;o i.a& 4 ' '2' ? 43? ,? .? 4' > ANTHRQPOLOGiCA43COt; 4:2 444w CULTURE ELEMENT Di'$UIO S: XIWV - NEVADA SHOSH( "'BY JULIAN H. STEWAMD ' r-& -- 4 ' - . . " 'f, ,: V 4C~ .." -'4 *4 'C2 4 ' , -X ;rj4S1, VIL . ., UNIVERSITY 01F CALIFORNIA P1TiMS' BERKELEY AND LOS ANGEBS. 194i 4=4- -. I.-~~~~~~~~~4 - 4i 4 , A'k VA= )NE . t : 4'-, i,,- ,^: .- i. .. ,6. , .% ..4 48 . I . .. . I'I i.,.:. j,I 4 4#? . : ' ? r0 I , ,,, --, . I - ?j, 7--,- -?- I -1i 1*, . : , r-ps -, 7 - ( I - ' t" - 'MrF P''< ''s- .VIL- ? I ;.",- a -, , ;"_ t# ' I ',?. 1. 4 'k - . . I I j, 4?.- , k , -, t,.1, '01, . ?? I "I'll;:? I-44. . I , .11 I j- . ,' " i?% . ;c I.- - t, I *v CULTURE ELEMENT DISTRIBUTIONS: XIII NEVADA SHOSHONI BY JULIAN H. STEWARD ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Vol. 4, No. 2 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS EDITORS: A. L. KROEBER, R. H. LoWIE, R. L. OLSON, E. W. GIFFORD Volume 4, No. 2, pp. 209a, I map, 14 figures in text Transmitted November I5, 1938 Issued April 3, 1941 Price, $I.50 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON, ENGLAND The University of California publications dealing with anthro- pological subjects are now issued in two series. The series in American Archaeology and Ethnology, which was established in 1903, continues unchanged in format, but is restricted to papers in which the interpretative element outweighs the factual or which otherwise are of general interest. The new series, known as Anthropological Records, is issued in photolithography in a larger size. It consists of monographs which are documentary, of record nature, or devoted to the presen- tation primarily of new data. MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - -ell <11 tt, I -A C) q - ?? s'- I .l. at'- 1 ?4 CONTENTS tLt~, Page by A. L. Kroeber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v iton.209 ctives of the eleme.nt lis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 notis andfiteeldmentklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2109 grmants and field work.*- t * * @ @ @@ @ @ * * * - @ 210 ;'Great Basin environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 bhonean or Great Basin culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 ent variability.216 d t aiscusionty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 -hic discussion....-- @ @ @@ * * e- @ @ -@ * * 218 liistence.. ..@@ @ - @@ @ w w @ @ *- @ * * *218 Bunting . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Gathering .... .. .230 Cultivation. ...-...-..*...-..-..*.@*.*... ...231 Food preparation and storage .v@@@ @@ @@@-@@ -*- @. 0 . * 232 232 ;gation ...... 234 , making ..........234 ellaneous implements .... .. . . 234 dressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a . . . . . . . 236 etry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 ing ......... . 242 ery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 ens and cradles ... .... ..... .... 242 lations, ............... 244 and adornment 0......... .. .... 244 ~ents ......... 244 8 ................... ~~~~~~~~~~~~246 ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 cco and smoking . . 0 . o o o ..o o . o o o . . . 250 1cal instruments....@-@ * @ @ @@ * @ @ @@ @ @ e 251 cagel. .n.t.uen.. . . . . . . . . . . .2. 5 . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 hip relations . .. . .... 252 aches ................ 252 sion of labor o ..... ......... . 253 tical organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 erty . . . ...... . 254 are ........ .. ..... 254 h customs ................ 255 's puberty ............ ... . 255 e puberty observances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 chustomsm...o--- .. .256 gion .............a.. 257 es .... . ............ 265 ellaneouso ............... 267 Calendar ...a... . a.. 267 Astronomy . ........... 267 mnens .... o 270 element distribution list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 ols used in the list o ..o o ..... 271 istence, elements 1-577 (Hunting, 1-409; Gathering, 410-503; Cultivation, 504-528; od preparation, 529-577); Houses, 578-770; Navigation, 771-783; Fire making, 784-808; sce llaneous implements, 809-911; Skin dressing, 912-932; Weapons, 933-1031; Basketry, 32-1136; Weaving, 1137-1194; Pottery, 1195-1227; Burdens, 1228-1243; Cradles, 1244- 70; Mutilations, 1271-1321; Dress and adornment, 1322-1431; Garments, 1432-1576; Games, 77-1887; Money, 1888-1893; Tobacco and smoking, 1894-1943; Musical instruments, 1944- 17; Marriage, 2018-2052; Kinship relations, 2053-2089; Berdaches or transvestites, 90-2110; Division of labor 2111-2140; Political organization, 2141-2164; Property, 65-2173a; Warfare, 2174-2177; Birth customs, 2178-2303; Girl's puberty, 2305-2378; 's puberty, 2381-2386; Death customs, 2387-2468; Religion, 2469-2613; Dances, 2614- L9; Miscellaneous, 2720.2742 (Calendar, 2720-2721; Astronomy, 2722-2727; Whirlwind, 28-2730; Omens, 2731-2740; Various, 2741-2742) denied by all informants .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 [iii] iv ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Ethnographic notes on the element list . . . . . . . . . . . Summary and conclusions .................. Bibliography . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FIGURES 1. Traps, weirs, and other things . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Weapons ........................ 3. Archaeological potsherds, flints, and points . . . . . . 4. Musical instruments, pipes, and fire-making apparatus 5. Mortars, pestles, metates, and mullers. 6. Miscellaneous basketry and games . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.. Winnowing baskets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. Basketry water jugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. Twined sage-bark hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. Twined sage-bark moccasin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. Pottery shapes ..................... 12. Cradles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. Moccasins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14. Snowshoes ....................... MAP 1. Location of element-list tribes . . . . . . . . . . . . . PREFACE BY A. L. KROEBER Dr. Steward's Shoshoni data presented herein represent the first extension of the element survey to the Great Basin area. His list was based on that of Dr. Driver for the southern Sierra Nevada and adjacent regions. Beginning in southern Nevada, he modified his list to suit local conditions as he traveled north. A second season in the field enabled him to fill a similar list among a smaller number of Shoshoni groups farther north and east. This second block of data will be pre- sented separately later. Then, Dr. Omer Stewart undertook sim- ilar studies, first among the Northern Paiute or Paviotso, and later among the Southern Paiute and Ute, using a question- naire based on Dr. Julian Steward's. These four field in- quiries, together with Dr. Driver's Shoshonean inclusions in his already published report (CED:VI), will provide element- list data on a fairly adequate representation-some sixty- of the bands or local groups or subtribes of the Shoshoneans of all three "Plateau" speech divisions living in and near the Great Basin. Dr. Steward's element work for the University was done in conjunction with a socio-economic study of the Shoshoni under a Social Science Research Council grant-in-aid. Perhaps partly as a result of this broadened scope of interest, he has pref- aced his lists with an Ethnographic Discussion which both com- ments on his list data and synthesizes them. This Discussion is first of all a general commentary on western Shoshoni cul- ture, and secondly an analysis of the meaning and weight of most the elements recorded in his lists. He points out the re- lations of traits and considers which of the formal elements are more and less significant, and why. With his particular findings on this latter score I find myself in constant agree- ment, and with his evaluations of the specific merits and lim- itations of the element approach as a field technique I am in equal and enthusiastic agreement. The portions of the monograph following the Ethnographic Discussion are those usual in reports in the Culture Element Distributions series: the element lists themselves, notes on the list, and elements universally lacking. [Assistance in the preparation of these materials was fur- nished by the personnel of Works Projects Administration Offi- cial Project No. 665-08-3-30, Unit A-15.] [v] CULTURE ELEMENT DISTRIBUTIONS: XIII NEVADA SHOSHONI BY JULIAN H. STEWARD INTRODUCTION ie element lists presented here were procured ig six months in 1935 on a trip financed by gDiversity of California and a grant-in-aid the Social Science Research Council.' wish to express gratitude to Deep Springs, rornia, for accommodations for Mrs. Steward qself; to Superintendent McNeilly of Western ioni Reservation for accommodations and for ration in assisting my researches; to Mr. [rs. Neff for their hospitality in Ruby Val- and to Dr. Harold Driver for the original int list from which this one was adapted. Objectives of the Element List ro seasons of field work with element lists- !esults of the first only are presented here- demonstrated their value to me. Although they first conceived in connection with the need lata amenable to quantitative treatment, I lily concur with Kroeber2 they are a real ad- as a technique for field work and for pres- ,ion of data. Whether these data are ulti- Ly used for functional studies, for histori- lconstructions, for statistical comparisons, ir some other purpose does not bear upon the ;on of the intrinsic merits of the lists. a method of procuring and presenting data, istinctive feature of the element list is xtensive use of tabulation. This device is Lrthography.-The phonetics of Shoshonean lan- s are unfixed. There is a noticeable differ- in pronunciation between the older and sr generations as well as among indiviauals. ct, a single individual may pronounce very rently at separate times, especially the ered syllables. The accent in practically hioshoni words falls on the first syllable onsequently has been omitted. 0 orthography used is as follows: a, e, i, i u have their continental values; a:, u:, are prolonged; a, as in ball; A, as in hat; in bet; T, as in hit; iu, o6, imperfect um- 9, obscure vowel, as u in up; -, nasalized; ottal stop; elevated letters are vvhispered; [ng in sing; c, as sh; f, occurs only as bi- 1-it is really the bilabial v, which, y, is unvocalized; k:, p:, etc., long con- , released somewhat explosively, producing ,pered vowel after it, which, however, is r written in; x, as in forward German ch; with a flick of the tongue against the , as with Spanish r; v, always bilabial. her consonants are used individually as in not new, having been used widely in archaeology and in ethnology, especially in comparative studies of tribal groups.3 In fact, the princi- ple of enumeration of culture traits is implicit in most comparative studies, though the elements are not always tabulated. The element list is unique solely in carrying this method to its logical end, namely, in listing all the compo- nents of a culture which can be broken douvn for tabulation. The list as a descriptive device need not, of course, make final judgment of what is and what is not an "element."' Traits may be subdi- vided to greater or less degree according to whether it facilitates recording and publishing the information. The weighting and selection of elements will be done by persons making compara- tive or other studies. The list is, however, somewhat distinctive in providing unselected and reasonably complete information, including trait absences, that is, information truly comparable with information from elsewhere. Most compara- tive studies, on the other hand, are based either upon elements selected for their presumed importance or for which information happens to be available, and rarely embrace more than 100 items. It is not assumed that the list covers the totality of culture. Language cannot feasibly be included. Myths, which could no doubt be bro- ken down for some tabulation, are omitted. There are other aspects of human behavior of interest to some ethnologists which are also omitted. Moreover, all departments of culture are not equally amenable to tabulation. Material ob- jects, many economic activities, and most fea- tures of games, rites, and dances may readily be tabulated, though notes are necessary to ex- plain them and to set them in their contextual relationships. Social organization and religion, on the other hand, are almost impossible to tabu- late, and require extensive explanatory texts. In short, an element list has the advantage of full- ness in many things ordinarily omitted and of compactness but is not a substitute for other de- scriptive devices. The objection, therefore, that it might merely enumerate elements torn from their context and omit configurations, functional aspects of behavior, and so forth, is beside the point. There never has been a description vwhich 3To the examples given by Kroeber (1935:1) of ethnological use of elements could be added most archaeological studies. [209] ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS did not enumerate; that the list does so concisely is not an inherent fault. It may be annotated and explained ad lib., according to the interest of the investigator. Any objection that the list im- plies a somewhat atomistic view of culture cannot be taken seriously, for traits are known to dif- fuse individually and in complexes whether or not some persons are interested. As a field technique, the element lists have advantages and dangers. They provide an organized list of questions including details that other- wise are frequently overlooked and a form on which to set down simply and rapidly those facts which may categorically be entered as yes or no. This makes it possible to procure an enormous amount of information in a very short time. The correlated danger of hurrying through a list and asking leading questions is, of course, inherent in any ethnographic field work. The early lists here presented have an inordi- nate number of blanks. These result partly from attempting at first to use a list designed for southern California, partly from the discovery of new elements as the work progressed. No doubt most of these new elements were not present in the first groups, else they should have been dis- covered sooner; others may have been present, but were not sought. These lists do not purport to be an exhaustive ethnographic description of the area. They were procured somewhat incidentally on a trip devoted primarily to an ecological study of Shoshoni so- ciety and should consequently be viewed as a re- connaissance of an area previously unknown eth- nographically. Informants and Field Work At first, less time was spent upon each list than subsequently. The NP-FSp and NP-FLk lists were both taken in about one and one-half days, the culture having been previously described.4 Later lists were taken in an area which had never before been studied by an ethnologist. Three to six days were spent with each principal informant, but, as the lists were not the sole objective of the trip, only two or three days were devoted to each. At S-Ely, the informant's meager information was procured in one day, the deficiencies showing as rmany blanks in the list. No less than three days with a good informant is needed in this area. Where the culture is more complex, no doubt a greater time would be required. Several facts prevent any one list from being truly complete or entirely representative of a single locality. First, as the culture was not wholly standardized, each informant described those specific events and objects which, having been part of his own experience, he remembered. Another informant might have remembered a some- what different hunting device, use of the sweat 4Steward, 1933. house, clothing material, and so forth. For t reason, trait presences are more reliable th absences. In many instances, when lack of knt edge did not prove an absence, the space was left blank. Three days with an old and reasoz ably intelligent informant would probably yii positive information on not over 80 per cent the elements actually occurring in the cultu a variable portion of which would be subject error. Two good informants from a single loc ity would perhaps increase the information tt 90 per cent or more. In these lists, a singli principal informant was used for each localil Notes are added where that informant's state- ments were supplemented by other persons. Second, though each informant was asked tc distinguish between the practices of his own locality and those of neighboring localities, this was never entirely possible. Even in pre Caucasian times, people neither belonged to g single band nor remained always in one local. ity. They often shifted residence from year I year to regions where food was abundant, thei allying themselves temporarily with various neighboring peoples. Shoshoni society was com sequently not divided into a series of distli ethnic units. Furthermore, most Indians livU. today left their native villages in childhood to assemble with people from far and wide on reservations or in colonies attached to the towns in the area. Because much of an infor knowledge is hearsay, the sources of informa, tion are thus often confused. These facts do not entirely prevent securl regional differences. The differences between widely separated localities are unquestionabl valid. But too much stress should not be pla' upon the differences between such neighborin localities as Death Valley, Beatty, and LidaA as Smith Creek, Reese River, and Great Smoky Valley, as Hamilton and Morey, as Ruby Valle Egan Canyon, and Elko, as Elko and Battle Ma tain, and so on. It would, in fact, be justi able for some purposes to make a composite 1 from such adjoining localities. This would a pensate for the use of but a single informant from each. Also, incongruous and therefore p ably incorrect information is fairly conspic when several such neighboring localities are compared. Conditions in the area on the whole favor field work. Few explorers, trappers, or mine penetrated it prior to 1850. Settlement, fir by miners, later by ranchers, began about 1. There are, consequently, a few old Indians a living who, as children, actually observed life -when it was relatively unaffected by ot zation. Though most of the culture has brok down today, fragments of it survive-mainly, shamanism, pine-nut and some general seed ering, rabbit-blanket and basket weaving, 1 guage, mythology, and some family life. Moe formants were friendly, communicative, codS tive, and able to speak fair English. In tw 210 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI inces, when one interpreter was used for in- ants from separate localities, the resemblance ien those localities was greater than ordi- This may have been in part because fuller mation inevitably produced greater similar- in part because the interpreter unconsciously smuted facts into a form familiar to himself. f ethnographic material is procured and pre- ed in such a manner that the writer feels com- ed to indicate its deficiencies, this may be rded as a merit of the method, for too often 0 OREGON l_ innetnucca < N P-MC S-BftIN z (5.Austin K~~~~u 7 i R |~~~B iW dat ~~V- '~\S-Bty Indepen enc cr 0wens V&IJey | 1e p n~~Ltle z fi p 1. Shoshoni and neighboring groups, show- ocalities from which lists were obtained. The groups are designated by the abbreviations ,in the text, as follows: NP-FSp, Northern e of Fish Springs; NP-FLk, Northern Paiute oh Lake Valley; SP-Ash, Southern Paiute of eadows; S-DthV, Shoshoni of Death Valley; Shoshoni of Beatty; S-Lida, Shoshoni of S-GSmV, Shoshoni of Great Smoky Valley; the reliability of ultimate sources of informa- tion is not-known to the reader. The inadequacies of informants and unreliability of certain lists is indicated below. Some informants were even deemed unfit to supply lists. The localities from which information was pro- cured are shown on the map. The linguistic iden- tity of each was established by a 100-word test vocabulary. Each locality was a native village, not a band or political group of any sort, ex- cept as villages were independent. S-SmCr, Shoshoni of Smith Creek Valley; S-RsRi, Shoshoni on the upper portion of the Reese River and in Ione Valley; S-Ior, Shoshoni of Morey; S-Hmlt, Shoshoni of Hamilton; S-Ely, Shoshoni of Ely; S-SprV, Shoshoni of Spring Valley (and Ante- lope and Snake valleys); S-Elko, Shoshoni of Elko; S-Egan, Shoshoni of Egan Canyon; S-RubV, Shoshoni of Ruby Valley; S-SnRv, Shoshoni of Snake River; S-BtlM, Shoshoni of Battle Mountain; NP-MC, North- ern Paiute of Mill City. 211 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS The localities are as follows: NP-FSp, Northern Paiute of Fish Springs, head- quarters of a band in Owens Valley, California. It was previously described in Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute,5 but local differences were not specified. Informant: TS. NP-FLk, Northern Paiute of Fish Lake Valley, lying northeast of the last, partly in Califor- nia, partly in Nevada where it adjoined Shoshoni territory. This is a large, arid, sparsely popu- lated valley having several native villages and including a few Shoshoni and part-Shoshoni indi- viduals in the population. Contacts were with both Shoshoni and Owens Valley Paiute. Informant: MMH; interpreter: TS. SP-Ash, Southern Paiute of Ash Meadows, Cali- fornia, members of the Ute-Chemehuevi division of Shoshonean. This group occupied also Pahrump, Nevada. Though included by Kelly6 as part of the Las Vegas band, the people of this locality claimed political and social independence of Las Vegas. Today and probably formerly many Shoshoni are intermixed with the Paiute. Informants: AH and MHo. S-DthV, Shoshoni of Death Valley, California, especially the upper portion near Surveyor's Wells and Grapevine Springs. Southern Death Valley was probably inhabited by Southern Paiute and possi- bly some Kawaiisu. Information here is from the northern end of the valley which had contacts with Shoshoni of northern Panamint Valley, Saline Valley, Beatty, and Lida. Informant: BD. Some notes on Panamint Valley Shoshoni, who were some- what mixed with Kawaiisu who lived in the south- ern portion of the valley, are included. Inform- ant: GH. S-Bty, Shoshoni of Beatty, Nevada. This group ranged from the Grapevine Mountains, bordering Death Valley on the east, to the Belted Mountains to the northeast. Contacts with Death Valley, Lida, and Kawich region Shoshoni; also, somewhat with Southern Paiute of Ash Meadows. Informant: TSt. S-Lida, Shoshoni of Lida, Nevada, one of many independent villages scattered in the deserts north of Death Valley. It included a few Northern Paiute in its population. Contacts with Fish Lake Valley Paiute and Death Valley and Beatty Shosho- ni. Informant: JS. S-GSmV, Shoshoni of Great (or Big) Smoky Val- ley, a large arid valley south of Austin, Nevada. Contacts largely with Reese River and Austin. A large, almost uninhabited desert separates this locality from those to the south, though some in- formation on this area could be had from the Sho- shoni colony at Round Mountain, Nevada. Informant: JK. S-SmCr, Shoshoni of Smith Creek Valley, west of Austin adjoining Northern Paiute territory. Con- tacts with Reese River, Austin, and Northern Pai- ute. Informant: TH. S-RsRi, Shoshoni on the upper (southern) por- tion of the Reese River, that is, south of Austin; also of Ione Valley to the west. Informants: MJ, 5Steward, 1933. 81934. from Ione Valley; JF, from Reese River; inte preter: GJ. S-Mor, Shoshoni of Morey, a former stage tion on the road which ran from Hot Creek no to Eureka. Information applicable to Little Smoky Valley and somewhat to Duckwater to th east, where there is now a Shoshoni colony. formant: BH. S-Hmlt, Shoshoni of Hamilton in the White Mountains, west of Ely. Information generall applicable to Jake's Valley, White Sage Vall Butte Valley, and Newark Valley. Informants: and JW, HJ interpreting. Some notes are adda Shoshoni of Diamond Va ley to the north, SF formant. S-Ely, Shoshoni of Ely, Nevada. Informati applicable to southern end of Steptoe Valley Informant: AR. S-SprV, Shoshoni of Spring Valley and the neighboring Antelope Valley and Snake Valley Contacts with Steptoe Valley Shoshoni, with, Gosiute of Deep Creek and vicinity, and some with Ute of the Sevier Desert, Utah, and wit Southern Paiute to the south. There was no s distinction between S-SprV and neighboring O siute who are also Shoshoni. (The latter wil described in a future list.) S-Elko, Shoshoni of Elko, on the Humboldt River. Information probably also applicable Dixie Valley, South Fork Valley, and comm.un4 along the Humboldt River for forty or fifty miles in each direction. Informant: BG. S-Egan, Shoshoni of Egan Canyon, adjoini Steptoe Valley on the west, near Cherry Cre Information claimed by BM to be applicable northern portion of Steptoe Valley, Butte V ley, Long Valley, and Ruby Valley. S-RubV, Shoshoni of Ruby Valley, a well- watered and densely populated region lying of the Ruby Mountains and southeast of Elko formant: RVJ. S-SnRv, Shoshoni of Snake River, southe Idaho. Information applicable to the stret river below Tvin Falls, in the vicinity of neau. Contacts with some North Fork and B River Shoshoni during the summer in the hi lands near the present Western Shoshoni Res tion; also with Boise Shoshoni and with For Hall Shoshoni and Bannock who, a century a were traveling down the Snake River on hors back. Informant: CT; interpreter: TP. S-BtlM, Shoshoni of Battle Mountain, on Humboldt River, Nevada. Contacts with nei ing Shoshoni and with Northern Paiute of mucca and vicinity. Informant: JP; interpre TP. NP-MC, Northern Paiute of Mill City, on Humboldt River a few miles southwest of W mucca. Informant: CTh. This group was pro closely connected with Paiute of Humboldt where Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins was born. romantic and imaginative, some of her stat seem reasonably reliable and have been inc in notes for comparative purposes. Informants were as follows: AC, full-blood Shoshoni woman, born ca. at Duckwater, now living at Ely; reasonabi 212 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI nt but used only a short time for informa- Duckwater and Railroad Valley. half-Negro, half-Southern Paiute man; born S at Las Vegas; has lived mostly at Pah- sh Meadows, and Las Vegas; now at Ash ; intelligent, coopera ive, speaks English lost facts for the SP-Ash list, however, pplied by his wife, MHo. hzlf-blood (?) Northern Paiute man, born *5 at Lone Pine, Owens Valley, California, e now lives; knowledge limited; supplied entary information on Owens Valley. half-blood (?) Shoshoni woman, born ca. 1875 at Ely, Nevada; now lives at Ely. fair; knowledge limited; some guessing dent. The list S-Ely is not only incom- ut somewhat unreliable. full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1865 at Ue Springs in northern Death Valley; co- ave, well-informed on Death Valley groups; h poor; supplied list S-DthV, which is one best. "full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1875 lko; went to school when child at Elko; in- ion on Elko region fairly extensive and ly fairly reliable, though possibly colored I by imagination; has been a blood-letting q supplied list S-Elko. full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1875 at In Little Smoky Valley; now lives at Duck- but has lived at Fallon. Fairly well in- and extremely conscientious; English fair. ea list S-Mor, which is reliable. full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1855 in inyon; has lived for some time in Ruby Val- odperative and well informed but his infor- undoubtedly came from both Egan Canyon and alley, which he claims were identical; sup- list S-Egan, which is not identical with ,AubV supplied by RVJ. full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1874 at tn the Snake River, Idaho; went to Owyhee fn Shoshoni Reservation) at the age of 26; nformed, cobperative, very conscientious a of the best informants but needs inter- I(TP was interpreter); supplied list S-SnRv, ting to distinguish what he knew to exist iSnake River from what he had subsequently r heard at Owyhee. , full-blood Northern Paiute man, born ca. mar Mill City and raised in vicinity of Vista Valley, mostly among white people; as army scout for some years; went to Owy- 1889 where he has remained since. Very co- lve; English good; knowledge limited. Sup- list NP-MC, which is incomplete but prob- eliable so far as it goes, though long con- ith Shoshoni may have confused him on some 50* full-blood Shoshoni woman; S-Lida; daughter ,basket weaver. full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1855 in ralley, south of Battle Mountain; lived as I at Austin, then went to Carlin, Echo Can- od finally to Owyhee when the reservation wded. Information somewhat limited, English ras used only for supplementary material. $ording to Dr. 0. C. Stewart, CTh was a od'o'kadb Northern Paiute. See map 1 in ) (no. 3), 1939.