ones repaiX general consensus of opinion is that in aborigi- everything put in readiness for the ca nal times, when a strong chief existed, crime 29Powers, 125. was comparatively rare. 30Handbook, 157. FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 189 riod terminated in the ttaun-wok (war even more dangerous, due to her utter disregard d under the supervision of the t?aun- of personal danger, than a man. Finally one side r chief), who was a graduate of the retreated and the other pressed its advantage, knam, where he had learned the arts killing the wounded and massacring the onlookers. n dressed as for battle, painting Neither age nor sex was spared in such a fight. ed smudges, and carried quivers, bows, Male prisoners were immediately dispatched. Women lings. Both sexes danced. StAnding were also killed, or, more rarely, taken back as they held hands and revolved in a captive wives. Occasionally a child was spared shion. Special singers (taun-han- and brought up as any Yuki child. Nevertheless, ewise taught in the Taikomol-woknam, prisoners were the exception, the result of a ooon rattles. The dancers, who like- chance quirk in battle, and no definite rule of .set up a great shout at beginning and behavior had ever grown up around them. song. Then the men danced, shuffling People who had remained at home were expected and grasping arrows in each hand, hurl- to dance continually during the fight, to bring and brandishing clubs against imag- strength and fortune to the home team. es. Blunt arrows were shot at the After battle, the wounded and dead were car- dodged as the semiharmless shafts ried home on stretchers made of grapevine lash- 5 imitative dancing had two values: ings between two poles. Ralph Moore stated that y gave the warriors ability to func- if the distance home were great, bodies were cre- ir respective roles, and gave actual mated and only the bones returned for burial. The ,well. winners, returning to camp,- announced their vic- ,reports a war dance observed first- tory with loud shouts, the signal for preparation o1 the early settlers in Round Val- for the victory dance (ttaun-wok, the same word iors were naked, covered with pitch used for the prefight dance). If defeated, the wn, and wore bushy plumes and large survivors straggled into camp with no comment, Ihey rushed over a hill yelling, leap- and immediately the village broke into mourning. hing weapons, and singing. The victory dance centered around scalps. 4ance was considered very terrifying, These included the face from chin to the back of been given in many years. Once, in the neck, or even the entire head. The account tion days, the army officers re- of the war with the Nomlaki indicates that in more it be put on as an amusement. Even recent times, at least, the true scalp, though of ss resulted among the other tribes, larger size than a Plains scalp, was also taken. t the Yuki might lose control, and Scalps were rubbed with deer marrow to make skin s never again attempted. Likewise, and hair soft, and then stretched on frames; heads he war songs followed, so that all were also rubbed with marrow and mounted on tall rgotten. "If we sang them, other poles. The populace taunted these symbols, as t not understand, and think we were well as the enemy. Widows or orphans of warriors e war on them." might pick up the trophies in their mouths and ghting occurred either on a pre- dance until exhausted, or until the scalps began t or took the form of a surprise at- to go to pieces. Scalps were not kept permanently, ts were sent out to locate the enemy, and the person who took the scalp seems to have ck. Since the opposite side was received no special honor. Kroeber reports32 ing the same, surprises must have that not all of the slain were necessarily scalped, t, and were probably limited to at- and that even one specimen was sufficient to ex- 11, unsuspecting parties. press the dominant feeling of revenge. This is the two sides approached each in line with the general tenor of attitudes toward ug and shouting, painted and making war and victory. After the victory dance came the *e as possible; if the enemy could be feast that terminated all Yuki group undertakings. half the battle was won. Warriors Actual peace negotiations were carried out in group identity with feathers in the rancheria of the victors, and implied, curi- 80 that one could not mistake friend ously, payment on the part of the winning side. Women and older men, unable to fight, Satisfied with winning, a side would not want to party, to shout encouragement and jeopardize its position through further warfare. njured. At the approach, bows and. The losers, however, would be burning with a de- the principal weapons, but a fight sire for revenge, and anxious to fight again after d in a hand-to-hand combat, and for renewing their forces. Thus, the payment was ac- d knives were most effective. Women, tually a bribe to the losers to accept settlement. s fought. If a wife saw her husband Men who had killed others went through a mild -.3ed she might enter the fray and be purification, bathing and rubbing the body with 8129. 32flandbook,I 179.I 190 ANTEROPOLOGICAL RECORDS angelica and wormwood. Afterward they sweated to attend a dance. This was a time w and then bathed again. mingled with each other, with close i Elkskin armor was evidently used by war chiefs with acquaintances from more distant and a few others, but information is completely whom they saw less frequently. Cares lacking concerning its nature. No Yuki has ever gotten, and for several days everyone seen a suit, though informants insisted it was up to a spirit of fun and friendship-, used. Powers states33 that it consisted of a of such "big times" was, in the word, wide elkskin belt tied around the waist of the ants, "fellowship." "Dancing is the fighter to protect his vital organs. able of all sports," expresses the The Yuki fought with most of their neighbors. ing. This function is today filled b Kroeber has described a series of hostilities costal Church, which itself forbids with the Kato.34 From Lulu Johnson I obtained medium of entertainment. an account of a Huchnom-Yuki war which may have Dancing took place in the dance h been one of the series reported by Kroeber, since weather was unfavorable, or in a brus mention is made of periodic help from the Little when it was very hot. Ralph Moore o Lake Pomo and the Kato.35 (See p. 229.) build one 30 by 50 feet, supported by An unauthorized raid upon the Kuimno'm, or Salt foot posts down the center line with Pomo, resulted in trade relations and subsequent posts on the edge, and covered with p friendship. A group of Witukomno'm went to get brush. salt one October, before the whites came, The term kopa-wok was used generi around 1830. They met with a band of Kumno?m scribe all common, or "?feather,"? dant who tried to prevent their obtaining any salt, vidual dances had specific names, so and succeeded in driving them off. Upon return- but for the most part there was no s ing home, they told the story to the chief, who tic pattern. Some feather dances hac recognized their guilt in trespassing and roundly quired from neighboring peoples withj chastised them. But some younger men insisted one hundred years, and it is diffiol the Yuki boundary included the salt deposits--an which were the oldest among the Yuki. obvious falsification--and so, without the con- since style was more or less the saw; sent of the chief, and without a war leader, they dances, the particular variations, left camp, engaged a Kumno'm war party in battle ported or autochthonous, were of lea0 and won. Contrary to the usual pattern, the Yuki A development of postwhite times,- obtained, as a result of this victory, the right the cracking of the old esoteric st to trade with the Salt Pomo, and to take salt aboriginal society, was the presental from the deposits when they so wished. And the "Big Head" dance to spectatoz"s, for two peoples have been friendly ever since, small bers of the Taikomol-woknam. The in groups of Witukomno'm going to Stonyford from of this feature into the profane dane time to time, and receiving return calls from the will be later described. Kumno'm. In the common dances, both men - ~~~~~~~ticipated, and children, from infano. DANCES come and look on. Necessary paraphe cluded the log drum, which was stan, The position of social dances in the pattern in the-dance house, and which was u of Yuki culture is of extreme importance. From profane and sacred events. Yellow time to time, when there had been no death or shafted flicker) headbands 18 inches serious illness in the village, when food was worn across the eyes in such aThe plentiful and everyone in a good humor, the chief d in conjunction with the "mole"36 sent out a call jected on each side of the head and,; 3 Qthe elasticity inherent in their con --Powers, 129. waved with each motion of the body. "Handbook, 157. headband, before being used, had to 35Four Yuki stories of engagements with the the center post or laid on the gro Nomlaki are given in an article publi&hed in the while a singer sang to consecrate it, Journal of American Folklore (see Bibliography luck so that its wearer would dance. under Goldschmidt, et al.). A theoretical dis- being consecrated, it required care cussion of the aspects of Yuki-Nomlaki fights is and periodic repairing. At these ti included.anpeidcrpiig Athset 36 gave a small dinner to his close fri The "mole" is described as the "manager" of the peace with the feathers." Furt the dance house, a kind of prophet who could consisted of a hair net and elderwo foretell the proper time to hold a dance. He c o was e graduate of the Taikomol-woknam but it is fasten feathers to the hair. A "fes impossible to state how he obtained his position. consisted of black and white hawk Having decided on the date, he stood on top of feathers bound at the butt in a 3-in. the dance house and in a loud voice announced it. split at the top to make a fuzzier Then he visited neighboring rancherias with a feather headdress was stuck in the FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 191 -Each motion of the dancer set the on the good or bad dancing of So-and-so. The ring, and the greater the agitation, manager circulated among them and received sug- cessful the article. (See "Material gestions as to who should dance next. No woman Split-stick rattles were crude and danced unless requested to by a man; being asked They were believed to make songs was a privilege, though an expected one, and a eadily to the minds of the singers. girl rarely refused. Dancing was among the great- ither single, or dual in the form of est of life's pleasures, and no one passed up an. also used by the dancers. Small opportunity. Both married women and younger girls batons, with feathers on one end were danced without discrimination or restriction (ex- y others. Faces, arms, and chests cept during menstruation, when dancing, but not with charcoal, either in horizontal attendance, was forbidden). circles, Each dance had its special songs, which were 'rowd assembled all laughed and joked. for the most part repetitions of one line of mean- dance-house manager called the meet- ingless words. The chorus was indicated by chang- r, and picked out the singers and ing the next to the last two lines to a higher key. participate first. While the singers, Other nonesoteric feather dances include: 'th backs to the center post, were un- The k-im-wok (salt dance). All participants heir voices and beating time with danced very rapidly and stamped the ground with rattles, the dancers stood at the their feet, as if they were breaking up salt cakes. room, faces to the wall, putting on This dance evidently came from the Stonyford s. A li'l-ha'ol (rock carrier) people who used to attend Yuki dances, in post- svarious movements, and might himself white times at least. ither his feet or a stick. The dance The hintil-wok or "old-fashioned dance." Ralph bed is the noi-mok, perhaps the most Moore believes this is the oldest of all Yuki the feather dances. At the signal feather dances. It is similar to the noi-mok. ok carrier, or "caller" as he is re- The hoho-wok was danced only by men. Drum- requently, the manager led in the men, mers, singers, and caller functioned as described, o six in number, and circled the fire the caller shouting, "ho ho ho," and the dancers s. At this point, the singing sud- replying, "he he he"; then all dancers whistled on i, the manager returned to the rear bone or wooden whistles in time to the d'rumming. e house, and as the singers resumed, The wilo'l-wok may be the result of accultura- women--about twice as numerous as the tion. The description of men and women holding lced them in a circle outside the men, hands, circling, then revolving in alternate di- d in figure 6. rections, passing first in front and then behind the approaching person suggests our own round / D^ES5ILG SPACX \ dance. No drums or rattles were used, but every- one sang. It is uncertain whether the Yuki had a coyote dance. George Moore described it as the hulk'oi- wok, and said that one man wearing a coyote skin gOltCALL?R on his back danced. Spectators were required to DRUM pay. Lulu Johnson (a Huchnom informant) said the Huchnom had a coyote dance, and called it wu-e-wok, while the Yuki referred to it as a hulktoi-wok. K 2 @ t Vq b f / Tillotson however said that the Yuki had no coyote x ~~~~~~~dance. Contrasted to these simple social dances is the bastardized version of the "Big Head" dance that came to be-presented at regular gatherings by graduates of the schools in return for pay from L-JTRAfJCE. the spectators. It is known as the t6to-wok or Lg. 6. Floor plan of dance house "buckskin dance" (significance unknown), or the g feather dance. Huchno'm-wok, indicating the immediate origin of the singers commenced a new chant, the Big Head concept. This dance was very "strict" lved around the fire. At a repetition key, signifying the chorus, they danced in place. The women continu- 37The hoho-wok is reported by Barrett (1917:435) ed in the same spot. This procedure for the Pomo. It is described as a common dance udefinite period, until singers and that can be given any time Of year. Both sexes etired, when all retired to make danced, contrasted with the Yuki limtation to Is . 1 ~~~~~males, and the rhythm was unusually rapid. Singers eW participants. made use of split-stick rattles, and the dancers tators laughed and joked, remarking employed bone whistles. 192 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS (i.e., only graduates were allowed to partici- The best singer in a rancheria infc pate). Dancers were of both sexes. Drums and charge of the lanl-hanp, and at the p whistles were not used, and time was kept by he sent messages to neighboring ranche clapping the hands and beating on the thighs. ing the inhabitants of the impending The dancers faced the audience, backs to the ted strings or sticks were not used f singers, and danced in position. At a known tions. Sings were held in the dance.. point in the song--a rock carrier was not em- in recent years the largest private h ployed--the dancers whirled around, faced the able was employed. singers, and fell to their knees, remaining there On the first night after all had until another song was begun. When women danced, been welcomed by the chief, the head g they did not squat or come to their knees as the chanting: men did. Large feather headdresses and feather . .. . .. . ho - capes were used, in imitation of the Big Head. hi'ii ho'oo hi'ii ho'oo hi'ii ho'o- At the end of the dance, all spectators were sup- hi i hoo hi-i hoo hiti hoo posed to throw beads into the center of the room, This was repeated three or more times, where they were picked up by the manager. faster and faster, with the assembly Kroeber38 lists the toto-wok as being ulti- for the last round or rounds. Then i mately of Patwin origin. It is recognized by in- repeated during the remainder of the formants to have been, in its last form, a recent unnamed chant had to be sung at the a acquisition, and probably reached the Yuki along otherwise nobody would be able to rem with the Bole dance. Nevertheless, the under- there would be embarrassing pauses, lying concept, that is, the connection with the tire sing would be a dismal failure. Big Head, is aboriginal. was under way, and the chief singer, The lolo-wok may be of Patwin origin also.9 umi (song warbler) commenced another,* The name is widespread, and appears among all of lowed by the chorus, and continued hi the Maidu branches variously as "lole" and "loli." until he wished to stop. At this poi Kroeber considers it a common dance. Gifford re- upon a neighbor: "Well, brother, mayb ports40 that it reached the Southern Maidu prior several songs," and the new singer a to 1872 from the north, died out, and was rein- The fire, burning brightly at the troduced from the south in 1872 and made over by was allowed to die down, until the gl a certain Yoktco, who brought the modern Ghost bodies of the participants could only; Dance. Among the Yuki it apparently was a com- seen, swaying with the rhythms. -Some. mon feather dance and, as a result of competi- their thighs, and others tapped on t tion from other more exciting dances, was losing of upturned baskets. A man was proud popular favor. This is the only dance recorded ber of songs he knew, and of the len that had not been seen by informants, and was he was able to hold the floor. Never known from hearsay only. would budget his supply so that he coa duce new ones on each of the succeedi Tillotson thought he knew about fifty ACORN SING all. Songs were learned at the sing or at neighboring rancheria sings, bu Closely akin to the hamnam-wok was the semi- cacious were those that came to one i annual lanl-hanp (acorn sing). It took place man might dream he was at a dance, an during the winter (probably January), lasted for would be sung which he would remember: four nights, and was repeated again in May. Com- a future dance. plementing the girl's puberty dance, it also Likewise, a person might inherit pleased the gods and assured abundant harvests. other singers. Tillotson received hi. Although its successful carrying-out was all im- from an old uncle, Lago. Lago promis' portant, it was a time of fun and merrymaking who until this time had been a medioc. looked fbrward to eagerly, and its practice was that on his death, all of his reperto continued until about 1925. This is in contrast pass to him. And sure enough, upon t to the cessation of the more exacting and less Lago, he (Tillotson) found his head interesting hamnam-wok some twenty-five years new songs, and since that time he has, earlier. The crusading influence of the new nized to be the most able singer in t Pentecostal Church was the principal cause of Songs were not strictly private prope its destruction, as with most of the other sur- person who had learned a song from an' viving Yuki rituals. frained from introducing it if the or 38Ha-ndbock, 34A5. present. 38Handbook, 385. ~~~~~After several hours of singing, wa 39Kroeber, Handbook, 3S5. on the fire, and the head singer woul 401927:220. the following air. FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 193 a hayo hanaiyo cause it contains the verb yuni (to hang down) hayo hanaiyo and is a request that acorns hang down thickly on hayo hanai'yo Raised chorus the trees. hayo hanaiyo Rase hou hayo hanaiyo yuik ya - (1) he naho yuni he yuna ha (2) he naho yuni he yuna he he signal for all those who wished to (3) he naho yuni he yuna he Raised chorus ise. No definite steps were used, and (4) he naho yuni he yuna he dance motions was to imitate actions (5) he naho yuni he yuna he with crops; the singers bent, as if ems from the ground; they struck with Contrasted with these two rather sophisticated sticks at imaginary acorn-laden boughs; songs is the next. It follows the usual pattern ted the actions of people filling sacks. in having no meaning, and in rising to the next e time the rock carrier arose and key for the two-line chorus and returning to the rst in position, then stepping forward original for the last line. ting, and finally in wild animation, he fire. Contrasted with the other (1) holo holo mo*na s imitations were those of squirrels (2) holo h6lo ma-na pests who if not magically treated (3) holo holo ma-na Raised chorus off with the near-ripe crops. He did (4) holo holo mn-naJ eonfining his sounds to squeaks and (5) holo holo ma'na those of the animals and birds imitated. ently somewhat of a clown, for he made While most songs were for acorns, the staple to keep time to the music, and at- food, there were also songs about Indian potatoes throw the other dancers out of step. and clover. mwould follow his lead, but a really A potato song (alic-hanp, potato song): dancer was supposed to pay no atten- While dancing, no feathers, rattles, hani noyana (Repeated 5 times.) raphernalia were used. The following noi no noyana (Repeated 2 times.) ical of those used when dancing-- hani noyana a separate category from those sung hani noyan. i, and were never used at that time. A clover song (ma-h4np, clover song): yo he ya ha a yothe ya ha ma caila ka hani ani yo-he ya ha ma ca'ila ka' hani ani yo-he ya ha yo-he yah ha y4. ma caila ka hani ani fire again died down, the dancers Just as there was a song to commence a sing, elves; though dancing was a welcome there was a song to bring it to an end, sung only sitting, the songs were of the most on the fourth morning. and could not be neglected in favor inDg. This song-dance cycle was run ho-a man aku yan de ral times during the night, lasting maoa man aku yan de ng or until the supply of songs (Repeated in the same key about six times.) songs were equally efficacious rder to learn than others. Tillotson The spring sing was an exact duplicate of the ly proud of the fact that no one winter event. A feast (mamiuiki) followed this w his lead entirely through the fol- sing, as at the conclusion of a girl's hamnam-wok. The intimate association of the two rituals, and their influence on crops is evident. "Taikomol ih A hut ana hut ane gave us this way to ask for acorns and clover, . hfi hut ana hut ane and if everything goes right, we please him and k6a- mal nal hut a"na hut a"ne will have lots of crops." This, in a nutshell, sru) li' wi' ti. li- wi ti ha-a expresses the function of the hamnam-wok and the *na hut a-ne lanl-hanp in Yuki society. kg hut ana hut ane i khut 6nI hut ane SMORING a8 had no words at all--simply rhyth- Smoking was both a social function, in which a W.The following is interesting be- number of people participated, and a private af- 194 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS fair. Since wild tobacco is so "stout" (strong, vation times steam sweating was le harsh) and generally disagreeable, it seems that Achomawi; this was more of an indivi the feeling of group solidarity and friendship since the simple equipment preclude arising from a communal smoke was more important ticipants. A willow frame was cove than any actual pleasure derived. A few puffs ets, hot stones from a near-by fire were about all anyone could stand, and these and water thrown upon them. Steam were likely to be followed by giddiness border- also followed by a cold plunge. For ing upon intoxication, causing the smoker to puzzling to Yuki and ethnographer a sprawl upon the floor until sufficiently recov- Government agents forbade this acti ered to sit up. Wild tobacco (woi-yok') grew, was carried on furtively only at ni and still grows, along river and stream beds. sweating occurred either by day or Leaves were plucked and washed before being spread in the sun to dry. Tobacco so prepared GAMBLING GAMES was sweeter and milder than when the whole plant was uprooted and dried without washing. Leaves Grass Game were then crumbled in the hands and stored in By all odds the favorite Yuki small baskets or leather pouches. Pipes were of for that matter, competition of any the Pomo type (see p. 170). Manzanita wood was grass game (altoi-m6ltmil, stick ti considered the best for pipes. Little Toby said gamble). Its manner of play differ that in ancient times pipes were made of an un- minor details from that of adjoinin identified stone found near Dos Rios. The game was played with four bo Only old men, and some old women, smoked; it ing two pairs. One bone of each p was too severe an experience for young people. in the center with string and blac Gatherings in the dance house or, if the party charcoal; it was called altoi (stic were smaller, in a dwelling, was the usual cus- other bone was unmarked; it was cal tom. The smokers either sat up, tilting the (stick smooth). In olden times, de head back to avoid spilling ashes out of the bones were preferred, but in more bowl, or reclined on the floor. The first smoker sheep bones were substituted. Judy took a few puffs, then passed the pipe to a names of the bones, it seems possib neighbor, saying, "6u-ti-ka," meaning approxi- game originally was played with-wo mately, "Have a drag."