-A.L.K. GH, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1845 at Grapevine Springs, Death Valley; remembers the first arrival of white people when he was a small boy; has subsequently lived in or near Death Valley and now is at Indian Springs, Pana- mint Valley, where he has had a ranch for many years. He is well informed and co6perative, but needs an interpreter. As none was available, he gave only odds and ends of information which apply to Death Valley and to Shoshoni of the northern end of Panamint Valley. GG, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1860 at Little Lake, California, and has subsequently lived at Little Lake, Koso Springs, Darwin, and Olancha. Co6perative, well informed, and speaks sufficient English. A list was not procured from him, but many facts are added to the lists as comparative notes. GJ, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1900 probably at Fallon; son of MJ and stepson of JF for whom he interpreted; excellent interpreter. GM, full-blood (?) Shoshoni man, born ca. 1890 near Eureka; added a few points of compara- tive interest as noted. GR, full-blood Northern Paiute man, born ca. 1870 at George's Creek, near Independence, Owens Valley, California. Intelligent, well informed, and English good. Gave a few points of compara- tive interest on George's Creek band, as noted. HJ, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1870 or 1875 at Hamilton; information fairly extensive but English poor; is very mercenary, though reasonably re iable. JA, full-blood Northern Paiute man, born ca. 1865 in Deep Springs Valley, which lies between Owens Valley and Fish Lake Valley, California. Sup- plied a few points of comparative interest. JF, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1870 or 1875 in Ione Valley and subsequently moved to Fallon, where he now lives with his wife, MJ, and stepson, GJ (latter interpreted for him). In- formation fairly extensive and reliable except where affected by his association on the reser- vation with Northern Paiute and with Shoshoni from other localities. With MJ, he supplied list S-RsRi. JH, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1885 in Saline Valley and has subsequently lived there and in Death Valley, Darwin, and Owens Valley. Supplied a few supplementary facts concerning Same Valley Shoshoni and made several specimens of games. JK, full-blood Shoshoni woman, born ca. 1875 at Hot Springs in Great Smoky Valley, married a man from the Kawich region to the east, but spent most of her life among white people and has lived for some time at Fallon. Very amiable and coopera- tive but information is poor and much was sheer guess. Supplied list S-GSmV, which is very unreli- able. JP, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1850 or 1855 at Battle Mountain; has lived at Owyhee many years. Is well informed, cooperative, and one of the best informants, but needs interpreter (TP interpreted); gave the S-BtIM list, which is un- usually full and reliable and, being a shaman himself, particularly good on shamanism. JR, full-blood (?) Shoshoni man, born ca. 1880 in Spring Valley and has lived there, at Baker, 213 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS and at Ely since; information fair; cooperation poor; English good; possibly unreliable and prone to guess concerning matters not known to him. Gave list S-SprV, which is probably reliable ex- cept as indicated. JS, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1850 at Lida, Nevada, but was raised at Belmont in Ral- ston Valley north of Tonopah, returning to Lida at the age of 15; now lives at Cow Camp near Sil- ver Peak, Nevada. Codperative, intelligent, speaks fair English, knowledge extensive but probably involves much confusion between prac- tices at Lida and Belmont, though list purports to apply only to Lida. JW, full-blood Shoshoni woman, born ca. 1850 near Hamilton. Largely incompetent as an inform- ant due to embarrassment rather than ill-will, but supplied some information on S-Hmlt through HJ, interpreting. 1BM, full-blood Shoshoni woman, S-RubV, BM's wife. MH, full-blood Northern Paiute woman, born ca. 1850 near Hamil, north of Bishop, Owens Valley, California, but raised in Fish Lake Valley, liv- ing there until recently; married polygynously to a half-Paiute, half-Shoshoni from Lida. Very codperative; information fair but somewhat diffi- cult to extract; English poor. TS interpreted, which probably made some elements unduly resemble NP-FSp. Suplied entire list for NP-FLk. MHa, full-blood Shoshoni woman, S-DthV; GH's niece; basket weaver. MHo, full-blood Southern Paiute woman, born ca. 1875 and raised at Pahrump, subsequently mar- rying AH and living at Ash Meadows. Speaks little English and alone she would be uncodperative but seems well informed and supplied most of AH's in- formation in the list SP-Ash, which is fairly com- plete and reliable. MJ, full-blood Shoshoni woman, born ca. 1870 or 1875 in Ione Valley; fairly co6perative and well informed; with her husband, JF, and her son GJ interpreting, she supplied information for the list S-RsRi, which actually is a joint list for Ione Valley and Reese River. MJa, Shoshoni woman, S-RsRi; basket weaver. MS, three-quarters Southern Paiute, one-quarter Shoshoni, born ca. 1865 at Ash Meadows where she still lives. Friendly and cooperative, but knowl- edge limited on many matters and English very poor. Supplied a few points of comparative inter- est. MM, full-blood Shoshoni woman, born ca. 1885 at Ruby Valley (?); is RVJ's daughter, for whom she did some interpreting; supplied information on birth and menstrual customs in list S-RubV. PH, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1870 or 1875 at Morey in Little Smoky Valley; is older brother of BH; unwilling informant; extent of in- formation unknown; English poor; supplied only a few supplementary facts. PW, full-blood Shoshoni woman, born ca. 1870 near Elko; not used as informant, but is willing and well informed and would probably be excel- lent; made many specimens (as noted throughout) now in Peabody Museum of Harvard University. RVJ, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1840 or 1845 in Ruby Valley; early life spent near Over- land in Ruby Valley and near Medicine Springs in *the Cedar Mountains. Extremely well informe4 operative, and reliable; but English poor al very feeble. Supplied list S-RubV, his dau MM interpreting on some parts when necessar SF, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 18 Mineral Hill, northwest of Eureka in Pine Ct Valley; willing and has some information bul able to formulate it; with HJ interpreting,. supplied facts of comparative interest on P1 Creek and Diamond valleys, which are added u notes. SS, full-blood Shoshoni woman, born ca. in Saline Valley, California; sup-pnlied only. small amount of information; excellent weavt supplying several baskets collected for the? body Museum of Harvard University. TD, full-blood Shoshoni woman, daughter S-DthV; expert basket weaver. TH, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 18. 1875 near Alpine in Smith Creek Valley, wea Austin; fairly well informed; passable Eng intelligent, conscientious, and exceptiona amiable; supplied all of list S-SmCr, which not complete but is fairly reliable. TP, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 18 Owyhee on Western Shoshoni Reservation; we through seven grades at Carlisle and retur Owyhee; is exceptional interpreter, servin CT and JP; also sup plied some information cerning North Fork (of the Humboldt) Shosh learned from his mother who was born there father, an Elko Shoshoni). TS, Northern Paiute man, born 1887 at Ft Springs, Owens Valley. Has an extraordinar ory of information from his grandfather; i gent, co6perative, and reliable, being exe both as informant and interpreter. Supp lie NP-FSp and interpreted for Mu on list NP-F TSp, one-quarter Shoshoni, one-quarter su, born ca. 1885 in Panamint Valley; supp vocabulary of Panamint Kawaiisu, establish fact that these people had occupied most o mint Valley and mixed, in the northern port it, with Shoshoni. TSt, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. near Beatty, at or near which he has subse lived; cooperative, well informed, intelli and careful; one of the best informants; fair. Provided list S-Bty. WP, full-blood Shoshoni man, born ca. 1 Saline Valley; cooperated with JH, his unc making several specimens for Peabody Muse Harvard University. The Great Basin Environment Shoshoneans dwelled in an exceptionally fertile area, which necessarily had an Imp determining effect upon many of their acti With the exception of the Snake River Ri cuts through the Columbia lava plateau and into the Columbia River, the entire area t here falls within the Great Basin. It is a from which no streams find egress to the si flowing instead into alkaline lakes or dvi into salt playas which occur in most of th graded valley plains. Large-game animals w relatively scarce, sustenance being drawn 214 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI Ddents and especially from seeds which grew s-cattered. The specific components of Wssemblages vary with altitude and somewhat ititude, but everywhere the valleys and t the mountains are covered with only high- jphytic shrubs, most of which are inedible mn beings. Of the various species, the pmmon are sage, especially Artemisia tri- * and rabbit brush, which grow throughout *a. In the low altitudes in. the south, e brush and greasewood are common and Ii some mesquite, tree yucca or Joshua i.a screw bean, the last three edible. ore, the common shadscales, greasewood, p were largely useless except for fuel or ihich was used for some manufacturing. preous growth in the valleys is restricted lows and cottonwoods, which fringe the few M. Mountains, favored with greater rain- jupport junipers (Juniperus utahensis), pocally are called cedars, pine-nut or trees (Pinus monophylla), which grew as far ,pproximately as the Humboldt River and were t important single food plant, mountain py in the northern part of the area, and a tens, firs, pines, and spruces in the high- es. geographical features of certain regions pronounced effect upon population density tribution and consequently upon the nature anization of communities. Valley, classed as the Outer Great Ba- ay at an altitude of 4000 feet at the foot Sierra Nevada Mountains which, surpassing s of 14,000 feet, provided varied zones ral resources ranging up to the Alpine and se to many streams which increased the fer- of the otherwise arid valley. Population se (1 person to 2 sq. mi.), comparatively and, though the Sierra constituted a for- barrier, in frequent contact with the cul- p the west. Valley is notable for its extreme geo- 1 variation. It ranges from a lower Sonor- , several hundred feet belowv sea level, "he summers are unbearably hot and water is y scarce but often poisonous, to a Hudson- D in summits of more than 11,000 feet on in the Panamint Mountains, where the are comparatively cool. Food resources rgely in the mountains, but so vast a por- the region is arid valley that the popu- s not one-fifteenth as dense as Owens Panamint Valley, Saline Valley and the IAke region are also low and arid, so that 3re sought in the mountains. ese general classifications are those given Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U.S. 0f Agr., on the map of Natural Land-Use f the United States, 1933. See also, "Land 1ication Report for Utah," compiled by John e and Depue Falck, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1932, map, 1931. Also, Chamberlin, 1911. A vast area lying just east of the Nevada- California boundary is relatively low and arid intermontane semidesert and includes the Amar- gosa Desert. Vast valleys devoid of water and supporting few edible seeds were virtually un- inhabited. These are interspersed with low moun- tain ranges which contain little water and had a few inhabitants. Farther north, in central and eastern Nevada, the land mass rises so that valley floors are 4000 to 6000 feet elevation and mountain summits attain 9000 to 12,000 feet. Greater rainfall-10 to 15 inches annually-produced slightly greater abun- dance of edible seeds and roots and, in the zones of mountain brush, edible berries, especially serviceberry. Population density varied greatly in separate localities, but averaged about 1 per- son to 35 square miles. Greatest density was where unusually high ranges gave rise to com- paratively large streams, notably, the Humboldt River where fishing aas of some importance, Ruby Valley, and Reese River Valley. Most of this re- gion has intense winter cold, uncomfortable sum- mer heat, and, as with the entire area, extreme diurnal temperature range. North of the Humboldt River the land rises to the southern Idaho highlands near the Idaho- Nevada boundary. This mountain mass, which sepa- rates the Great Basin from the Snake River drain- age, was too cold for winter habitation but was visited in summer by Shoshoni from the north and south and by some Northern Paiute living immedi- ately to the west. The Snake River plains of southern Idaho con- sist largely of lava plains, through which the river flows in a deep gorge. Lying at an altitude of only 2500-3500 feet, this plain has compara- tively mild winters, hot summers. Salmon, running up the Snake River to Twin Falls and up various tributaries below Twin Falls, helped support settlements on these watercourses. Other foods, however, were uncommonly scarce as the desert plains enjoyed less than 5 inches of rain annu- ally and supported few edible seeds. Vegetable foods required long treks either to the high- lands to the south or to the camass prairies on the headwaters of the Boise River to the north. Large game could be had only in the distant mountains and the scarcity of skins forced peo- ple to use sage bark for many purposes. Shoshonean or Great Basin Culture A characterization of the distinctive features of the Great Basin Shoshonean culture has hereto- fore been impossible because of lack of informa- tion from large portions of the area. Wissler,e having available only a portion of Lowie's pioneering researches,9 divided it between the 8Pp. 218-242. 9l909, 1923, 1924. Kroeber, 1925:589-592, in- cluded a little information on the KOBO or Pana- mint, here called Panamint Valley Shoshoni. 215 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Plains, Plateau, California, and Southwest. Partial justification for this is the fact that marginal portions of the Basin are strongly stamped with traits from neighboring areas. Northern Paiute of eastern California and western Nevada resemble California in many positive traits. Wyoming Sho- shoni are a thoroughgoing Plains people and even eastern Idaho Shoshoni and Utah Ute possess such Plains traits as horse travel, the tipi, travois, roving bands under strong chiefs, importance of warfare, and others. Many southern Shoshoneans, especially some Southern Paiute and Ute, possess a little horticulture and a few other features relating them to some Southwestern tribes, though their true position is at present unknown. The present survey has covered peripheral parts of the Basin only in the south and west, where some California influence is manifest. Its impor- tance, however, lies in the information coming from the Shoshoni of central Nevada, who had no direct contact with neighboring areas and who consequently possessed a culture which was little affected by influences from other areas. The culture of central and northern Nevada had few distinctive, positive traits. Most of the characteristic elements are of material culture. They are general in the Shoshonean area, many having their roots in the Basket Maker cultures of the Colorado plateau, many being shared by present cultures to the north and the south in similar arid environments. These elements include: in basketry, conical (as against rectangular, cylindrical, or rounded) burden and seed baskets, seed beaters, parching trays, pitch-covered water jug or olla, general use of twining in eastern Nevada; rodent skewer; antelope shamanism; long rabbit net; combination net and noose for rab- bits; probably cradles having the rod rim filled with either horizontal or vertical rods; woman's twined bark hat or helmet; bark-bundle slow match; compound fire drill; possibly the dome-shaped, willow house; some local modifications of widely distributed traits, such as 8 as the usual number of dice. In nonmaterial traits, the village com- munities and their interrelations through communal endeavors achieved distinctive forms in accordance with local ecology. The circle dance is probably to be accredited to Shoshoneans, as is the Bear dance, which, until recently, was restricted to the Ute. The myth pattern is in some respects dis- tinctive. All other traits are either general or ancient in America or vvere clearly borrowed from neighbor- ing areas and attained only partial distribution in the Great Basin. The Gosiute and Nevada Shosho- ni to their west were least affected by borrowing, though by no means devoid of outside influence. Passing from this center of the Basin area, the effect of borrowing is cumulative in any direc- tion. Besides the numerical paucity of elements, a characteristic of Basin culture is its lack of a strong, readily definable pattern. Borrowed traits, though often modified in minor detail, were not remodeled to fit a rigid, local sch Few activities, in fact, were set in context supporting beliefs and practices that would them stability and direction. Instead, each tended to be isolated, carried on for its ow sake, serving only direct needs and lacking I tricate functional connections with other ach ities. Thus, economic life, difficult becaus4 the environment and limited in material aids was almost totally devoid of ritual, of conni tion with social groups other than the famil: or of such social concepts as band or other erty rights. It was essentially concerned wi the survival of the individual family. The rt lated political and social life, which will described fully in a future paper, was simpi having few political controls, virtually no cial forms outside the family, even the vil1i being somewhat unstable. Games were played, myths were told, dances were danced largelyi immediate satisfaction; they served few or ritual or other purposes. Birth, puberty, death rites involved only the person conce and his immediate family; there was virtua participation by persons outside the famil Shamanism and the acquisition of guardian s its Nas simple, without great specializatio was the concern only of individuals. In short, Basin culture, whether overlai with borrowings or remaining relatively imp erished, is essentially practical. Native r sourcefulness is manifest today in the abi to utilize the discarded materials of the ous town dumps for dwellings and other pur And native individualism lingers in the ten of many families to live alone or in small attached to towns or ranches or even in iso mountain canyons. Element Variability There has been some disposition in ethno studies to assume, at one extreme, that the ments comprising any complex are fortuitousl associated as the result of historical acci and are, therefore, united only by the bond locality, and, at the other extreme, that are so completely integrated by a prevailiz tern as to constitute an organic whole. An mediate view assumes that there is a varyi gree to which elements of different kinds. tegrated and consequently are susceptible change or to diffusion and that this may o established by analysis and comparisons. lem may be formulated in two ways. First, when the culture history of any is known through documentation or other re evidence, the question is one of the manne4 which the different parts of the culture with reference to one another. In spite of extreme view that culture is an organic wh4 it is self-evident when history is known the total culture does not change as anit grated unit; instead, its components obvio 216 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI I a varied and incomplete dependence upon one ther. Thus, in European culture, Christianity *cbanged slowly as compared with economic de- Oment, while certain games have been suddenly ted and as quickly abandoned as transient K Examining the history of each class of ele- W in a changing culture, it should be possi- to establish those which are so organically Ited that change in one necessarily affects rs and those which stand so relatively inde- hnt of the remainder that change in one will Vlittle or no effect upon the others. From ber angle, the problem is one of the influ- of the "great man" in history. Although the that the great man is the product rather Ithe cause of culture change is gaining as- incy, the question remains of stating which Ions of culture a great personality coupled ipropaganda may affect most readily. lecond, as documented history is available rfor the post-Caucasian period of the Great n, during which time the cultures have been ihelmed rather than changed in an orderly er, and as the pre-Caucasian history of only rtion of the elements can be reconstructed i reasonable certainty, it is necessary to es- ish the comparative susceptibility to change he various classes of elements by other means. may be accomplished by: comparative distribu- s, which in many instances show elements which and have not been adopted from neighboring 5 into the Basin culture; by analyses of the irrelations of the elements to one another; and elating all the elements to the basic ecol- ortunately in the area under consideration the ical environment, which is the one unalterable to which cultures had to adjust themselves, lelatively homogeneous and the economic traits ected with it comparatively uniform. Examin- each type of element, it is seen that some, example social forms, bore so intimate a re- lationship to human ecology that they were largely predetermined and in turn predetermined other ele- ments. Other kinds of elements had such wide ap- peal that they were part of many unlike cultures in other areas. Whether such elements were vitally important, such as fire-making apparatus, whether they had deep emotional appeal, such as shaman- ism, or whether they had the fascination of fash- ion, such as styles of hair dressing, changes in the fundamental ecology or in other traits would not greatly affect them. Conversely, change or substitution in them would not greatly affect other traits. Still other traits are shown to be little integrated with the total cultures by the fact that they have only a partial distribution in this area and cut across other areas without respect to type cultures. The results of the comparisons and analysis, which are contained in the Ethnographic Discus- sion, are summarized and synthesized in Summary and Conclusions. The conclusions apply only to the area in question, though some might have wider applicability if tested for other areas. The simplicity of the Great Basin culture, how- ever, obviates many complexities, such as ritual, status, elaborate social divisions, and so forth, which elsewhere adhere to some traits in a man- ner to reinforce them and give them stability and direction. From the conclusion, it should be apparent: first, that as all elements cannot be consid- ered as equally susceptible to change by inven- tion or diffusion, a purely age-area method of historical reconstruction must be inaccurate to the extent to which it ignores the individuality of traits. Second, that different kinds of cul- ture elements are differently and unequallv in- tegrated into a "pattern," "configuration,t' or "organic whole." Third, that some areas will be very similar if certain kinds of traits are con- sidered and very different if others are chosen for comparison. 217 ETHNOGRAPHIC DISCUSSION [Figures 1-10 are in text of this section; figures 11-14 are in text in the section, "Eth- nographic Notes on the Element List." Notes mentioned herein refer to the section "Ethnographic Notes on the Element List." Paren- thetical numbers in the headings relate to ele- ment-list numbered traits.] SUBSISTENCE (1-577) As large game was relatively scarce, there was usually a shortage of meat, especially for stor- age, and of skins. Most persons subsisted to a very large extent and old persons who could not hunt subsisted entirely upon rodents, reptiles, insects, and seeds. At Willow Creek in eastern Nevada, Simpson met an old man who liked his country because "it had a great many rats."10 Hunting (1-409) Hunting depended upon the natural environ- ment, the nature and habits of game species, and the number of men available for hunting as well as upon the specific devices introduced into the area. Deer (1-27) Deer inhabited rugged mountains more often than flat valleys. They were probably the most important game in most of the area except in the vicinity of S-DthV and S-RsRi, where they were said to have been scarce. That deer were scattered and groups of hunters small made communal hunts rare and unimportant. Concerted drives were seldom possible. Deer were considered to be too agile and swift to be driven into corrals or over cliffs, though a few inform- ants claimed both methods. One device was to drive or entice them into brush wings which con- verged to a brush hurdle over which they jumped into a pit concealed behind the hurdle, a method which, in its general plan, was derived from the north.." Surrounds were accomplished by men con- verging on a locality rather than as herding, which was practicable in this area only with an- telope. But large surrounds were seldom possible because people were too scattered. S-Hmlt sometimes hunted cooperatively, several men making brush wings converging to a hurdle which concealed a hole, placed on a trail where deer traveled south in the fall, north in the spring. They were frightened (or attracted?) by a fire, Jumped over the barrier and were killed in the hole by a man watching it. The fences were called duhuyu (deer) gwep (fence). 'OP. 77. "E.g., the Nez Perce (Spinden, 214). [218' Deer charming, which was evidently a tran from antelope charming (see below), was somet accomplished by the antelope shaman, sometin by a person with a special power, the deer iu either case being attracted by singing.12 As4 antelope shamanizing, deer charming involved collective effort. Eureka Shoshoni made a device similar to at S-Hmlt, the pit being 5 feet wide, 20 fee long, 8 feet deep. Deer were attracted to it, shaman, who also directed the hunt (PH). S-E men built brush wings on Cedar Mountain, nea Ste ptoe Valley, on a trail where deer went s in the fall, and hunted 10 nights or longer, antelope shaman singing to attract deer. S-E made a corral with a fence 8 feet high; a E drew deer into it, then shot them. NP-MC, C grandfather, a deer shaman, sang and danced night to capture deers' souls, then drove t next day into a corral made of poles support' brush at intervals, where they were shot. Dogs were generally regarded as unsuited hunting deer, though used in northern Calif Most Shoshoni, moreover, said that formerly were rare. (See note 10.) Deer hunting was usually the task of one very few men and involved stalking, traili ambushing (note 14), all of vwhich were simp fairly effective methods. Most commonly a s hunter tracked a deer, shot it when he coul a poisoned arrow, and continued to track it it died (see note 18). The slight use of traps, nets, snares, a guises may relate partly to their ineffecti in lightly wooded country, partly to the p historical factor of time which prevented t diffusing farther. Disguises are northern, ing northern California,13 but are known s in the Southwest.14 Traps, nets, and snares, uncommon outside the Great Basin, except to' north, and within the Great Basin were used principally for small species. Lack of hunt ritual accords with the general lack of ril in the Basin. (See notes 23, 27.) Antelope (28-75) Antelope, living in valleys and foothil fairly numerous in the central and northerm of the area where they were hunted communa' NP-FSp, NP-FLk, SP-Ash, S-DthV, S-Bty, and they were either lacking or were too rare t rant communal hunts. 12Among Humboldt Lake Paiute, an applic this power to other species is indicated b Hopkins' statement that her brother could horses in the manner that her grandfather antelope (p. 57). 13Kroeber, 1925:528, 817. "-Spier, 1928:120-121. CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI ring in open country in large herds, they not be stalked, trailed, or ambushed as y as deer. The most effective method for ,dual hunting was stalking with an antelope t antelope hunting was communal, large num- f persons assembling from considerable dis- once or twice a year for that purpose. mplex included practical and magico-reli- 'measures and social features, and closely bled the Plains"5 and northern impounding of ba species, from whence it was probably de- The practical elements were: a leader (who ISO shaman); a drive to the corral by sev- 4unters (in some localities the antelope were to have been attracted to the corral by the s power, driving being unnecessary); a cor- ith wings converging to its opening (often, rral was of poles supporting brush to re- r people and spaced from 10 to 20 feet apart, people stationed in between them; in this ,it approximates a surround rather than true ; notes 27a, 29, 30, 31); shooting with ar- as the animals mill around inside the corral; ual division of the kill. o magico-religious measures were based upon isumption that a man with special supernatu- Dwer (the shaman-leader, who dreamed his ) could capture the antelopes' souls (the loss theory of disease is important among oneans), rendering them subservient to his and thus bring them into the corral from they were powerless to escape unless some a had broken a taboo during its construction. Lssumption capitalized upon antelope herd be- r and would have been less effective with species in this area. Shamanizing comprised ritual elements which were accessory to the Ll concept and partly depended upon the sha- vision. These were consequently somewhat )le: dances, songs, musical instruments, L paraphernalia, shaman's assistant, taboos 50), and the special archer. Some of these its had been taken from the generalized Basin ]'s complex-songs, smoking, pipe passing. iial features were dancing, singing, gamb- feasting, courting, and visiting with peo- rely seen during the remainder of the year. large gatherings could be fed only by the *arily increased food supply produced by a hunt. i following descriptions give detailed pic- of antelope drives: tlM. The drive was held at pu:wunuik: (plain it the foothills) near Iron Point. The shaman- was a Northern Paiute named musuwitsiium. he sent a scout to locate antelope. Next, ople built a long, roofless, oblong, sage- enclosure, puha (shaman's power) gahni ), with an open end toward the east. For L, a fire was built near the opening, another Lowie, 1935:72-74. near the western end where the shaman sat. People sat along both sides, smoking. Each passed the pipe with his right hand to the person on his left. After dark, when the scout was due to re- turn, they extinguished the fires. The scout re- ported to the shaman in a whisper and the sha- man's assistant, tegwowep (literally, "chief's agent" or speaker), announced his findings to the people, telling where the antelope had set- tled for the night. They always lie dowvn facing the same direction. The shaman rubbed a notched stick tied to the back of a tanned antelope hide (see note 38), which was stuffed with a grass (watsip) to resemble an antelope, and sang for about two hours. His song was of a kind of brush (sisovi) that antelope eat and about young ante- lope and their food. People near the shaman also sang. Meanwhile, a line of boys, the tallest near the shaman, the shortest near the opening, danced in imitation of antelope. They finally pretended to be very tired, indicating that the shaman had captured the antelopes' souls. After the dancing, the shaman, if powerful, fell down and bled through his nose (apparently like other shamans, the most powerful of whom go into a trance), proving that he had taken the antelopes' souls. Upon getting to his feet, he told his dream: "I saw a crow flying around at a bloody spot. I do not know whether I have the antelopes' souls, but this is a good sign. Their souls are gone.", Early next morning, the people made a cor- ral of a series of piles of brush or stone. Men, women, and children (recently on horseback) drove the antelope to the corral. The shaman stood at the opening and "closed" the gate with a fire when they were inside. As the animals milled around, an expert archer shot their leader. If he missed, the spell was broken and they escaped. If he killed the first, the others could not es- cape and were shot by all the hunters, though it is said that they would have died nevertheless. All the antelope, including females and young, were killed. They were placed in a pile and di- vided among the families present, the shaman re- ceiving the same share as the others. It was said that among Indians to the south, a man always died because of the shaman's power, but that this never happened at S-BtlM. Some antelope shamans, JP said, are quacks. S-RsRi. The corral was built of sage piled on bushes to make a crude, circular fence one mile in diameter. Wings led to an opening about one- half mile -wide, which was closed with brush when the antelope were inside. The shaman, whose power came from dreaming of an antelope hunt, sang all night by a fire, accompanied by a notched stick, ceasing at dawn. People joined him in singing. In the morning, the shaman lay in the center of the corral to attract the antelope, while some people drove them and others surrounded the cor- ral. The antelope milled around until tired, when a good archer shot one. To miss the first broke the spell and the antelope escaped. After the first was killed, anyone might shoot. The kill was divided equally among those present, but the shaman received the two largest. JF and GJ heard that at Eureka some man was always bewitched by the shaman, apparently inadvertently, and died at the end of the hunt. This never happened at S- RsRi. 219 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS S-Mor and Eureka Shoshoni, according to PH, hunted antelope in the spring before seeds rip- ened. The shaman sang for one month, while a cor- ral 2 feet high, one-half mile in diameter, was built of brush called nadunsanabits. Each day a different man went out to observe the animals and reported their whereabouts. While singing, the shaman's soul departed to bring in the antelope. They entered the corral so charmed that a person could walk up to them and cut their throats, but a good archer had to kill one with his first shot or the charm would have failed. Then everyone shot. The shaman's power was so great that once a woman and child, who were standing near the wings of the corral, were killed. S-Egan. A shaman sang all night for 5 nights. Men drove the antelope to the corral, where the shaman and old men remained singing by a fire on one side of the opening. Other men were stationed along the wings. Railroad Valley Shoshoni. HJ said his great- uncle sang without any musical instrument for 5 nights in the village, accompanied by the people. He also walked around, charming the antelope and instructing the people about the hunt. Young women, who were painted, meanwhile danced. At in- tervals a pipe, 18 inches long, was passed around the audience. On the last night, two or three men went out to drive in the animals which were met by the shaman a short distance from the corral and "led in." S-Hmlt. JW thought the shaman's power came from dreaming of himself. He captured ant elope's souls (asiap:, breath) so that they were already "dead" when they entered the corral and could not be frightened. Hence, a special archer was unneces- sary. HJ and JW heard that elsewhere the shaman's power always killed an Indian but denied this of Railroad Valley and S-Hmlt. NP-MC. CTh's grandfather, an antelope shaman, captured antelopes' souls somehow by sucking (not the antelope, of course), then spat them into his hand where they moved around like miniature ante- lope. After the antelope were corralled, the first killed was eaten by everyone to insure success in subsequent hunts. S-RubV. Figure l,f shows the plan of the cor- ral. There is one like this near Mud Springs, an- other east of Wells. TSt described from hearsay the following ante- lope hunt of the Kawich region north of Beatty. An antelope shaman, with power from a bird, di- rected the hunt. During several days he built a corral a mile in circumference, made of poles covered with brush and placed at intervals. When complete, the shaman sat in the corral by a fire all night rubbing a notched stick and singing of a spirit which he sent out to bring in the ante- lope. During the night, the antelope were drawn into the corral. In the morning, hunters sta- tioned themselves between the corral posts, sur- rounding the antelope. Two expert archers chosen by the shaman stood on each side of the opening and shot first. If each killed an antelope with his first shot, the fence became invulnerable so that escape was impossible. To miss broke the spell and the antemlope fled through the fence. After the first two were killed, other hunters shot. At the end of the day, the antelope were butchered and the hunt was concluded. TSt sai that after the hunt, the shaman always bewitc one good, handsome man, who died-a fact that deplored. Thus, each hunt cost the life of oD man. Shoshoni of Little Lake hunted antelope co munally under the direction of a man who was&8 a shaman. Aided by fire, they drove antelope) a circular corral, without wings, made of pox placed at intervals. Archers, standing betwee the posts, shot the animals as they circled ( See also notes 27a-60. Northern Paiute, of George's Creek, Owens ley, hunted antelope similarly, but the corra had wings (GR). The most important technique for antelope] ing by individuals was with a disguise (see I guises," below, and note 74), used everywhere cept in the southern portion of the area. Th hunter wore a skin and a mask made of a male! telope head with horns, and held his bow in hand and a stick in the other to resemble fr legs. He stalked the herd until he was withi, shooting distance. Among S-SnRv, only young males were imper ated because an old male would charge a hunt who resembled a full-grown male. Among S-Bt1 the disguised hunter stood near bushes, perh all day, and, when a male saw him and charge he stepped behind the bush and shot. Mountain Sheep (76-91) Except along the Snake River, mountain sh were formerly everywhere numerous, but, livi among precipitous mountain summits, they we difficult to hunt. Ambushing, stalking, or ing onto cliffs were most effective. For the last, dogs, which were little used for other hunting, were employed. A Bpecial device to attract rams to the bush was thumping logs together. The animals: thinking other rams were fighting, came to X vestigate and were shot by the concealed hun er. (Note 85.) Enclosures (note 81), traps, nets, and s' were believed to be ineffective. Disguises, though used elsewhere,18 were rare, S-BtlM ing that a sheep's head with horns was too S-Hmlt, however, said that a headgear with horns, like those of the ewe, was used to a rams. Communal Rabbit Hunt (92-99) Rabbits, which were numerous in the wide valleys, were, like antelope, hunted coImun but without shamanism. Because a major purm the hunt was to provide skins for woven bla (see below), hunts were usually held in the, when the furs were in good condition. The 18Spier, 1928:120-121. 220 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI b c I r a c g I g d e 5 h k ig. 1. a, fish net, S-SnRv. b, fish dams with sts, S-BtlM. c, type of twined basket used in d, bird cage, S-DthV. e, twined fish basket, Ry. f, plan of antelope corral, S-RubV. g, -hen net and brush wings, S-Egan and S-BtlM. Fig. 2. a, self bow, S-SnRv. b, wildcat-fur quiver, S-SnRv. c, side-notched arrow point. d, corner-notched arrow point. e, wooden arrow point with cross sticks for small birds. f, 2-prong fish arrow. g, harpoon, S-SnRv. h, 3-piece bone head for S-SnRv harpoon, shown unassembled. i, mush stirrer, S-Elko. j, bone fishhook, S-SnRv. k, method of meas- uring shell money, S-DthV. A A camps A X Shamnan A A camPs A 221 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS procured helped to support the large temporary gathering of people, but was not preserved for subsequent use, informants stating that it would not keep. Generally the drive was held at pine- nut time by persons assembled in the regions of abundant nuts. Men hunted while women gathered pine nuts. S-BtlM held drives along the Humboldt River at intervals during the winter. Some men made blan- kets to barter. NP-FSp and NP-FLk hunted in Octo- ber or November and held a circle dance at the same time. S-SmCr hunted after the annual fall dance and festival. S-Elko hunted in December. S-Egan, S-RubV, and NP-MC, and probably others hunted after pine-nut harvesting. Gambling, danc- ing, and courting but no religious rites accom- panied most hunts. The drives, lasting several days to a month or six weeks (note 99), required a leader. Each day groups of men armed with clubs and bows and arrows drove rabbits across a stretch of country designated by the leader to long nets which were placed end to end (note 92). Each net was owned by an individual. Rabbit arrows had sharp wooden foreshafts but never stone points. Clubs had no standard form. Among S-Mor, the club was any stick, 2 or 3 feet long. Among S-Egan, a mountain mahogany stick, 1-2 feet long, slightly curved bu not .flattened as in the Southwest. Clubs were some- times thrown. Though rabbit drives were common wherever rab- bits were abundant and the country largely unfor- ested throughout the Plateau, Great Basin, South- west, and southern California, the net was used only on the western fringe of the Southwest, in southern California, and among other California tribes bordering the Basin."7 This limited dis- tribution of the net might be interpreted as in- dicating its recency, but identical nets have been found in Basket Maker II sites in northeast- ern Arizona. 18 The specially shaped Southwestern form of rab- bit club seems not to have penetrated the Basin. Snares, Nets, Traps, Etc. (100-191) Many of the absences for snares, nets, traps, etc., are undoubtedly only informants' ignorance, not true absences. In fact, data on traps in gen- eral and bird nets in particular are somewhat un- reliable, because it was rarely possible to ob- tain more than poor oral descriptions from inform- ants who had not seen these devices for many years. It is certain, however, that they were used predominantly for small game and birds. 17 Spier, 1928:121. Nez Perce used a seine-like net combined with a corral (Spinden, 214). 18 Guernsey and Kidder, 1921:77-79. "Spring-pole traps" are bent-over poles, b ing a string and noose so affixed that a trig releases the pole which straightens up, pulli the noose around the animal. The noose may be placed over a hole covered with grass, in a f opening, or on a game trail. It was for small mammals and birds only and was often set near spring. It is probable that deer were too sea and the brush too sparse to allow well-define game trails upon which it could be used, as i northern California; it should be noted, howe that the Luiseno used it.19 Bird nets seem most often to have been use for sage hens, which were caught early in the morning when the roosters "danced." Antelope guises were often used to herd the birds. App ently three kinds of nets were used. One, dom shaped, 15-20 feet in diameter, had its openi preferably by a stream. Rabbits or quail migb also run into this. S-BtlM described this type as placed over water, one edge staked to the ground, the oth propped so as to fall easily. When sage hens under it, the hunter threw a stick which frig ened them so that they knocked down the net. cord placed in some manner around its lower e tightened so that they could not escape. A second type is tunnel-shaped and was pie over a series of willow arches or wickets abc 3 feet high, made by placing pairs of willow' the ground and bending their ends over and t1 them together. The third, used at S-BtlM, is probably li1 the last but employed a rabbit net (fig. l,g1 A hunter in antelope disguise drove the b into brush wings, 1 foot high and up to 100 long, which converged to the net opening. U trying to escape, the birds were ensnared or the net drop by loosening a key prop. Somet' a concealed hunter collapsed the net by pull string; this is designated the "pull-over t The "sack type" of net is placed vertical across a game trail and is constructed so t an animal, upon running into it, tightens a drawstring around its edge, making it like a sack or bag from which escape is impossible. This is probably very similar to that from Basket Maker II site in southern Utah.20 See also notes 100-134. Nooses on pegs, in trails, or in other ar rangements are fairly old, being found in Ba Maker II sites"' and known from other areas. Probably the usual Paiute and Shoshoni de fall was supported by the figure-4 type22 tr ger. The "2-stick type" (fig. 6,n, p. 229) '9Kroeber, 1925:86, 213, 295, 528, 652. 20Kidder and Guernsey, 1922:145-147. 21Kidder and Guernsey, op. cit. Also fo Basket Maker-Puebloan sites in Utah (Morss, 22 Steward, 1933, fig. 2. 222 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWIARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI I e \ u ~~~f} g V1 2~~~~~ q r s t u v w x Fig. 3. a-c, pot rims from Owens Valley. d-f, pot rims from Nevada. g, h, side and top views of grooved arrow straightener, found in Death Valley. i, flint knife in wooden handle, found in Death Valley. j, grooved arrow straightener, found in Death Valley. k, cactus needle awl with pitch handle, found in Death Valley. l-x, flints from archaeological site in Great Smoky Valley, 10 miles east of Austin, Nevada. 223 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS tilted rock supported by a small vertical stick which rested precariously on bait placed on a horizontal stick lying on the ground.23 S-BtlM thought that the first was used without bait, the second with bait. Deadfalls were usually placed at the holes of such burrowing animals as gophers and ground hogs. Pitfalls have a northern distribution, where, also, blinds are often pits and where deer chutes are equipped with pits. Ducks were rare in most parts of Shoshoni ter- ritory. Stuffed decoys were used occasionally. The "birdskin over head" is a complete duckskin mask worn by the hunter who swims among ducks, seizes their legs and pulls them under water. Waterfowl Drives (192-200) Communal waterfowl drives and use of animal dis- guises for stalking fowl are probably more wide- spread than recorded. S-BtIM said drives were for young mud hens and ducks, many people driving them away from water while other persons who were sta- tioned at intervals helped surround them and pre- vented their hiding in the grass. Fowl were killed with clubs or by wringing their necks. Miscellaneous (201-221) The rodent skewer is a stick usually having a short fork at one end. It is thrust into a ro- dent's burrow and twisted into the animal's skin to draw him out. It was of much importance because of the great reliance upon rodents. Related forms of rodent sticks are known in the Southwest.24 The reptile hook is used in Death Valley region for pulling chuckwallas from cracks in rocks. A reptile hook in the Eastern California Mu- seum at Independence, California, obtained in Death Valley, is a wooden stick, about 18 inches long, with a single bone barb about 1 inch long affixed to one end. Smoking rodents out of dens and burrows and flooding them out of holes by diverting streams were common. Rodents were usually carried by thrusting their heads under the belt encircling the hunter's waist. Eagle Catching (223-245) Aeries appear to have been owned by individ- uals in most localities,25 S-Egan even stating 23This is evidently the Nez Perc6e "T-trap.?l Spinden (p. 214) suspects the figure-4 type of being post-Caucasian among Nez Perce. 24 Spier, 1928:121. 25This is an unexplainable exception to the general absence of private property in natural resources. Aeries were sometimes privately owned in southern California (Kroeber, 1925:608, 676); here and among Havasupai, eagles were brought to the village and reared (Spier, 1928:151-152). that a thief would have been killed. S-BtlMi unusual in claiming that anyone who could cl cliffs was at liberty to take eagles, but th few men could climb. In most of the area, young eagles were ta from the nest. The dangers attending climbin usually restricted the undertaking to men po sessing special climbing power (see p. 264) Among S-SmCr, a man once climbed to an ae and was stranded there for two weeks, eating some of the rabbits brought by the adult' eag for their young. When the young were nearly grown, the man, who was now thin, seized two them by their legs and they carried him slow to the ground. Among S-SnRv, the hunter cl i up the cliff carrying a cage, put the young eagles in it and continued up the cliff to top. Among S-SprV, there were twenty nests the rocks at a certain place near Cleveland. hunter removed his moccasins, climbed to the killed the adult eagles for their feathers b did not molest the young. S-SmCr recently ened young eagles from e nest by lowering coal-oil can on a rope from the cliff above Unusual eagle-catching methods were: S-B use of a net by a spring (note 127); S-DthV' catching of adult eagles in a spring-pole t. according to GH, who denied that young were. taken from the nest and reared; S-SprV and occasional use of the deadfall which, 'howe was intended for other animals and caught inadvertently. The Plains method of catching eagles fr pit was little used. S-RubV made a small, shaped house with a hole in the top beside meat was placed as bait. When an eagle, es cially a young one, lighted on the house, hunter seized him by the feet and dragged down, plucked his feathers and released Eagles reared at the village were kept cages or merely tied up. Their feathers we for arrows, sometimes for dances, for bart by shamans; down was also used by shamans. S-BtlM. JP's father kept eagles tied to near his home. Young eagles would remain n untied, if older ones were secured. They gophers and young ground hogs, the entire including the bones being ground in a mort placed on the end of a long stick when giv When full grown, the eagles' tail feathers sometimes secondary wing feathers were pl The birds were taken to the cliff and rele JP's father saying, "Your mother and fathe see you flying in the sky. They will take you. You will live." Raising Other Birds (246-251) Various birds, taken from the nest whe were raised, usually in cages, as househo 26 Taking young from the nest and catch eagles from pits were both known to Nez (Spinden, 215). 224 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI b f r F - a h I, ,'II I, I,I, ,II I, e I I 1. II I II I II I 8 I i I II ,II 8 d i i k I - 10 4. a, flute, S-SnRv. b, skin rattle on stick, found in Death Valley. c, stone pipe, wooden han- Wond Valley Shoshoni. d, stone tubular pipe, found near Elko. e, tubular pottery pipe, S-DthV. in whirrer for bull-roarer, Saline Valley Shoshoni. g, slow match of sage bark, S-Elko. h, Dot brush, S-SnRv. i, twined ladle, S-Elko. j, tip of fire drill, point set in socket. k, tip drill, point spliced. 1, tip of fire drill, point in split. 