? The recipient replied, No male-female designation for the lyo-6-me, Ita formalized phrase of thanks not corded. Score was kept by means of translatable. In this fashion, the pipe made the (alka6am, wooden splints) about 3 i rounds. Sometimes an old man and his wife smoked undecorated. Twelve was the usual a little before going to bed, and old men might a longer game were desired, sixteen smoke when gathered in the dance house listening Four players participated, two on to someone tell stories. Smoking was done only in addition to a counter-keeper for at night, and was not considered an everyday af- The players faced each other, squat fair. ing, and flanked by their partisans. Chewing was evidently not an aboriginal trait. or skin was placed between them. placed between and to one side of t SWEATING The challenging side hid the bones Sweating resembled smoking in that it was an fling them in fists full of straw. opportunity for group action; like tobacco, it tions were possible, as follows (0 was an integrating factor in the social life of I = marked bone): the community. Often it took the form of a con- 1. 0 I I 0: the marked bones in test in which men and women vied against each position. other in an attempt to stand the smoke longest. 2 I 0 0 I: the marked bones in Sweating was of the "dry" type; steam was not em- position. ployed. All participants gathered in the dance position. house, and a big fire was built. Each side took hands of both pla turns in fanning the heat and smoke toward the 4. 0 I 0 I: the marked bones in other side with a skin or rabbitskin blanket hands of both pla fastened to a pole. One by one the sweaters emerged from the underground house, sweat running Guessing was either vocal or by from hot bodies, tears streaming from half- both. To indicate the first positi blinded eyes, and ran to the near-by creek for a decided upon mutually by the two gue plunge. The women, it is said, usually were pointed toward the center hands, or victorious. "?huyit (in the middle)."-~ To indicat Smaller groups sweated from time to time, but position he raised two fingers on on it was by no means an everyday affair. Sweating both hands, or said, "hali (on the o was considered beneficial to the health. In reser- Sometimes the phrase mililalmik (dee. POSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 195 was because of the supposed resemblance be menstruating and this would cause immediate ised fingers to deerhorns. Tillotson loss of luck. Women had just begun to take up .that old people usually used this form, the game when it was finally abandoned. Sides that it may have been the aboriginal were evidently formed on the basis of known abil- ity. Competition determined by social or geo- ate the third position, the guesser graphical distinction seems to have been unknown. ing motion with his hand in the direc- To start, two men recognized as able players rked to marked bones, saying "he" made an introductory bet, which was added to by (toward the back of the room)." For their adherents. Two other players then "tapped" Xposition, the gesture was the reverse, the bet with stakes put up by them and their .by "he" or "nihini (toward the door)." friends. While the challenging team shuffled, re evidently not named as such, since they sang, accompanied by their backers, who of the last two, nihini (toward the slapped their thighs in time to the music. The me team would be the equivalent of excitement rose to its highest pitch when the rd the back of the room) for the other hands were extended and guessing begun. Singing on the basis of right and left hands. confused the guessers, and thus brought good esser guessed wrongly for both players, luck, and it added to the general festive air of for the hiders took two counters from the occasion; "it makes the game lively." A eeper before the process of reshuffling single game might last an hour or half the night. If one player only were correctly When one game was finished, the losers immedi- y one counter was passed, and the cor- ately put up another bet, and the game was begun sed hider dropped out while his partner anew. If a series of games proved especially til he also was guessed. At this exciting, it might last over several consecutive bones were passed to the other side; nights. If the luck of one or both players was y was used, probably to discourage poor, others might take their places, though it was considered best to wait until the end of the eginning of the game, the keepers each game, and not to break a team in the middle of eight sticks, as the case was, in play. Sticks in this position were known In early days, beads constituted the principal were kept separate from those taken stakes; in more recent times, American currency. osition, which were placed on the Twenty dollars on each side was considered an ront of the keeper. In a game, assum- average pot, but at times the pot rose to as high o be hiding and side B to be guessing, as $200, that is, $400 in all. Tillotson re- s all alsai sticks from A, and its called with great glee one occasion on which he me. The keeper for A then passed his bet $45 and won. a to the keeper for B, who held them When honestly played, the grass game was one ide guessed all correctly, and was en- of real skill. The hider, who could of course 'de. Then he passed the remaining control the bones, looked his opponent in the face, back to keeper A, the original pos- decided where he would be likely to guess, and ar- de B might then win all the remaining ranged accordingly. "You can pretty nearly always ., which were placed on the ground be- judge where a player is going to guess." per, all counters now being on the In prewhite times informants felt that play was counters then passed back and forth usually honest. "But today the object is to cheat ide gained all, thereby winning the whenever possible." This was accomplished by keep- sake. Obviously, the result of using ing a duplicate set of bones hidden in the loose this manner was the same as if all straw, and by sleight of hand displaying bones ,in the center to begin with, and each with markings opposite to those guessed. One hen entitled to from the central pot. player had a trick pair, both bones plain on one complicated system seems to have de- side and marked on the other. When guessed, he insure greater honesty on the part of always showed the opposite side, and of course in- variably won. The chronicle does not relate what game was an important social event was done to him when he was finally discovered. ten anticipated for several days. In When cheating was detected, the guilty side auto- ys it was played either in the sweat matically forfeited the stakes. There was no ge private house, or, if weather per- special stigma attached to cheating, but a player oors. In the latter instance, "to- who was known to play unfairly had difficulty in or" and "toward the back of the room" finding opponents. were agreed upon before play was be- The grass game was played by tribes adjoining was the favorite time of play. For- the Yuki. The Maidu and Wailaki were reputed to never played. They were allowed to use more straw than the Yuki. The Wailaki game were required to stay at a respectful also differed in that two, and not four, bones Under no circumstances was a woman were used; in this case wooden billets. The Huch- to pass behind the players; she might nom and Pomo game differed in that each player 196 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS kept one hand behind his back and one in front ground and the. women took their pl while being guessed; this was generally conceded side; one woman a-ided by a counter to make cheating more difficult. In recent times, a team. Occasionally for big gamee all tribes have played together on the reservation, employed. The challenger held the English being the means of communication. The hand, shook them, and threw them o last game occurred about 1930. If all six turned up one color, t ceived two counters; if half and h Marked-Ace Game For all other combinations the t to the other side. The way in whi Two men only could play alkus-m6ltmil (stick fell seems to have been largely a small gamble), a type of marked-ace game. Equip- Count was kept in exactly the same ment consisted of two bunches of splints slightly the grass game, twelve being the u longer than matches. Each bunch contained from The game was played outdoors or thirty to forty splints and an ace marked by a ally in the daytime. For big games central band of white. Each team consisted of a contributed to the stakes, and bet player, a scorekeeper, and a singer; the latter citement ran high. Sometimes two kept time by tapping on an upturned basket, and it alone, simply to pass an idle might be aided vocally by players and spectators. played it in the old days, but, as The challenging player took his splints, shuffled adopted the grass game before its d them between his palms, and separated them roughly tion, so the men seem to have playe into halves in his two fists. An average player short time before it was given up, would do this behind his back, but a skillful ago. player would flaunt his ability by doing it in Dice games played with deer knu plain sight of his opponent. No straw was used known. for this. The guesser chose by shouting "he," and pointing toward the suspected hand. Or he GAMBLING LUCK AND SUPERSTI simply said "toward the door," or "toward the back of the room," as in the grass game. The Luck in gambling was obtained in hider then slowly and rhythmically threw down the A strange-looking rock or lizard wa splints from the indicated hand, one at a time, luck charm;- for best results it had. singing ?,hen: en: en, hen: en: en, until either tored by someone knowing the corree all were gone, which then meant he had won that fore-a game, the possessor rubbed round, or the ace appeared. In the former situa- his amulet. Tillotson at one time tion, to prove his honesty, he repeated with the tremely lucky object: "Once while c other hand until the ace fell. Score was kept an old stump I saw a common black 1 as with the grass game, but since there was only a forked tail. I killed it and too one player to a side, one counter was the maximum Shelton, a white man. I don't know that could apass for one play. This made for a it, but whenever I went to a card longer game, but notwithstanding, players were ex- my body with it, and always won. I pected to last the entire game without substi- that way for Indians. I certainly tutes. Gambling was as in the grass game. lose that lizard." The marked-ace game was purely one of chance, Angelica herbs found growing in since the hider himself did not know where the brought luck. They were gathered, ace was hidden. For this reason it was more destroyed to prevent anyone else fi difficult to cheat, and if a player were known kept at home to be used as described to be dishonest, his opponent would insist upon mingbirds, and particularly their e it in place of the grass game. Contrary to the nected with gambling luck in a mann grass game, Tillotson believed that in the early clear. days women sometimes played the marked-ace game. Not everyone had a luck charm.A The Wailaki and Pitch Indians played this favored attempted to keep his good game with the Yuki rules. The odd-even game cret; if it were known that he had (wi'6li) of the Pomo, Nomlaki, and other central bling aid he could get no one to p1 California Indians was not known to the Yuki. who did not also have power. Before players without a talisman took a c Women's Dice Game the morning and fasted all day to Besides the positive elements of The women's dice game (ala', stick split) there were also negative elements. was played after the central California pattern. ing "poisoned" was the principal one Dice were made of tbree sticks 12 inches long against a woman passing behind playg and 3/4-inch in diameter, charred and split. The she might be menstruating, has alrea six resultant staves were convex and black on tioned. Players might also be "dop one side, and flat and light on the other. ers during a game. A blanket or deer hide was spread on the Gamblers were supposed to be gent FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 197 you win. I give up," a loser should feet in diameter and was made of dogwood. Any inner. Unfortunately, in latter years kind of stick would do for the players. dians had access to white man's whiskey Various other competitive sports, including 'tradition was not always followed. archery, were known. bt due simply to chance that all gam- Shooting for distance: shooting was done swere given up simultaneously about standing up, and it was actually a contest to de- >ws at that time that the Pentecostal termine who had the strongest arms. A powerful h its taboo against all worldly pleas- man and bow reputedly could send an arrow for a uding gambling, appeared from the Sacra- quarter of a mile. y (see "Modern Religious Developments") Shooting at a target: in olden times, a bunch rly embraced by many Yuki. To the of tules formed a target; in postwhite times, a knowledge gambling has largely been player's hat was more of an incentive. The range nce then--a feat which the combined was about 50 yards, but might be varied if the tthe Indian Service and the Methodist players so wished. Contrasted with distance failed to accomplish during the pre- shooting, the archers sat down to shoot. Both nty years. feet were placed on the bow, the arrow was laid on top of the grip between the feet, and the OTHER GAMES string pulled back with both hands. This method Shinny was steadier than free-hand shooting, and thus made for greater accuracy. }tots-lele) was the favorite field sport, Spear throwing for both distance and accuracy yed at all large social gatherings. The was at one time a sport. Training for warfare playing ground varied, depending upon and hunting seem to have been more important Etions; a modern football field would objectives than direct competition. coonsidered ideal. Likewise, the number Foot racing was favored because of the excel- varied, rangivg from five to ten on a lent training it provided for hunting, carrying l was equipped with a stick from 3 to 4 *messages, and scouting in war. Both short *crooked at one end, and resembling a sprints and long-distance contests were known. ey stick. A fire-hardened wooden ball The favorite course for the latter began at the hes in diameter was used; in postwhite site of the present Indian school, ran south to bber ball was substituted. the Hop Ranch, east to the edge of the valley, re marked at each end of the field by north to the Charlie Hurt highway, and west to upright sticks about 20 feet apart. the starting point. The distance is fifteen miles, spite of one or more guards, it was de- and required a half-day to complete. y to hit such a wide opening, the em- Wrestling was practiced. Two men stood oppo- .on getting the ball to the end of the site one another, seized each other's hands and r than on accuracy of aim. arms, and attempted to throw each other to the players started the game by standing ground, the one doing so first being declared the e of the field facing each other. winner. Wrestling on the ground was not prac- dropped the ball, and both struck at ticed. ously, trying to send it toward their True boxing was unknown. The nearest approach goals. The other players stood in to it was a pastime which consisted in one player positions on the field, and endeavored crooking his arm in front of him, and allowing the pursuit. It was permitted to the other to hit it as hard as he could. If the ball and strike it, as with a base- recipient were still able, he then returned the tee it up on a small rise before blow. The man who was hurt less was the victor. carrying the ball was forbidden. The Because of the danger of broken arms, it was hard f wrestling with one's opponent, to pre- to find an opponent for this sport. ching the ball, seems to have been The tug of war was the only competition to among the Yuki. The side which first which women were admitted. Two strong men took 1 through its goal won the game. the key positions;' grasping each other's hands. times, shinny was played purely as a Teams formed behind them, each person seizing the postwhite times gambling on a small player in front around the waist. Sometimes only t in--knives, handkerchiefs, tobacco, men played, and sometimes both sexes together, were wagered. It was an extremely men and women being found on each side. Tillot- and rough game, and players not in- son said that, due to the reputed superior strength ,collapsed on the field. Cracked shins of the male sex, women never competed as a team r hazard. The aboriginal method of de- against men. ~sides is unknown. Probably it depended, Gambling was not a part of these contests; per- ling, on choice. sonal glory and the satisfaction that came from pgame (t'amilhip) was played in early winning were the only recompense. no one was able to explain the method In the sulmmer and fall, swimming was a common ERlph Moore said that the hoop was 3 diversion, the breast stroke and dog paddle being 198 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS the principal modes of propulsion. Diving con- "Rat House" (nu6iam hfn).--(See fI tests were won not by grace but by the ability to figure is the same as that known by travel farthest under the surface. U'nusilno' tribes as "dance house." Place a 1 (sulk under water) was a contest involving holding index and middle fingers of the lef the breath under the water. To aid in these aqua- the opposite end around the right tic competitions, swimmers swallowed the air bags right index finger reach between the of suckers, which were supposed to impart to divers middle fingers of the left hand, the characteristics of the fish. and return, allowing the loop on t Simple water fights were frequent; opponents to slip off the.hand and on top of informally splashed water in one another's faces. loop. Place the loop held by the r5 Girls and young women formed circles in waist- finger around the right wrist. Wit deep water, held hands, and revolved in either index of the right hand, take the direction, dancing and singing. At the conclu- of the index finger and the radial sion of each song, all ducked under the water. middle finger of the left hand and r ing the loop on the right wrist to i STRING FIGURES hand and on top of the resulting do There are now loops around the indez In aboriginal times the Yuki, in common with fingers of the left hand, held toge most neighboring tribes, played string-figure knot about 2 inches above the palm.- games. They were indulged in simply for amuse- the four strings above the knot frog ment at odd times, and had no divining nature, as little finger, insert the little fi is recorded for the Wailaki. Yuki string figures left hand between numbers three and are all shared with surrounding peoples. Mostly the beneath and return. Insert the th the old names for them have been forgotten and de- numbers one and two and return. Dr scriptive English terms, such as "diamonds," have held by the right hand, and with thb 4~~~~~~~~~~~ HJELD LoossLi < Fig. 7. String figure known as "Rat House." been substituted. The terminology used below is index finger of that hand, grasp the that suggested by Kathleen Haddon.41 ing the four strings together and da 41 ~~~~~~~~~~~palm of the left hand. The resultin 4Haddon , 153. sists of four loops on thumb, index, FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 199 ingers respectively, joined in a pyramid thumb. Place the index fingers in the 4's, tely halfway to the right hand, which is letting both index- and little-finger loops slip above the palm of the left hand holding off. Stretch the figure on thumbs and- index loop reaching downward to the junction fingers. eA series of short jerks with the right "String Your Fingers Up."-- (See fig. 9.) Place cause the figure to fall apart. a loop on the radial side of the left thumb, with ilar figure, the making of which could one string hanging behind and one in front of the membered, is called hancam mipan (crow hand. Insert the index finger of the right hand under the palmar string between the thumb and nds."--(See fig. 8.) The figure referred index fingers, catch the dorsal string from the er snare" by the Huchnom and Wailaki is distal direction and return. Rotate this loop Fig. 8. String figure known as "Diannds." ay as "diamonds." It-seems that the aboriginal Yuki name "deer snare." Position one, A with index fingers (see or terminology). Drop thumb With thumbs catch the ulnar the little fingers and re- r the other strings. With atch the ulnar strings on gers from beneath and return .radial string on the same Drop little finger loops. 'PALM O'F HAND. lte fingers catch the ulnar the proximal loop on the om beneath, and return over a on the index fingers. b loops. With thumbs catch 1 strings of the little- ops from beneath and return index loops. With teeth loop on the right index extend it to encircle the Yuki. (2) Mole, supporting the earth, became tired, and of dead people could return whenever shifted position. The people, far from being but they caused no harm. Tillotson's frightened, rejoiced, for it was believed the died in 1937. His sister Maggie earth would now have fresh strength. heard her several times saying "hello." The sun (pilati or pilant) was stolen from its 1y lightly scolded her, telling her to former unknown owners by Coyote, and after many e she came. While spirits of the experiments eventually placed in the east, because ,t exactly feared, it was felt best at this point only it made light when it rose. In ould not come too often. the evening, after a hard day's run, the sun was iummer evening Tillotson heard his very hungry, and required six deer and four bas- r who had recently died. He was kets of acorn soup to satisfy its great appetite. doors beside her old shack, and in Thus, a greedy person was called "sun." After a oke and heard the sound, "u-hui, meal, the sun returned via the water to the east, expression she had always used, mean- ready to begin the next day's trip. He was not frightened, and said, An eclipse was believed to be caused by a bear bought you were dead and gone a long trying to devour the sun, but there is no record It's good to hear your-voice. I'm of trying to frighten the bear away by shouting 7too. Won't you say something?" Evi- or drumming. The sun waxs thought to be the con- nothing to say, and after several troller of rattlesnakes. thing more was heard, and Tillotson The moon (la6k'Awol, less to make light; figu- sleep. If he had been frightened, ratively, to make less light) was the wife of sun, m become ill and likely died. and was also taken by Coyote from its former own- these incidents occurred shortly after ers. Its home was in the west, and unlike sun, the person, within the time limit of it did not make a complete circuit of the earth. ''But informants said they might return The new moon rose slightly, just at sunset, be- reaching the final destiDation of came visible only when the sun had disappeared, and then followed the sun back down. The next a8 Aimol), the souls of dead per- night it rose a little higher, and so on until t feared. One chided them, saying when full it appeared at the eastern horizon. It re now dead and should return whence was conceived as being born, growing to fullness, be. One might say, "Well, I guess and dying each month. In the dark of the moon, but we're all right." As a whirlwind people said, "She is dead." Mention has already that was about all one had time to been made of the growth-aiding properties of the new moon for young children (see "Infancy and eknew-of no formula to keep spirits Childhood"). The moon was also an indicator of .Moore said that smoke was efficacious. rain. When the crescent was'up, like a bowl, it sence were suspected, a smudge could was a sign of rain, since it was full. When the tside the house entrance to drive them crescent slanted, there would be no rain--all the water had run out. (At this latitude the crescent no record of a belief in reincarna- is always inclined.) The morning star (hao) was thought of as a young woman placed by Coyote to announce the sun- OUS COSMOLOGICAL SPECULATIONS rise. Rising a short distance above the horizon, it shone brightly, and then returned to its start- (on), which was surrounded by water, ing point. Properly heralded, the sun began its to be supported on the huge front day's trek. ?ant mole (onp6yam). Another account Various constellations were known, and some, *Hole held up the sky only. Once when including the Pleiades (tunp), named; but no spe- sous offspring of Thunder (Taikomol), cial beliefs are known to have been attached to Gys (hiimilFil6i and ciyi), were play- them. 208 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS The rainbow (sik-wastlik, blue to stand--sig- Quartz crystals (wa'i) were much y nificance unknown) was believed to be dangerous Kroeber reports47 that they were used to point at: the fingers would become crooked, in bloodletting. the hand swell, or the forearm become thin and flat. Likewise a person's eyes would become weak GHOSTS if he looked at it too long. George Moore stated it was made up of three colors: white, blue, and There were two principal categorief red. The red was caused by the menstrual blood (1) spirits of dead people; (2) undef of all the women in the world. These statements referred to as nank atat (night peop tally with other related statements. Menstrual was dangerous unless it frightened a blood was the deadliest of all poisons, so even which case illness and possible death at the great distance of the rainbow it might Unless a ghost spoke it was impossibl well have the bad effects described. The rainbow which category it belonged. Ghosts as the path to heaven of girls who died during normal humans, as skeletons, as 15-f their first menstruation has been mentioned, in- as fire, as animals, as whirlwinds, o dicating a direct connection between the rainbow without accompanying forms. In the and menstruation. the voice was chided, reminded that Owls were able to foretell rain, and in olden and that it should return to the spir days, doctors retired to the woods to consult Some people were more disposed to gh them. Rains were classed as "good" (t'um tat), ters than others, and had the same e meaning those that come in the spring, and "bad" eral times. Several examples of per (t'um ka6am), those that came at a time that in- with ghosts were given by Tillotson: terfered with any activities. Wind (p'uns) was the breath of Taikomol. "He Once I was returning from Cap Do blows upon us." evening, when I noticed a figure fol Coyote (hulk'oi), the unreliable aid to Tai- looked like a young girl of about fi komol, was immortal. Whenever he was killed, at hair and a pink nightgown. When I s least a little blood spilled, and from this, like stopped, about 12 feet behind me. Phoenix he rose again. Deer and salmon, by the proached it, it walked backward. Fi. to the house of Jim Woods, an old ma] same logic, are still believed to be immortal. pit was outside, and.the figure stoo Another informant stated that if hunting became side. I looked at it and said, "Wha too intense, the deer would be called into the anyway? I want to know." Old Jim mountains by their guardians, the mumolno'm, and came out, and just at that moment it come out but rarely. This is what has happened I was in a cold sweat, so I spent t to the elk. Formerly they were plentiful in the Jim. The next day, Santyana, a bli: mountains around Round Valley. They were not I lived with who doctored some, san killed off; hunting became so intense that they a cocoon ratile, rubbed me with ange were forced into the mountains and are no longer me not to roam around at night. h Obsidian chips ikutam) thesaid, was made for sleeping, not wa Obsidianechis(wa'i from t heavenly one did, one might see ghosts. If doctored me, I would have become si obsidian rock (ki6il lil) were sometimes found died. in the mountains and were thought to be bits carelessly let fall by Pal, the eagle, from his I was coming home from a dance- on carrying net. When a man found one, he sang a moonlight night, when I saw a figur? wordless song and left some slight token--a bit me, kneeling, with its head down and of string or a shirt--as recognition of the kind- I didn't recognize him, so I spoke, ness of Pal. The obsidian was carried in-the didn't answer, I went up to look b i discoverer's clothing or carrying net, since if over him, looked at his face, but s it came into contact with hy or should he fail kow him . H y er clse,an& lAt ~~~~to be looking at me. Then I beg2an to leave an offering, it would disappear. Ralph telling him to speak, but still he Moore knew of a disbeliever many years ago who So I backed up, picked up a rock, failed to observe the strictures and so lost his to throw it, but still he wouldn't booty. Though of a supernatural nature and hence I hit him in the chest with the roe highly valued, they appear never to have had a a loud thud, but caused no answer. practical use. Before meals, all people turned brother-in-law came down the road N toward the resting place of a blade and offered "Come see what I've found." And J food*to it: "k mihik mit us hanwaim , ts it *ment, while I was looking directly food to it: llka mihik mit us hanwaimiki, this it- it disappeared into thin air, but n is yours we are-going-to-eat." If not "fed" and brother had seen it. It was a ghos "watered" in such fashion, it would disappear. It is possible that Mount Sanhedrin was the People who don't believe in ghos source of obsidian, as indicated by its name- wa'i lil (obsidian rock). 47Handbook, 199. FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 209 One night two of us had been visiting Hulk'ilal-woknam i girls, and about midnight we started was a very dark night. On the way, it The Hulk'ilal-woknam (eye-striped initiation; y to pass a graveyard, and as we ap- significance unknown) was a ghost dance in which we saw a huge light, bigger than a imitate "devils a ghost and is 'we watched it, animals like big dogs members imitated "devils" or "ghosts," and is iumped into the fire. One after the described as having been given to man by Taikomol. did it, until about a dozen had gone Whether all boys went through the initiation or inally the fire disappeared and we not is uncertain. Graduates learned poisoning ihe fire was about one hundred yards techniques, and certain ones functioned in a cura- fellow with me was an unbeliever, but tive role in cooperation with certain Taikomol y believed in ghosts after that. That graduates difty years ago (ca. 1887). Aniother graduates. fiftyng years ago (ca.s 1887). andIotheInstruction in the creation story and in other returning from a grass game and I saw ing. I walked around the edge of it matters of tribal lore played a basic part in the it for a good many minutes. Taikomol-woknam. Parents of the students and, at least in later times, women were admitted to the ometimes dreamed about devils (on- dance house while the school was going on, indi- , under earth person). This was a cating that it was less esoteric than the Hulk'- thing, and in earlier times, a mits- ilal-woknam. tor was slummoned, who talked to the Previous data by Kroeber, Loeb, and b urtis in- tised it, and told it not to bother dicate the confusion that exists about the two ual. The shaman's power was greater ceremonies and their relationship with the wider f the devil, and henceforth the Kuksu concept. The following discrepancies give o safe. It was believed that if he some idea of this, and indicate the disagreement of the devil," that is, allowed him- among informants themselves. ?e under its influence and learn the Kroeber reports48 that boys could be initiated evil would teach, he would soon die and reinitiated into the Hulk'ilal, whereas Loeb states49 only once. Kroeber reports the ceremony INITIATION CEREMONIES as lasting only four days;50 Loeb says all winter. Again, in a biographical account, Kroeber has ure of Yuki life has caused more con- record5i of a four-day fast and then all-winter the two initiations, the Hulk'ilal- seclusion, with subsequent repetitions of the lthe Taikomol-woknam. Both were aban- dance. Loeb finds that graduates did not become ly after the coming of the white man doctors, whereas Kroeber feels that they might, course of time, specific events have but did not always do so. My information checks rred in the minds of living Yuki-- more closely with Kroeber's, and indicates that ch were told to them more or less ac- Hulk'ilal graduates, if not actually doctors, were tand which they never observed first "doctors' assistants" who aided Taikomol doctors, rtitude as to whether a certain ele- called hilyulit, by dancing, singing, and ghost- a to one or the other ceremony is one impersonation. This again suggests the relation ar of the Hulk'ilal and of the poison- between the two societies that is known to exist, pities of some of its members has but which tantalizingly lacks concrete data to to be neglected, and even a conscious demonstrate. The Hulk'ilal ghosts of the Yuki are forget it is mentioned by some Yuki. the equivalent of the Eastern and Clear Lake Pomo tements are: "It's bad." "We don't hahluigak and of the River Patwin wai-saltu. about it." "We are trying to for- A synthesis of my data gives the following pic- Other persons even went so far as to ture of the initiations. xistence, an obvious falsehood, but an The Hulk'ilal-woknam was given by Taikomol, testimonial to the fear which it in- probably to be used as an aid in doctoring. The ear of poisoning by magical or non- original Hulk'ilal (ghosts) were genuine, but the ns has always been strong, and there shock was too great, and all initiates promptly today who have at some time in their died. In a second successful attempt, Taikomol poisoned. In view of this well-de- taught the Yuki to impersonate the spirits. Later, tern, it is not surprising that idn- the society became corrupted, and its great power about the Hulk'ilal-woknam is difficult was put to evil uses by some of the members, pro- ducing the curious situation of Hulk'ilal poison- nce) nam (to lie); the compound is ers, diatgosers, and curers, all as members of the equivalent of "initiation," or as the same organization. - elves translate it, "school." The "nam" _________e y e h m , telligible when we understand that for 48Handbook, 185. rt of the time the initiates lay per- 4~1932teuk ionless in the dance house. Dancing e i e n r l m o rtant phase of the Hulktilal, but seems sa Handbook, 187. en absent in the Taikomol ceremony. naHandbook, 189. 210 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS It is not certain whether all boys went of surviving Yuki. I do not belie through the initiation. Ralph Moore's grand- gests,52 that it was a "higher edu father, Jim Moore, began one of the last per- to promising graduates of the Hulk' formances, but after a time quit; that he was It was rather a ritualistic period allowed to '`flunk out" may have been a reflec- for all youths of the tribe, speci tion of changing times. mythology surrounding the creation To begin, the initiates were thrown into the and his subsequent adventures with. dance house through the wood hole, and arranged as more practical arts and crafts. by the witol .(janitor) around the fire. During it served to train a few select bo the succeeding four-day fast, several ghost doctors. dances took place. Either the ghosts were pres- At the prescribed time, all parti ent when the boys were thrown in, or they entered youths, varying in age from eight t shortly afterward. For subsequent impersonations, teen, entered the dance house and w the actors dressed in the woods, painting their permanent places for the duration o bodies in white, black, and red horizontal by the "janitor." For the first fo stripes. Pepperwood and manzanita wreaths and boys lay or sat, forbidden to talk leaves covered their heads, and faces were dis- the signal was given by the "janitor torted by twigs in mouths and nostrils. Thus, fasting was required. Food was he the concealing function of masks was fulfilled them and quickly. withdrawn when the, without the apparatus itself. The long cry it; this taught stoicism for later. "pu . from the hills indicated that the nate, the "janitor" conducted the bo ghosts were ready, and the men in the dance house heads carefully covered with a bl answered in like manner. The "janitor" mounted This feature shows an interesting to the roof and shouted, "he, he, he, he" while the girls' puberty rite. (Loeb rep" the ghosts approached in pairs from different Hulk'ilal-woknam only.) directions. (My informants said two pairs only, After four days, vegetal food wa. front and rear of the house; Kroeber reports near-famished youths, but meat, fat, two, three, or four pairs. Probably the number forbidden until after graduation. varied depending upon the size of membership at the instruction proper in lore and any particular time.) As they alternately ad- der the direction of an old man. B vanced and retreated, the "janitor" advised the was sometimes called ti'ol (chief); people below of their actions. Then all men onwisimol; the latter was said by S backed to the wall, leaving clear the center of chief's title during the ceremony. the house and the drum to the rear. As the instructor was known as "mipan-wil ghosts entered, they were directed to one side, because of his peculiar webbed toes and if they promptly went to the other, their roneously gives this as the name of genuineness was considered proven. Ghosts ful- Kroeber's description54 of the a filled likewise the function of clowns, mocking for unfolding the Yuki creation stow each other, jumping without regard to the dance of its brevity, the best account in rhythm, and trying to mislead the other dancers. old man sat on a bearhide, illustra After an undetermined time, including a period and remarks with eagle feathers, w of dancing upon the foot drum, the ghosts left, the word of Taikomol. Down feathere and after ridding themselves of their disguises, at the proper moment, symbolic of t one by one filtered back into the dance house. which Taikomol spoke, or of TaikomoJ It is uncertain whether more than one performance is represented as a down feather flc occurred every twenty-four hours. water. The bull-roarer (alamol k'ani) was frequently My informants said a split-stick used. It was called "thunder voice" and rqpre- to emphasize the story, and not, as sented the voice of Taikomol, who was equated Kroeber, a cocoon rattle. A rattle with Thunder. Graduates were known as sak'il- rejoicing: Taikomol had used one ea h6t-no'm (big spring people). Any seepage spot pleted a new phase in his creation is called sak'il. A large spring in Witukomno'm A bone whistle was blown at the co territory is believed to be the place where the each sentence to give further empha voice of Taikomol emerged, first revealing the symbolic of the voice of Taikomol. ceremony to mankind. had a pile of small twigs beside one which he transferred to the other f Taikomol-woknam episode of the story was completed, the day when the last twig had been This ceremony, described as a "boys' high __ school," was related in some unknown manner to 521932*167 the Kuksu cult. Since it was last observed more*7 than fifty years ago, its nature and function, 531932:67. let alone its details, are uncertain in the minds 54Handboolc, 184. FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 211 ut4 moved and disturbed the account, velopment having as its purpose both the enrich- ceased immediately until the next day. ment of dancers and the giving of added attraction ay was long and arduous, and not un- to a dying custom.55 rents came and sat behind their sons It is not known whether one performance of each .them, also to review their own mythol- school was attended by all Yuki, or whether each ,.brought presents of rope, furs, nets, Yuki subgroup had its own instructors and initi- s as payments for the services of the ates. The last occurrences of both the Hulk'ilal o mention was made of payment to the and Taikomol-woknams certainly were attended by g "janitor." initiates from over the entire Yuki territory. In ;g the creation myth, instruction in the full bloom of aboriginal culture, larger popu- a of Yuki culture occurred--the making lations make it seem quite possible that there fcapes and headdresses, singing, danc- were at least two or more terms running concur- gical formulae to aid hunting, and the rently. ever a boy showed special aptitude thing, he was trained in this line. KICIL-WOKNAM 6elected youths could be taught the a Taikomol doctor without disclosing The northern Yuki, the Ta'no'm, had neither c phases to the others is not clear, the Taikomol-woknam nor the Hulk'ilal-woknam. In- -of the school was celebrated by build- stead, they had the obsidian school, or Ki6il- sweating, and tossing the boys out woknam, a ceremony differing markedly both in smoke hole. Graduates were hence- function and nature from the other two. The Kato as potilolsil (young one dust). and Huchnom were the point of origin for the first- s no limit to the number of times a named schools, and the Wailaki for the last. No t go through the "high school," and a living Yuki has ever seen the KiTil-woknam, and have returned on consecutive years had not Kroeber obtained an account of it many themselves in the special fields years ago, we would be absolutely lacking in in- formation.56 usion hag existed concerning the time In tenor, it resembles a general tribal puberty the Taikomol-woknam, Kroeber and Loeb rite, under the direction of shamans, rather than a winter, and Curtis a summer season, a secret or semisecret society. Children of both ormation suggested a summer season, sexes were initiated, and put through a week of r developed that this was true only fasting, sweating, and severe physical trials. ified cases that occurred before the This ordeal was considered beneficial to the in- abandoned; winter was the aboriginal Ahe last several Taikomol-woknams, 55Since writing this paper, Dr. Cora Du Bois' .were admitted. Curtis reports that The 1870 Ghost Dance has been published. The given a similar perid of .deeper perspective resulting from this compara- Fgirls were glven a slmllar perloa OI tive study sheds light on points which, viewed by other old men in a different house. from the Round Valley focus, were not clear. The st in the ritual dwindred, due to the "Big Head" cult as such is described as a modern f the old culture, both sexes were manifestation, which "probably detached itself ther in order to have a full school. from the Bole-Maru cult and attached itself to a |ure of ordmission tof w n ad fl s ol- specific set of regalia," i.e. the feather head- ture of admission of women, and of al- dress (p. 127). The use of elaborate feather ts of both sexes to attend is a headdresses was, however, an aboriginal feature t suggesting that the relationshin of Yuki religious ceremonies. In the minds of su was less strong than has sometimes surviving Yuki the modern "Big Head" development ed. It ma3 reflect influence of the has been confused with the ancient feather head- dress used in the impersonation of Taikomol. idian initiation ceremony, which took The appearance of a "Big Head" at "pay" dances, on equal terms. Taikomol, the "Big which I had assumed to be a decadent stage of eared at no time during the period of ancient ritual limited to the Yuki alone, turns i but on the back wall of the dance out to be a modern cult of wider extension, hav- but on the back wall of the dance ing spread from the Pomo to the Kato, thence to hung the"Big Head" paraphernalia which the Yuki, later exhausting itself among the ed by the old man. The use of the Shasta. Thus, the "pay" dances at which Yuki in- was denied in connection with the formants saw dancers wearing "Big Head" feather headdresses actually are identified as belonging to the cult spreading from the Pomo and Kato in 1874 or 1875. But in concept, at least parti- cludes my sketchy material on both ally, the modern cult was based on an aboriginal A Several points call for attention. trait, i.e. the use of elaborate feather head ad" seemingly appeared in neither disguises, to impersonate Taikomol. In certain and yet his presence in some dances ceremonies attendant on curing the sick (see Taikomol-lit curng assemblies, i p. 217), this function of the Taikomol imperson- Ect. He appeared in some of the more 5 y" dances, but this was a modern de- H6andbooks, 191-195. 