225 I ; I 0 - - - -- ---- -- c I ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS The mockingbird, favored because of its songs and antics, and the magpie were most commonly kept. Figure l,d is a cage observed at S-DthV for the mockingbird and magpie. It is 2 feet high; of willow splints twined together with cloth; the bottom is of canvas (in former days of basketry); the door is twined willows, tied in place. Fishing (252-296) As the Great Basin is extremely arid and near- ly all lakes are alkaline, fish were large enough to be useful only in a few streams and rivers. In most regions they were very small or were absent. They were, however, seldom taboo. The main occurrence of fish was in Owens Riv- er, the Humboldt River, and the Snake River. Sal- mon occurred only in the last. The distribution of fishing methods is undoubtedly somewhat in- complete, as many details seem to have been for- gotten by informants, especially those of the Humboldt River which, because of irrigation, was reduced to a small trickle many years ago. Snake River Shoshoni, however, still use some ancient methods. It is evident that the specialized nets, weirs, harpoons, and hooks of the Snake River were borrowed from the north27 and diffused only so far as environment justified their use. Nets were uncommon, though a special form (element 255) was used on the Snake and Humboldt rivers. This special form was made of cord, aTgawana; a specimen (fig. l,a) was collected for the Pea- body Museum of Harvard University. On the Hum- boldt River, it was used by Shoshoni and possibly by Northern Paiute as follows: in summer, by a swimmer in deep water; in the fall, from a raft when fish were going downstream; in winter, through a hole in the ice, when an assistant drove fish toward it with a long pole thrust through a second hole. S-SnRv used it in the tributaries of the Snake River, though the Snake River itself was too large and deep. 7hen the net was full, the cord, held in the teeth, was pulled up and the two poles, held in each hand, were rolled together to make the net into a bag. Twined conical carrying or seed baskets were widely used to dip fish out of small streams by hand or were placed in dams and weirs. Special, long, narrow, twined fishing baskets were some- times made (fig. l,c,e; also, note 265). The long baskets, like figure l,c, S-BtlM, were 6-7 ft. long, expanding just below the mouth. In the spring and fall, they were placed in the Humboldt River (position as in fig. l,b). Fish swimming upstream entered an opening in the rock dam, were prevented from continuing upstream by the rock and willow fence, and, attempting to turn back, entered the baskets. The remains of a rock dam are in the Humboldt River, 13 miles 27 Cf. Spinden, 208-211; Lowie, 1909:185-187. west of Elko. A basket, 2 feet in diameter feet long, was placed at the junction of t two arms of the dam. Dams and weirs could be used in few pla the Snake River, which is too wide and dee were placed in its tributaries for the Marl of salmon. A twined basket (fig. l,e), hav sticks arranged in its mouth to permit the to swim in but not out, was placed in the of a V-dam, which had an opening next to t shore. Fish swam upstream through the open! were barred by a willow fence above, and ti back into the basket. Among Snake River Shoshoni, Bonneville3 served that in early spring many persons to the mountains for deer, elk, and mountal sheep; others fished aith traps. Below the Neuf River (probably below Twin Falls, ab which salmon did not go at the first sqr salmon run they made a 'fence of poles int woven with wythes and forming an angle in middle of the current, where a small open left for the salmon to pass.... [Here] t tion themselves on small rafts and ply th spears wvith great success."29 In a wide the river they barricaded channels betwee islands for spearing fish. They also spea falls.330 A two-pronged fish spear (like fig. 2, reported only by NP-FLk. It had a shaft o prongs of potonovii (greasewood ?). The si prong spear reported at S-Ely is doubtful great size of the Salmon River would have it impossible, in the absence of canoes, trieve fish killed with spears or arrows. other localities, fish were too small to The harpoon, however, was practicable in the Humboldt and Snake rivers and its pr therefore, is a function of local conditi well as opportunity for borrowing. The harpoon, figure 2,g,h, is a model S-SnRv type, made by Ben Boney for the P. Museum of Harvard University. Full-size are 12-14 feet long. The length is achi splicing sections of aT)ga (red) suhuvi wrapped with native cord, ara wana; for is serviceberry; the three-piece bone he assembled in figure 2,h, is wrapped with set in pitch, and is detachable, being h the shaft by a three-ply braided cord.a1 a similar harpoon with 7-foot shafts we North Fork Shoshoni in the Owyhee River, waters. S-BtlM may have made similar ha. but JP described a "harpoon" (or spear? 281rving, 2:80. 29Irving, 2:163. 30Irving, 2:164. 31This apparently is identical with Shoshoni harpoon head (Lowie, 1909:185- 8). 226 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI d c h e i m 1 k a:u X~~-- 0a,,, I II p I - IT -- q Fig. 5. a-f, 3tone mortars from Eureka Valley, California. g, h, stone metates. j, n, .fragments of stone metates from Eureka Valley. 1, m, fragments of stone pestles, Eureka lley. i, p, stone mullers, Eureka Valley. k, stone metate. q, stone muller, used by JW, Emlt. 227 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS three bone points held to the shaft by means of a cord 3 feet long.32 Data on hooks are somewhat unreliable, prob- ably because iron was used from an early date. The main forms seem to have been: single barb, double barb, and cross stick, all of bone. Gorge hooks were not reported. (See notes 280-291.) S-RubV hooks had a single bar, of antelope bone, forming an acute angle with the shank. This type at George's Creek Owens Valley, was of mountain-sheep jaw (GR5 (see note 282). S-SnRv claimed a double-barb form, consisting of a de- tachable V-shaped piece tied by a cord to the end of a straight shank. S-SnRv also described a cross-stick type, probably like figure 2,j; the cross stick is tied parallel to the shank but turns at right angles to it when swallowed by the fish; this was fastened to a string, hav- ing a stone sinker, and tied to a pole; used pri- marily for winter fishing. Fishing with poison was uncommon because there were few places suitable for it. (Note 293.) Diversion of creeks so as to leave fish stranded was practicable in these small streams and was fairly common. Fishing, as with other economic activities, was almost totally devoid of ritual or magic, even on the Snake River. Animals Eaten (297-387) Paucity of food taboos have a twofold signifi- cance. First, the culture is unritualized, having few taboos of any kind. Second, foods were always scarce and famine not infrequent, so that most edible species were utilized. Chief among foods which might have been eaten but were not are-dogs, which were scarce, and rattlesnakes. Many unpalat- able species, such as coyotes, foxes, skunks, lizards and young ravens, crows, owls, and hawks were eaten in emergencies. But S-SnRv and S-BtlM said that coyote meat tastes as the animal smells and that even starving people were often unable to keep it down. When lizards were not eaten, it was because they were too small, not because of a taboo or genuine reluctance, as in the Southwest or California,33 though dogs seem definitely to have been avoided in many places (note 297). (See also notes 296a-334. ) In the vicinity of Owyhee, a clay resembling talc was eaten during famine. Potter's clay, though less suitable, was sometimes also eaten. (TP.) Cannibalism during famine was reported from many Shoshoni groups, but was repugnant to most people. The following accounts give some idea of the attitudes toward it. 32Possibly this resembles the Nez Perce double- barbed harpoon heads (Spinden, fig. 5). 33Kroeber, 1925:814; Spier, 1928:123. TH's grandfather, a S-SmCr, said that one ter with deep snow, people having no food ki an old man and his son who had come to dance flesh was relished. S-Ely told of a man who first his stepdaughter, then his fat wife. S and S-Egan said only children were eaten dur famines. One spring, however, some Indians W were fat from eating pine nuts came west fro Cedar Mountains and were waylaid at Harrison by a S-Egan man who killed and ate two of th During a famine at Ruby Valley station, the with the consent of the chief killed a fat I who had come to visit. The chief ordered tha be boiled and a portion given to every perso Near Owyhee, a man once looked over a cliff saw another man fanning smoke into a ground- hole to get the animal. Human feet protruded a bag near him. The first man killed him wit stone. Another case of cannibalism was repor to have occurred a little north of Owyhee. T said cannibals were always killed, for these persons who were too lazy to store enough fo last through the winter. Ogden, visiting MaE Lake, Oregon, in 1826-1827, found "Snake" In (perhaps Northern Paiute) starving after a a year and "subsisting on the bodies of relati and children. [An old woman] herself had not killed anyone but had fed on two of her own dren who died through weakness."'3 Most rodents and birds, other than birdsi prey, were important foods. Ants (note 339), eggs, larvae (notes 337, 338), crickets, and locusts, if large enough to be eaten, were d! cacies. The large, black "Mormon cricket" wn comes occasionally in incredibly large swarm in eastern Nevada, creeping on the ground uA to fly, was an important food when plentiful (note 348). Certain foods were frequently (perhaps mO] frequently than indicated in the lists) tabo to young persons because of concepts based 0 sympathetic magic, not in order to award old people dietetic favors. Thus, deer heart was thought to make young persons' hearts weak.1 taboo on the first kill of large game to the- youth perhaps foreshadowed the subsequent re quirement that hunters share their kill witl village members. (See notes 362-378.) Miscellaneous Concepts (388-409) Data on the supernatural aspects of hunti are indefinite and unreliable, partly at leai because ritual and magic played no important. r'le in the culture. As the practical affair of hunting may obviously be carried on with great success without ritual or magic, super natural observances must be considered as aii pensable or functionally unnecessary in this case. Hunting devices and methods may be bor' rowed, but their ritual concomitants need nol accompany them. Group magic and hunting cere4 monies were largely precluded in the Basin b' 228 34" 11: 208. DISMRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI t' , , , * 1 ' b C f h g Scale , a- A: , 12 INCHES fF x A , ) I I 1) Ul x IH1 III 11) i ( - I - II k 1 m Fig. 6. a, twined basketry sifter, S-DthV (dark bands are ornamental). b, twined mush bowl, S-Elko. c, twined hat, SP-Ash. d, twined seed beater, S-RubV. e-h, shapes of finely woven coiled bowls, S-DthV region. i, 4-stick dice, S-RsRi (length, 8 in.). j, 4-stick dice, S-SmCr and S-GSmV (length, 8 in.). k, 4-stick dice, S-Egan, S-BtlM, S-RubV (length, 6 in.). 1, mesquite-bark hoop for hoop- and-pole game, Saline Valley Shoshoni (diam., 4 in.). m, method of cutting fish for drying, S-SnRv. n, 2-stick type of deadfall. a e n 229 . it. .@ ,.. ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS the infrequency of group gatherings. Only a few practices relating to the supernatural were re- corded: individual dreamed hunting powers, some plant placed in the spoor (note 27), some ingre- dients of arrow poisoning (see "Arrow" under "Weapons," this section), occasional offerings of game, and the interference of a supernatural spirit with hunting. Not one of these practices seems to have been universal in the area. l,hether a hunter actually avoided intercourse with his wife or avoided only a menstruating woman before hunting is uncertain. Positive meas- ures to insure the success of the hunt, such as smoking, bathing, and other ritual, were gener- ally unknown to informants. S-Elko thought that a bath previous to hunting served merely to remove human odors. S-SnRv said some men dreamed of painting their faces red (no special patterns) and of killing game at a cer- tain place. When hunting near that place, the man heard a shout, wrvent to the spot and found the deer lying dead but unwounded. It had been killed from "the inside." Other examples of hunting pov- ers from Owens Valley have been recorded.35 Some dreams gave skills accessory to hunting, such as fleetness, endurance, and ability to climb cliffs. A more important type of dreamed power is that of antelope shamans. The same kind of power some- times applied to other species. S-Hmlt and S-Egan thought that some shamans could, by singing, cap- ture the souls of any animals, making them 'crazy" and easily killed. Immortality of game was a matter of doubt and indifference. Control of game by spirits was reported once: S-Lida said an "evil coyote" called tcoavur)go, tsoavitc, or witsoavitc (elsewhere identified with the whirlwind or described vaguely as a spirit) chases game away. These "coyotes" bark on opposite sides of the camp at night and cry womanlike, but leave coyote tracks. A supernatural control of game is implied in leaving an offering at the time of the kill (also when gathering seeds), but this seems not to have been taken very seriously and the object of the offering was seldom defined more clearly than "nature or the "country." The offering often seemed somewhat to placate evil forces or to in- sure future hunting and gathering success. There may be a connection between the offering of gall in several localities and the common Shoshonean folk tale in which the sun, after having been killed by Cottontail, was created anew from the gall of the old sun; and also that gall had no use and would generally have been discarded in any event. (See also note 23.) Among S-SprV, S-RubV, S-Elko, and S-Egan, the hunter threw gall, called umbiui, into the brush and said, to insure future hunting luck, "I'll kill you [the animal] next time I come to hunt." "5Steward, 1934. S-BtlM hunters put gall inside the contents 4 the paunch and left it at the site of the ki: for no one in particular; coyotes and crows finally ate it. S-SnRv made gall offerings ci pu' i (gall) tawin (throw avway); they also ofl liver and, more often, the entire heart to ng at the spot of the kill. NP-MC disclaimed ofl ings, saying that hunters threw avay gall and horns because they did not wish to carry they home; all the remainder of the animal was uti lized. Thus, the distinction throughout the- between discarding and offering gall was not great. S-Lida cut the tip of the heart into pieces and sometimes offered it to some s piri with a song: "Here. This is for you. Don't b? me. Gathering (410-503) Native exploration of the food possibiliti of plants seems thorough, though it is at p impossible to estimate its exhaustiveness. G ing or pounding and roasting, parching, and ing are the only processes to render foods a except leaching, which was limited to the ac Whether other seeds could have been profita leached is unknown. Treatment of seeds vanie slightly with the species, but, except in t south, where special plants occur, it is re tively uniform everywhere, as most seeds are small and hard shelled. Roots and berries, ever, increase in importance toward the nor Acorns occur in important quantities onl the mountains near Owens Valley and Death V mesquite only in and near Death Valley, JoB trees in certain valleys in the general vio of Owens Valley and Death Valley, and mescal (note 442) only in Southern Paiute territor near the Charleston Mountains. The acorn an quite complexes are largely those developed adjoining California areas (notes 410, 415) employ the mortar (notes 809 ff.) for pound, to remove acorn shells and mesquite beans. metate (note 829) is used throughout the Gr Basin for all other seeds, including pine n because it is better adapted to grinding sm hard seeds when the shell as well as the ke is utilized. When pine-nut shells are broke removal or chokecherry seeds crushed, pound is done on the back of the metate.36 The pine or pinon nut (Pinus monophylla "It should be noted, however, that the Paiute inhabitants of the Lovelock, Nevada, gion used mortars (note 809) though metatep used by the Paviotso Northern Paiute (Lowie 1924:204, 215) and the mortar seems also to, been replaced by the metate in the Surprise ley region (Kelly, 1932:139). Nez Perce, it area predominantly of roots and berries, us only mortars (Spinden, 185-187, 202-205). Y tars, however, never penetrated beyond the ern and northern fringe of the Shoshonean Metates only have been found at archaeologi sites in the remainder of the area, includ Basket Maker-Puebloan sites which, perhaps marked their introduction to the area. 230 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI rem.) was the most important single food,37 t on the Snake River, which is north of its at. r most seeds, the general gathering complex emarkably uniform in all localities. It in- a gathering and transporting in conical ing baskets (element 1082). For gathering outs, a hooked pole was used to pull down (element 444); for small seeds, either a a basketry seed beater (element 1067) was which sometimes had a sharp wooden or bone to knock them from the plant into the bas- or a seed knife (element 499) made of a ened piece of wood or bone or the ordinary ed-stone knife, to cut off seed heads (for le, for sunflower seeds). Seeds were burned example, pine nuts) or threshed by beating sticks (for example, sand grass) from the then they were winnowed and parched with in fan-shaped, twined basketry trays (ele- 1071), ground on metates, boiled in pottery Is, eaten from pottery or basketry bowls, ored in grass or brush-lined pits (element Roots, more common in the northern part of rea, were dug with a simple digging stick 485), boiled in pots or roasted in earth (element 560), and sometimes dried and a in pits. rtain details of this complex were subject riation without changing the functions of hole, for example: occasional coiling of ing baskets, as among Southern Ute and ern Paiute; coiling of the winnowing bas- is among S-DthV; size, shape, and weave of eed beater; shape and decoration of the ing tray (Yuman-speaking tribes of the Colo- used pottery trays); use of wood, bone, or for the seed knife; boiling in baskets with tones as among Northern Paiute north of Valley; twining or coiling of basketry and use of a basketry or horn ladle. In boiling of foods was not essential, as ing in baskets may serve for all seeds and ovens for roots. Indeed, pottery seems to been lacking among most N Paiute and, though shell seeds could have been boiled in bas- the process is longer and more difficult parching. e pitched basketry water jug or olla was in- nsable, as seed gathering required that en- families remain many days in places far from . The woman's basketry hat, which is of rn origin, had not, however, spread through- he area (see under "Basketry") in spite of sefulness in protecting the hair from pitch gathering pine nuts and in protecting the See accounts of pine-nut gathering in Owens y (Steward, 1933) and in the Panamint-Death y region by Coville and Dutcher. Pinus mono- a has a more abundant yield and larger nuts Pinus edulis, which occurs in eastern Utah aArizona, New Mexico, and Colorado. head from the carrying strap. Seed storage was probably necessarily restricted to pits, for it is doubtful that Shoshoneans, who often stored seeds, especially pine nuts, many miles from their habitations, would have exposed them to theft (note 521) or the inroads of animals by using large storage baskets or elevated granaries as in California. Bags of buckskin or bark, pots, and baskets served for storage only in the vil- lage. The main outline of the seed- and root-gather- ing complex is a closely knit, functioning whole, requiring the historically introduced elements of basketry, pottery, knowledge of parching, broiling and boiling, the metate, and several simple elements. Utilization of vegetable foods could, no doubt, have been accomplished with less adequate materials and devices. But gather- ing is the main source of food throughout the Shoshonean area and, though species vary some- what, the same complex serves equally well for all. The uniformity of the complex, consequently, need not indicate great antiquity for the whole nor equal antiquity for all its elements. Rapid borrowing of extremely useful elements would pro- duce uniformity; in fact, there is little doubt that the elements came from different sources at different times. Digging sticks, earth ovens, and caches are widespread and probably old; metates and pottery are from the south; basketry tech- niques are from the west, though conical seed baskets, basketry ollas, and perhaps parching trays were derived from the Basket Maker culture, while seed beaters may be a local invention (see "Basketry"). Cultivation (504-528) True horticulture occurred in pre-Caucasian times only among SP-Ash and possibly S-Ely and S-SprV, both localities being peripheral to the Southwestern distribution of horticulture. S-Ely thought it was introduced from Indians to the south (probably Southern Paiute) just before the arrival of the white man. S-SprV's claim that corn, called korn, and wheat were native points to its recent introduction in this region. NP-FLk, S-DthV, and S-Bty borrowed it in early post-Cau- casian times. Many others have since acquired it. In native times, however, horticulture was never more than a minor supplement to wild-seed gather- ing and only one or two families at each locality practiced it. SP-Ash. Native plants were recorded as: Corn: squaw or speckled, called hau'wiv. Pumpkins or squash: 1, a crooked-neck squash occurring in all colors, padarTa; 2, a round, deeply furrowed, greenish or brownish variety, hama'tats; 3, a large, round, green variety, tuwunt'. Beans: 1, quail or black-eyed beans, kaka'- damudi; 2, brown beans, wa'samudi. 231 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Small gardens, cultivated by both men and women, were made wherever there was water. Moist ground near a stream was preferred; otherwise land was irrigated. Weeds, of which AH said there were formerly few, were pulled by hand or by means of the digging stick; mesquite might be burned off. Seeds were dropped into holes punched with the digging stick. Corn was shelled and kept in a flat-bottom pot, about 12 inches in diam- eter, 18 inches deep. Pumpkins and squash were cut into long strips, which were tied together, dried and stored in dome-shaped brush houses. Beans were kept in buckskin bags or pots. S-DthV horticulture, introduced in early, post- Caucasian times, seems partly to have come from the white man, partly from SP-Ash. Plants grown were: Corn: variegated, called maic. Pumpkins and squash: probably several kinds, all called pada ada, including the long, crooked- neck squash, more specifically called kukudaganda, and another large, round variety. Muskmelons, called kamitu (same as that of SP- Ash). Sunflowers, called a:ku (also native name of sunflower; not grown by SP-Ash). Beans: a white variety, perhaps Lima beans, and the quail or black-eyed bean, both called piholes. Also, watermelons, called pavonokutc (SP-Ash called these by same name), tomatoes, and wheat. BD thought corn, crooked-neck squash, pumpkins, beans, and tomatoes were procured Prom the white man at the time of the Lida mining boom, and that native crops, procured from SP-Ash, were striped squash, watermelons, sunflowers, and wheat. Plant names suggest that corn, though the same variety as that grown by SP-Ash, beans, and tomatoes were procured direct ly from the white man and that at least some varieties of squash and pumpkins came from SP-Ash. Wild seeds were sown broadcast in central Nevada but neither irrigated nor cultivated. This probably added to the food supply only to a minor degree. The main species sown were uep: (Cheno- podium album, goosefoot or lambs-quarters) and kuha or kuhwa (Mentzelia dispersa) (note 504). All groups burned brush to facilitate growth of wild tobacco and sometimes of other wild-seed plants. Owens V. irrigation has been discussed elsewhere;38 it was also adopted by NP-FLk. Food Preparation and Storage (529-577) Salt was readily available in the many playas of dried salt lakes and salt deposits (notes 529- 532). Meat was ordinarily consumed at once, either because there was no surplus or because small game was deemed unsuitable for preservation. Ro- dents and reptiles were often roasted, unevis- cerated, and eaten, entrails and all (note 532). Large-game meat was cut into strips, hung in the shade to dry where flies would not molest it. 38 Steward, 1930;1933:247-250. Smoking meat, though reported at three] ties, is doubtful. S-Ely said it was dried smoke merely to keep flies off. Though drii meat was sometimes pulverized, and, accordl to a few informants, mixed with fat or ben there was no general use of pemmican. Trip4 certainly was used more widely than indical also dried. Fish was dried and stored, espi in the Snake River region where salmon wern in large numbers. S-SnRv. Figure 6,m shows the cutting of for dryring. Fins are removed and discardeda and tall are each split open; belly and bam each piece is hung in a domed willow house, not smoked (smoking was claimed by CT for X Perce); dried fish were tied in bundles, pl in a pit or covered with grass in a willow for storage. Among S-BtlM, fish is splitl the belly; cleaned; held open with a stick strung along a pole to dry; stored in sage bags. North Fork Shoshoni: TP said salmon - in the Owyhee River were opened, cleaned, laid on a domed or conical willow frame w fire beneath to smoke them; stored in a t ba or folded in a twined sage-bark mat ( Most parts of animals were utilized in manner. Soft bones, especially joints and brae, were ground and cooked; feet were da for subsequent use in stews, the hoofs bei! moved perhaps for glue; blood was collecte a freshly killed animal in its paunch in it was cooked. S-BtlM, and probably elseu mashed liver, kidneys, and blood together,` them in a large piece of intestine about long, and buried it in hot ashes to cook; boiled kidneys in blood and drank the bro Bones were broken for marrow. Ribs of lar animals were sometimes left attached to t backbone, the nezk closed with the lung, whole inverted and filled with hot stones cook (element 562). Roasting over the fir probably in the earth oven (note 561) wer mon. Pots were made everywhere for boilinj though boiling in baskets with stones mig serve in the absence of a pot. HOUSES (578-770) Dwellings (578-687) Impermanency of Shoshoni residence, la transportational facilities, and abando houses at the death of an occupant produc porary and unambitious houses.39 Data cone the general house types are more reliable details of construction such as materials coverings, door type, fireplace, and othe 39Remy and Brenchley, traversing Humbo in 1861, thought that Shoshoni roving lii vented their building huts and that they quently lived in caves during winter (p. 232 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI or houses had to be warm, and sufficiently us for one family, averaging about 6 per- e lack of implements for chopping or g wood required the use of dead timbers truction. Three types of houses in addi- temporary windbreaks (note 5785, shel- zd caves, were used in the area. These bled, conical, and domed types. gabled house of S-Lida, S-DthV, SP-Ash, Owens Valley Paiute consists of two posts supporting a ridgepole against loping roof poles are leaned, giving an aal or circular ground plan4O(see illus- below). Northern Paiute gabled house among e e-nut trees in White Mountains near ns Valley. (Photo by Professor George erson.) most common winter dwelling (used also es as a summer dwelling and as a sweat was the conical pole lodge which was es semisubterranean and sometimes partly overed. Its foundation, is two, three, or terlocking poles, supporting additional rranged with a circular ground plan. Cov- th bark, brush, or grass, and earth, it type found in parts of California, among Ute (prior to the introduction of the tipi Dncan, informant]), Southern Ute, Navaho, .Shivwits and Kaibab Southern Paiute,'1 Canada, and some Eskimo. With a covering or thatch, it is common in the Plateau, t preceded the tipi, and in the western sin. Covered with skin, it is a tipi. 615-644.) domed willow house is easily constructed an effective shelter, especially from the is generally distinguished from the coni- ge by its name. Logically and functionally ofessor George H. Anderson, of California te of Technology, observed that houses White Mts., H of Owens V., seemed to have gepoles supported at each end by two poles and that no timber exceeded 7 or 8 length. Many house ruins and rings of rking former house sites were between and 13,000 ft. elev. (See note 653.) lowis, 1924:218-220. distinct from the conical lodge, it appears that, so far as the Shoshonean area is concerned, this type cannot be considered as merely a variant of the conical lodge, as Spier suggests."2 It is built of large willows, planted in a circle (or a portion of a circle); the willows are bent over and tied to others from the opposite side to form a dome or portion of a dome. The covering may be grass, brush, mats, recently canvas, sheets of tin, and odds and ends; even an earth covering in rare instances. It is most common in the west- ern part of the Shoshoni area and among adjoin- ing Northern Paiute. Structurally, it is similar to the sweat house of the northern part of the area. (See notes 587-610.) S-SnRv and S-Bt1M lodges, formed of willows bent over to form a peak or cone instead of a dome, are, perhaps, a combination of the last two types. Generally, however, the second and third types are distinct. Sweat House (688-759) Sweat-house types depend both upon local con- ditions and historical contacts. Owens Valley Paiute, NP-FLk, and S-Lida built a larie, gabled, earth-covered, semisubterranean house, 3 which served for a men's club and dormitory as well as for sweating. The construction and use were de- rived from California; its acceptance depended upon relatively large and permanent villages. Nevada Shoshoni, having small and shifting vil- lages, had houses for sweating only. In southern Nevada these were like small dwellings (notes 704, 705); farther north, they were willow frame domes, the "wickiup type," covered with various temporary materials (note 688). Although the use of small houses is mainly dependent upon local conditions, the difference in construction is historical. There is some question as to the antiquity of the sweat house in the northern part of the area. S-GSmV disclaimed any sweat house. BM said it was not native to Steptoe Valley and probably not to S-RubV (though RVJ claimed it for the latter). CTh denied that it was native either among NP-MC or adjoining Shoshoni, whereas JP's account of it among the latter points to its recency. Lowie re- ports it to have been lacking among Shivwits Southern Paiute."" CTh thought it had been in- troduced only recently from Nez Perc6 and Warm Springs Indians to both Northern Paiute and Sho- shoni. Its presence, however, among Idaho Sho- shoni, Ute, and Fallon and Pyramid Lake Northern Paiute'5 strengthens the claim for its native use 42 1928:180-181. '"See Steward, 1933, pl. 6, a. Kroeber, 1925, pl. 56. 