212 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS dividual, and at the same time prospective sha- and which had to be combated. Just a mans, probably as a result of exhaustion, showed tor in our society can cure all types.- first signs of their future profession. The power so it was with the Yuki. Ideally, a for the shamans in charge came from the heavenly civilized peoples a natural predispo block of obsiaian, chips of which were displayed part of a young person is developed t during the ceremony. Thus it is seen that the ful and skilled training until the n x underlying unity in the Yuki area with respect to qualified ,to take charge of a greater supernatural beliefs lay not in the particular number of illnesses. Among the Yuki, 5 rituals carried out, but in the basic shamanistic shamans, at least, this natural pred < concept of power from a heavenly "rock," ulti- took the form of "election" by spiri mately Taikomol himself. Among the northern Yuki the necessary basic power to the novii this belief actively pervaded tribal life, as evi- training under the supervision of pra denced by the position of the Kicil-woknam. Among tors completed the needed preparation the more southerly Yuki, it was overlaid by a actual practicing. Let us first, the somewhat more sophisticated development in the with a study of the causes of disease, form of the Hulk'ilal-woknam and the Taikomol- ward consider doctors in the light of woknam. problems presented. Broadly speaking, illnesses fall ii DOCTORING gories: those caused by magical or su agencies and those resulting from no All persons possessed of supernatural or magi- causes. In the latter group are clas cal powers are today referred to as "doctors." abilities as broken bones, sprains, w There is no generic native term fQr the word." matism, and other aches and pains of The functions of doctors were primarily to cure The treatment of these has been disoux and secondarily to cause illness. Two logical the heading "Medicine." categories of doctors are apparent: those who re- The more serious causes of disease ceived their power through divine selection--aid 1. Pains. "Pains" (tihil), general by spirits or a deity; those whose power came to in literature as "intruded disease' from instruction by older persons--power without were shot into a person by Taikoiol, direct divine sanction. This distinction is, and probably by uksa and other spirit for logical reasons, of paramount importance. shot pains only upon provocation, suce Doctors of the first class were, in the true example, a breach of taboo (mentioned, sense of the word, "shamans," and for the word molno'm and lesser spirits usually js there is an exact Yuki equivalent, lamsimi. The Just as a hornet sometimes stings for second class of doctors were not, properly speak- reason, so spirits might shoot an indi ing, shamans, and there is no specific Yuki term the same motive, or lack of it. applicable to all of them. For lack of a better 2. Breach of taboo. From informan] term they will be spoken of collectively as "non- quently heard the expressions, "That' shamans.?? Powerful men werie found in both cate- Indian way," "He broke the rule of God gories, but there was one important distinction. "God has told us how we should do thi A shaman ordinarily used his power only to do like it when we go against his rules." good, whereas among the nonshamans certain men-- ing of any recognized taboo was belie but by no means all--were sorcerers, who used in illness, sent by Taikomol himself. their powers to poison victims. Actually, much the immediate cause was a pain, but I overlapping occurred. Thus, many doctors who tain that this was always true. Tuber were shamans because of a divine revelation also a common form of the wrath of Taikomol received additional instruction, and hence were believed to result when a man had inte able to cure illnesses normally not considered a menstruating woman, or when a woman to be in the province of a true shaman. Shamans, broke any menstrual rules. because of training, might even be sorcerers. 3. Rattlesnake bites, and the bites Within each of the two main categories were vari- widow spiders. Though the cause of il ous subtypes and gradations, and different in- is plain, supernatural agencies were formants gave different names for what were effect a cure, and for that reason bit probably the same types. This combination of cluded here rather than among the com overlapping and varying degrees makes extremely magically caused illnesses. difficult the task of unraveling the several kinds 4. Mocking. Those who had no faith of doctors and their exact functions. beliefs were likely to become ill. In The various doctors can best be understood in sion of the hamnam-wok there is an ac relation to the types of disease that occurred, girl who became afflicted for such ar p. 183). 5In 1937 there were no longer practicing Yukic 5. Bad water. The Yuki believed in doctors. bad sources of water. Sometimes this FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 213 ue to the presence of uksa or other doctors). Mil-lamsimi received power from mil, S, but water not possessing spirits a vague force in some manner connected with the be either good or bad. mumolno'm. They cured people made ill from the t. Fright due to any cause was be- breaking of deer taboos and restored a hunter's ly to result in illness. (See luck by washing his deer snare in a deer lick, In some respects this category merges asking the mil spirit the reason for its dis- f bad water; sight of an uksa cer- pleasure, and pleading for the unfortunate hunter. d have been frightening, and illness Pilant-lamsimi (sun doctors) received their t. Among the Athabascan tribes to the power from the sun, and were limited to curing cluding the Wailaki and Kato, soul rattlesnake bites; between rattlers and the sun cognized as resulting from fright, and there was a direct, if ill-defined connection. e true "raison d'8tre" of this type of All lamsimi doctors cured through the extrac- e Yuki, as well as the Huchnom and tion of "pains" by -sucking, through the singing less sophisticated in such specula- of supernaturally revealed songs, and through lid not have the soul-loss concept. It dancing. Supramundane experiences among the Yuki -that we have a peripheral manifes- were of the 'elective" type. A person rarely the idea of soul loss, embodying the sought an encounter, but once having received the on, but without an understanding of the call, it was impossible to refuse. Having seen icance of the underlying belief. in a vision Pal and the obsidian rock, the pro- fning or "doping." Sorcerers had the spective doctor fell into or remained in a trance, make a person ill by poisoning, either bled at the mouth, kicked and jerked. His symp- rect contact or by sympathetic magic. toms were recognized by older doctors, who took him under their care and performed the lamsi-wok 3t five causes were supernatural, the (doctor dance) in a brush shelter. The doctors, Taikomol or lesser spirits. Therefore, flowers in hair and hands, first danced around encies had to be enlisted to effect a the reclining form of the boy (or girl); later, last two causes might be called when the novice had recovered strength suffi- terial." Fright had little to do with ciently, he joined in the dancing. From time to eyond the fact that a ghost might be time he suffered relapses; additional pains were many reasons for becoming frightened; being shot into him by the spirits and, before o have depended principally upon the he learned to control them, their effect was sick- ity of the person involved. In "dop- ening. The doctors sang their songs, and the poisons were required, which might be novice practiced on the one that had been revealed ither directly or in a magical manner. to him, which he would henceforth use in curing. ze, before proceeding to a detailed The assisting doctors talked to Taikomol: "Our we find five causes of illness re- Father, give this boy a good way of talking atment by some variety of the shaman, ['talking' refers to conversations with the quiring treatment by dogtors other than spirits] so that he will be able to save our people. I want you to promise this to me. Please take care of this boy from all danger." The Shamans (lamsimi) ritual lasted four days, with two main periods of dancing each day. Large crowds of spectators lamsimi is translated as "doctor" by gathered, and, it seems, joined in certain dances. The particular type of shaman meant They gladly paid the doctors for their efforts, ed by a prefix. because it meant a new doctor to help safeguard rerful and important was the true sha- the health of the tribe. Sometimes several boys ts-lamsimi (sky or heaven doctor), received their vision at the same time, or per- cure everything except cases of poison- haps the sight of a lamsi-wok aroused latent tend- ight. Men were more commonly mits- encies in an onlooker, he would be "struck" by his n women. Power was the result of a spirit, bleed, and promptly be taken into the a1 encounter, either in a dream or in dance. At the conclusion, as for all Yuki cere- with Taikomol, who was seen in the form monies, a big feast was held. Exhausted by this e eagle who guarded the heavenly ob- strenuous ordeal, the new doctor did not begin to TiS power gave the mits-lamsimi control practice for some months, and then only slowly, esser spirits, principally the muimolno'm, gradually building up his reputation. ksa, and the sun. Other doctors of At later times he could dream about additional ry who never received powers from spirits and so gain further powers, but no dance ere restricted to curing illnesses accompanied these experiences. the spirits they had encountered. The It is clear that the doctors' dance cannot be imi, who controlled only the imimolno'm, considered as instruction in the general sense of p ains shot by them and restordd hunting the word. Properly speaking, it was a tradition- cethey (mumolno'm) controlled deer, ally sanctioned ceremony whose purpose was to ,ors were also called on-lamsimi (earth "set" the newly revealed powers of the candidate, 214 ANTEROPOLOGICAL RECORDS and to formally call the attention of the com- short discussion between shaman and spin munity to the new state of affairs. It should be the best procedure. If pains had been distinguished from the formal and lengthy train- the victim by mu'molno'm or other spirits ing given to doctors of the nonshaman class. ing was more complicated. The doctor ad Ralph Moore's father's father, Jim, was a himself to the various mu(molno'm, facing mumol-lamsimi and had received his power in an where they were known to live, and askin encounter with mu'molno'm. Once when he was about turn if he were guilty. An honest m5mo twenty, he went hunting, but had poor luck and so confess, whereupon the doctor then ask decided to stay out overnight in order to get an did you cause this man to become ill?.. early start next morning. He awoke early, went nothing; I didn't think you would do sU to the stream to wash, and upon returning to his You're no good. You're mean." Then sleeping place he heard someone speaking Yuki, to sing and dance, and finally sucked but was unable to distinguish the words. Then he spot. The object extracted was usuall? wondered, "Who can be around here this early?" though it might appear as a blbod clot, As he watched, two little men came out through an quickly thrown into the fire. This pr opening in a manzanita thicket. He was very as- was repeated on succeeding days, witho tonished, for although he had heard about such sation with the spirits, until either'a men, he had never really expected to see them. been effected or the patient died. They were dressed just alike in fresh deerskins If all mu'molno!m denied that they upon which were still to be seen blood stains. the illness, a lively spiritual ar Their bows, taller than they, were encased in with shaman and spirits hurling invec deeiskins, and on each tip dangled a deer tail, other. Finally the evidence centered which continually quivered in a lifelike manner. spirit, who usually then confessed, One man turned his back, and the other rested on ceived a terrific chastising from the one knee and spoke, "Well, my brother, what are There was no fear in handling spirits, you doing here? We didn't know you were around plete frankness prevailed upon each si here. We've been around all morning. You'd formality only existed: milmolno'm wer best go home." Jim was too surprised to say any- as "older brother" and shamans as "yo thing. After a bit the dwarf said, "Well, my brother." In rare cases, in spite of little brother, we'll be going along." And the and threat, a munolno'm refused to cou two walked back through the same opening from then the patient died. which they had appeared. Jim heard a crack like When a doctor in a trance was speaki that of a small rifle, and saw a cloud of smoke. mumolno'm, a "wire" was conceived as He started to walk home, and almost immediately the spirit through the top of the doctc fell into a trance. It was like a fit, and he and fastening onto his jawbone. The ii didn't know what he was doing. He rolled on the action caused the shaman's mouth to mO ground, scattered his arrows, and began to bleed words to come from his mouth. Someti at all his body openings. About four in the (huskayemol) was visualized as merely afternoon he recovered sufficiently to go on home. which the talking came. Huskayemol (O He was quite a bloody sight when he arrived, and ries the word) is used today for telep the people were frightened. But the doctors Ordinary people heard only a whisperin recognized the trouble, and were much pleased. a sound like wild geese far away, when "Good, we need this kind of a doctor. Everything were talking. The significance of hug will be all right." The customary la'msi-wok not clear. At the time of curing, the followed, but Jim did not begin to practice until was certainly sometimes in a trance, b about a year afterward. know if true possession occurred. When a person became ill, a shaman was sent A good doctor took no payment until for; if one so called did not come, he would lose was cured. In case of death, the valua his power. A rope was stretched in the house, ing on the line were buried or burned w and on it beads, blankets, baskets, and other ob- ceased. Sometimes a bad doctor took t jects of value were hung, the material to be used and continued to doctor even when he k in paying the doctor if a successful cure ensued. case was hopeless. Under such conditio Dissatisfaction with payment offered provided patient temporarily improved, but then grounds for refusing the case. A doctor could a fatal relapse. usually tell what was the cause of illness. If The following accounts indicate the he suspected poisoning or fright he referred the shamanistic curing. Since they occurred victim to the Taikomol-lit doctors (see p. 217); white times, the practice is not as comp if not, he managed himself. Illness caused by exact as the ideal, but nevertheless the bad water, the breaking of a taboo, or by mockery good idea of the proceedings. The first seems to have required only the singing of curing Tillotson. songs, dancing, and rubbing of the patient with pepperwood and manzanita leaves, prefaced with a One winter I came down with the mumps,'5 FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 215 rvation doctor cured. But the swelling the pain out, and I got well quick. Her spirit into my stones (testicles) and they got came from the mountain. Doctors understand what s my fists. The white doctor put a burn- the spirits say, but the rest of us can't. She cine on them and finally cured the pain said a bad spirit had shot me with a pain; it's But then it went to my stomach; I could kind of like shooting with a bow and arrow. I ass water and felt like I had a stone in gave her clothes for curing me because I didn't es. So Rosy [his wife] said, "You'd have any money. et my uncle [Tom King] doctor you." It going on for over a year. I didn't be- Ralph Moore's grandfather Jim Moore, the mu'mol- could help, but it just happened that lamsimi whose experience has been related above, is wife came up to visit that day. He , c better come down to his house. "I can once cured Ralph s bad hunting luck caused by ." But I didn't have much faith. But breaking a taboo against eating a deer's, ear ed me, so finally we went down to his while his wife was pregnant. A rope was stretched s wife put a blanket in front of the in the house and Ralph put blankets and beads on I lay down on it on my back. Then she it. In spite of close blood relationship, the p of water beside me. The doctor knelt , doctor demanded pay. Jim then talked to the it all over me, and said, "Yes, here's miumolno'm, explaining that Ralph had never been " He started talking to his spirit, told about the taboo. Then he rubbed him with ,.." After he had done that several pepperwood leaves and blew upon him. The gun was heard a sound like a lot of wild geese over. When that stopped, he talked with doctored in the same way, and sucking on the bar- its, then rinsed his mouth with the rel produced a blood clot. (This is contrary to d sucked on the sore spot three times. the statement that only pains are sucked. Possibly sted to make water, so I went out and it was thrown in to make the affair a bit more im- , about as much as a horse, and right pressive.) "The mu'molno'm say they will give deer elt better. The pain still hurt, though, to you; they are sorry. Go into the mountains and next morning the doctor did the same you will come back with a little buck.t' Ralph went in and said, "Now you'll be all well." out next morning and killed a deer. Jim received enough, I kept getting better, and the beads and blanket in payment. oon was all right. That's how I found Rattlesnakes were an ever-present menace, and there is really something to the Indian he He was a real spiritual man. He must nce ilt iS not surprising to find doctors who n talking to God. He claims that it was specialized in curing their bites. When a g attler de him a doctor. He had to ask God gave warning, he was considered to be a good snake he could cure me or not. and was left unmolested; if he did not rattle he was a bad snake and should be killed. This was ie Dorman had a similar experience about the attitude described by informants. Actually, h the same doctor. Tom King, inciden- if the snake was found sleeping in the sun on a s the last of the really powerful shamans. rock pile, where opportunity favored the Indian, it was promptly dispatched. If found in the brush, a pain in my back-. My aunt was Tom where movements were uncertain, it was safest to ife, and she wanted me to get her husband pass around the snake. me. So I said, "All right, I'll try When people went into the mountains they did s pretty uncomfortable." He came and no me that evening and I got all right. nt speak of rattlers by their ordinary name lil- r bothered me since. First he'd sing no'in (rock on it), but instead said, "i-naint t'u ,talk. He said he was talking with his li'us nohan mi mon kilil komilik us, my-aunt blood- It seems that his boss told him what menstrual mouth-(full of) yourself hide are-going- sick. He just wore ordinary clothes. to-walk we," and then no rattlers would be seen. was done sucking, he spit out blood, but Notice that menstrual blood, the deadliest of all objects. I didn't pay him because he poisons, was the source of a rattler's danger. ole. But if he hadn't been, I'd have In spite of all precautions, people were some- y him a couple of dollars. times bitten. Rattlesnake doctors, pilant-lamsimi (sun doctor), received their power through dream- e Toby once fell *into the hands of a bad ing about the sun, which was the controller of o had no intention of curing him. rattlers. Such doctors might be said to major in snake bites, minor in black-widow-spider bites, time ago at the Hop Ranch I nearly and as a hobby dabble with sunstroke. Of course, had a big pain here in my side. The some pilant-lamsimi were full mits-lam6imi, with otor there was no good. He pressed curative powers for all disease. The following pain was and pressed it into me fur- c 3 was not a good doctor. He was a bad account indicates the general tenor of a bite- never paid him anything because he didn't curing episode. The actual curing is prefaced He didn't sing. Some man came up here with the account of how the doctor acquired his uorth end of the valley) and got another ability to handle snake bites. ~She was a woman. She sang, and asked tswhat made me sick. Then she sucked Lamsimi Pike was a sucking doctor who began by 216 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS specializing in rattlesnake bites. One night hanp-yasol were primarily devil impers when he was about thirty while sleeping in the rather than singers, and that they pa open his soul went to heaven where it saw a fine only in the curing ceremony known as big rock [i.e. the obsidian]. It said to him lit. In this case, the hanp-nohimal w that he would be a sucking doctor, and gave him 1 as the word han son sugests the song he was to use in curing. He awoke ply, ias who participatedg) bothests, bleeding at the mouth. Doctors sang over him assistants, who participated both in t and he began to doctor a little, but just minor lit and lesser curing ceremonies. All illnesses. One day one of his friends was bitten doctors and assistants were evidently by a rattlesnake, and since no other doctor was trasted with the shaman class that ino there, they asked him to doctor. He was shy be- They received instruction in either t cause he'd never done it before, but just then school, the Taikomol school, or both. he went into a trance and the "rock" told him he term hulklilal-hanp-y46ol, one would t could cure the man. He built a fire and talked these men received their training in to the "rock," who told him the patient should or "devil" school. look east and west. He did this, and since milk T i ( d came from his mouth, Pike knew he would recover. The iwil-hiltat (poson doctor) se Next he took a flat rock, heated it, and painted ceived a large part of his training tf wavy lines on it. When the fire died down, he doctor. The ability to poison evident scraped the ashes away and warmed the man's down from generation to generation wit bitten leg. Placing it on the stone, he began to family, but not necessarily from fath suck. rinsing his mouth several times, and tell- Exact information about poison doctor. ing the others that if his mouth stuck, they sible to obtain, both because "doping" should pull him away. Finally his mouth stuck, openly talked about, and because of i and when his friends had pulled him off, he spat with the feared Hulk'ilal school. Mo a tiny dead snake into his hands. Then Pike sprayed water on the patient a couple of times, knowledge about these poisoners was 1, and in a few days he was all right. But the oretical; one rarely admitted he could patient lost almost all of his property; it's much less revealed his professional a like that when a rattlesnake doctor cures. Poisoners were sometimes known, but was suspicion and rumor that marked a The appearance of the sun was the means of Any man who wandered too much alone in telling the outcome of such a procedure; if it was suspect. The practice was extreme were bloody the doctor knew the patient would both because a man might be killed by die, and made no effort to cure him; if it ap- tims and because of the danger inheren peared milky, all would go well. Likewise it dling powerful poisons. Cases were to was a good sign if a milky substance drooled the poisoner had died as the result of from the patient's mouth. in administering his concoction. Mits-lamsimi were able to foretell the future Poisoners practiced to satisfy a pe by singing and conversing with their spirits, grudge, or accepted commissions from o but the manner has long since been forgotten. sons. They were useful to the tribe The presence of shamanistic contests, widely could be employed against enemy people distributed among certain California tribes, was were very high. Since a disgruntled d just hinted at by Tillotson, who mentioned the poison the schemer, no one ever quarre lams-ha'amam or doctors' "convention," where doc- the fee demanded. Poison was reputedi tors were thought to try to obtain more power, the woods at night; snakes, salamander and where they tested each other to determine who bugs, and various plants were pulveriz was most powerful. small mortar and brewed over a low fi strual blood was also utilized. Snake Nonshaman Doctors charmed by singing to them, and thus a tured with no danger. Poisoning resul In this category are placed all doctors who either direct contact or sympathetic did not receive supernatural power as described could be placed in food; it could be p for shamans. They cured illness caused by fright stick and the victim lightly touched w or poisoning. Two principal types seem to have crowd; or a poisoner might go to a mn existed: the iwil-hiltat (poison giver), also the middle of the night, point a poiso called iwilmi, who was at the same time the sor- at him, and sing in a low voice. Fin cerer, and the hilyu-lit, frequently referred to pings, spittle, and excrement were hid as a "singing doctor." Not real doctors, but they could be "doped" by a poisoner, t necessary assistants in curing, were the hilyu- ing the person to fall ill. If an iwi hanp-nohimal called "sick singers," and the before his victim, the effect of the hulk' ilal-ha p-yasol, called "devil singers." off and the man recovered.- These may be different names for the same thing, Tillotson was mildly "doped" once.- or actually different positions. Information heated grass game, an old man touched from one informant suggests that the hulk'ilal- neck. He didn't think anything about FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 217 t a month later a catch developed in his Adam's apples, and similar buffoonery. After a aoh he has had, on and off, ever since. time the head doctor climbed to the roof of the got worse for various reasons: the doc- dance house and with a bone whistle called the not very powerful; besides, he died be- Taikomol impersonator. He arrived completely poison worked its full effect; finally, covered with a long feather cape and wearing an llotson has white blood in his veins enormous "big head" of feathers. Hesitatingly, an magic was not as powerful as for a he stopped, retreated, reapproached, and finally d. entered, coming to the side of the patient. To alyu-lit doctors evidently learned to the accompaniment of the singers, he danced wildly, the Taikomol-woknam. They were not neces- whirling about, gesticulating, and finally jumped oison doctors, but probably sometimes over the inert figure. The object was to deter- eir power lay in the songs they had mine what particular poison had caused the illness, and in their ability to summon Taikomol and questions to this effect composed the songs. n curing. The poison doctors, the iwil- When the correct song was sung, the patient mur- evidently also had this ability. It is mured, "Uh, uh, uh," and Taikomol, having divulged and puzzling, but evidently true, that the cause of illness, returned to the woods. The doctors to cause Taikomol to appear doctor in charge then rubbed the sick person on e who received no power from him. Frank the spot containing the poison. Whether he actu- f the Department of Anthropology of the ally sucked, as suggested by Kroeber,58 or simply y of California, who has also worked massaged the poison away, is not clear. The terms Yuki, agrees on this point. The hilyu- Taikomol-lit and hilyu-lit, both ending in "lit" 1mal and/or the hulklilal-hanp_yasol (to touch, to feel), indicate that sucking, if it real doctors at all," but nonetheless did occur, was secondary in importance. It might assistants. even have been a late transfer from the shaman's doctors cured with the Taikomol-lit, technique. Informants did not know how many times ate ceremony in the dance house involv- the Taikomol-lit was repeated for any given ill- ng, dancing, and culminating in the ap- ness, and it is quite possible that once was all. of Taikomol, the "Big Head," so named With the cause of the illness known, the doctor of the elaborate headdress that he wore. could give additional treatment Without the entire ings involved singing and dancing, and corps of assistants. the use of an effigy, viz. an animal If the cause of illness were fright, the patient lso on occasion the practice in the was cured by frightening him, preferably by simu- lit), to refrighten a patient suffering lating the original event. Thus, a person ill from t illness. The Taikomol-lit and the an encounter with a ghost was shocked back to eremonies apparently were used to cure health by devil impersonators who danced to remind aused either by poisoning or fright. I the patient of his first fright. Tillotson knew el that the Taikomol-lit was only for of a cure involving an effigy of a milk snake. Spoisoning, and the smaller cures for The ability of a harmless milk snake to inspire r vice versa. A governing factor might fright was explained by a short story. been the ability of the patient to pay. ' lamsimi diagnosed a case as due to At one time the milk snake was the most deadly poisoning, he called in a hilyu-lit or of all snakes, stinging his victim with the end iltat to take charge. (See p. 214.) A of his tail. So the rattlesnake said to him, "You r indicated poisoning. The patient was are too powerful. You kill rapidly without let- the dance house, head toward the cen- ting people suffer; you had better let me take , which was endowed with supernatural up your trade." Being obliging, the milk snake eing eated by somed with Taikrol him-r gave up killing in favor of the rattlesnake, but ing equated .by some With ;.aikomol him- the milk snake is still considered to be king of e following account of the Taikomol-lit all snakes; it reputedly can kill a rattler by ed from the staitements of several in- tearing it to pieces. more hilyu-lit doctors, or an iwil- The Taikomol-lit was very expensive, since so s in charge. In addition, there were many persons had to be compensated. hulk'ilal hanp-yasol (devil singers) Tillotson's account of his cure of ghost fright same number of hilyu_hanp-nohimal (p. 208) was probably typical of the postwhite non- singers). The doctor in charge danced shamanistic cure that did not involve the Taikomol- around the patient, using a cocoon rat- lit. Santyana was not a real doctor, but he had supported by the sickness singers. No learned certain beneficial songs and used the co- s made of a drum. Either on hand at coon rattle, as did regular singing doctors and ming, or called in shortly after the poisoners, and was recognized to have ability to began, were the devil singers, disguised aid a frightened man. Eulk'ilal-woknam, who danced and dlowned 3grotesque faces, by working each other's Hadok 185. 218 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS To summarize, we find that the Yuki had two bear bites by laying their hands on' main categories of doctors. The first, which in- talking with the bears (but Tillotso cluded the several varieties of true shamans also that they gave demonstrations ot called lam.imi, were divinely elected by spirits by digging under fires and bringing who gave them power. They cured all types of snake or a mouse nest. Being nat illness--save cases of poisoning and fright--by bear doctors frequently killed people sucking, singing, and dancing. The second cate- up to the unsuspecting person, bitin gory was comprised of the hilyu-lit (singing him, and scattering his remains. The" doctor) and the iwil-hiltat (sorcerer), as well pensation for having such a menace it as singing and dancing assistants. Poisoning was that he might turn his talents a and fright illness were their specialties. Their tribes. Legend tells of both Nomlaki power came not from divine revelation but from were killed in this manner. Surpris' training by older doctors of the same type. Suck- Yuki admit that the Nomlaki, at least ing, if employed at all, was of minor importance, cessful from time to time in similar and the real ability of these doctors lay in sum- Bear doctors could be killed by a moning Taikomol and in refrightening patients.\ fighters, but the death was only app A minor type of curer which fits into neither soul returned to the point where the of the above classifications was the rubbing doc- went the transformation, and the man, tor, a sort of primitive osteopath. Power came Naturally, no one had ever seen a doo from no specific source; a person simply gradu- a bear. Tillotson recalled the foll ally became aware of the fact that he or she was which occurred about 1875. able to relieve pain better than other people through massaging. In 1937 Cecilia Logan still I didn't see this, but some of my occasionally practiced. Her simple technique Old [name forgotten] was a doe consisted in localizing the pain by manipulating walked with a heavy stick. He used t the afflicted area until she could gather it in the hills to dig out ground squirrelW her hands and blow it away. Her usual fee was place where there were many ground-s one dollar. In earlier times, one string of he beganre toei i rhe earth with his beads was the usual compensation. he began to growl, and fur began to his arms. He threw away his stick, Bear Doctors soon claws came out on his hands, and, came all over his body. In four or fi Since wasit-lamsimi (bear shamans) obviously he was a real live grizzly bear. The never existed, they are not included with the tearing out the holes and eating the ^ . ~~~~~The boys were so frightened they ran real doctors. Fact and fancy combine to make waiting to see what happened after tr difficult a true conception of this phenomenon. w They partook of the nature of shamans, as indi- As against the true wasit-lamsimi, cated by their name lam.Mmi and by their contact belief in the aomol (Indian-bear). with bear spirits, and they resembled the sor- a man who dressed up in a bearskin cerer in their malevolent tendencies. Theoreti- ing a flint knife to imitate bear tee. cally they received power from real grizzlies, thus beneath a tough bearhide, the transformed themselves into bear form and ma- be killed only with difficulty. Theo" rauded over the countryside, killing at will. disguise was so clever that most peop Unlike the true shaman, who had to await the call tell whether the object in question of a spirit, the bear doctor could seek power by grizzly or merely an aomol. The only going into the woods and associating with live ing point was that an Indian-bear's s bears. move, while those of a true bear did., Prospective wa6it-lam.imi dreamed about bears, that, if such a practice actually wee and then left for the mountains, often remaining out, the man in the disguise would be away for a year or more, living with and learn- capped by the weight of the skin that ing from bears. Part of the time the candidate practically harmless made no differenl grew hair on his body, a reputedly disagreeable In olden times the Yuki certainly process, and actually became a bear. At other some men actually had the power of t times, the bears assume human form. Bears-- real bears. It is difficult to tell grizzlies especially--were considered to be very accounts of Indian-bears existed as a nearly, if not actually, human. Their human-like to the principal belief, or whether t actions--sitting on the buttocks with one leg attempted rationalizations in later y crossed over the other, the frequent attempts to- skepticism arose concerning the possi- stand on the hind legs, and the whines uttered, actually undergoing a complete transf especially in time of pain--no doubt contributed Barrett gives a description of Indt to this belief. among the Pomo59 where belief in actu Ralph Moore said that waNit-lamMimi could cure -59j9j7 FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 219 ver developed and only the Indian-bear cent piece. Before the dumbfounded crowd, this A model bear doctor's paraphernalia happened, and Santiago added, '"We're all going to rated. The Coast Yuki resembled the have wealth like this--just this easy." lief only in the Indian-bear.60 Kroeber The dance took place in the dance house, and 'tional data on bear doctors.61 both sexes participated. One man led the dance, bringing in the women, who were marked with black Miscellanea on their faces, and were blowing whistles. All dancers wore the old-time feather headbands. In- re included odd bits of information terest in the new dance quickly died out when it t fit into the preceding outline under became apparent that none of the promises were 1 headings. to be fulfilled. people possessed a "strong mouth Ralph Moore's father was a skeptic. He went which they could wish bad luck on per- to Stonyford to witness the dance, and there some- ertakings. Tillotson was noted for one stole his horse, forcing him to walk home. As mouth." Others could wish for good a result he lost faith. milar manner. lity to doctor tended to run in fami- The Pentecostal Movement were still the custom today, Arthur a grandson of the famous shaman Tom Mention has been made from time to time of the d probably be a doctor. Pentecostal Church in Round Valley. It is interest- yto questions concerning what hap- ing both because it is the one really vital force (doctor lost several patients consecu- in Indian life today (1937), and because it is, in ormants replied that such things never my opinion, merely the latest recurrence of an Two people might die in succession, aboriginal religious pattern which made the Yuki as the limit, and even that exceedingly susceptible to the Ghost Dance of the seventies as well as to foreign beliefs associated with the little understood Central California Kuksu cult. MODERN RELIGIOUS DEV~ELOPMENTS Description of the Pentecostal movement, unlike the greater part of the material in this paper, Ghost Dance is the result of actual observation and partici- pation during the two months spent in Round Valley. is remembered about the local manifes- Interest in Pentecostalism is partly due to the revivalistic upheavals commonly apathy toward the established Christian churches by the expression "Ghost Dance of 1870" in the valley, Methodist and Catholic. The Metho- such an important part in the lives dist church was established as a mission shortly the Indians of western United States. after the founding of the reservation, and con- ts that the Yuki were kess affected tinues as a mission church with a minister trained boring tribes like the Pomo and Patwin. in a theological seminary. Because of official reached the Yuki: the fBig Head" cult encouragement, many Indians of all tribes joined, p. ll) which came from the Kato, were baptized, married, and buried by it, and many in 1874 or 1875, and the "Bole" dance were--and are--faithful members. But the staid from the Salt Pomo about the same time. forme of an orthodox Methodist service failed to *n one of the salt trips to Stonyford -answer the innate religious cravings of a people le or "dream" dance was first observed who had for centuries associated divine and super- i. The dance was brought to Yuki ter- natural activities with singing, shouting, and E.man named Santiago, presumably a Salt dancing--in short, with wild and uncontrolled was given at olkat at the south end of bodily and emotional action. Thus, when about y. Many people learned and partici- 1930 a man named Wilkes, half Negro and half In- e dance, hoping that the words of dian of uncertain tribal affiliation, crossed the buld prove true+. Power to drive out mountains from the Sacramento Valley and began . Taikomol is believed to have been the corpse rotted, but the soul returned to the Nal in creating the world and the be- place of transition and the man reappeared. it. But, instead of then withdrawing, One has the feeling that the Yuki had made an . ~~~~~~[223] 224 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS eminently satisfactory adjustment to life. The any monotony in the constant, if ntt to country they inhabited was beautiful and lush; cult food quest. War raids were looked game abounded, fish ran in the streams, and the to rather than feared, and if there ws hot summer sun aided rapid growth of countless for such, a peaceful trading expedition foods to be Sad for the gathering. Routine cere- take war's place. To the members of Y monial observances, special events such as the life must have been full, interesting, building of a new dance house, numerous social while. dances, and gambling games all helped to break APPENDIX I THE HUCHNOM nt several days working with Lulu John- livelihood were almost identical with those of of the few remaining Indians of at least the Yuki. bnom blood, and probably the only one Round Valley in 1937. .Actually she is Hunting rters Pomo. Her mother's parents both tle Lake Pomo, her father's mother Sher- Deer.--Night before a hunt men sang deer songs. , and her father's father alone a pure- Bows and arrows, but not dogs. Deer-head disguise, "Huchnom. She was born in Round Valley, nets across trails. Deer driven toward hunters ed by her paternal grandfather's sister, and nets by shouting "pu..., pu"... To retard Louise." She lived with Huchnom Indi- deer, hunter chewed onpokam (earth root) and blew of her early years, and speaks the after quarry. Arrows stuck in tracks of wounded fluently. Hence, from the cultural deer to impair circulation and make animal lame. t she is purely Huchnom. In 1937 Lulu First deer tabooed to boys. Deermeat cut in 2- t sixty years of age. foot strips, salted, dried over slow fire. Otes which follow are sketchy, but serve ntesrwhic fllnare sketchy, but sev e Elk.--Snared or run down. Two days required in crtain lacuna inou know of for latter technique. Elk considered smarter than .igion excepted, tended to follow theake. her than the Yuki pattern. My impres- Bear.--Techniques same as Yuki. Lulu said that Huchnom culture resembled that of grizzly bears also eaten; this is contrary to as much as that of the Pomo, and per- usual Indian custom, and probably inaccurate. ittle more. The most striking Huchnom . k was the practice of cremation, in which nmals klled for food and pelts.--Beaver; lowed the Pomo. Birth, puberty, and mar- netted in water, shot with bow; good eating; skin toms were about like those of the Yuki, saved for quivers. Otter: speared. Raccoon: smoked of the actual names the same, The out of hollow trees, shot with bow. Gray squirrel: mytho a an nall of ren. wee slings bows. Ground squirrel: smoked out, killed ,mythology, and all Of religion were- . ' . very similar. Above all, however, it with bow or sling. Rat: smoked out. Wildcat remembered ta cultural si te . ..........(tree cat): smoked out, shot with bow. Gopher: remembered that cultural similarities * 4 he Yuki, Huchnom, Kato, and Pomo were clubbed. Coyote: shot with bow. Jack rabbit: e marked than the differences, and it is snared, shot with bow. Cottontail: snared, shot dealing with comparative minutiae that with bow. culiarities become clear. Animals killed for pelt or other reason, but not eaten.--Mole: clubbed; valued for skin. Wolf: Ethnogeography skin for clothing; grease for arrows, sinew. Weasel: skin prized. (facing p. 155) shows the Huchnom habi- Animals ordinarily ot bothered.--Skunk. In s unable to visit Huchnom territory, t o g en Kroeber2 and Barrett3 we have an times of great sickness, such as dysentery, skunks ature of Huchnom territory and villages, were killed and the scent bags and fat eaten. nor additions follow: Birds of food value.--All the following 'Valley was called mah-ukom (ukom valley). were taken in the same fashion--snares and basket e Huchnom and Yuki word for Indian hemp traps. Mountain quail, valley quail: acorn or ) and for all forms of string made from berry bait in traps. Blackbird: never poisoned. _-1 .Lark. Robin. Bluejay. Grouse. Yellowhammer. Pigeon: rwood Pomo were called onpotilno'm. "main thing to eat." lits Pomo were called nokonmino'm. Birds killed but not eaten.--Owl: shot with ter Valley Poro were called palik'- bow in day; feathers valued. Chicken hawk: shot gle salt people). with bow; feathers used. Woodpecker (variety un- F . Food Quest specified): taken from trees at night; feathers for dance costumes; yellowhammer variety also hniques incident upon obtaining a eaten--(see above). Birds not molested.--Eagle: feathers saved when 00ok, 203. book, 202. 