44 1924. '6 Lowie, 1924:307-309. 233 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS elsewhere in the area. Because a useful trait, which is not functionally incongruent to a culture, may spread rapidly, however, the possibility of a wide recent diffusion of the sweat house through the northern part of Nevada should be considered. The presence of the sweat house does not pre- suppose the entire complex of its use. Heating is partly functional: it necessitated a fire in the large, communal house; hot stones would suffice in the small house. As indicated, the dormitory- clubhouse uses of the large house were introduced from the west and depended somewhat upon local population distribution and activities. Other uses of the house-making steam by pouring water on rocks, praying, ritual, curative sweating, shaman- istic treatment (see "Shamanism"), smoking, and the cold bath after sweating-are not essential to the main practice and, in fact, varied consid- erably. The bather's attendant was probably more common than is recorded because there seems to have been a real danger of being overcome by the heat. (See also notes 729-752.) Miscellaneous Houses (760-770) The menstrual house was general among Shoshoni. Records of the dog house and special grinding house are incomplete, though one of the former was observed at Owyhee. Shoshoni had few activi- ties requiring special structures. Exceptions are circular dance enclosures for communal gatherings and doctors' enclosures. Houses were placed at random, usually some distance apart, in winter villages, but camps of temporary shelters (which recently are domed wil- low houses throughout the area) were arranged in a circle around the dance ground. NAVIGATION (771-783) Many localities had no navigable water. Rafts, if made, were always tule balsas; timbers for log rafts were rarely available in the vicinity of water. (See notes 773-783.) FIRE MAKING (784-808) Fire was probably kept burning when possible to avoid using the drill to make new fires.48 The compound fire drill is distinctive of the Shoshonean area.47 This varied in the secondary feature of attaching the foreshaft to the main shaft. The foreshaft may be inserted into a socket in the main shaft (fig. 4,j); both foreshaft and 46 Hoffman thought Shoshoni at Belmont, Nevada, had no knowledge of fire making and kept a per- petual fire (p. 467). Hough (1890:538-543) reports the compound drill only from this area and the Navaho and Klamath, to which Spier (1928:158) adds Modoc, Snohomish, Snuqualmi, and Wind River Salish. Kid- der and Guernsey (1919:120-121) found the spliced type in early Pueblo sites. main shaft may be beveled on one side and sE together (fig. 4,k); or the foreshaft may be in a split in the main shaft (fig. 4,1). The joint is always wrapped with sinew. The fire type of joining is most common with a cane d the last two with wooden shafts. The foresho and hearth were usually of sage, Artemisia t dentata, and tinder was usually bark of the plant. The bow drill was unknown. Sometimes or charcoal was placed in the hearth pit, a~ ently to enable the drill to grind a little der from the hearth.48 (See notes 784-794.)i New fires made with the drill were said require such strength that only men could them, but Hough reports that Southern Paiutd women had this task.49 A drill made by RB, S-Elko, for the Peab Museum, of Harvard University, has a total of 19i inches. The main shaft, -inch in da is of wiyumbi wood; the foreshaft, set in in the main shaft and wrapped with a buckski thong, is 5 inches long; a third piece, the" is of sage, 13 inches long. Fire making by striking together two pie of flint or obsidian, though reported spora cally, was affirmed sufficiently often to 1 no doubt of its presence. But there is some as to how efficacious two pieces of flint be. If pyrites were used, there is the ques of the relationship of this to the white m flint and steel or to the flint and pyrite' of the Eskimo and their neighbors. For str' lights, cottonwood punk served as tinder. The bark-bundle slow match (fig. 4,g) a bark-bundle torch were common. The former, ful device considering the difficulty of a fire and the frequency of travel, occurs in the Plateau to the north and in the Sou (See also note 804.) MISCELLANEOUS IMPLEMENTS (809-911) The absence among Great Basin tribes of useful implements as axes,61 wedges, adzes others is partly intelligible in the light delimiting effect of transportational faci Peoples moving frequently and carrying not their possessions but foods procured in di ent places enormous distances on their bao necessarily restricted their baggage. This 48Hough (1890:537) records use of oand. Washo, Zunii, and Navaho. 4 "1890:539. 50Spier, 1928:158. 51Curtis, 15:60, states that Mono Lake were made of juniper which was cut with a pentine ax. If so, this is an isolated oc rence of the ax in the midst of an area entirely lacked it. 234 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI s probably not a sufficient explanation k poverty of material culture, for the num- kinds of material objects and the range of as extraordinarily small. A further expla- ,may be that devices used in neighboring were often not borrowed because the Great area either lacked the materials or the kties upon which those devices depended. ormation on such objects as spoons, dip- kknives, scrapers, awls (notes 884-892), 1 (notes 894-896), weapons, pottery, carry- rvices and others is unreliable because things were quickly supplanted by objects k.d from the white man. Mortars, metates, ,t, blankets, dressed skins, and cradles, or, are still in use and the data in the are often based upon actual field observa- ef specimens. mortar and pestle, adapted to seeds re- g pounding, had spread little beyond the and mesquite area in the south (see "Gath- ). Mortars in S-DthV are either spherical stone or cylindrical of tree sections; ave been described elsewhere. 52 thV. GH's mortar is an old mesquite stump, lhes tall, 12 inches in diameter, the hole 9 inches in diameter and worn through the , The mortar is called paha. ite among sand dunes, many miles from in the southern end of Eureka Valley of Death Valley) yielded several mortars 8tles fi%g. 5,a-f? of vesicular lava. The ae of b" and c, a fragment, are well a; the others are natural boulders; "1" are two broken pestles of limestone from e site. also notes 809-825. rew small mortars, adopted by S-SnRv from the W or Northwest, were used only by tooth- ld people to grind their food. metate is adapted to seeds requiring ng by rubbing. Throughout the area it is and light, especially as compared with Maker and Pueblo types, oval in outline iually roughly shaped, but sometimes pecked iymmetrical form. face specimens from the site in Eureka Val- tigure 5,g and h, complete metates; j, n, fragments of metates; all of vesicular all associated with the mortars. Except- gure 5,n and o, which are typical Shosho- orms, the others resemble Basket Maker me- in being very thick. Figure 5,i and p are tne mullers from the same site. thV. GH's metate is an oval slab, 11 inches 14 inches long, 12 inches wide. S-Hmlt. A en (fig. 5,k) collected from JW for the Museum of Harvard University is of gran- eavily coated with grease, 16 inches long, 3s wide, 1 inch thick; back used to grind Steward, 1933:240. potter's clay, break pine-nut shells, rub stone pipes, etc. The accompanying muller (fig. 5,q) is 7- inches long, 31 inches wide, 2 inches thick; has opposite faces pecked rough for grinding. Mullers observed elsewhere are gen- erally like the last, sometimes being a little shorter and more rectangular. That mush stirrers were used is certain; shapes are less certain (note 847). Spoons and dippers were also used, but their forms and whether they were used for conveying food to the mouth are doubtful. The fingers were ordinarily used for eating, CT calling the index finger kwini (mush) nump: (finger). Probably bones, slabs of wood, and other things of suitable shape and requiring little working were often used. Horn (note 852) and basketry spoons (note 855) were at least some- times manufactured but their distribution is in- completely known. Besides eating directly out of the family pot or basket, each person had an in- dividual basketry cup (note 856) or other form of dish, the distribution of which is also unknown. S-Elko. An individual cup (fig. 6,b), from which mush was eaten with the index and middle finger, made by RB for the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, is hemispherical; of twined willow; 41 in. in diameter, 3 in. deep; decorated with horizontal bands of 3-ply twining. Information about shapes of knives and scrap- ers and the hafting of knives is unreliable (note 870). Several Shoshonean archaeological sites, identified by the pottery type, yielded flints used for cutting: small, unretouched flakes; flakes retouched from one surface only; blades of various shapes flaked from both surfaces. A site, undoubtedly Northern Paiute, on the eastern bank of Owens River where the Lone Pine- Keeler highway crosses the river, yielded sev- eral unreltouched obsidian flakes used for cut- ting; flakes retouched from one surface only; one roughly leaf-shape blade, 2 inches long, chipped from both surfaces. Figure 3,i, found in the sand dunes a few miles north of Stovepipe Wells, Death Valley, associated with Shoshoni pottery, has an unre- touched blade of white flint set in a wooden handle 4 inches long. GH said Panamint Valley and S-DthV knives were of chipped flint, 4-5 inches long, hafted in wood. A site in Great Smoky Valley, east of Austin, covering many a6res among pine-nut trees, yielded Shoshoni pottery. Four styles of cut- ting implements of flint were: nonretouched flakes; blades chipped on both surfaces, having blunt and sometimes squarish ends (fig. 3,m,n; 7 specimens); thin blades chipped from both surfaces, pointed at one end, rounded or squar- ish at the other end (fig. 3,o,p; 4 specimens; this type was also claimed at S-BtlM, the blade being of white flint, 8 inches long); short, thick, ovoid blades (fig. 3, 1; 2 specimens). For flint flaking, see notes 903-908. 235 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS SKIN DRESSING (912-931) Skin dressing is notable for the practice of smoking the tanned hide, a process borrowed from the north and distributed throughout most of the area, but lacking in the Southwest and in Cali- fornia. Smoking serves to prevent the skin from hardening when wet and also colors it a soft yellow or tan. It was applied to one side only, except for moccasin skins, which were often smoked on both sides.53 See also notes 912-930. S-BtlM. Brain and spinal cord were heated be- tween two thin rocks until they turned yellowish brown, then kept in a piece of intestine until neededifor use. The hide was soaked for several days, scraped, smeared with brain, rolled up, and put away again for several days. When taken out, it was worked and the spinal cord, which was ground and mixed with water, was smeared on. The hide was then dried, rolled up, and put away for several weeks or months;. then soaked, washed, stretched to soften it while drying, and finally smoked. WEAPONS (933-1031) The bow and arrow were for hunting, not war. The absence of spears, daggers, armor,"4 and shields (the last doubtfully present in two lo- calities) is explainable by the infrequency of warfare, which occurred only occasionally between the Shoshoni and neighboring stocks. As opportu- nity to borrow these war weapons from various areas was present, it is a clear case in which the culture is unreceptive to certain kinds of traits. Bow Three bow types were self, sinew-backed wood, and sinew-backed horn. The first is undoubtedly oldest. Present data on the second merely fill a gap in its general distribution from Alaska to northern Mexico. The third, tredominantly a north- ern Plains and Plateau type, 5 is now seen to ex- tend into the northern portion of the Great Basin, with a spotty distribution elsewhere including the Kaibab Southern Paiute. This would seem to indicate that it was borrowed from the north, though its ultimate origin was probably in some portion of the general region of scarcity of good bow wood. As mountain sheep were formerly abundant throughout the area, its limited distribution may indicate recency. The self bow was of willow or juniper, used 53 Cf. Mason, 1891:572. 54Tunic armor occurs on all sides of the Great Basin except in central and southern California (Spier, 1928:257). 55 Spier, 1928, fig. 28. Spinden, 211-212. Mason, 1894. mainly by boys as toys or for shooting smal game. (Notes 933, 935.) The sinew-backed bow was generally of jw (Juniperus utahensis), the best material in of the territory, but sometimes of servicebi in the northern region where it grew. It wai of willow. (Notes 938-946.) The sheephorn bow was made of a strip cul each horn and joined in the middle at the gi Most were sinew backed, as with wooden bows 949, 951.) Details of bow dimensions, grip, positioi shooting, knocking, bracing, wristguards, di and so on, are unreliable, as bows have not made for a long time, but seemingly varied I nificantly. Figure 2,a was made by Dave Humpy, S-SnRi and is now in the Peabody Museum of Harvar& versity. It is of wild cherry, length 3 fee inches; cross section at grip, 12 by 7 inc1 (sinew-backed bows were thinner and flatter" belly painted red; string, two-ply cord. T double curve was probably used widely thro the Basin but data substantiating its exacta tribution are not available, informants' do tions being unreliable on this point. Panamint Valley bows observed by Coville, were of juniper (Juniperus californica uta sis), the wood being aken from a dead tree therefore already seasoned; seldom exceeded: feet in length; backed with strips of deer bowstring of twisted sinew or of Apocynum binum (Indian hemp). GH said S-DthV and Pa Valley bows were of juniper, 4 feet long, and wrapped with mountain-sheep sinew whicho stuck on with glue made from deerhorn boil slowly for two or three days. Arrow (961-996) Arrows depended somewhat upon local mat Hardwood arrows without foreshafts were so made (notes 961-966). Cane, Phragmites vul (or Phragmites communis Trin.), seems to been used where available, especially in t ern part of the area where there are large Being light and easily split, cane arrows a hardwood foreshaft, which was usually ma greasewood. The foreshaft and point varied according to its purpose. A plain wooden p was suitable for small game, especially ra 6 1892:360-361. 657Cane arrows are restricted to the so United States, including the Southwest ern California (Spier, 1928:161; Mason, 1 660-661), and northern Mexico (Beals, 193 Cane is lacking to the north, but other p woods requiring a foreshaft on the arrow used in this region (Magon, 1894). Cane grows as far north as British Columbia cock, 191-193), far beyond the area of it for arrows. 58Like Steward's (1933) fig. 3,a. 236 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII- -BtlM, for ducks. For waterfowl, some Os wrapped the plain foreshaft midway ing to make it skip on the water if the m missed.59 For small birds, the plain had short, crossed sticks (fig. 2,e).50 r of notching stone points for both cane ln arrows is primarily of historical sig- Two styles were like figure 2,c and d, r being more common and, in the neigh- ea of Utah, being first found in Basket obloan sites.6" (Also, notes 967-978.) amint Valley, Coville (1892:360-361) ob- rrows of cane 3, feet long, having each corated with a ring of burned, diagonal h foreshaft, 5 inches long, of hardwood r ?), tapered to a blunt point and for- re a stone point for war. Hardwood arrows willow, 31 feet long. v. Four arrows of hardwood collected from py for the Peabody Museum of Harvard Uni- were: two of rosewood, two of wild cur- L1 ^6-inch in diameter; lengths are, one 8, two 27 inches, one 31 inches; heads ee of iron, one of white flint, all bound ew; all have three, nonspiraling feathers, ther 4 inches long; the shaftments are all red; two are red along 6 inches of the t oints found at an archaeological site t Smoky Valley are: three specimens side like figure 3,d, averaging Z3-inch in nine specimens corner and base notched, re 3,r-x, averaging in length, if com- *-11 inches. poison usually contained an effective nt made from decayed heart, liver, or some large mammal, which probably pro- epticemia in the victim,62 and a large of purely magical and extremely variable is (notes 989-994). Arrow Straightener (997-1009) wstraighteners and smoothers depended row material. The "one-piece stone" straight- was generally of steatite (element 997a) red for cane arrows. It was heated and the ft pressed in one of its transverse (note 997a). The "two-piece stone" r was of rough stone and was used, like er, in pairs (notes 1001, 1002). The hard- ft was fitted into the grooves between and drawn back and forth. The perforated row wrench was for straightening hardwood ke Steward's (1933) fig. 3,d. like Steward's (1933) fig. 3,c. Itward, 1936b:34-37. hese same effective ingredients seem widespread in America (Mason, 1894, and -Eoffman). -ike Steward's (1933) pl. 4,f,g. -STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI arrows (notes 1004, 1005). Similarly in Califor- nia, the transverse-grooved, stone straightener occurred in the south for cane arrows, the wooden or horn wrench occurred in the north for wooden arrows64 and is also known among Eskimo, Plains the west coast, and somewhat in the Southwest.6^ A mountain-sheep-horn -wrench with graduated holes like those of some Shoshoni was used by Ute.65 Both grooved stones and horn wrenches seem to ex- tend back to the Basket Maker. 67 Quiver (1010-1021) There were two styles of quivers: one, the ani- mal skin is cut down the belly, then sewed into sack form; two, the skin is peeled over the ani- mal's head so as to require sewing only to close the holes of the head. In the lists, informants' recollection of using only certain animal species does not negate use of others; probably all groups used many different animal furs. (Also, notes 1010, 1012.) Miscellaneous (1022-1031) General absence of warfare and war weapons has been noted. S-SprV, adjoining Ute and Southern Paiute, with whom they sometimes fought, had ac- quired weapons known also among Utah and some Idaho Shoshoni. These were: "Thrusting spear" (element 1022), called oguzup. A stick about 6 feet long, having a sharpened wooden point. (S-SnRv recently adopted a spear with a steel head.) Shield, called tap:; had a rim of serviceberry about 2 feet in diam- eter, covered with buckskin dried hard after soaking in water; four feathers on top edge; no paint; JR's grandfather had one. Shields were probably adopted from Ute or Deep Creek Shosho- ni (Gosiute).s8 BM thought Steptoe Valley used none. S-SnRv disclaimed them, but knew of them among Bannock. S-SmCr, far from the area of shields, claimed a round shield, probably of hardened rawhide, called to:pu. The source of this is unknown, but it may have been adopted by recent contacts with people from the east. Clubs, where used, were probably no more than rough sticks. The sling was universally a toy (note 1031), except in Owens Valley, where it was sometimes used in disputes over pine-nut groves. BASKETRY (1032-1136) Because informants' descriptions were indefi- nite or unreliable, most entries in the lists are based upon specimens collected or examined in the field. Often, it was necessary to leave the lists blank. 64 Kroeber, 1925:530-531 65Spier, 1928:161. 66Mason, 1894:660. 67 Guernsey and Kidder, 1921:123-124, 126. 68Lowie, 1924, records Wyoming Shoshoni shields as tserop. 237 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Basketry, being easily transported, not readily broken, and well adapted to various uses, was ex- tremely valuable to a nomadic, seed-gathering people. Forms have functional significance, while weaves, decoration and minor details of form are more the result of historical contacts. Both twined and coiled ware were made, but the latter seems to have been lacking in the northern part of the area. Twilling was used only on the bot- toms of water ollas. As coiling was common in all surrounding areas, has a much wider distribution than twining, and was virtually the only Basket Maker weave, it must once have been general in the area. It is still the main weave of the Ute, Southern Paiute, and Southwestern tribes. Among Shoshoni of north- ern Nevada, substitution of twining for the older coiling in all baskets may have occurred because the former is much easier to make and is equally serviceable for a utilitarian basket. The elabo- rate coiling complex of the Basket Maker de'clined in the hands of the Pueblo who gave their atten- tion to pottery. Elsewhere, coiling, unless it be the only technique, is often employed only for fine products, especially for decorated bowls and trays. Shoshoni, except those in the Death Valley- Little Lake region, who have made coiled basketry an exceptionally fine art, were not producers of art objects and took little pride in the aesthetic merits of their wares. Basketry materials are limited to willow, ex- cept in the Death Valley and Owens Valley regions, where the technically superior weaves and more elaborate designs employed several materials of different colors (notes 1034-1039). Aniline dyes, however, have to some extent recently supplanted native colors. (Also notes 1044, 1048.) Utility baskets were generally twined every- where. Certain of the main forms, though not re- stricted to the Great Basin, are so emphasized and their distribution so centers there, that Shoshoneans or their predecessors in the general area must probably be accredited with their ori- gin. The whole complex is different from that of the Plateau as illustrated by the Nez Perce'.69 First known in the coiled ware of the Basket Makers, many of these forms are still coiled in the deserts of the Colorado plateau and South- west, but have been adapted in twining in Nevada. These forms are: water ollas, conical seed and burden baskets, bowls, trays, and perhaps win- nowing baskets. The seed beater seems to have originated subsequent to Basket Maker times. Forms (1067-1136) Seed beater. -Though details of construction were seldom available, seed beaters seem usually to have resembled that in Steward, 1933, plate 9, c,d. Names of the seed beater are: tang' , tanik', SP-Ash; tsiT)gu (same name is given the snowshoe), S-GSmV, S-SmCr, S-RsRi, S-3j S-Elko, S-Egan; ziT)gu, S-Mor; dzirNgu, S- i tanihu (?), S-Ely; tsirgu or dzirgu, 3-Rubi tzir)g:, S-SnRv; tzigu, NP-MC. S-RubV. Figure 6,d, specimen made by BM' wife, now in the Peabody Museum of Harvard versity; 171 inches long; bowl, 91 inches 4 inches deep; bowl has six warps per inch" onally twined together, three times per irn warp elements brought together into wrappec dle to form handle; rim is rod of servicebi sewed to edge of bowl; decoration, two banc twining elements with brown willow inner be remaining. Seed beaters are shared with California. tribes bordering the Great Basin-southern gon, Klamath, and Modoc.70 But the twined i occurring in parts of California, is emphae in the Great Basin. Many California seed be have bowls with radial warps. Idaho and Ut. shoni use a small, twined tray without the jecting handle. VWJinnowing and parching trays.