4I suspect listing of' coyote with animals eaten ;256. to be an error. [ 2251 226 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS found. Buzzard. Crow. Crane: "God said never to (anam): gathered as described for Yuki bother him." Hummingbird: good luck in gambling, hoppers: fired, as among Yuki, or gat hence never bothered. regular seed beater; receiving basket another flat one to prevent escape; pa Various.--Eggs of grouse, lark, duck, black- steamed. Sugar-pine gum (uiclui): balX bird roasted in ashes. Owl feathers used in s poison doctor dance, so eggs left alone. Bee and chewed. larvae found in old trees; put on stick, toasted, The foregoing material is far from eaten. Snakes, frogs, toads not eaten. Rattle- but indicates the general type of diet snakes killed when possible; considered dangerous the same as for the Yuki. pest. Unlike the Yuki, the Huchnom obser form of ??first salmon" and "first aco Fishing Lulu described a first-salmon observanq lows: Same techniques, same varieties as described The man who killed the salmon got n for Yuki. Turtles caught in dip nets, roasted When the first salmon was caught eve on their back, shell cracked and meat extracted. fishing. The salmon was cleaned, cook eaten. Sometimes a lamsem (shaman), 5 Gathering old man would say thanks: "Father, we' you gave us this fish. Take our sickn Acorns.--Six varieties. Valley oak acorn. We give this to you." Then he would t White oak: not hulled until used, thus prevent- make a clucking sound with his mouth, ing loss of moisture necessary for best bread. face four times, and throw it in four d Black oak: not hulled until winter, to prevent Then everyone would go on fishing. turning black. Tan oak. Live oak: called Probably there was a ceremony such "cousin" of tan oak because of similar taste, eac bdalo for ewac o pemopl Scrubby-mush oak.~~~~~~~~~~~~~ each dam or for each group of peoplew Scrubby-mush oak. ing distance of each other. There was Valley oaks and mush oaks used for bread; the abbreviated first-acorn rite. When a others principally for soup . abeitdfr-conie. Whna others*prncipallyforsoup richly laden tree at the beginning of Pinole.--Tarweed: tall and short varieties. season, he said, "Father, I am glad you Manzanita berries: dried, pounded. An uniden- us this fine tree and many acorns. We. tified crimson flower, hai. Buttercup seeds. for acorn soup and acorn bread." When Sweet anise seeds. acorns had been gathered, a general f "Clover."--Bear clover. Small bear clover. A lam'em offered soup or bread in four Salt clover. Mountain filaree. Variety similar and everyone ate. Such a rite seemst curred for several of the more import to salt clover. Another unidentified variety, they became ripe. Since hunting was Sweet anise. occupation, no corresponding ceremony3 Tubers.--Four varieties of "Indian potatoes." Grace was customarily said before Wild onion. Wild carrot. Wild parsnip. Tubers The HuchnQm observed a lanl-hanp (a were usually roasted. once only, about January. Berries.--Manzanita. Blackberries. "Big navel" Houses and Villages manzanita. Huckleberry. Raspberries. Mushrooms.--Deer mushroom. Pine mushroom: Houses resembled the Pomo rather t grow near manzanita trees. Fish gill mushroom. type by the presence of a forked cente A small, round variety; grows around burned logs. the winter house a circular excavation A type that grows in clusters. Mushrooms nor- deep and 20 in diameter was made. The: mally roasted on charcoal. of black oak projected from 6 to 8 fee Nuts.--Peppernuts. Digger-pine nuts. Sugar- ground. Fir pole rafters were run to pine nuts. Buckeyes. and overlaid with fir bark. Pine bark used because of its tendency to disint Miscellaneous.--Army worms: beliefs similar to idly. Dirt was then packed for a foot. Pomo and Yuki; considered the lice on Taikomol's around the edge to keep out the worst head. Taikomol shakes his head, a clap of thun- A long door was made by omitting a bark der occurs and worms appear on leaves; people inclement weather, this was replaced. stand around tree saying, "li li li li li" and ally faced east, because people liked t worms crawl down limbs into basket of water; talk the rising sun. The single fire was be in subdued voice both when gathering and eating; door and center post, thus being almost evidently ceremonial eating with a group of top of the door, and allowing the smoke people indoors; parched, steamed. Caterpillars without filling the entire dwelling. J also considered gift of Taikomol. Fish worms Three or four families lived in a hot FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 227 partitions existed. Baskets of food Done at end of first puberty sing; ear and nose he rear of the house, and the families piercing shortly thereafter. ted places on each side of the center For both sexes: to protect feet, pitch some- lu lived in such a house about 1890, times placed on soles and toughened by applica- on the Eel River seven miles from Potter tion of heat with a hot rock. Its inhabitants included her mother, r, brother, father's aunt, father's Society sband, and two elderly men and their related to Lulu--a total of ten persons. Village organization and society in general r' s aunt's husband, Peter Hudson, was were about like the Yuki. d as the leader, since he had supervised The chief, or captain (te'ol), gave advice, ion. This house showed the white man's "preached," and saw to it that life went smoothly. 'it had been ibuilt with spades, hammers, A new chief, if not a son, was preferably a male relative of the old chief. Unlike the Yuki, the in groups of two or three were scat- Huchnom captain gave up his position to his suc- ng stream banks occasionally an iso- cessor before his death. Lulu told the following se was found. Lipimul, at the mouth of story: ek on the South Fork of the Eel River, argest village, but Lulu did not know Naomiki was an old sipimul captain. When he ation. In summer, people moved away got old he gave his position to his son, Husmesmas, winter houses, and individual families before he died. There was a four-day "big time" rough brush shelters. Powers5 describes (social gathering) to mark the occasion. There 'ome-shaped wigwams of willow wicker- was lots to eat, lots of common dances, and the truction, thatched with grass. Some- old chief gave presents to the new chief. Other y were oblong, with sleeping places for old people did the same. A white man later took forty persons. From time to time while Husmesmas off to Grindstone and he was never heard forty persons From tiof again. He was my great-grandfather. It was rs and children remained in these shel- the custom for an old chief to give his position husbands carried the fruits of the sum- to a youtger man. hering back to the villages where storage ad pits had been prepared. A chief was distinguished by his dress. He wore a yellowhammer headband, soft bearhide, "In- Clothing and Ornamentation dian gold" (magnesite) around his neck, and wore his hair long. Though he hunted and fished like les: sketchy clothing. Rabbitskin apron any man, he maintained his wealth by accepting buckskin thong around waist, fur side presents from his people. Women chiefs (musp te'ol) ike Yuki, bottom not fringed. Moccasins also held power, probably about like the Yuki kin capes rare. Some men singed hair musp ti'ol. hers used nets. Eel grease put in hair, There were two assistant chiefs, whose duties y for dances. Tattoo: on face, hori- could not be ascertained. Perhaps one or both cor- vertical lines out and down from mouth, responded to the wi'ihli,7 who had certain powers ight in pairs or in threes, others zig- over the chief. A messenger (k'ahin-komol) took others dotted. Rarely vertical lines orders from one of these assistant chiefs, and yes.6 On chest: from two to four hori- carried invitations to "big times" to neighboring ripes; these were special prerogatives villages. Knotted strings were used to indicate chiefs. Boys tattooed by paternal the exact date. Other functionaries included: a "Society"). Burnt angelica and pitch janitor (hampin-cucitilk) who kept the dance house n in desired pattern, pricks made with clean; a fire tender (yehim-k'awesk); and a dance one, the mixture rubbed in. At about manager or leader (lil-h4'iki, rock carrier). sme relative pierced boy's nose and A form of avunculate existed. A boy was tat- ch stick with feathers on ends worn tooed by an uncle, evidently his father's brother. se, and similar one with feathers on This was public indication of a bond henceforth ly through ears; "can't be seen in existing between the two. At this time the uncle idn't need feathers there." Nose and gave beads and skins to his nephew and i4 the tions for dances only. school that followed shortly aided him by-keeping les: rabbitskin apron sim4lar to men's. him awake. He also instructed him in hunting, ses, disposable soaproot apron. Hair fishing, and taught him any songs or curing tech- pinned with a stick of hazelwood, niques he might have. In turn, the boy looked or madroIa. Tattoo: on face only, after the uncle in his old age. ehest. Done by mother's sister. Berdaches (iwap k'uti) wore women's clothing, followed feminine daily pursuits, and lived with Is 139.__ _ _ _ _ ,figs. 12-17 inclusive. 7Kroeber, Handbock, 206. 228 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS a man. Because of their strength they were use- Aboriginally women did not play., ful persons. They carried home dead and wounded warriors. Men were afraid to do this since they Marked-ace game (al-hatch litt t ran the risk of blood stain, considered to be an --Described exactly as for the Yuki omen of death in the next conflict; most women were not strong enough. Lulu beli'ved that Deer-knuckle die game (kan k-pu le/ ~~deer-knuckle dice are unknown to tn berdaches were comparatively rare. i s p at a and 5Wailaki, it seems probable that _ Dancing is due to Pomo influence. The pla sex, sat in two opposing rows, and . . . ~~~~~~held twelve counting sticks. I was Huchnom dancing was similar to that of the . I w Yuki. The term kopa-wok (feather dance) was used obtain an exact description of the to describe any nonesoteric social dance. Spe- ing dice; Lulu stated that the "id . . - ~~~~~~~~~~the dice stand on end." Possibly o cific dances remembered by Lulu were: t The wuse-wok (coyote dance). One man, called employed. Play passed from one tea 1 11 11 , . ~on do-wn the lines, as in a spelling~ wuse, dressed in coyote skins with the tails hanging down his back. He led several women in- of a successful throw, the team rec to the dance area, and they danced about him; counter, and the player threw again his actions represented those of a coyote. There occurred. is no explanation for the term wuse for coyote Shinny (molpust'-okmol).--Playin instead of the usual word hulk'o. The Huchnom to that of the Yuki. Women someti knew that the Yuki called the dance, as would be occasionally mixed teams; in this c expected, hulk'o-wok. ways lost. Small bets were made be The huwise-wok (dog dance). A man carrying als. wormwood and flowers led about twelve women . i through the dance. This dance commonly occurred stckdcsgme(uki ln a') was . , , , ~~~~~~~stick dice game (YUki al'ca') was uk| in summer in a brush dance house. H S iy The toto-wok (rag dance). As explained for Huchnom. Since it was played by thel the Yuki this dance was apparently a bastardized and Yuki, this is difficult to belie version of the Taikomol or "Big Head" dance, wa k Ll l state d that th r . 11 11 11 .1 ~~~~~~Wailaki. Lulu also stated that the r given by those possessing the right as a profit- making undertaking. The fact that women were al- game, known to the Kato but not the . , , . ~~known to the Huchinom. Contests of s lowed to take part indicates that it had blended dnce ile wre.stling ahy with the nonesoteric kopa-woks. Spectators were durance ancluded: wrestlang, archerg obliged to contribute beads and other objects of distance and accuracy, foot racing, value; sickness was thought to ensue if a person tance under water, diving, floating, failed to pay. ~~~~~~speed), tree climbing, and pole vaul failed to pay. tne Dances were under the direction of a "rock tance. carrier" (lil-hahe or lil-hd'iki). Cat's cradle.--Lulu insisted thats ures were aboriginal. Designs approx Games of the Yuki (see figs. 7-10). Anothe as "Quail Snare," and another, played Grass game (moluthelike).--This was played, sons, was probably the one called byt with minor differences, like the Yuki game. The "Sewing." Huchnom usually played with the left hand behind the body, the right in front; in this they re- Warfare sembled the Pomo. The marked bone, or ace, was called t'oi; the plain bone t'oi-tul; the count- The Huchnom pattern of warfare was a ers al (wood). Guessing was for either the ace that of the Yuki. Principal causes of or plain bone, the players previously deciding poaching by foreigners, murder, and wit which. If the ace, the guesser said weh; if the the peace settlement, the losers recei plain bone, he said hui. The four possible com- larger compensation. A dance (taunw binations were indicated as follows ("I" repre- before a war party set out, and a dance' sents the ace, "O" the plain bone): same name if the party returned victori the prelimin4ry dance, the warriors sa I 0 I 0. Clap hands point in direction posed to make the enemy sleep soundly; of ace (or plain bone if agreed creased the likelihood of a successful upon). attack. Angelica and wormwood roots wer O I I. Same procedure O I I 0. Clap hands, point with first two brn godlc. Tevitraac d fingers of one hand, or with long because the men were tired." ScalP index of both hands.X I 0 0 I. Raise index fingers of both hands 81932:92.i up and out. FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 229 0 sticks and held in the mouth by a Earache. Child's urine poured in ear. (Worm- 3. A six-month taboo against eating wood?) leaves steamed, steam allowed to rise into 1 who did this reduced the desire for ear. of revenge. Principal weapons were Dysentery. The name ans-wolilyakile (blood ubs. Lulu had never heard of armor comes right on through) suggests amoebic variety. 3 The following fragmentary account Came in epidemics. Tried all possible remedies, Lulu may be part of the series of including eating of skunk musk bag, but all usu- battles described by Kroeber.9 ally failed. Many children usually died. the Louise [actually her great- Rheumatism. Called melit'otikai (leg on fire). lmother Louise [actually her great- Steamed over low fire, as for menstruating girl. a young woman at the time this fight P The Eden Valley Yuki came into Poison doctor sometimes bled. itory because they were having a Broken arm. Bound with alder-bark splints wanted to poach on our land. One lined with pad of wild-pea vine. Wild-pea vine bp to an old Huchnom woman and broke believed to have magical properties making bones One month later some Huchnom went grow together rapidly. ley and fought the Yuki, killing a Arrow wound. Shaman sucked out point if still whom they scalped. Another battle imbedded. ad the Kato, the Sherwood Pomo, and Rattlesnake bite. Lulu stated poison doctor > Pomo Joined with the Huchnom. One cured it. This contrasts with Yuki, who had spe- lled, and his face and hair brought c her was killed, and his hand taken. lp1e were injured, but these were the Hygiene.--Faces and hands washed in morn'ing; illed. In the victory dance, only gargled with cold water to clear throat. Soap- danced with the scalp in her teeth. root used as soap. Fingernails bitten short; 'd the same with the hand. About six sometimes cleaned with pointed bone. Both sexes r the Yuki attacked the Huchnom and sw ea nedicllyo young woman and a little boy. They sweated periodically. hand and took it home. Several other re killed, but the survivors kept the Counting the Yuki got no scalps. In war the make as much noise as possible and Lulu was able to count only to seven: 1, puwi; the enemy; even the bravest fighters 2, 'pi; 3, molmi; 4, kes6pi; 5, upuic; 6, putal; . Peace is made by paying for the 7, kesopi-nu. even at a peace meeting, the Indians The first three words are the equivalent of their weapons handy in case of a the Yuki, the others entirely different. I am un- able to say whether the system is octonary, as is is not made of the final victor in the Yuki. of fights. Probably the appearance Calendar es ended intertribal warfare. The y Pomo were continuafi enemies of the Kroeber10 gives a rather complete list of Huch- mentipobabl is made eror, f ing h rfers nom "months." The general type is similar to that is probably is an error, and refers of the Yuki but with one exception there seems to i wth the Tlanolm Yuki, who even by Yuki were considered "half Wailaki t be no actual correspondence. The exception is Y munl-nantmol (ice on streams); the Yuki word is Medicine mul-n4ntmul, with the same translation. Lulu gave four additional words which she said corresponded diseases and cures approximated those more nearly to seasons than months; those for win- ter and summer are equivalent to the Yuki: 6dwin bled with flint knife. (huddle together time), winter; musen-iotok'ap 0 Temples bled with flint knife. (sweet anise peeps out of ground), spring; piltwin leaves burned, brushed on head. An- (sunshine time), summer; olpal-tutok'up (leaves id n pipe; chewed, applied to fore- fall down), autumn. Believed redheaded worm was eating Time of year was partly indicated on the fin- i.Believed redheaded worm was eating p Haliotis-shell powder put in cavit; . gers. Hands were held in front of a person, palms B. alltl-shell powder pUt in cavity; Haliotis inward; mipa'ohot (thumb) represented the first ihe snarp aone. month of winter (December; Kroeber says March); Drn. watein whchogimwd had kuiskoyam (index finger), approximately January; DraAngelica poultice put on place of molsamku's (middle finger), approximately February, bed ngihlhotase poultice puc n pce- o and so on. The system is obviously imperfect, . I - since the recorded list of names contains twenty raw ou *an designations. k, 156. 10Handbook, 20g. 11roeber, Handbook, 20S. 230 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Cardinal Directions the chief carried the child around the. center post four times, made a sucking Hali (to the end), north; kutk'ai (at the his lips, and said, "Well, my Father, bottom), south; piloti-kanksike (sun comes up), child a good heart." Twins portended east; ukhotam-piloti-ilike (water big sun goes the entire village, and it was custbo down; i.e., sun goes down in the ocean), west; one, always the girl if they were not me'ti.(heaven), up; onki (earthward), down. sex. Twins were evidently rather rare" knew of only one pair. Birth The new moon was a source of streng babies, and an unusually lucky child A prospective mother did her regular tasks was born at such a time. If a boy, he until labor pains actually set in. Moving about lask'al-iway (moon man); if a girl, la was believed to make the embryo change position (moon woman). All young babies were a and thus develop fully; otherwise the baby would around the house four times under the] be born with deformities. Birth occurred in a while the mother repeated, "It's good: wife's mother's home, with the mother assisting. you; you will grow fast." If she had married into a distant village, her Data on abortion are limited to the mother-in-law substituted. The girl half re- that steaming and pummeling of the exp clined against the house wall and placed her feet mother's abdomen was resorted to if tb on the midwife's knees. Angelica leaves were unwanted. Lulu looked back upon the mashed, boiled, and drunk to ease the pain. The times when all women were chaste, and presence of a woman who had had several easy ac- tion, infanticide, and illegitimacy we couchements was desirable. If delivery were of. At present, she stated, infantici delayed, a woman singer was summoned. The after- occur directly, but "babies usually dii birth was buried; if it were simply thrown away aren't wanted." it would catch cold, and sympathetically, the child also, who would henceforth be a crybaby. Names Scrub mush oak moss lined with powdered pepper- wood and angelica leaves was used to wrap the Naming occurred shortly after birth,, navel cord and it was hung on a rafter near the on the same day. A relative, usuallyo center post. It was believed to prevent all sex in the grandparent generation, acte babyhood diseases and to allow the child to nurse parent and bestbwed his or her name, a until it was three or four years of age. If the beads and other gifts. Names of old p cord were lost or thrown away, the baby would valued because, it was believed the chil sicken, turn yellow, and eventually die. magically partake of the donor's longe A new baby was washed in an infusion of an- was named by a famous old man dancer w gelica leaves and placed in a cradle lined with beads around her neck and said, "My n a rabbitskin blanket. Dry moss served as a is an ugly one. I give it to you and y diaper. Steaming of the mother, as described strong and live a long time. That's be for the Yuki, took place twice a day for fifteen have lived a long time." days. Lulu stated that the baby was also steamed. Personal names were known to everyon During this time the mother ate only acorn mush not change when a person grew up. Magi and pinole. At the end of the period the mother not work black magic upon a person thr washed in warm water and then resumed her regu- edge of his name. Examples of boys' n lar tasks. The husband observed a mild couvade; Omahd (bent over the rock), for a good he stayed at home and did not exercise, smoke, Welti (large thigh), for a good singer chop wood, or gamble. Chopping wood was be- kept time by slapping his thigh). Tule lieved to cause the child's head to split. The (quail eye), for a good quail hunter. husband also avoided all forms of contact with (wild panther), for a good hunter. Nail his wife. If a man went hunting or fishing, bad (mountain filaree), for a good deer hunt luck would probably result. Or, if he should eat this bush.) Suk-senmi (young pine succeed in killing a deer, the child's eyes a good climber. Wo'yake (limber man), fo would roll upward, as do those of a dying deer, athlete. Naumaki (bumblebee), for a st and it would henceforth see poorly. Lulu knew of man, like the bee. K'olkitel (sore back one such case; in addition to having defective the possible exception of the final name vision, the child was feeble-minded, and died at real names, not nicknames. Since an in the age of fourteen. During this period a man ture bents are not known, they did not didn't even go for water; he might see a water fit when adulthood was reached. monster in a spring that would take him away, or Examples of girls' names, the last tw' frighten him into illness. Unlike the woman, he may be nicknames, follow: Lil-paul (lit followed no dietary rules, fluttering in the air). Husuk'i (tattoo If a baby were born while the father was at face). Usak'e (tiny woman). Sidanok (a war, he would have a bad