- Twinedi ing trays (fig. 7) were observed in the fi Dimensions and weave are tabulated below. twining is tight for fine seeds, coarse fo large seeds, especially pine nuts. Oa Ob c Od( SP-Ash S-Bty S-Lida S S-RsRi S-RsRi S-1 Xk O Saline Valley Shoshonm Shoshoni Sn S- R V 2 INCHES I Fig. 7. Winnowing baskets. Figure 7,a,b,c,g,h, and 1 were twined a each rod; figure 7,d,n, and o, over two ro diagonally. Some trays have a single-rod r 89Spinden, 190-195. 238 7 0 Spier, 1928:120. CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI t which the ends of the warps are bent and y coiling or wrapping (fig. 7,a,b,c,d,f, ). Figure 7,e and m have a heavy rod and ke of smaller rods. Figure 7,g and h have a -rod rim. Figure 7,k,l, and n have a single- but a bundle of smaller rods at the lower igure 7,m has also a transverse reinforcing Rigure 7,d is decorated with two bands of 7 M,f, which is otherwise open twined, has iornamental bands, each 1 inch wide, of close W,g; 7,k and 1 have 2 brownish bands of willow [the inner bark remaining. following tabulation, under "Use," P is ing, W is winnowing; but each basket served purposes to some extent. P4 A4,- 4A - -r- A- -P rd 0 0 o d oi -C 4)-) o A a) .H P MHo SP-Ash 4 2 7 24 24 P MHo SP-Ash 5 10 ? 19 18- W TD S-Bty 7 2 ? 16 11 W ES S-Lida 6 2 7- 24 161 W? ES S-Lida 10 12 21 131 111 P MJ S-RsRi 6 10 2 24 19 i MJ S-RsRi 8 ll 3 18.1 17 W MJ S-RsRi 4 x 5 28 21 P MJ S-RsRi 7 11 ? 261 20 W MJa S-RsRi 10 10 3 14 1iz W MHa S-DthV 6 2 41 12 1il P SS Saline V. 9 9 5 18 17 W SS Saline V. 10 2t 6 171 14 W SS Saline V. 6 11 71 20q 181 ? MBM S-RubV 5 2 3 25 22 ? IMBM S-RubV 7 8 5 20 22 ktive terminology seems to have distinguished e trays according to fineness of weave rather function, though names recorded are inconsis- ey were called: tako"?, SP-Ash, both kinds; ', NP-FSp, both kinds; nuvituma, Mono Lake e, both kinds; tuma or duma, close twined, jad, open twined, NP-MC; yandu, parching regardless of weave, duma, winnowing bas- ,, S-RsRi; yandu, close twined, tiima, open pd, S-Elko. The open-twined tray was also d: yando, S-Bty; yandu'u, S-GSmV, S-SmCr; , S-Mor; yand:, S-Egan; yandu, S-SnRv. The -twined tray was also called: duma, S-Egan, ; dum:a, S-SnRv. be coiled, circular winnowing tray was re- d only by S-DthV and Owens Valley Paiute, Were in contact with California tribes mak- uch trays. This was called, S-Bty, toda. .DthV and Panamint Shoshoni. A circular, d parching tray, made by GH's niece, is 12 es in diameter, 1 inch deep; 9 stitches per linear inch or 54 per square inch; ornamented with black designs; upper surface much burned. Another tray is 17 inches in diameter, 21 inches deep, 8 stitches per linear inch or 48 per square inch. A tray observed in Beatty is 141 inches in diameter, 2 inches deep; 13 stitches per linear inch or 65 per square inch; orna- mented with three concentric bands, each band a zigzag line. It is possible that some Basket Maker coiled trays are, like those of S-DthV and of the Nez Perce,71 winnowing baskets and therefore the old- est in the area. Conical carrying and seed baskets. -Through- out the area, these were large, with pointed bot- toms.72 They were used both for seed gathering and for general transportation. The rim has a heavy rod, below which is a bundle into which the vertical warp rods are bent. The warps cross at the bottom to turn up on the opposite sides (except that in note 1089). The bottom is today usually covered with canvas. The earliest known conical carrying baskets are from Basket Maker II sites.73 All Shoshoni and most Shoshonean forms, however, are twined. Though conical carrying baskets are distributed also in northern California and in Arizona, 74 the twined form must probably be accredited the Great Basin. These baskets are distinguished mainly by tightness of weave, which varies with use. But terminology as given in separate localities was not consistent. It was called, when large and open twined: kudu'si, NP-FSp; toda, S-Lida; cru, S-Bty; kaka- dutsi'1, S-GSmV; wa:sa or kadutsi, S-RsRi; wa:sa S-Mor, S-Ely; osa, S-SprV; wosa or wos:, S-Elko; wos, S-Egan, S-SnRv; wosa or kakuidu, S-RubV; wosa, S-Hmlt; wos:, S-BtlM; kudus:, NP-MC. When tightly woven, it was called: wohno or wanii or kavo'nu, NP-FSp; kavon", SP-Ash; wa:sa, S-GSmV (also, note 1085); kudutsi, S-RsRi; duwa'a, S-Mor; kavon, a smaller basket, S-Hmlt; biawos or kakudu, S-Elko; wono', NP-MC. A SP-Ash specimen of small basket, for pick- ing up pine nuts (kavon''), is 17 inches in diam- eter, 1 inches deep; has 6 warps per inch twined every i-inch; rod and bundle are sewed to top edge; bottom is leather covered; leather carrying strap. A S-RubV specimen made by BM's wife is called kakiidu; 181 inches in diameter, 20 inches deep; 6 warps per inch; 1 weft per inch; diagonal twine; rim has rod of service- berry and bundle of small rods sewed to it; bot- 71Spinden, 194. 72This form is illustrated in Steward's (1933) pl. lO,a,b,c. 73Guernsey and Kidder, 1921. 7 4 Spier, 1928, fig. 27. Some Southwestern forms are rectangular. The Nez Perce is cylin- drical (Spinden, 192-193). 239 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS tom canvas covered. A specimen made by Annie Charlie, S-RubV, and sent to the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, is for carrying pine nuts; 30 inches in diameter; 24 inches deep; 4 warps per inch; twined every 1-l inches; single twine; large rod and rod bundle sewed to rim; a rod, A-inch in diameter, reinforces the basket by en- circling it on the inside 12 inches from the bot- tom; buckskin carrying strap passes through the basket, each end being fastened inside to a rod 2-4 inches long. Basketry hats.-These are no longer made but probably resembled Owens V. types.75 They were called: tsopa 'nu, NP-FSp; sigai'- coah, SP-Ash; didogii, S-GSmV; tsop&'a, S-SmCr; su:didzoaii, S-RsRi; tsopo or kutsopo, S-Mor; su:dilzooi, S-Hmlt; sunadidoi, S-Ely. SP-Ash. Figure 6,c, made by MHo; twined, 8 warps per inch; ornament is brown inner bark re- maining on willow weft. The distribution of the hat is erratic in the Great Basin, where it is lacking among Shoshoni and Northern Paiute7" of northern Nevada but pres- ent in the twined form in the southern part of the area included here and also Moap.,77 Lemhi,78 and Gosiute.79 It is also twined in the Northwest and inland to the Nez Perce80 and in northern Cali- fornia, but is usually coiled in southern Cali- fornia.81 It would appear that the Shoshonean hat therefore was either borrowed in its twined form from the Northwest or borrowed from the coiled form of the south but converted to twining. ln either event, its apparent usefulness for pine- nut gathering and carrying did not make it so readily and universally adopted as other basket forms. Fishing baskets. -See "Fishing" under "Hunting, this section, and element 265. Water jugs or ollas..-These are all diagonally twined in this area, but vary somewhat in shape. Even five specimens from S-Bty (fig. 8,b-f) range from narrow to wide mouths and from rounded to pointed bottoms.82 It is probable that many, if not all, had twilled bottoms, but canvas or buck- skin concealed most of them. This is the only re- corded use of twilling in the area. 75See Steward, 1933: pl. lO,g,h. 78Including Surprise Valley Paiute (Kelly, 1932:114). 7 7Lowie, 1924:237. 78 Lowiev 1909:178. 79Erroneously called Ute (Mason, 1904:490-491) BoSpinden, 193. 81 Kroeber. 1925:807-808. 82For Owens V. forms, see Steward's (1933) p1. 9,i. In figure 8,d,e, and f, the warp strani been laid out in two groups, one twilled1 N a \ P-OwensVdlley S-Bty S-Rtv 2 j o 9 U j Sk k S-HmIt,-Elko,-SprV S-GSmV S-Ely Fig. 8. Basketry ollas or water jugs. In lines indicate decorative bands. the other to form the bottom. These were on under-2, or over-3, under-3. The warp rods then bent upward and a pair of twined elen run round and round, holding the warp rod& place. New warp elements were added as the expanded. Occasionally, a third twining sti was added or the twining was made more diaq that is, over-4 instead of over-2, for orni mental bands. The rim on all S-Bty specima finished with coarse coiling. Figure 8,d,h is 131 inches tall, 11 inches in maximum i eter, 3 inches in mouth diameter; upper ha: orated with eight bands of over-4 twining of over-2. Figure 8,e is 9 inches tall, 8 in maximum diameter; top half ornamented x four bands of over-4 twining, the bottom l with two such bands. Figure 8,k, S-Ely, is inches tall, 11 inches in diameter at the der; the spout 2 inches tall 2* inches in eter; olla has 8 warp, 10 weft per inch, a over-2 diagonal twining except for ornamej bands of over-4 twining. Figure 8,j, S- owned by JK, is 9 inches tall, 71 inches 1: imum diameter; neck, 11 inches tall, 1 inmo diameter, widening to 2* inches at the mou body has 8 warp, 12 weft per inch; decorat. four bands of three-ply twining; pitch covj inside and outside; handle is four-ply bra cord, attached with leather to the sides. eral of the S-Bty ollas were also decorate three-ply twining. Pitch, necessary to make ollas waterti 240 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI i on the outside with a stick and on the in- y shaking lumps of pitch with hot pebbles. is of the olla were: kadu ("no," i.e., prob- will not stand," because of the bottom) osa, i; o:sa, S-Bty, S-SmCr- osa', NP-MC; o'sa'a, h otsa or su: (willow5 otsa, S-RsRi, S-Mor, , S-Ely, S-Egan, S-RubV; suhu (willow) osa, t; suhu os:, S-BtlM. Kbasketry olla, like the conical burden , is first known in Basket Maker II sites iSouthwest, where it is coiled.8 It has I throughout the deserts of the Southwest irn California, Great Basin, and Plateau S its advantages are obvious. It is still by Lemhi Shoshoni, Moapa, and Northern and 'n Ute,85 but is twined by Nevada Shoshoni trthern Paiute, whereas some groups with an iediate location use both twining and coil- cetry bowls.-These are of undetermined dis- ion. In the south they were coiled, in the ,twined. 4s were called: awu, S-Bty; bohno' or awii'i, W; awd'o, S-SmCr; awii, S-Hmlt; suh (willow) .TRubV; suhuwitiia (witua also used for pot- .wl), S-Elko. 4ed bowls, the weaves and forms of which rrowed from California, have recently ef- led in the region of S-Bty, S-DthV, Pana- lley, Owens Valley and Little Lake, Sho- ing baskets superior to those of the k They usually have a 3-rod foundation (but e 1050) and are either flat bottom with sides (fig. 6,e) or expanding and sided (fig. 6,fS, or tall, vaselike gnstricted neck and short collar, that is, Oneck (fig. 6,g), or rectangular (fig. 6, . extraordinarily fine weaving, having 80- l1tches per square inch, is accomplished Irecision, which is partly explained by the tintroduction of a method of trimming the almost threadlike fineness. The strand i, through progressively smaller holes pd in the top of a tin can, the protruding edges of which trim it to uniform thick- !he occasional use of woven-in feathers tseveral colors come also from California. >ng recent trend toward naturalistic designs, 1ng lizards, birds, butterflies, and vari- nIals as well as conventionalized floral has evidently been stimulated by tourist Five baskets pictured by Mason87 and both Fidder and Guernsey, 1919, pl. 78. bier, 1928: f ig. 27. Wwie, 1924:237; 1909:178-179. Spier, 1928: owie, 1924:237. 871904:470-473, pl. 183. old and recent Owens Valley Paiute baskets are entirely geometric in decoration. There are up to four colors on a single basket-red, brown, yellow, and black on a wihite background. The old, probably pre-Caucasian type of coiled bowl is represented by one found near White Rock Springs in the Belted Mountains, northeast of Beatty. It has a 3-rod foundation, noninterlock- ing stitches, 13 per inch or 78 per square inch; outside covered with pitch; bottom is flat, 5 inches in diameter; sides straight, sloping out- ward, top diameter being 94 inches; depth, 3 inches. Coiling has recently been introduced at Wells, Nevada, the workmanship, as with that of the Northern Ute, being extraordinarily poor.(Speci- mens of the latter in the Museum of Anthropol- ogy, University of Utah.) Two specimens of bowls observed were: more or less spherical; 5-6 in. in diameter; had lids each with a nob in the center; foundation, single rod; one had 40 stitches, the other 72 stitches per square inch, sewed irregu- larly and always splitting the adjoining stitch on the inside; both decorated with aniline dyes. Twined bowls. The only specimen seen was S- Elko specimen (fig. 6,b), made by one RB for the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. It is 91 inches diameter, 7 inches deep; hemispheri- cal; decorated with horizontal bands of 3-ply twining; used for stirring mush made of previ- ously roasted and ground pine-nut meal; mush clogs openings and prevents leaking. A similar but smaller bowl was used for serving mush to each person. Mesquite sifter.-Fig. 6,a, S-DthV, is shown somewhat foreshorTened. It resembles a winnow- ing tray; 141 inches long, 15 inches wide, 4- inches deep; double twined with 9 warps per inch, .the twining spaced 1 inch apart; orna- mental bands made by leaving the brown inner bark on both warp and weft elements cross one another. Basketry ladle.iDistribution undetermined. Figure 4,i, a miniature twined ladle, made by the same RB of Elko for the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. The warp strands are brought together in a wrapped bundle to form the handle. Caterpillar basket.-A special, round-bottom, twined basket was used by NP-FSp.88 Idaho and Utah Shoshoni use a similar basket for gathering chokecherries. Nevada Shoshoni lack this special form, using instead the conical basket for all gathering. Twined bags.-Though a fine art among Basket Makers in the Southwest and more recently among the Northwestern and some Plateau tribes, Sho- shoneans either lacked bag weaving or made ex- tremely crude products of bark. That these 88Like Steward's (1933) pl. lO,f. 241 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS were recorded in the north only may relate them to the Northwest. Although juniper, which was fa- vored by Basket Makers for many products, was abundant throughout the area, Shoshoni preferred sage bark (Artemisia tridentata). WEAVING (1137-1194) Everywhere, blanket weaving followed a uniform and almost irreducibly simple technique. The loom was two horizontal bars, placed on or near the ground, though a vertical loom was claimed in the south, perhaps being recent there and elsewhere. (S-DthV uniquely had a horizontal bar near the ground for one end of the warps and individual pegs in the ground for the other end of each warp strand. Note 1146.) The warp was wrapped around the two bars, and adjoining strands were twined together with cord, the fingers only being em- ployed. The most common blanket material was twisted strips of rabbit fur, but the fur of other ani- mals, birdskins, juniper or sage bark, and some- times a greeh, stringy material growing in the water (spirogyra ?; note 1168) was used. The last was soft but lacked warmth and durability. Rabbit- skins are still used. Other materials were aban- doned so long ago that their frequency was prob- ably greater than is shown in the lists. Fur and feather blankets, common in Basket Maker sites, are widely made through the South- west and on the west coast,89 and employ a loom which, in its relationship to the more complex Southwestern looms, appears to be the oldest type. Nets (for rabbit drives, sage hens, fishing, and carrying) were made nearly everywhere, but data on their weaving are too unreliable to war- rant discussion. The carrying net was a southern introduction which did not penetrate far into the area. The fishing net was probably derived from the north or west. Sage-hen or rabbit nets had spread throughout. POTTERY (1195-1227) As pottery (note 1195) was made by all Shosho- ni, including the Lemhi and all others of Idaho and Utah, and as the Northern Paiute of Mono Lake and NP-MC are known to have lacked it, it may be suspected that its western distribution was but little beyond Shoshoni territory. Its ultimate origin is probably from the north, but the ware does not specifically relate to any prehistoric or modern wares of the Southwest or Great Basin. Although the existence of pottery among the Shoshoni cannot be doubted, the manufacture, shapes, and decoration are open to question. Use of temper in clay was improbable. Mixing of vege- table juice in clay (notes 1199, 1200) was pre- viously verified in Owens Valley.90 Constru4 was always by building up the vessel, thougi is uncertain whether this was by actual coil by rings of clay. Southern Paiute definite1u the paddle-and-anvil, but that S-Elko did doubtful. Decoration with a series of inde1 tions made with the thumbnail or by incisi a stick is probable in view of archaeologidl sherds so decorated from a number of sites southern part of the area (note 1219). Use painted decoration (notes 1215-1217) is im able, though fugitive red may have been use pots after firing as on basketry water olla Shapes (fig. 11, note 1221) seem often to 1 been informants' guesses, though flat-botta straight-walled vessels have been found in S-DthV and Owens Valley region, and pointeat bottom vessels in the S-DthV and SP-Ash teri tory. Bowls from near Austin, Nevada, were ably round-bottom. S-RubV and S-SnRv described unbaked clay, mal and human effigies with straw legs, mada toys. These were probably made more widely, is indicated in the lists. A boy at S-Lida 1 observed making them. Idaho and Utah Shoshoi also made them and Sarah HoWkins describes 1 among Humboldt Lake Paiute. Archaeological sherds, all very s imilar 1 the Owrens Valley Paiute ware92 previously dI scribed, have been found as follows: East bank of Owens River, on the Lone Pi Keeler highway; ware is -1l cm. thick; gray brownish; contains quartz sand; includes rn of bowls (fig. 3,a-c), one bearing "fingerm incisions and having a thickened lip. One a] seemingly of an olla. (Specimens are at the versity of California Museum of Anthropolp9g the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. )_ West bank of Owens River, 2 miles north Lone Pine; a similar ware. Mouth of Wyman Canyon, Deep Springs Valli a similar ware. Rock shelter at Deep Springs ranch, a si4 lare ware. Rock shelter in which Tule George, Shos man, was born, about 10 miles south of Lida similar ware (fig. 3,d). Camp sites among pifons in Great SmokyVi ley; forty sherds, very similar to the othel paste is dense, brownish-gray, and includes" mica and quartz sand; 5-7 mm. thick; surfaci uneven, apparently smoothed with a stick ani fingers; shapes indicate bowls (fig. 3,e) al possibly jars or ollas (fig. 3,f). The first four sites are undoubtedly Norl Paiute, the last two Shoshoni. BURDENS AND CRADLES (1228-1270) Burdens.-The twined, conical basket (ell 1082) was the common carrying device for woi 90Steward, 1933:266-269. 9 P. 57. 8 9Spier, 1928:204-205. 242 192 Stewardt 1933:266-269. CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI etimes for men. Used also for seed gather- t had a twofold importance. The shape, how- eems somewhat arbitrary, for rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical baskets are Tr burdens in various parts of North Amer-. erskins could have and sometimes did serve hering and transporting seeds, but skins - a premium. Bark bags were a poor substi- Consequently, the conical basket ordinarily the woman for all objects transported. used pack straps, which were probably more ikin than braided cord, for such objects as Jor miscellaneous smaller objects, the spe- smock-shaped carrying net was used near rnia,93 though its precise shape and dis- ion are open to doubt. Beyond the limits of cial carrying net, which was derived from n California, pieces of rabbit nets were Jeyond that, in the northern part of the mo nets were used, deerskin bags being em- abymen for burdens. (For parfleche, see 40.) n's carrying straps generally passed over rehead; men's across chest. (Notes 1229-39.) ales.-Probably no human need among peoples avel much on foot is as unvarying as some of transporting infants. Throughout the (and, in fact, throughout most of North a) the infant is lashed to a fairly rigid which is carried on the back. Variation was eat in features nonessential to the main de- producing four subtypes of cradles. These, distributions noted below show, cut across eat Basin and neighboring areas in a manner elated to the cultures of these areas that ust be regarded as independent variables. I style, in fact, has often changed within tric times. elliptical ladder (fig. 12,b,c, p. 341), by Shoshoni in the regions of Little Lake, , and S-Bty, is related to the various types dder" cradle to the south, though in south- alifornia it is usually an inverted U, not plete ellipse. (See note 1244.) gre 12,b (most cradles in fig. 12 are shown it the hoods, which were everywhere of bas- r, probably like figs. 12,f,j; exact data on v were sometimes impossible to procure) owned , Little Lake Shoshoni; 18 in. long; 12 in. frame joined on each side; 8 horizontal trods; tules run vertically over the cross nd are sewed together with cord. Fig. 12,c, &r type formerly used at S-DthV and S-Bty. ie lattice type, which lacks the reinforcing rim, was used throughout Owens Valley and Probably like Kroeber's (1925:827-828) figs. $9, which include one from the Koso, probably Iint Valley Shoshoni. Mason (1889, fig. 15) la similar net from southern Utah. 'Kroeber, 1925:534-537. 5ee Steward's ( 1933) p1. 9, a,b. shared by some Western Mono and Yokuts in Cali- fornia."8 It was recently introduced to S-DthV and S-Bty. This type has one set of small rods running vertically and twined together, and another set, lattice-like, running horizontally in front of or behind the first. Figure 12,a: this type made by TD, S-DthV; length, 34 inches; width, 19 inches; horizontal rods, 6 per inch, twined in diagonal pattern with blue calico; edges bound with calico; vertical rods, 3-4 per in., behind horizontal rods, twined every 13 inches; top edge has rim of wrapped bundle of rods; bottom edge covered with cloth. The third type, like the first, has a stiff rod frame, but the backing is small, closely spaced willows which are placed vertically and twined together (fig. 12,h,j). The frame may be oval, elliptical, or somewhat rectangular; it is sometimes covered partly or entirely with buckskin. This type is not found throughout the area."7 From the Shivwits and Moapa Southern Pai- ute"8 and probably some Ute,9" it extends north- ward through northern Utah and eastern Idaho to Lemhi Shoshoni, and also westward across central Nevada to Surprise Valley Paiuteloo and to some Maidu and Miwok.101 Figure 12,j, S-Elko, is the sole occurrence of this type outside the area just described. This, a modei made by RB for the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, has a heavy rod rim filled with vertical willows, twined together at inter- vals of li inches; a small, twined hood is af- fixed; infant wrapped in twined, sagebark blanket into which tufts of rabbit fur are woven. The fourth type differs from the preceding in that the frame is filled with horizontal instead of vertical rods. Sometimes one vertical reinforc- ing rod is placed in the middle. This type occurs throughout the northern part of Nevada, western Idaho, and is known also to Lemhi Shoshoni. 102 In the south, it is found-among Walapai, Havasupai, San Carlos Apache, Western Apache,l03 where, how- ever, it tends to resemble the "ladder" type of southern California. Figure 12,d-g, representing this type, have close yspaced, small horizontal rods which are twined together. Figure 12,d was formerly used at S-BtlM, S-Hmlt, and S-SprV, but the type shown in figure 12,f has recently been introduced at S-BtlM, perhaps having been acquired on the Western Shoshoni Reservation. Figure 12,f, S-SnRv, has two vertical rods left unattached at their Kroeber, 1925:534-537. 9 Inadequate information led Spier (1928:318) to this conclusion. 98Lowie, 1924, figs. 33, 34. 99Mason, 1889. ??EKelly, 1932, pls. 28-31. ?01Kroeber, 1925:534-539. ?02Lowie, 1924, fig. 10. 103Spier, 1928: fig. 56. 243 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS upper ends to afford some spring behind the in- fant's head; encircling rim is doubled at top; hood supported by five rods, wrapped together; the whole is buckskin covered, except where infant rests; lower end has separate cover; back has buckskin fringe near top. (Also, note 1247.) A novel construction, fig. 12,i, is described in note 1246. Of the four types, the third and fourth are perhaps among the few traits of Shoshonean ori- gin. These may once have -extended beyond the area and been supplanted by boards when the introduc- tion of axes made their manufacture feasible. Present information, however, indicates that they are almost restricted to the Shoshonean area. Moreover, they may be regarded as adaptations of the twining basketry technique which is prevalent in the area. Lesser details of the cradle are even more variable than the rod arrangement, that is, the outline, hood construction, decoration, includ- ing indication of sex by a hood design (a trait 0 acquired in the south from central California),' and fringes, rattles, and other trimmings. MUTILATIONS (1271-1321) The aboriginal infrequency and present disuse of mutilations made them difficult to ascertain. They were not connected with rites, societies, or status in any way that would standardize and fix them. Whether ears were bored and what was worn in them was a matter of individual taste. Boring of the nasal septum was noted only among a few groups near southern California and the Colorado River. Tattooing, sparingly indulged in, was also a matter of individual taste. (Notes 1271-1321.) DRESS AND ADORNMENT (1322-1431) Ornaments and paint.-Necklaces (notes 1322- 1336), pendants, and paints were also variable and without social significance. There was prob- ably some standardization of paint and dress for the circle dance, but details of it could not be procured. One practical purpose of rouge, how- ever, was to prevent the face and body from dark- ening during the summer. (Also, notes 1343-1365.) NP-MC. CTh said that people are darker now than formerly because they no longer wear rouge (though many women at Owyhee still use face rouge), but in the fall they acquire their lighter "win- ter color." CTh's wife chides him for being dark skinned. This preference for light skin is prob- ably more widespread than was recorded. Hairdressing.--This, also, was solely a ques- tion of style. The potentialities for variation 104 See Kroeber, 1925:536. in hairdressing, irrespective of culture, ar shown by its great variation in the Southwesl The common use of two braids in the Shoshoni may have been a recent diffusion from the Ph (Also, notes 1371-1384.) Paints, hair nets, bands, pins and other l applied to the hair, and depilation were, li coiffure, a question of personal taste. (Als4 notes 1390-1401.) Headgear.