temper. To remedy this, woman). Suk-tula (no teeth).l FOSTER: A SUYIThAY OF YUKI CULTURE 231 Childhood month. During this time the girl lived princi- pally on acorn soup; meat, fish, grease, and salt a nursed for three or four years, remain- were taboo. At the end of the year the-girl cradle for the first year. A cotton- danced, imitating the motions of gathering acorns acorn, or string of beads was fastened and pounding, and afterward came a general feast. m, and the infant's arms were left free During the year the girl--or girls, since several ith these simple toys. Older children might shaire the ceremony together--was strictly gether without restriction. Several supervised by the old woman. Evidently it was might bury their feet in the sand to- so irksome that girls were apt to break the taboos, d drop rocks to see whose feet would in spite of knowledge of subsequent bad luck. .Continuing the practice started in in- Thus, continual guarding was necessary. en children were old enough to walk, ed around the dance house four times at Marriage moon, asking for health and good luck. by tooth came out, the child circled Love songs were used in courting. One went as house four times, sucking with his follows: "I like you, turn your heart to me. I threw the tooth at the rising sun, say- send this good message to you." A boy mumbled dmother, give me a new tooth; I'm giv- this to himself, uttering the girl's name at the his tooth." same time. Actually it was more of a magic for- en or eight, the sexes were separated, mula than a song. Roots of the "tiny angelica" began customary educational pastimes. were chewed and blown in the direction of the de- yed with toy cradles and clay dolls sired person, and wishes for success expressed. ial features, tattooings, and shapeless For the most part, however, marriage was decided Boys played at jumping, shooting at upon by the parents. Before a girl's puberty a h toy bows, singing, and dancing in boy's parents came to an understanding with those of their elders. Bears were imitated of the girl. Then, at regular intervals, followed ng face to a tree and scratching; pinch- exchanges of meat, acorn bread, deerskins, and ch other's skin determined bravery. baskets, as public evidence of good faith. Some punished recalcitrant minors by switch- time after the girl's huimnum, the boy went with pinching, or making them stay at home. his "best friend" to the house of his betrothed. eneath a man's dignity to scold a child. While the groom sat in embarrassed silence, the friend made light conversation, dropping inci- Puberty dental remarks about the groom's ability as hunter and fisher. Subsequent daily visits were made by the Taikomol-woknam and the Hulk'ilal- the boy alone. Finally he stayed all night with e so considered, there was no real pu- his bride, "and for about a week more," sleeping aervance for boys. Like the Yuki, all with her each night. Then the two held hands, and t girls underwent the hwmnum-wok. When the girl's father put necklaces and armbands around erienced her first menses she was both. The two then repair9d to the boy's home, aside her home; if the family were away where his parents did likewise. The chief played r, they had to return to their winter his bit by admonishing them to "be good to each Here she was steamed and twice a day other." No formal marriage restrictions existed dance with an older woman. Another woman beyond the rule against union with near relations. with two mush paddles; as with the Residence was patri]ocal. rls' puberty was closely connected with A slight parent-in-law taboo was observed. A hts fertility. Friends gathered in the man spoke to his wife's mother only when necessary, aid in the singing. There was no fire; and then she turned her head away. If the two met oom was more favorable for sparking. In on a trail, the son-in-law stepped aside; if the , the girl's head was covered with a woman spoke, he simply answered "yes," or "tno," ;when it was necessary to go outside, and proceeded. sket. If the girl saw the sky, she Lulu did not know of a prejudice against marry- "something" and die of fright. The ing a sister-in-law.12 She stated that a joking of fine workmanship, also imparted to relationship existed which took the form of wres- ability to make similar baskets with fine, tling and semiobscene bantering, about as the Yuki tches, and the ability to create new de- did. The girl might become the husband's wife if Scratching was done with a haliotis her sister should prove sterile. Thus, polygyny r, the same beliefs about scratching per- existed in a society nominally monogamous. Fre- as for the Yuki. quently a chief, because'of his greater power and "sing" lasted four days. Lulu said that influence, had several wives. nt sings occurred each month for an en- A man was expected to show respect to his par- r, though this is hard to believe. More ents-in-law by continuing the gift-giving practice inging and dancing took place in which woman danced with the girl privately each 12Kroeber, Handbook, 211. 232 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS existing at the time of marriage. Fish and game soul of a girl who died during her fi formed the usual medium. Premarital chastity in tion followed the rainbow. both sexes was considered a virtue. Children The day of the cremation the house., evidently followed the wishes of their parents ceased was burned--nothing except fo in marriage, and Lulu could not remember an elope- spared. Survivors lived with friendp- ment in early times. If a man's wife ran away until another house was finished. Al with another man, like the Yuki he was supposed had had contact with the corpse were "to have a big heart" and pay no attention. a shaman who burned pepperwood and a Should she prove unfaithful but remain with him, blew smoke over them, and brushed the' he could either overlook the transgression, or four times with leafy branches of the" send her home. A man's family, learning of such, This precaution was known as "scaring might employ a poison doctor to kill the girl. body away." If it were not done, the. Should the man prove unfaithful--which was prob- imagine they were seeing and hearing ably more often the case--the girl's family also the dead person. had recourse to the poison doctor. In case of Four days after the cremation a s separation, children remained with their mother. doctor, while singing, placed three p soned dogwood sticks over the grave to Death molestation of the remains by an enemy times the doctor's fee amounted to ab In the practice of cremation, Huchnom death dollars. It is apparent that in the i rites resemble those of the Pomo rather than the doctors at death we have a feature c Yuki. A trait evidently foreign to both Pomo of neither Pomo nor Yuki culture, to b and Yuki was the importance of the shaman. When Huchnom in general is allied. a person died, friends and relatives assembled Close female relatives observed mo outside the house and wept. Relatives of the singeing the hair and covering the hea same sex as the deceased washed the body while which had to be left on for a year. LO it was still warm, folded it with knees under was required for a child; probably no the chin and hands on ankles, wrapped it in a ing and little destruction of property. deer hide and bound it securely. Relatives When, however, a chief died, the dance_ watched the body during the night, talking to destroyed and everyone contributed pr it, "We'll put you away in a good manner, and funeral pyre. Unlike both Yuki and P Taikomol will take you along the way." sisted that the Huchnom observed no a Several hundred yards from each village was a mourning at the end of one year. Aswa burning and burial ground (hudlk'ilal-on-pet, in the area, a death name taboo existe devil ground). The body was removed from the the name of a dead person before living house through the regular door and carried here the deadliest of insults, and the offe on the following morning, accompanied by weeping serious risk of being poisoned. Unlike and wailing villagers. It was placed on wood Lulu said no excuses were acceptable. filling an oblong pit a fo6t or two deep. When carrying the names of deceased were una all was ready, the pyre was ignited with fire and continued with the same names. carried from the house of the deceased. Personal property of the deceased was added, and friends Religion, Cosmogony, Doctors and relatives threw on additional valuables. I could not determine whether friends were reim- These phases of Huchnom culture arer bursed; in view of the custom among the Pomo, it parallel to the Yuki. Lulu's accounts a seems probable. When the ashes were cold, the means always coherent, but critical comp remains were gathered in a new basket and buried her statements with the other sketchy Hu in the pit. During the burning, people avoided terial bears out the general Yuki patte the smoke, which was considered injurious to the lungs. Creation Ideas concerning the hereafter were vague. Heaven (me'ti), a land of acorns, clover, game, Unlike the Yuki, Taikomol was not equa and flowers, where hard work was unknown, was ona6mol (thunder); "Taikomol is more powe situated in the sky, and souls of all persons, important." Lulu dictated the following good and bad alike, went there. For four days tary creation myth. a person's spirit hovered about the village, es- pecially the places the person had frequented First there was only water, and on it during life. Finally it went to me'ti in a a feather. This feather sang, "hI . . whirlwind, via the smoke of the cremation, or h . in. ; >," and grew larger andI along the rainbow. The fact that the spirit until it took the form of a man. This wal hovered about for four days after the cremation who floated on the water. First he trieda was not inconsistent with the Huchnom. The rain- with his right foot, but couldn't do itd bow path iS similar to the Yuki belief that the sagsm oe n rtyso ecua FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 233 saw there should be land, so he made down); morning star, hamol-hayelike (star coming to help him. But gopher was a poor help- up); Milky Way, hulkoime6 (Coyote's path); Pleia- e land he brought up was too soft, and des, otwok'-hayike (old woman dancing along). bck into the water. So he (Taikomol) then The stars in the Big Dipper were considered to ole, who worked hard, and made the land up. Then Taikomol made hills, mountains, be young grls who had gone wrong. They started and rivers. Next he made people, but to go west to the coast, but Coyote threw stones first people were really birds and animals at them, forcing them to return. That is why s time there was no sun and no fire--the they swing only so far westward before returning, ere all gray. The people at that time completing a swing around the north star before eat raw meat. But these people didn't do starting for the coast again. y should have done--they didn't follow the A falling star (hamol-6'ukiyelike) was con- f Taikomol. So Taikomol decided to send sidered good luck; everyone spit on the ground. flood to drown them all. When this flood The rolling, booming variety of thunder was said everyone was in the dance house. Taikomol ' 1rconwith a charred stick; that's why by Lulu to be caused by all the dead playing ball. raccoon with a harred stick rings I do not know whether she had read Rip Van Winkle black marks on his head and black rings o o.N pca eif emt aesrone tail. Rabbit got into a fight with an- or not. No special beliefs seem to have surrounded rabbit and got his lip cut; that's why he lightning. split lip. Buzzard wanted to be a big man, ikomol wouldn't let him. So he cried and Spirits and scratched his head raw; that's why he red head. Blackbird wanted to be an eagle, As with the Yuki, various spirits infested the scratched his shoulder raw; that's why he world of the Huchnom. Lulu remembered only three: d wings. Finally Taikomol drowned them all. Canyon people (k'imete) looked just like regu- the water receded he brought the birds lar people led erground inStuls and imals back in their present form. And he lar people, and lived underground in tunnels and , too. We Huchnom were made out of the caves. If a man were hunting while his wife was mush oak; that's why we are short and giving birth to a baby, he was likely to be kid- The Kaipomo (Kato) were made out of live naped by them--a k'imete woman would take him as d are taller. The Yuki were made out of a husband. After a year he could return, but if rbby mush oak like us; that's why they are he told where he had been, he would die. K'imete The Wailaki were made out of cedar, and were evidently similar in nature to water- eagles lthat he saidPoWmlof pine trees. (uksa). Uksa were just like ordinary people, ex- *r thatihe sarld. "Well myke chden Iest ocept that their hair was long. They lived in I'm going to another world." He only watercourses and underground, and correspond to now when he appears in a vision to a the Yuki uksa in all respects. Violation of a who is to be a doctor. taboo was likely to result in kidnaping by an uksa. Girls who did not rigorously follow the earth in its final form was believed to rules of the huimnum-wok, and men who did not be- orted by three creatures-, elk (milatehen), lieve in the "Indian ways," that is, were scoffers, entified creature (uk-milatehen, water were most likely to be taken away. nd mole (onpoyam), who stood on rocks sur- Evil spirits (anaino'm) evidently were the by water. When one of them shifted his Huchnom equivalent of the Yuki mTumolno'm. They n, an earthquake resulted. Their breath were believed to be in human form, though small, ? over the earth in the form of clouds, and normally invisible. They caused sickness, stilted from the tears of Thunder (onu.ol) but there was no belief that they made a future man, Pelohot (snow old man), lived at "tthe doctor ill, as among the Yuki. The center post ole." When he shook his head, it snowed. of a sweat house (hapin-hune, sweat-house post) oexplained the moon (liskhowal) as the was believed to be a "good-spirit post." It re- eonamol. The sun (pilati) represented the ceived its power from Taikomol, and was used in oTaiomol. When either got on the wrong curing. Taikomol. it, eing on tp Wron Human spirits (onhulk'ailel, people ghost), the barose in the morning they looked at the ghosts of the dead, could return to earth from cked with their lips, exhaled, and asked time to time, looking as in life, save for a sal- W for a good heart. Phases of the moon low complexion. People seeing them were unharmed yen as follows: new moon, lak'owal-sim- unless frightened, in which event illness resulted. (mDonlike eyebrows); first quarter, Sometimes they took the form of whirlwinds. When 6e-16k'owal (moon is five days old); one was encountered, the Huchnom said, "I have 1k, l4kowal-menikele (moon is getting nothing to say against you. Wish us good luck. est quarter, l6sk'owal-k'oly6like (moon Take all sickness away." ). The translations are probably not Obsidian blades (wai) were believed to have L ~~~~~~~~~~fallen from heaven, and hence were supernatural; 1 stars and constellations were recog- Yuki belief was the same. Lulu's grandfather Zvening star, hamol-ilyelike (star going once found one in the mountains, but did not be- lieve in its supernatural origin. However, to 234 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS make sure, he said a short grace over it and took appropriate prayers to the nature spirits't it home. Eventually he sold it to a white man. the six directions, north, south, east, we These limited descriptions indicate the strong and down. Lulu insisted that the lamm,n, resemblances to similar phases of Yuki culture. a poison doctor, held the extracted pain As the following paragraphs will show, shamanism six directions before throwing it away. and doctoring in general were also about the appeal to the "nature spirits" is neither same. of the Yuki poison-doctor cure, nor of th as reported by Lulu, and since "nature sP Shamans might well be construed as Huchnom anain6 Yuki iluImolno'm, I believe that Lulu is mO The true shaman, or sucking doctor, was called correct. Loeb's informant further states lamsem, and corresponds to the Yuki lamsimi. "all doctoring was done in six-day ceremo Power was divinely revealed, evidently by Tai- order to conform to the six directions." komol himself, and not by a lesser spirit. Lulu said there -was no definite number of days- gave the following account of Mose Wright. depended upon the gravity of the illness- if any number were preferred, it was prob Nose Wright was a Huchnom sucking doctor. four. Since four is the sacred number of: Once while chopping wood he went to sleep in a Huchnom this seems logical. barn at night. Pretty soon a wind came up and the doors and shakes (shingles) began to rattle Lulu had been doctored twice, once by Mose went out to see what was happening, and sat tock, a Huchnom, about 1890, and once by down by a redwood tree. Coming down the hill woman. In the first case, the cure requi was a big man with a big head. Mose was para- days. The other time she had become ang lyzed with fright and couldn't run away. Pretty was contrary to Huchnom ideals, and as a soon the man, who was Taikomol, came up in front, fell ill of pneumonia. Spirits put a ne and he was so tall Mose could see only his feet. pain in her breast and she could hardly Taikomol said "y...," and flames shot up from The doctor was aided by her husband, two his feet, making everything bright. Mose then and the wife of one of the grandsons; the fainted, and next morning he was found sick, persons helped sing and rattle. She was frothing and bleeding at the mouth. He was taken tored four times; after the first she co back to his rancheria, and older sucking doctors. and few days she was c let we sang over him for four days in the dance house. and in a few days she was completely well' At the end of this time he recovered, and was Nattole doctor received thirty-five doll. then a full-fledged doctor. Members of either sex could become su tors, but, as with the Yuki, men seem to This last statement is misleading. It means lowed this profession more often. that Mose did not require additional training by doctors, and not that he commenced immediately to practice. At another time, Lulu quoted Mose as saying he felt ill for one year before he began P d w to doctor other people. Poison doctors were called either ewl In curing, the lam_em addressed either Tai- (poison song) or ewil-ohot (poison old komol (or perhaps onamol) or the anaino6m spirits, correspond to the Yuki iwil-hiltat. The' Standing over the patient, the doctor said four also referred to as "singing doctors n"o times, "he ...., what is the matter?" A low fered from lamsem in that power was notr 1- w n n ffi *n 1l * n 11 naturally revealed; knowledge was impart whisper was heard from outside, the voice of the n v k . ^ . . , D~~~~~~~~racticing doctors--usually members of o being addressed. Only doctors could tell what i mo it was saying. It told where the pain was, and ily--in the Taikomol, or more probably t the doctor sucked as directed, mumbling to him- school. A poison doctor's power lay bot self. After some minutes he would extract the secret potions that he learned to make, pain, spittn i ot with lus of b . C songs. The potions remained known only pain, splitting it OUT with lumps Of blood. Com- wh ha reeie spcii insrucion monly the pain resembled a small arrow point. If who had received specific instruction, after it had been ejected from the doctor's songs through attendance at cures became . . . . . . ~~~~~~nondoctors. They were never sung by otS mouth it pointed at the patient, there was no n c. T w hope; othe e te p t c d r . S - the owner however, since this was belie hope; otherwise the patient could recover. Some- cas th sigrsmuh obcm r times Taikomol said the pain had been "shot" by cause the singer's mouth to become croo . ,. ., ......... k , ~a person absent-mindedly hummed such a st an anaino6m, and then it was necessary to ad- i dress these spirits, just as the Yuki mits-lam- immediately spat four times and said, " . . ~~~~~~~old ugly song. 61mi addressed the mu'molno'm. u s ." Upon direct question, Lulu disagreed with A newly trained poison doctor did not upon direct question, LUlU disagreed with Lob' in. mn on tw poin*ts Th latte for some years. Because of the dangersi stated that a poison doctor (see belo4 w) tozok an in such work, and because of the many pe3 object from the patient and held it out "amid taboos involved, boys ordinarily did not - ~~~~~~~~~~~~train for the profession. Poison doctor i3l932:62.. garded as necessary evils: they were d3 FOSTER: A SUIJMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 235 se illness, but at the same time they this class may have become merged with the poison ad were a handy weapon against an enemy doctor proper. It will be recalled that with the Lulu said that to poison a member of Yuki the two classes tended to merge, even though tribe, it was necessary to consult a distinct names were known. doctor from a neighboring tribe. It Drawing together the loose threads of these rdly probable, though, that Huchnom confused data, it seems to me probable that the doctors were always so ethical. situation is very similar to that of the Yuki. ison doctor kept his potions hidden in The true shaman, the lams6m, received divine in- s. While preparing them, or curing a spiration, and his powers were strengthened and , he abstained from meat, grease, and guided by a dance in which practicing shamans in- observed continence. Before returning structed him. He cured, principally by sucking, in the woods he purified himself by wash- illness resulting from violation of taboos, and by steaming with angelica and pepperwood. illness resulting from "pains" shot into the body, 'th the Yuki, Huchnom poison doctors either by Taikomol or lesser spirits. He was not o main types of illness: that resulting equipped to treat illness resulting from fright or soning by another doctor and that result- from poisoning. For these it was necessary to fright. In both the patient was placed consult a poison doctor, an ewil-ohot, who had dance house, head toward the supernatu- received his power not through revelation, but dowed center post. It is not certain in empirically--by instruction from an older poison tances Taikomol appeared, but in some, doctor. Unlike the Pomo, no "outfits" were in- use was made of a masked impersonator. volved. In curing the ewil-ohot was aided by ing ceremony was known as the ewil-wok singers, presumably graduates of one or both of dance) and required in addition to the the Huchnom schools. As indicated by the follow- several assistants, usually four, who sang ing account of the Taikomol-wok, a Taikomol im- ked cocoon rattles. Only after the lam- personator appeared in at least some instances. diagnosed the case did the poison doctor Though no mention is made of it, in view of the ge. He painted his body with dots and occurrence among the Pomo, Kato, and Yuki, it , using the blood of "water dogs" (sala- seems likely that in some cases of fright illness, and sang: "Nana kai ye (to-stripe cross an attempt was made to refrighten the patient , nana kai ye." He also wore a hair net back to health with an effigy. Loeb reports that with owl feathers. Spectators avoided this did occur.14 As with the Yuki, the Huchnom ow, which was believed to carry poison. do not appear to have been aware of fright ill- ne case of poisoning described by Lulu, ness as a simplified manifestation of the soul- em pointed out the exact spot, whereupon loss illness concept. Contrary to Loeb's informa- son doctor soaked a string in his potion, tion,15 Lulu insisted that women were never poison around the infected spot, and then tied doctors. This is consistent with my Yuki data. nger strings to the first at the point . Holding these three strings he danced, Grizzly-Bear Doctors g, retreating, straddling fhe patient, nig noises in imitation of quail, coyotes, Luilu believed that the Huchnom did not have B. All this time the assistants sang and grizzly-bear doctors. In this they resembled the ,the cocoon rattles. Finally the poison Pomo. With regard to Indian-bears, she was uncer- cut off-all four strings with a flint tain; the only one she had known of was a Layton- threw them out through the door. One ville Indian, probably Kato. This particular ac- assistants then gathered the remains of account is interesting in that the Indian-bear was in a basket and similarly disposed of a woman, a very unusual thing. According to the here was no set number of times for this story, this woman was caught in a snare while e; each case, depending upon its severity, dressed in a bearskin, and badly beaten by a num- ored as many times as seemed necessary. ber of men. Her husband rescued her, but not be- s account, no mention is made of a fore she had been seriously injured. Lulu knew impersonator, as in the case for the her years later as an old hunchback. In view of But when speaking of the Taikomol-wok the almost superhuman feats of strength expected low), Lulu stated that the purpose of the of an Indian-bear, it is difficult to imagine a s "to scare sickness away." Whether this woman takitg the part. The aocount, therefore, to poison cases or cases of fright ill- may either indicate that rarely a woman of unusual do not know. When speaking of illness size and strength became an Indian-bear, or it may by fright, Lulu made no mention of effi- be merely a later rationalization to explain the ilar to that supposed to have caused the crippled condition of an old hag. Lfright, though this omission may be due versight in questioning. 