-The woman's twined basketry hal "Basetry had two functions: it protected i head against the tumpline and from pine-nut Where it was lacking, the woman's carrying sl passed over a bark head pad or across the chw Men's fur caps seem largely ornamental (m 1411-1422), though S-RubV and S-SnRv said met placed rabbit or badger fur over the head ana tied it under the chin in cold weather (note 1409). Men always held the carrying strap aco the chest. The twined bark hat or helmet (fig. 9; nol 1408) was worn in winter. It probably had wid distribution than is recorded. Fig. 9. Twined sage-bark hat or helmet. (Made by RB, S-Elko.) The hair net, a California trait, had himi distribution (note 1423). Men's buckskin or fur headbands (notes 142 1430) have an incompletely known distributio' GARMENTS (1432-1576) As native garments were abandoned long agq the lists provide a general idea of styles p! alent in the area rather than exact informati for each locality. No doubt more complete dal would reveal important local differences not apparent. Clothing was always scarce and many persoi necessarily went nude or wore merely a woven sewed fur robe. As various styles of garmenti were known throughout the area, the choice ii -individual instance depended somewhat upon tl 105 Spier, 1928:205-206. 244 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI ,y of skin available and the person's size. bevented standardization of garments which ttherwise have developed. Rk and NP-FSp. Boys went nude and girls 1y a front apron. S-SnRv people often went :cept for a genital covering. Leonard found on Mary's River (north of Elko) who were ly naked and very filthy." 10' Remy and ey observed107 that Humboldt River Shoshoni d until puberty, except in cold weather ey gird an anteiope skin around their In Ruby Valley, Simpson met a naked squaw a baby. Bonneville observed "Shoshokoes"'08 i'n Paiute?] on the lower Snake River who were te, especially of clothing. "One old dame olutely nothing on her person but a thread bhr neck from which was pendent a solitary 09 Ogden, visiting the Humboldt River in ir, 1827-1828, described the people as "mis- 1ooking wretches with scarce y any cover- .ubzero winter temperatures were not uncom- Fthe area, except in the low Death Valley ke River regions, clothing was of some al as well as ornamental importance. o and_capes.-The simplest device for pro- vthe body and no doubt one of the oldest and other areas is a robe of dressed fur, it1ng of one or several skins. Often, per- wre not more than this. The species used .considerably, as shown in the lists, be- of their local availability or ease in tak- Iw. Rodents, especially ground hogs in the ' part of the area, were more easily ,a or caught than such carnivores as coyotes, 1, foxes, and wildcats. No social or reli- >liefs favored or prevented use of any p, excepting possibly the coyote. (Also, i.431a, 1436.) jwoven robe (see under "Weaving" in this on), requiring a more complex process of koture but obviating the need of tanning the was very warm and seems to have been pre- , It was made of bark when fur could not be pt JP insisted that bark was usually g because it chafes the skin too badly. The rabbits, which were numerous in most of ta, was definitely favored and often pro- the sole garment worn. Dson observed rabbitskin robes worn in Butte r, on the South Fork of the Humboldt River P Pah-hun-upe Valley, near the Humboldt ^11 Five Shoshoni in Butte Valley clad in skin blankets also wore leggings. Bonneville bGP. 157. .P. 127. "In 1859, p. 66. OIrving, 1:338. LO 11:384-385. 'Pp. 61, 67, 72. saw Shoshoni on the Snake River below Twin Falls wearing rabbitskin blankets 4 feet square.112 Tailored skin shirts, dresses, and leggings not only provided more adequate bodily covering than robes but were, in some measure, an adver- tisement of the man's industry and skill as a hunter, thus affording slight prestige value. Garments from two historical sources, the Plains and California, seem to have been used through- out the area, the choice between them depending primarily upon the season and the quantity of skins available. The general preference, how- ever, seems to have been the more complete gar- ments of Plains origin, which gives the area an apparently greater connection in these elements with the Plains. There is little evidence of in- fluence from the Southwestern styles of woven garments. Shirts, dresses, and skirts.-The most pre- tentious woman's garment was a long gown made of two skins, one in front and one behind, which was perhaps pieced on the sides, at the bottom, and in the sleeves if necessary (notes 1444-1452). This style, which represented affluence and was preferred in winter, is a northern or eastern (Plains) importation.113 Lacking sufficient skin for this, the woman followed Pacific coast styles and made a skirt of one large or two small skins or, rarely, of bark, or wore a front and back apron of skin, bark, or grass. (Also, notes 1475-1506.) The man's shirt, leggings (notes 1515-1524), and breechclout were derived from the same source as women's dresses. The shirt wias either a skin front and back sewed down the sides, or a single skin, cut poncho style with a hole for the head and sewed down the sides. As with the woman's dress, it capitalized on the natural shape of the skin and required a minimum of tailoring, though details of cut could seldom be procured. Sleeves were added, even being wrist length if sufficient material could be had. (Also, notes 1461-1471.) Woven bark is an unsatisfactory substitute for skin in shirts or dresses but seems occasionally to have been used. Poor or unlucky hunters wore only the breechclout, which was of northern or eastern origin, but kept warm with robes. Some- times even the breechclout was of twined bark. (Also, notes 1508-1513.) At least two historical sources of these gar- ments have been indicated. Had game been more plentiful, it is probable that the more complete clothes of the northern and eastern styles would have replaced the simpler west coast styles, as among eastern Idaho and Wyoming Shoshoni, thus 112 1:329-330. 113 Plains styles, similar to those in this area, were known to the Nez Perce (Spinden, 217-221), who had some contact with the Snake R. and from whom some of them may have been derived. 245 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS weakening the connection of Shoshoni with the west coast. This demonstrates that cultural sim- ilarities of areas are not wholly intelligible in terms only of contacts, but involve also the pos- sibility of a borrowed trait flourishing under local geographical as well as cultural conditions. Footgear.- (Figs. 13, 14, pp. 343, 344.) Though many persons went barefoot, the rough terrain and great distances traveled favored substantial and preferably hard-soled moccasins. Thus, the Plains type with the separate hard sole was readily adopted, and seems recently to have gained as- cendancy. It is probable, however, that the Plains type, called "2-piece" (note 1527) and the soft-soled western style, which lacked a separate sole and is called "l-piece" (note 1539) (both may have uppers and tongues added), were both used in some localities according to season or need. The latter, however, sometimes had added another hard sole. For cold weather, moccasins were made with fur remaining on the skin and turned inside or were stuffed with bark, fur, or grass. (For materials, see notes 1551, 1552.) When skin was not available, woven bark (note 1555) had to suffice for moccasins (fig. 10); Fig. 10. Twined sage- bark moccasin. (Made by RB, S-Elko.) though in warm weather persons went barefoot. Al- though the occurrence of fiber sandals in the Southwest and among Paviotso Northern Paiute and in northern California1"4 would suggest a former use of them in this area, there is no evidence of it, except from a cave in Owens Valley.1"5 Snowshoes, like those in California and the Plateau, l1 were always circular or oval (note 1565). 114Spier, 1928: fig. 49. Lowie, 1924:218. 115Steward, 1933:274. 11 EKroeber, 1925:807; Kelly, 1932:149-150. Spinden, 223-224. The tennis-racquet shape, pre- viously reported from Owens Valley Paiute (Stew- ard, 1933:276), is incorrect. It was claimed also at S-SprV, but probably represents informant's misinformation or observation of white men's snowshoes. S-Elko claimed that this style was post-Caucasian, from an unknown source. GAMES (1577-1887) The Great Basin cultural matrix containei features which exercised control over gamei Games were purely lay pursuits, done for sl amusement, and having no religious or soci4 tures to integrate them with other phasese ture. Their sole dependence upon the social was that some, e.g., shinny, required subsl numbers of persons for their performance. I spring to fall, when the population was brc into family groups which were preoccupieda food seeking, was unpropitious for gamblinj sequently, the temporary gatherings for coo hunts and dances were as much occasions foi bling as for other activities. It appears I such games as shinny, hand game, the ball x and others, opponents were most often thoui necessarily villages or groups of villages various localities. Probably few games in the west were pre4 mined or affected in any important degree I peculiarities of a special physical enviroi It seems to be as true of the country i ally as of the Great Basin that the diffusa the generalized types of games was neither vored nor hindered as much as other kinds a ture elements by the peculiarities of local tures. Such games as hoop-and-pole, shinny' and-pin, and the hand game are distributed' culture areas of the United States in such ner as to indicate little functional depend upon the total culture of each area. It do4 matter that subsequent to acceptance in thi area, games became variously interrelated-t each local socio-religious complex; their . tial appeal must have been much the same ei where. The wide distribution of some gamest therefore, could as well be interpreted as diffusion facilitated by their general ace ability-like the rapid acceptance by Indi post-Caucasian times of cards-as of great tiquity. The general proposition, therefor that in proportion as a trait is functiona independent of the total culture, it may s rapidly or, conversely, may persist in a o ing culture, is illustrated in the case of Basin games. - As for the relative antiquity of games,. impossible to compare them with one anothel with other culture elements. It is clear o that specialized forms are more recent tha eralized forms of the same game. A relevant observation is that in thisJ many localities have several, very similar which serve approximately the same purpose' hand game and 4-stick game, the foot race the ball race, the 4-stick, 8-stick and l2> dice. This contrasts with economic devices wherein a single element or complex Berves particular need and is fairly well establ' and unvarying. Each locality has only one, of winnowing basket, of conical carrying b 246 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI .,water jug, etc. An overlap of two devices serv- the same purpose occurs only where culture ias adjoin and the devices have been borrowed um various sources. The very multiplicity of "es suggests that there are attitudes toward 1s which facilitate their acceptance and indi- Fe great potential variability in type and in ber. Similarly, gambling songs, as well as ir songs, are accepted eagerly from new sources do not conflict with established repertoires. 'The association of certain sedentary games with sex only cannot have other than purely his- 'ical significance. Jost adult games entailed inordinate gambling. bling under the present-day economy often has iastrous effects upon an individual. Under na- re conditions, his capital was limited at any time and could be replenished by a reason- te amount of hard work. Ball race.-This is a man's game. Opposing race, kicking a stuffed-skin ball which y attempt to drive first across a line at the of the course. (Also, notes 1577-1595.) This ,,general in the eastern portion of the area, was lacking in the W. Previously it was er- !eously ascribed to Owens Valley Paiute,"17 who pounted it in myths but did not actually play Although it was known to San Joaquin Valley bes in California,118 its introduction to the at Basin was probably by way of Utah. In fact, ne balls, which are very similar to those used oertain Arizona tribes for the ball race, are tin in puebloan sites in Utah,119 though they have served some very different purpose. James of the ball race are: su:tako'in, S-GSmV; toin, S-Mor, S-Hmlt, S-Ely, S-SprV; nazatoin, Iko, S-Egan, S-SnRv, S-BtLM; nacitoin, S-RubV. hinny.-Practically universal in the United es this occurs in most localities in the at Basin. But the main form was the woman's le, often called "double ball," employing a rt, braided-skin cord which was thrown by ps of a straight stick. Men only occasionally ticipated in this form of the game. The man's p, employing a stuffed-skin ball which was ked on a field like that used for the woman's e and found in the Death Valley-Owens Valley ion and in the extreme north, might be inter- ted as an adaptation of the ball race to shin- (Also, notes 1596-1620.) games of shinny are: natsitoip:1, S-Bty; 0ko'o, S-GSmV; wiitsiimo'i, S-SmCr; niizitako'i ou:tako'in (the latter may be a name heard twhere for the ball race), S-RsRi; nazitoin, ; nadzoin, S-Hmlt; naditoindua S-Ely; dai "17Steward, 1933:287. 18 Culin, 665-697. I1OSteward, 1936b: 38. L200Culin, 616; Kroeber, 1925:847-848. toi, S-SprV; nuzitoin, S-Elko, S-Egan, S-RubV. The last three lists have men's and -women's shinny. The first, in which the puck is kicked, is called by a name similar to that used else- where for the men's ball race: nasuitoi (na, with; sii, the foot; toin, send into the air), S-SnRy, S-BtlM; also, nasilsimoin, S-BtlM; wut- sima1, NP-MC. Woman's shinny, in which the puck is thrown with a stick, is called: nadzitoin (na, with; dzi, stick; toin, to send into the air), S-SnRv, S-BtlM; natzlzak, NP-MC. Hoop-and-pole.-This game occurs in two forms, to which a third, the ring-and-dart (element 1811) might be added. The first, occurring throughout the southern and western portions of the area, differs only in minor details from the form which is general throughout America and oc- curs on all sides of the Great Basin.121 In this, scores are reckoned by the position in -ohich the pole falls relative to the hoop. 122 (Also, notes 1626-1651.) The second depends upon elimination of contestants instead of scores for each cast, and was described as follows: S-SnRv men and S-BtlM boys formed two sides, standing about 30 feet apart. Side A rolled the ring; all members of side B cast their poles simultaneously (a good marksman might cast from a greater distance than the others to make it more difficult subsequently for his opponents). If all the poles missed, side B rolled the ring and side A cast. If, however, a member of side B had penetrated the hoop so that his pole stuck up, a member of side A stood at the place from which this pole had been thrown and cast. If he knocked the pole out, the hoop was rolled again. If he missed, he yielded his pole to side B. A member of the latter then threw it and if he pene- trated the hoop, side B kept the pole and the owner on side A was eliminated. If he missed, however, an opponent took the same pole and cast. If he missed, the pole was passed back to the other side. In this manner, the pole was passed back and forth until a member of one side pene- trated the hoop with it, thus eliminating the last member of the opposing side to throw. The hoop was then rolled again. When all of one side were eliminated (that is, had lost all their poles) the other side won. If one side had an expert, they might risk all their poles on his one cast. When played by S-BtlM, boys did not bet. CTh thought this form of the game had been played by Lovelock Paiute but not by Winnemucca or NP-MC Paiute. Kelly reports it among Surprise Valley Paiute,122 to whom it seems to have come from the east. All Idaho Shoshoni played it; also the Crow. 124 121Culin, 420-537; Kroeber, 1925:846. 122 See Steward, 1933:287. 123 1932:171. 1-24 Lowie, 1935:101. 247 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS The southern or orthodox hoop-and-pole game was called: pacidu, S-DthV; pas, S-Bty; navasin, S-GSmV, S-RsRi, S-Hmlt; pai:ciin, S-SmCr; pa:s1n, S-Mor. The northern form was called nudzivoin. Ring-and-pin. The early abandonment of this game may account partly for its apparent spotty distribution, though it was unknown to all Idaho Shoshoni except S-SnRv. It is, however, very gen- eral throughout the United States,125 its main variable being the ring which to some extent de- pends upon environmental materials. It is perhaps no accident, therefore, that rabbit skulls pre- dominated among Shoshoni.125 This game among SP- Ash is not played in summer for fear of rattle- snake bites, one of the rare supernatural asso- ciations with a game. (Also, note 1656.) It is called: totsokiin, S-Lida; tonsokoin, S-Mor; totokoin, S-Hmlt; totokoindui, S-Ely; totokoi, S-SprV; tosokoin, S-SnRv. Hand game and 4-stick guessing game.-Of the various guessing games prevalen in the west, only these two were known to the Shoshoni, among whom they had general distribution. The hidden ball probably occurred among SP-Ash, where the ball was hidden in 4 sand piles, but was defi- nitely lacking elsewhere. The hand game was well standardized, unvary- ing in the use of 4 sticks hidden in the hands without grass, in singing, in guessing by mo- tions, and in keeping score by means of count- ers, and varying only in such details as shape and materials of the sticks, number and kind of counters, etc. (See also notes 1666-1689.) The 4-stick guessing game was like the hand game in manner of play and usually in materials, though sometimes long and short sticks instead of ordinary hand-game sticks were used. They were hidden under a basket instead of in the hand. (See also notes 1692-1712.) As this game is confined to northern California, Washington, Oregon and Basin tribes,127 it seems legitimate to infer that it is an adaptation of the hand game which, in spreading into the Basin, was as- signed specially to men. Thus, two games, which are nearly identical and serve the same purpose, coexisted in a large area. The only important difference in them seems to be that, as all sticks were hidden under a basket in the latter, it was better adapted to playing with only one person to a side. The hand-game is called: matsogo'?, S-Bty; naiyawin: or naiyawina, S-GSmV, S-SmCr, S-Mor, S-Hmlt, S-Ely, S-Elko, S-Egan, S-RubV, S-SnRv, 120 Culin, 527-561. Kroeber, 1925:846-847. 126 Culin, 554, reports a rabbit skull used by Southern Paiute in Utah, and Lowie, 1924:257, reports it from Moapa Southern Paiute. 127 Culin, 327-328; Kroeber, 1925:56; Kelly, 1932:173-174. S-Bt1M; naiyawurt:, S-RsRi; naya'k'i, NP-MC; naiii'gua, NP-FSp. The four-stick game is called: nupo"rnini NP-FSp; tuxanuip, S-Bty; du?wa?a or du'wano (from duma, the winnowing basket used in the play), S-GSmV; duiwiino:ip , S-RsRi; duwundug: S-Mor; tuwandugi or wotatsoi, S-Elko; iutati S-SmCr, S-SnRv; tuwudugi, S-Hmlt; wAtatsi, I Dice.-Shoshonean variants of dice games, which are common throughout the United Stat4 fall into two major classes: long sticks of or wood and short sticks of wood. There are two types of long-stick dice. ' first, "8-stick dice," was predominantly am game. The dice, usually made of cane, were red on one side, white on the other, and thi manner of play was comparatively uniform evt where. (Also notes 1765-1788.) This game o?i in all localities but is lacking among Idahi shoni except S-SnRv. Use of 8 sticks is larj distinctive of the Great Basin area and has reported from Pyramid Lake and Surprise Val] Northern Paiute,28 Southern Paiute of Utah outside the Great Basin, from Yokuts and GR1 elino. 129 Long dice elsewhere usually numbei 3 to 6. The other long dice or "4-stick dice" i8- woman's game. Two dice are similarly marked called "little ones," two are distinctively marked and called "mother" and "father" (fil 6,i-k; see also notes 1716-1731). Though nol sought there, this was probably lacking amo; the first five groups in the lists. It seemi have been the same as the Surprise Valley xi ern Paiute "squaw game" tupi'du,130 and the oming, Lemhi,13' and Idaho Shoshoni game to1 The short stick or "many dice" or "baskel dice" was also a woman's game. The dice wer4 short, generally oval and all painted alike, They were tossed on a basket. (See also not4 1734-1757.) Though confined to the central] of the Nevada area and lacking in Idaho and Utah, this game was undoubtedly derived frog the widespread "basket dice" which elsewheri of bone, walnut shells, teeth, or miscellaM other small objects and which also commonlt ploy pebbles or earth piles for counters.1' Shoshoni number of dice is exceptional, for, varies from 8 to 13 (30 reported by S-Ely if doubtful), whereas, with the exception of ti Apache, who used 13, the number in most suz ing areas is from 4 to 6; Surprise Valley used 8.133 The large number in Nevada, the,' appears to be a local development. 3128Culin, 1fi6-167. Kelly, 1932:174-175.1 129Spier, 1928:346-351. 130Kelly, 1932:175-176. 131 Culin, 169; Lowie, 1909:196. Culin, 44-225. 33Kelly, 1932:176-177. 248 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI aes of the four-stick dice are: topaidu, F, S-SmCr, S-RsRi (but see note 1765), t, S-Ely, S-SprV; topaidi, S-Egan; topedi, r, S-SnRv, S-BtlM; navogwoi, NP-MC. D name of many dice everywhere is wisii 'U. Shoshoni name of eight-stick dice is where danzahni or danzahni, which, accord- D JP, is the name of the painted side of tce and of a throw of all red sides when Other names are: tajahiiinu, NP-FSp; ,NP-MC. chTry.-Two main games are entered here: one Doting, the other of throwing arrows. For ing, the target is a brush bundle, a stick, arrow previously shot or thrown. row shooting was called: nahwatakoin, S-GSmV; n (this name elsewhere was for the hoop-and- lme), S-Hmlt; nadinwutkiunt (from wut, ) S-Elko, S-Egan, S-RubV, S-SnRv; nadiT)wUt- 6-BtlM. In the S-BtlM list, B is shooting at a brush bundle, to which the scoring applies; in the S-SnRv list, B is shooting 8 at a stick. row throwing, entered in the lists as A, em- a long arrows or darts. S-SnRv called it akin; and described it as follows: four men two to a side. Each has two feathered darts 4 feet long. One of two specially marked called tundahai, is thrown to serve as t and each contestant throws one arrow at he other tundahai is thrown and each con- at throws his other arrow.'3' Scoring was town. other game (element 1810) is called by NP- do'kwine. Each contestant throws one arrow lstance, the winner of each throw getting Punter, 5 counters winning. S-Bty shot ar- for distance. and dart.-This game, which is probably a to hoop-and-pole, was first encountered lko, so that its absence in the south is ain. It differs from hoop-and-pole in that ntestant holds a small, netted hoop in his and attempts to catch small, feathered thrown by his opponent. tng S-Elko and S-RubV, each dart caught gave lint. Among S-Egan, the darts caught were darts missed were thrown back and the op- attempted to catch them. ta On the distribution of this game are , but Culin figures a similar ring and Omro Southern Paiute'36 and the writer ex- .d similar equipment in Promontory Cave in rn Utah (Steward, 1937). Owens Valley 'Culin, p. 383, reports a similar game from 8kimo and the Southwest. Paiute caught an arrow shot or thrown somewhat similarly. " 6 This game was called: wunzivu, S-Elko. S- Egan and S-RubV called the game wodjoin and the ring winzodovi. Quoits. -Contestants throw a rock at a stick target. S-SnRv rocks are rounded, 2 inches in diameter.137 The game is called tumbi (rock) duida (throw) wuko (shoot). It has been reported also from the Northwest, Southwest, and Mic- mac,'38 and was known to all Idaho Shoshoni and Bannock. Snow snake.-This name is perhaps not justi- fied as the game usually consisted of hurling a pole through the air instead of sliding it on the ground. Children played it. Lacking in the north and south, it occurred only in the cen- tral part of the area. It was called: wuko, S-Egan; wiikoin, S-RubV. Juggling.-This was a woman's game. Rocks were juggled. Walking or running toward a goal while juggling was perhaps more common than is recorded. It was called: nawatapi, S-Egan nadapein, S-BtlM (but see note 1855, "Jacks"5 Foot race.-Races, varying from short dashes to long, cross-country runs, were undoubtedly more widespread than indicated on the lists. Wrestling.-This, also, was probably more common than reported. S-SnRv claimed that it was very popular. (Also, note 1847.) Shot putting.-Any heavy rock was thrown. This was not an important game and involved little if any betting. Stilts. -The absence of these in the southern part of the area is uncertain. In three locali- ties they were declared to be of recent intro- duction; in four, to have been native. All Idaho Shoshoni also claimed that they were native. Cu- lin reports them from the Maya, Wichita, Hopi, Wind River Shoshoni, and Zufli.'39 There may be some question that they were native to America. Names were: hu:nambe or hua, S-Hmlt, S-Egan, S-SprV, S-RubV, S-BtlM; humia, S-SnRv. Jacks.-This was described as similar to the game played by white children, but pebbles were used. It was called madape:in, S-RubV and S-SnRv. 136Steward, 1933:287-288. 137Probably like Culin's fig. 954. 138Culin, 722-728. 139 Pp. 731-732. 249 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Tops.-Two types of tops were: one, a simple stick with a pitch whirl, spun with the fingers or a string;140 the other, a pecked stone, spun with a string or lashed with a whip on ice. (See also notes 1859-1863.) Tops were called: d"r guhno' (spin) S-GSmV; dU7gohnu, S-RsRi; sana (sanap:, pitch: tiuTguhno'?, S-Mor; tumbi (stone) tur)guhno'0, S-SnRv; tuhnu':i, NP-MC. Slin.- This was a boy's toy everywhere except among N-FSp, vrho sometimes used it in minor fights caused by trespass on pine-nut lands. It was called witiT)gubU'iu, S-SmCr and S-SnRv, but MM, S-RubV, thought the bull-roarer was called wUtiTgUbti'U. Bull-roarer.-Whereas the bull-roarer was used in the Southwest in rain ceremonies and in south- ern California for summoning people, the south- ern portion of the Great Basin, like the Gros Ventre, Northern Maidu, and Shivwits Southern Paiute141, used it as a toy. The northern portion of the Basin, like the Klamath, Arapaho, 142 and Surprise Valley Paiute,143 used it to make wind blow. (See also note 1874.) (See also "Buzzers," elements 1981 ff.) Figure 4,f: a wooden whirrer made by WP, Sa- line Valley Shoshoni, for the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. It is tied with a buckskin thong, 15 inches long, to a plain stick 10 inches long which serves as handle; called wumuitiu. It was also called: iMinzivu, S-SprV (but S-Elko called the ring-and-dart game wuinzivu); nui, S-Elko. S-BtlM used an ant elope patella whirrer attached to a string on a stick, called tsahanunu. Cat's cradles.-Information on these is incom- plete because time was not available for demon- strations. Some of the figures made, however, are listed in note 1875. Dolls.-These were probably more widespread than indicated in the lists and were no doubt often made of unbaked clay. S-RubV and S-SnRv called unbaked-clay dolls nui (play) dua (child). Water pistol.