1 -did not speak of men corresponding to 1932:62. ihilyu-lft doctors. WSith the Huchnom 151932:62. 236 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Hulk'ilal-woknam pecker "blind" (visor?). Across his che painted black and white horizontal strip The little that Lulu knew about the Hulk'ilal- about an hour the dance continued, witht woknam agrees substantially with Kroeber16 and personator blowing a bone whistle at re Loeb.17 Boys varying in age from ten to thirteen tervals. A rest followed, and then eve entered in November and remained until spring. part in a profane dance, followed by ano They had strict dietary rules--no meat of any rest and a second Big Head performance. kind, and little water, at least for the first This routine lasted four nights. To days. The customary haliotis scratcher was used fourth morning everyone danced, and fin, to prevent permanent markings which were believed Big Head impersonator removed his cost to result if fingernails were used. From time to piece at a time, offering each to the fo' time the boys were thrown over the fire to make dinal directions, as well as to the zeni, them brave and strong. At the conclusion in the earth. A big feast took place on the foi spring the novitiates danced, sweated, jumped day. into the stream and washed, and then joined in a The principle of this dance, said Lul great feast. Graduates were forbidden to tell "to scare sickness away," though the par women what had befallen them; if they did so the performance she witnessed was rather of dance-house roof would fall in. nature. Probably a given village held the ceremony but once in a generation. With each school, a Mythology new dance house was required, which was built under the supervision of the te'ol. A shaman Besides the creation account, the fol selected the right tree for the center post, sang myths were recorded. over it, danced around it four times and gave or- d6rs to have it cut down. Before hoisting it Coyote and the Swan Maidens into position another song was sung. The dance- house door had to face the rising sun, a source Once upon a time Coyote came down to of health and power. and made himself a baby basket (cradle) switches. He left the buds on it, and X Taikomol-woknam very pretty. Then he got in it and floa the river. Farther downstream a group o Lulu knew nothing about the school of this maidens, who were human in those days, v name, but she had seen the last Taikomol-wok ing buckeye soup. As Coyote floated by (Big Head dance) to be given in Round Valley. "Wah, ah, ah; wah, ah, ah." "I hear so Although the principal participants were Yuki, said one of the girls. They listened a a few Huchnom took part, and she was told that ah, ah; wah, ah, ah." "Yes, it's a baby it was the same ceremony given earlier by the said. So when the basket floated by, o Huchnom. Since the dance is sometimes called grabbed it. Then they passed Coyote up Huchnom-wok by the Yuki-themselves, the identity the line, to see who the baby liked, q for the two tribes is apparent. In this dance all the time as to who should have him. only men participated. All spectators of both it became night, and as the buckeye soup sexes paid in goods the equivalent of fifty bitter, they lay down to sleep, intendin cents; refusal to pay was supposed to cause sick- ish the next day. Then Coyote grew up, ness. The dancer who appeared as the Big Head-- beside each of the girls in turn. The 1 Taikomol--was appointed by the chief, and for in line noticed what was going on, and the\four days previous to the dance he abstained herself, "Maybe he's a bad man." So she. from meat, grease, observed continence, and re- big rock in back of her hips, and one it mained in the dance house. Should he fail to her thighs to protect herself. When Mo observe these rules, it was believed that he Coyote had slept with every girl excepti would svwell up and burst. and she alone was able to get up. And s^ During the actual dancing spectators remained carried these rocks ever since, not bein silent, upon pain of illness. A chorus of about as Turtle. six men sang and manipulated split-stick rattles, while in the rear cf the dance house a drummer Bear Woman and the Deer beat upon the log drum with a stick, sometimes dancing upon the drum itself. A dancer (rock Bear Woman was mother-in-law to Deerl caller?) led the Big Head in from outside and that time animals were men. Deer Man wo showed him where to dance. He was clothed in a birds and keep them for his children, gi feather cape, high feather headdress, and a wood- the entrails to his mother-in-law. So o she took all the birds out of the snare, 36Handbook, 204. only one grouse. When her son-in-law sa 171932:58. he went to take it out, and Bear Woman jl FOSTER: A SIUJIARY OF YUKI CULTURE 237 d him. So she went to her daughter, the ocean. So he stretched his neck, but when in, and said to her, "Let's get some bear Bear Woman was halfway across he pulled it back, efore sundown." So they went. Then she and she had to run back. On the fourth time, ughter, there are lice on my head. Will Crane was too fast, and Bear Woman fell into the them off?" So her daughter did this. water. Pretty soon she washed ashore, still said, "Now I'll take yours off." So alive. But Coyote, Rabbit, Fox, and some other ted to pick them, first with her hand, animals were waiting, and they threw stones and with her teeth. Finally she bit off the killed Bear Woman. Then Coyote took a little of er Woman's head, killing her. And her hair and put it on a log, saying, "Just when hy deer have a spot on top of their heads. sun comes up, beneath the fog, you will be a new Woman took the eyes of both deer and bear walking around on four legs." Up to this im with acorn meal. Little Deer Boy, her time she had walked on two legs like a human. said, "Those look like my father's And when sun came peeping over the mountains, md old Bear Woman said, "My grandchild, Bear Woman got up. And she still lives. silly." Pretty soon little Deer Girl hose look like my mother's eyes," and old said, "My granddaughter, don't be Another Bear-Woman Episode So pretty soon the children took a bas- went down to get water. But instead of Before Deer Children left, Bear Woman gave g, Deer Brother and Sister floated away birth to some children. So all played together sket. In the morning they came to the at sweating. Four times Deer Children sweated here their grandfather, old Crane, lived. in the dance house, but they made a smoke hole ther," they said, "old Bear Woman is bad so they got lots of air. When Bear Children We don't want to go back. Take us across sweated, Deer Children closed up the hole, and So grandfather Crane stretched his on the fourth time, they suffocated. So Deer r the ocean, and Deer Children went Children pulled the little Bears out, took a Next day old Bear Woman came to Crane pine limb scale, and put it on the Bears for a ,"I've tracked Deer Children here; what tail. Next they took a burned stick with white done with them?" At first Crane said he ashes on the end and made marks down the Bears' seen them, but finally admitted what he backs. These Bears became Skunks, and that is ,and agreed to take Bear Woman across why Skunks have white stripes today. APPENDIX II JAILAKI STRING FIGURES The most interesting string figure is that turn. Drop all loops except those on known as "Boy" or "Girl," which was formerly Draw firm, and the result is a hitch;'. used as a method of divination to determine the thumb. Caution: In making opening sex of unborn children.18 The following cat's- be taken to use first the middle fi cradle figures were obtained from John Tip. With hand on which the ulnar string on the one exception he believes that all are aboriginal. ger crosses on top at the center. "Catching a Gray Squirrel."--(See fig. 11.) Sun (sa) or moon (ketanagai).--(Se Position one, with strings crossed in center (see Make an ordinary slip knot, placing'e Haddon, for terminology). Opening A, using mid- loop on the backs of the right and le dle fingers. Place thumbs over radial string spectively. The resulting knot in t and under ulnar string of middle fingers and re- should be grasped as in position one.' Fig. 11. String figure known as "Catching a Gray Squirrel." Fig. 12. String figure interpreted as the sun or the moon. 18 Illustrated in AA 43 :126-127, 1941.[28 FOSTER: A SUMMARY OF YUKI CULTURE 239 *iddle fingers. With teeth, take the loops to fall on top of the figure. With the [oops on each hand, raise over fingers, teeth pass the proximal loop on each middle finger on the loops between each hand, drawing over the distal loop, and let them fall on top of ck. The result is a circle lying on the figure. This design is said to resemble the of the thumb, middle- and little-fin- string mesh placed inside deer snares. In reality, B of each hand. This is interpreted as the string-figure snare is more complicated than and moon. In the latter case, by con- the one used for snaring deer. to draw the hands apart, the loop di- A somewhat simpler deer-snare figure is shown l--the moon wanes. in figure 14. Make a loop and insert the index fingers in the same fashion as for "Boy."'19 Now, d.--The following game, unnamed, is instead of manipulating palms upward by passing y most American children. A loop is the loops between index fingers and thumbs of each the little finger of the left hand, hand, simply turn the palms up and inward. The around each finger, the thumb, and ulnar string of the thumb loops is now beneath in- lin. By releasing the thumb and pulling stead of above the radial strings. With the mid- ngs the figure falls off the fingers. dle fingers catch from the distal position the be a postwhite figure, according to ulnar strings on the index fingers, continue on The lack of a Wailaki name substanti- and catch the ulnar thumb strings from the proxi- 8 belief. mal position and return, passing beneath the radial index strings) which in turn are caught from the mare (icitam).--(See fig. 13.) This is distal position by the thumbs, allowing the thumb ed, and rightly so, the most difficult of loops to slip off over it. Drop the index loops Fig. 13. String figure interpreted as a deer snare. ki figures. Position one, with the Bow (k'in).--(See fig. 15.) Position one, oubled. Opening A using the middle fin- opening A, using middle fingers. With the teeth, removing the distal loop on each hand. grasp the ulnar string on the little fingers and sb catch the ulnar loops on the middle pass it over the top of the figure, allowing the ad return. With middle fingers, catch little-finger loops to slip off. The ulnar loops on the thumbs and return. Drop strings of the middle-finger loops now join at sp. Insert thumbs from the distal posi- the mouth. With the thumbs catch these strings o the proximal loops of the middle fingers, from the distal position, allowing the thumb on under all loops, catch the two ulnar loops to slip off the thumbs and over the new on the little fingers, and return. Drop loop. The resulting figure is held on the thumbs inger loops. Reverse the distal loops and middle fingers of each hand. iddle fingers. Insert the thumbs in ops from the proximal position. With the Dance house (neyit).--This figure is identical as the double proximal loop on the to the Yuki "Rat House." er the distal loops, crook the thumbs 19string figure "Boy" illustrated in AA 43:126- hit, allowing at the same time the distal 127, 1941. 240 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Fig. 14. String figure interpreted as a deer Fig. 15. String figure interpreted as a bow. BIBLIOGRAPHY ions: Goldschmidt, W., Foster, G., Essene, F. 1939. War Stories from Two Enemy Tribes. Anthropos. JAFL 52:141-154. American Anthropologist. Haddon, Kathleen American Museum of Natural History, 1930. Artists in String. London: Methuen Memoirs. and Co., Ltd. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin. Jochelson, W. Contributions to North American 1908. Material Culture and Social Organization E Ethnology. of the Koryak. AMNH-M 10:1-842. 'Columbia University Contributions to Kelly, Isabel T. Anthropology. 1930. Yuki Basketry. UC-PAAE 24:421-444. Journal of American Folklore. Kroeber, A. L. University of California, Anthropo- 1911. The Languages of the Coast of California logical Records. North of San Francisco. UC-PAAE 9:273-475. University of California Publications 1917. California Kinship Systems. UC-PAAE in American Archaeology and Eth- 12:339-396. nology. 1925. Handbook of the Indians of California. Yale University Publications in An- BAE-B 78:1-995. Cited as: Handbook. thropology. 1932a. The Patwin and their Neighbors. UC-PAAE 29:253-423. 1932b. Yuki Myths. A 27:905-939. The Ethno-Geography of the Pomo and Loeb, Edwin M. boring Indians. UC-PAAE 6:1-332. 1926. Pomo Folkways. UC-PAAE 19:149-406. remonies of the Pomo Indians. 1932. The Western Kuksu Cult. UC-PAAE 33:1-137. 'AAE 12:397-441. Powers, Stephen ?omo Bear Doctors. UC-PAAE 12:443-465. 1877. Tribes of California. CNAE 3:1-635. old E. Radin, Paul Wappo Ethnography. UC-PAAE 36:174-220. 1919. The Genetic Relationship of the North Cora American Indian Languages. UC-PAAE 14: 'The 1870 Ghost Dance. UC-AR 3:1-151. 'nE W 'Californian Kinship Terminologies. AAE 18:1-285. .Californian Anthropometry. UC-PAAE 22: -390. Maidu Religious Ceremonies. AA 29:220. The Coast Yuki. A 34:292-375. ,.,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~21 INDEX eparation, 165 Drum: 172, 190; in Hulk'ilal-woknam, 210; in ng9 192-1931 Huchnom sing, 226; relation- Huchnom Taikomol-woknam, 236 to'girls' puberty, 183 Dwellings: 176; Huchnom, 226-227 201 185; Huchnom, 232 Eclipse, cause of, 207 3: 206-207; Huchnom, 232 Earth, supported by mole, 207 ,prophylactic and curing powers of, Earthquakes, beliefs about: 207; Huchnom beliefs, 75, 179, 187, 190 233 167; Huqhnom, 227 Ethnogeography: 157-161; Huchnom, 225 Lkskin, 190 : 166; Huchnom beliefs, 226 Falling star, Huchnom belief about, 233 te, Huchnom, 227 Feather headband, 190 9 obsidian, 174 Fire drill, 170 "First-fruits" ceremony, Huchnom, 226 , 172 Fishing: 163-165; Huchnom, 226 oppers, 169 Fish poisoning, 164 tors: 218-219; Huchnom, 235 Flutes, 171 3; , 206 Food preparation, 162-164 4" belief, 211, 217 Food preservation: deer, 162; salmon, 164 d" dance: 191-192; Huchnom, 236 78-180; Huchnom, 230 Gambling, 194-196 cult, 211, 219 Games, adults': 197-198; Huchnom, 228 arrows, 168 Ghosts, 204: encounters with, 208-209; Huchnom, 59 233; types, 208 rer, 210 Ghost dance: aboriginal, see Hulk'ilal-woknam; ceremony, 187 modern, 219 Grass game: 194-195; Huchnom, 228 directions: 202-203; Huchnom, 230 185; Huchnom, 232 Headdress, dance, 190 temale, 177 Huchnom culture, 225-237 ship: 176-178, 188; Huchnom chiefs, 227; Hulk'ilal-woknam (ghost dance): 155, 204, 209-210, lief, 189 216, 223; Huchnom, 236 '8 play, 180 Humor, 201 1 beads, 173 Hunting: 161-163; Huchnom, 225-226 bsence of, 176 Hygiene, Huchnom, 229 167-168; chief's dress, 177; zm, 227 Illegitimacy, 180, 186 in acorn sing, 193; in Hulk'ilal-woknam, Illness, caused by fright: 208, 213; Huchnom, 233, 235 apons), 168 Illness, supernatural causes of, 212-213 205 Indian-bear, 218 ption, 178 Infancy and childhood: 180-181; Huchnom, 231 Infanticide, denied, 180 207-208; Huchnom, 232-233 Informants: 156; Huchnom, 225 :203; Huchnom, 229 Initiation ceremonies, see Girls' puberty, Hulk'ilal-woknam, Taikomol-woknam, Kicil-woknam cialization, 172-173 187, 189; Huchnom, 232 Toking relationship, man and sister-in-law: 185, 201; Huchnom, 231 209, 212-218; accounts, 215 9 ' Ki6il-woknam (obsidian school), 155, 211, 223 Kinship, 178 168 Knife: 169; to cut umbilical cord, 179 use: connection with chief, 177-178; Kuksu cult, 209, 210, 211 ion and construction, 176; used for ing, 194; used in initiation schools, Labor division, 172 1Q Language: dialectic differences, 161; linguistic ader ("mole"), 190 affiliation of Yuki, Huchnom, Coast Yuki, and aphernalia, 172 Wappo, 155; orthography, 155 Suchnom, 228; puberty, 182-183; scalp Levirate, 184, 185 189; social, 190-192 Lightning, beliefs about, 204 etaboo: 187-188; Huchnom, 232 ervances: 186-188; Huchnom, 232 Magnesite beads, 173-174 rits: 205; relationship to shamans, Marke%-ace game: 196; Huchnom, 228 Marriage: 177, 184-186; Huchnom, 231-232 ', 173-174 Masks, substitute for, 210 209 Mats, 170 clhnom, 228 Maul, 169 [dance, 214 Medicine, empirical: 174-175; Huchnom, 229 see curing Meetings and greetings, 201 & ~~~~~~~~~~Menstruation: 184; relationship to rainbow, 207, ttube, 179, 183 208; taboo against dancing, 191 [243] 244 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Moon, beliefs about: 207; Huchnom beliefs, 233 Sororate, 154, 185 Morning star, belief about, 207 Souls: 206-207; Huchirom, 232 Mortar and pestle, 169 Spears: 168; fish spears, 171 Mourning: 187; Huchnom, 232 Spirits: 205-206, 207; Huchnom, 233-23 Mush paddles, 169 ship to shamans, 213 Spoon, 169 Names, personal: 181-182; Huchnomi 230 Springs, beliefs about, 205 Navel cord, preserved as home remedy, 175-179 Storytelling: 200-201; Huchnom mythol Nets: carrying, 171; fish, 163-164; for hunting 237; in Taikomol-woknam, 210; mole deer, 162; hair, 172 water eagle story, 205; water panth 206 Obsidian: 174, 204, 208; Huchnom beliefs, 233- String figures: Huchnom, 228; Wailaki, 234; obsidian school, 211 Yuki, 198-200 Origin tale, summary of, 204 Sun, beliefs about, 207 Owls, belief about, 208 Superstitions, gambling, 196 Supreme Being, see Taikomol Painting, body: 191; for Hulk'.ilal-woknam, 210 Sweating: 177, 194; in Taikomol-woknam, Parent-in-law taboo: 184; Huchnom, 231 Pentacostal religion, 192, 197, 204, 205, 219-222 Taboos: against dancing while menstrua Pepperwood, prophylactic and curing powers, 174- army worms, 167; death, 157; deer e 175, 179, 187 during pregnancy, 178; eating restri Phoenix complex, 208, 223 on young females, 162; first kill, r Physical characteristics, 155 lowing birth, 179; menstruating wo%m Pipes, 170, 194 menstruating women at grass game, 1 Poison doctors: 216-218; Huchnom, 234-235 in-law, 184; puberty, 183; quivers a Polygyny: of chiefs, 177, 185; Huchnom, 231; 168; touching deer tails and ears, 1 wealthy men, 185 Taikomol: 166, 167, 171, 177, 190, 193,- Population, 155 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212; Prayer: 205; Huchnom grace, 226; shamans' prayer beliefs, 226, 232, 233, 234, 235 and girls' puberty ceremony, 183 Taikomol-woknam: 155, 171, 176, 177, 1 Puberty observances, girls': 182-184; Huchnom, 209, 210, 216, 217, 223; Huchnom, 23 231 Tattooing: 181; Huchnom, 227; therapeut pects, 175 Quartz crystals, 208 Thunder, beliefs about, 204 Quivers, 168 Time-of-day, reckoning of, 203 Tobacco, 194 Rabbitskin blanket, 167, 170 Toothache: believed caused by worm, 17 Rainbow, beliefs about: 207, 208; Huchnom, 232 belief, 229 Rattles, cocoon: 210, 217; Huchnom, 235 Toys, 181 Rattles, split-stick, 171, 191; in Huchnom Trade, 174 Taikomol-woknam, 236; used in Taikomol-woknam, Transportation techniques, 174 210 Transvestites: 186; Huchnom, 227-228 Rattlesnake doctors, 215-216 Twins, 180 Rattlesnakes, 215, 217 Religion, 204-222 Vegetable food: 165-166; Huchnom, 226 Residence after marriage, 184 Village organization: 176; Huchnom, 22 Rheumatism, cured by tatt-ooing, 175 Riddles, 201 Wailaki string figures, 238-240 War dance: 189; Huchnom, 228 Salt, 167 Warfare: 188-190; Huchnom, 228-229 Scalp dance: 189; Huchnom, 228-229 Wealth and property: 173-174; burial of Scalping, 189 burning of, 187 Scratching stick, 179, 183 Wedge, 169 Seasons, names for: 202; Huchnom, 229 Week, reckoning of, 201 Shamans (lam5imi): 166, 177, 183, 204, 209, 213- Wergild, 188 216; Huchnom, 234 Whirlwinds, 207, 208 Shinny: 197; Huchnom, 228 Whistles: 171, 191; in Taikomol-woknam,; Singing: at acorn ceremony, 192-193; at puberty, Wind, belief about, 208 182-183; curing ceremonies, 216-218; social Women, social status, 172-173 dances, 191 Women's dice game, 194 Skin scr~aper, 169 Wormwood, prophylactic and curing power. Slings, 168-169 175, 179, 187, 190 Smoking, 193-194 Yuki culture, relative position of, 223