-This is a hollowed section of elderberry stem into one end of which a stick is inserted as a plunger. Water is sucked into the other end by pulling back the plunger, then squirted out again. Its distribution is incom- pletely known. It is called ba (water) woina flute ), S-RubV. 140None was seen but descriptions indicated that the stick was about 6 in. long and the entire whirl built up of pitch. Culin (fig. 992) shows a South- ern Paiute top from Utah with a clay whirl cemented with gum. "4'Spier, 1928: 290-291. 142 Ibid. 14EKelly, 1932:177. Popgun.-This is a section of stem (of an na) 12 in. long, the pith removed. A wad of chewed grass is pushed inside to about the t and the tube moistened with the breath. A s8 wad of grass is then pushed in with a stick- the compressed air forces the first wad to p out of the other end. Culin has listed this the Plains. 144 It was called: tzi (push) toke (popping aS S-Mor. MONEY (1888-1893) True money is a west coast phenomenon whi spread to the Death Valley-Owens Valley regio from California. Even many of the shells u8se were traded from the coast. (See note 1888.) where, exchange involved mainly direct barte few objects had standard value. Strips of ra hide at S-Mor and deer hides at S-SnRv perhal served as currency in a minor way. Although it cannot be asserted that there anything in Shoshonean culture, except relat unimportance of commerce and lack of stress gifts, which barred the diffusion of money, appears that the strings of shell beads whio were occasionally traded far beyond the Cali nia area lost their monetary significance an became mere ornaments. TOBACCO AND SMOKING (1894-1943) Pipes.-The use of the tubular pipe of 8 and sometimes of pottery, links this area with the south and wvest, though the trait ex tends back to the Basket Maker and was part the Puebloan culture of the Northern Periph The occasional use of an L-shaped bowl and, northern Nevada, of the monitor or platform' pipe, links it with the east. The bowl, us - called toi or doi, was provided with a stem, called pitcimu, which was longer for the mon pipe. (See also notes 1894-1906.) Filling cane or elderberry with tobacco expedient when no pipe was available; it was a custom. Chewing.-This west coast practice, indu] by women, occurred only in the southern par the area which was in contact with Californ (Note 1919.) Smoking.-Smoking formerly was restricte men, who partook only occasionally, especia bedtime. Old men today smoke sparingly. (No 1919a, 1922.) Shamans invariably smoked whe doctoring and individuals may have made som smoke offerings. There was no other religio 144pp. 758-759. 250 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI ,tobacco (except note 1928). There is some lee that smoking attended social gatherings, pe, especially the large monitor pipe, be- 4sed according to some routine. Such smok- ours in northern Nevada, which probably ed it from the Plains through Shoshoni in Land Idaho. oco.- Throughout the area, the species was WiyNicotiana attenuata, which was collected oral localities. This was gathered wild; poultivated. It was generally called pahu in uth (bia, big, bahu, S-Hmlt) and puwi pahu, !, S-Elko; bui baho, S-RubV. Gosiute called i-ba-u. 145 northern Nevada, tobacco was usually mixed ame leaf or bark, a practice of eastern or rn origin.1'6 Some confusion attends the * mixed with tobacco because they were not tently named and it was impossible to col- pecimens. ikini, possibly a term recently introduced, to have been applied to various species. e, according to Chamberlin,147 used the br dogwood Cornus stolonifera), which was illed aSka-koi-n,np or afnka-kwi-niup. A leaf kinkini seen at Ely resembled manzanita. and S-Mor used only the term kinikini. S-SmCr, kinikini was also called pahu to) tuwiuya?'. Among S-SprV, S-Elko, and kinikini was also called dumayu, S-SprV illing it adum, which is apparently the *rm as S-Ely adumbi. S-RubV and S-SnRv, r, used kinikini as the equivalent of ba- yii or biadumayu, S-SnRv claiming that the term was used more toward the south and small variety of the same plant was called hmayU. S-Egan, however, distinguished kini- r adimayu from biadiumayu and naicutiumayu, separate plants. S-Bty mixed tobacco with rom buhu, an unidentified plant, and SP-Ash ark from suguwiuv. Remy and Brenchleyl48 three plants used for "kinikinik" among at River Shoshoni: a Cornus, the epidermic m of which is detached, then the bark a off and dried; dried leaves of a Vaccinium 1d berries; dried leaves of a small shrub resembles a certain species of Daphnads." MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS (1944-2017) re were few instruments in pre-Caucasian Several were introduced into the area in associations within the historic period. percussion instruments, striking together Loks when singing for the hand game is prob- ltive. So also may be hoof rattles (note used to an undetermined extent by the sha- Ltwhide rattles made of a rabbit's ear, bhamberlin, 1911:34. Nez Perce mixed tobacco with leaves (Spin- 1911:35. Pp. 129-130. deer's ear, deer's testicle, or of other hide (fig. 4,b) are scattered through the area but were so long ago abandoned that their distribu- tion is incompletely known (note 1957). The co- coon rattle, a California shaman's instrument, penetrated only the region in contact with Cali- fornia (note 1948). In post-Caucasian times, the split-stick rat- tle149 spread with the "South dance" from the Owens Valley or Death Valley region to many lo- calities. The musical rasp similarly spread from the east with the Back-and-forth dance which was adapted from the Ute Bear dance."15 (Notes 1973, 1977.) Other dances in the area had only singing, unaccompanied by musical in- struments. The large, double-headed drum and the tam- bourine both had penetrated only the eastern margin of the area, whence they had probably been derived comparatively recently from the Plains through the Ute.15 (Note 1985.) The buzzer, actually a child's toy, consisted of hoofs or bones strung in the center of a thong, one end of which is held in each hand. The thong is twisted and untwisted so as to make the hoofs whir. Similar devices employing disks are reported from the Eskimo, Plains, and South- west. 153 The buzzer was called: gliv&r) guvu, S-SmCr; tasiniigi, S-Egan; tsahumugi, S-SnRv. The musical bow occurs only in the region near California, probably employing only the archer's bow. Whistles, other than willow toy whistles, doubtfully occurred. Bird wing-bone whistles were introduced temporarily to a few localities as part of the Sun dance. The flute (fig. 4,a), usually of elderberry and having 4 holes, is the only instrument that would produce a melody. (Notes 2004-2010.) It had no important place in the culture, being used for casual music or as a toy.158 For courting, it was used only in the north. The flute was called: woiyo, S-DthV; wayo, S-Bty; mudzido', S-GSmV, S-Ely; woino'?, S-SmCr; woina, S-RsRi, S-Mor, S-Hmlt, S-SprV, S-Egan, S-BtlM, S-SnRv; wo: in, S-Elko. Thus., all instruments except the flute sup- plied rhythm in complexes involving song and "9Common in California (Roberts, 1936:21). 15?Steward, 1932. 1S1The Mono Lake and Walker Lake Northern Pai- ute drums (Steward, 1933:278) and the Paviotso drum mentioned by Curtis (p. 71) cannot natively have been the true, skin-covered drum. 152Culin, pp. 751-757. 1"" But a Mono Lake Paiute shaman used a flute in his doctoring performance (Steward, 1933: 277). Some S-Bty doctors also used flutes. 251 ANTEROPOLOGICAL RECORDS dance. In pre-Caucasian times, the circle dance employed no instrument; shamanism had varied rat- tles. New dance complexes brought specific in- struments with them. Only the flute, which was independent of any complex, occurred throughout. MARRIAGE (2018-2052) Social institutions are less amenable to tabu- lation than the parts of culture previously de- scribed. Moreover, as an analysis of Shoshonean society with the inclusion of data on population distribution, settlements, genealogies, kinship terms and systems, and other related features has been presented in a previous paper,l53a a few salient facts must suffice here. Society in this area was structurally simple, lacking clans, moieties, or other institutions to regulate marriage. Where true bands occurred, they were composite, that is, consisted of unre- lated families who could intermarry within the band. But most localities lacked even bands and had only scattered, independent villages which, by reason of lack of consistent postmarital resi- dence rules, comprised unrelated and therefore intermarriageable families, as the genealogies show. Choice of spouses was governed by bilateral relationship, all persons up to the second or third degree of relationship being taboo, except in the north. Here, some groups preferred true cross-cousin marriage, between a man and his father's sister's daughter, while others, though prohibiting true cross-cousin marriage, preferred what may be called pseudo-cross-cousin marriage, between a man and his father's sister's step- daughter. The sororate and levirate were observed throughout the area but were enforced only in a few localities (note 2030). Both polygyny, which was correlated with the sororate and was usually sororal, and polyandry, which was correlated with the levirate and was usually fraternal, occurred."4 The latter may be more widespread than the lists show; Cth denied it at NP-MC. 155 There was no true bride price. Presents to the bride's family, prior to marriage, were recipro- cated by presents of about equal value. Residence following a marriage consummated through present exchange tended to be matrilocal at first, in some cases even being preceded by a kind of bride serv- ice of some months (note 2021), but was subse- 53a Steward, 1938. 15 4 Steward, 1936a. 155However, Stewart recorded polyandry among neighboring Winnemucca Northern Paiute and also at Burns, Oregon; McDermitt; Owyhee; and Pyramid Lake. It was apparently never fraternal. Park (1937) was told that at Walker R. and Pyramid Lake it was fraternal. quently variable. Permanent residence depez upon food supply, location of other relati and various matters of individual preferen4 Instead of acquiring a wife in the orthc manner just mentioned, a man sometimes abda a married or unmarried woman by carrying h4 from her home. He was aided by his friends necessary. Sometimes, also, he fought a won husband in a kind of duel for possession ol he might be aided in this, too, by his frig Though vehement and sometimes injurious to woman, these fights involved no weapons not tent to kill. Marriage bonds, as these facts suggest, ^ loose. Little was done about premarital re] tions, for the fact of marriage consisted largely of the couple living together. Infi ity seldom entailed serious punishment. KINSHIP RELATIONS (2053-2089) Parent-in-law avoidances occurred only e NP-FSp and NP-FLk and have been described.3 NP-MC merely had "respect" for parents-in-i but no formal avoidance. Among Shoshoni, ti lack of avoidances is at least partly corrn with cross-cousin marriage, where aunts ani uncles frequently become parents-in-law. Ti JP, S-BtlM, insisted that because a man's i in-law was usually his father's sister, wh4 previous to his marriage, was one of his el and most esteemed relatives, to avoid her have been ridiculous. There was no true joking relationship, 1 probably in only the northern part of the coupled with cross-cousin and pseudo-cross; marriage, a man's brother-in-law, who was I his father's sister's son, was his main coq CT, S-SnRv, said that a man called upon hii er-in-law when in trouble, played jokes on could say anything to him and, among peopli of the Snake River, could even appropriate; property. Adoption was nowhere common, being limi1 orphans who had no close relatives to cared them. Kinship terms are reserved for a future BERDACBES (2090-2110) Berdaches or transvestites were known ti informants, but appear not to have been c Probably several of the cases described be: refer to the same individual in Elko. From present data, it is certain that m4 personated women more frequently than the i verse. Transvestitism, however, was unstal ized, varying with the individual. Some p. 1586Steward, 1933:302-303. 252 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI isted slight, others great tendency to be- .ike the opposite sex. Nothing was done uch persons, in sharp contrast to the nies connected with them among some Yuman on the Colorado River. People regarded mly with mild interest and with no dis- si. Two cases in the northern part of the fre also shamans, but, while this associa- f sex change and shamanism is very strong rNorthwest Coast and in Siberia, the con- i here seems to have been fortuitous. Na- bought did not connect the two phenomena. rfollowing cases are of male berdaches: !FSp. MH saw a Lida Shoshoni man who had r beard nor breasts, and who dressed like , wove baskets, and gathered seed, but did arry. Such persons called tuyayap. SmV. JK's great-grandfather had lived with who kept house for him. The man appeared to a1 physically. Another man made baskets as a. When both men were young, they had been rinside a circle of sagebrush with a bow basket. The brush was set on fire and the San was required to seize either the bow or ,and run out. The object seized determined Ix. JK's great-grandfather had seized the band subsequently lived as a woman (but Ave changed later to become a parent). The outh had seized the bow and henceforth ^B a man. Cr. Th heard of a case at Alpine; called ?r5sns tubasa'a (half). br knew of a present-day case at S-Elko, kson having a man's body and a man's cloth- keeping house for white people. Such are ?half man, half woman." Ri heard of a case in Smoky Valley. t called such persons tar}wu (man) waip y AR heard of one in Cedar City, Utah y Southern Paiute) and said there had rymen who cooked, made baskets, and did JR knew of a transvestite at Kanosh, te?) and of one now living at Elko who was in Eureka. They are called taT)gowaip (man- ko. A man who lived near Elko was feminine bcified characteristics, but had a wife Idren. Another man, from Eureka, who moved , then to Fort Hall, had breasts and male dressed like a man and did man's work, not marry. V. A man seen at Elko dressed like a man, La feminine voice and did woman's work. v. A man seen at Bruneau, Idaho, lacked Ibut possessed both male and female geni- was a good doctor but lost his power in .Transvestites are called waip: (woman) if). S-BtlM, there was a man who was physi- 1 but who had an abnormally small Eordinarily associated with men, but s work. He was a doctor. following are instances of predominantly prsons tending to masculine behavior: S-Hmlt. A woman hunted but married a man. Called: nuwuOdiika (?). S-SprV. A woman west of Duckwater dressed like a man. Called: taT)gowaip. S-RubV. There was a woman at Montello who wore men's clothes and did man's work. Called tar)gowaipii. DIVISION OF LABOR (2111-2140) Heavy tasks were assigned to men, lighter and more routine tasks to women. Women gathered seeds, while men hunted; but pine-nut gathering required men's assistance in knocking nuts from trees and transporting them. Large-game hunting was not suf- ficiently important to occupy all of a man's time, hence he also helped procure small game and in- sects. There was little arbitrary sex specialization in manufacturing. Instead, each sex made objects used in its activities; thus, women made baskets, pots, and so forth, while men made bows, rabbit nets, and similar equipment. Objects used by both were generally made by both. Thus, skin prepara- tion and making of clothing, fur blankets, etc., seem to have been accomplished about equally by either or both sexes throughout the area. Certain games, however, were arbitrarily played by one or the other sex, for which there is no obvious reason except that it was generally so throughout the west. There was little individual specialization in manufacturing. Each person made his own objects, though an unusually skilled worker might have some demand for his wares, as the makers of pots and bows in S-RubV. See also notes 2110a-2137. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (2141-2164) Political groups. -Social and political organ- ization has been fully described in a past paper."5"a It suffices at present to indicate two types of political units in this area, both of which spring directly from local ecology. One type is true, localized, land-owning bands which are bilateral or composite. These occur among Owens Valley Paiute"57 and, with less cohesion, among some of their neighbors. This is an area of dense population and of varied food resources within comparatively small divi- sions of the territory, which permitted less no- madic existence than in Nevada. The other type is the village group, which comprised two to twenty families who lived to- gether during the winter, generally under a vil- 1568'Steward, 1938. The present material has been superseded by this monograph and other works cited therein published in recent years. 157This type has been described in Steward, 1936c. 253 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS lage chief, but foraged for food in small groups of relatives during the remhinder of the year. Even village stability was incomplete, however, because the component families frequently win- tered in separate regions, depending upon where the food quest during summer and fall had taken them. Family or village groups associated in larger aggregates for temporary activities, such as dances, rabbit hunts, antelope hunts, duck drives, and so on. But, as the same people did not always assemble on these occasions, Shoshoni society was given slight cohesion over a vast area rather than strong cohesion within limited, well-defined areas. Chiefs.-The authority of chiefs is commensu- rate with the kind of political group. Owens Val- ley chiefs controlled bands in their cobperative affairs, especially the comparatively frequent communal festivals. But special men-in a sense, lesser chiefs-usually had charge of dances, rab- bit drives, and other activities. Chiefs here had assistants but probably not announcers, Succes- sion of chiefs was patrilineal with community, ap- proval. Shoshoni village chiefs had little authority, serving merely to keep villagers informed about important matters, such as dances, visitors, the ripening of seeds and location of other foods. The title was actually "talker" (S-Bty, taghwani, talker), and the chief's wife was merely tagh- wani (talker) huvitc1 (old woman), S-Bty. SP-Ash called the chief towin'dum. S-SnRv and, in lesser degree, other northern groups had uncommonly strong village chiefs, thanks partly to the great- er stability of winter villages along the salmon streams. They also had special chiefs' assist- ants, which, being functionally dispensable in these small communities, probably is a formal- ity borrowed from neighboring areas. Here also chieftainship tended to follow patrilineal suc- cession. TP said North Fork Shoshoni had the following offices: general village chief, te'gwani (from te'gwu, talk), who directed dances and announced each fall where pine nuts might be found; chief's announcer, tegwowep (from tegwep, word; wep, do- ing; used today for interpreter); kwini (mush) de'gwani, director of camp and of feasting during dances, who might or might not be the same man as the general chief; hunt chiefs, tugu (hunt) te'- gwani, who led different hunts according to their visionary powers. When various villages or members of different villages came together in the Shoshoni area for dances, hunts, or other activities, appropriate leaders had temporary authority. Though these men obtained authority primarily through personal qualifications, as skill in hunting, a vision for antelope shamanizing, or knowledge of dances, they tended to function from year to year and thus be semiofficial. PROPERTY (2165-2173a) Land, among Owens Valley Paiute (NP-ISp others) and, to a lesser extent, among Sai ley Shoshoni, was band-owned and defendedA trespass.158 SP-Ash claimed family ownersi pine-nut, mesquite, and screw-bean groves'l a few wild-seed patches. This concept mayAI been borrowed from southern California or1 Valley, where land was band-owned; or it ml been extended to wild seeds from the famill ership of cultivated plots. Elsewhere, the no kind of ownership of food areas or othe ral resources with the sole exception of ei aeries, which everywhere except SP-Ash (nol 2173) were claimed by individuals. Among the Nevada Shoshoni, the principli property rights was simple: things to whi0l effort had been applied were owned by the 1 or persons who had worked on them. Thus: Wild-seed plots which had been sown weri by the families which had sown them; other plots were free to anyone. Places where fish dams and weirs were co0 structed were owned by the groups who had them, S-SnRv and Humboldt River Shoshoni. Antelope, deer, rabbits, and other game communally were divided among all who had ipated in the hunt. Game taken by an individual belonged to However, he was obliged to distribute meat-, throughout the village, keeping the best and the hide for himself. Gathered seeds belonged to the woman or ily which had collected them. Caches were robbed, but the robber was killed if caugh All manufactured objects belonged to t sons who made and used them. Incorporeal things were generally co property: viz., songs, myths, and dances. songs and dances acquired in visions belon individuals; they would not have been effi cious for other persons. WARFARE (2174-2177) The greater part of this area comprised, groups, each linked with its neighbors th marriage and association in various econ activities and therefore lacking motives 158Ownership of food areas, especially; nut groves, may have been prevalent among Northern Paiute of Nevada, though the own group has not been defined. Several Shosh formants near Paiute territory disclaimed shoni ownership of seed lands, but said Paiute drove off trespassers. GJ and JF, which is near Paiute- territory, thought calities with wild seeds in their own red owned by villages; but Gus Thomas thoughts pine-nut groves and plots of sowed wild s so owned. Park, 1937, mentions Paviotso f ownership of pine-nut groves. 254 CULTURE ELEM. DISTMIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 'e. There was some friction, but seldom organ- Wtrife, where different linguistic groups an contact, namely, in the Owens Valley re- 0 and to some extent along the western por- f the Shoshoni area, where Shoshoni ad- d Northern Paiute, and along the eastern Lon, near Ely and Baker, where they were near kd Southern Paiute. .pre-Caucasian days, causes of strife seem Woften to have been woman-stealing. Thus, i once fought Paiute who had stolen two , Panamint Valley Shoshoni fought Kawaiisu e same reason. SP-Ash, however, sometimes K defensively against Mohave, who occasion- invaded their country on military expedi- ktween approximately 1855 and 1880, inter- mnt fights with neighboring tribes and with ;men were caused by the arrival of the lat- These usually entailed co6peration of many nrly independent bands, who, thanks to the , were able to travel widely so that for- rindependent villages and bands were united a high command. BIRTH CUSTOMS (2178-2303) Lrth, girl's puberty, and death entailed more L1 than any other activities, thus revealing Iasin as an extension of the mountainous por- sof California where individual crisis rites 'in lieu of group ritual, conspicuously im- nt. Both ritual and practical elements of irth were very similar to those of the a adolescence observances. jolation is based on the implicit fear of wination of the home (notes 2178-2181). The d of isolation and restrictions when given i days" might often have been stated as "un- fhe umbilical cord detached" had the number kys not been asked. At least, it suggests t5 days may have begun with this natural pe- It is entered in the lists as "30 days" tone month" was given. It may be suggested this extended period came about through the that the woman's postnatal flow is usually Wone month. The heated ground, drinking warm ! and abstention from meats and fats are iived as for physiological welfare (notes 1285, 2210-2212). te most obvious supernatural elements are: rional use of midwife with shamanistic power; kg afterbirth; special disposal of umbilical ,use of scratching stick (note 2214); wearing ,lothes and painting afterward. Ii semicouvade of Californial60 is not strong- 'esent, but ritual restrictions on the father requirements of running, bathing, building a Hire, using a scratching stick, and some con- lent, taboos on food, gambling and hunting, lecKroeber, 1925:840. getting new clothes. (Notes 2246-2278.) The father's requirements seem to have held in great- er force in the northern portion of the area. Their purpose, however, was more to insure the health, strength, and good fortune of the father than to protect the infant. (But see S-BtlM, note 2246.) There is remarkable uniformity throughout the area in even those features which are not a nec- essary part of childbirth, indicating either a rapid diffusion or some antiquity and strong ad- hesion of the complex. As against great antiq- uity, however, is the fact pointed out by Lowie that these rites are connected with those of the non-Shoshonean tribes of northern California rather than writh those of the Shoshonean tribes of southern California. The main variables in the practices were minor details, such as the specific disposition of the umbilical cord. Twins were regarded as no different from other children except that the death of one was believed to cause the death of the other. (Notes 2284-2286.) No one had an explanation of the cause of twins, but S-Egan suggested excessive intercourse. GIRL'S PUBERTY (2305-2378) Girl's puberty rites wvere always for individ- uals. Group rites, like those of some Southwest- ern and California tribes, were generally impos- sible because of the sparse and scattered popu- lation. The first menstrual observances defi- nitely signalized her changed sociological and physiological status-her reaching adulthood- and entailed longer confinement and a larger number of requirements than subsequent menses, as the lists show. Throughout the greater part of the area, the treatment of the girl resembled northern rather than southern California,682 emphasizing her fu- ture conduct in the requirements that she arise early, work hard, and be restrained in talking and laughing. Isolation wvas to prevent her con- tamination of men, but there was little if any idea that she would contaminate nature, as be- lieved in northern California. Where confinement is entered as 30 days in the lists, informants had given "one month." Physiological measures were her lying on heated ground and her taboo on meat and cold water. More purely ritual ele- ments were: use of the scratching stick,"6' get- ting new clothes, being painted and deloused. 161 1923:147-148. 162 See also, Kroeber, 1922:311-313; Lowie, 1922: 145-147. 163 The scratching stick is connected with birth and puberty in the Great Basin, Plateau, and Cali- fornia. Though Havasupai and Eastern Yavapai used it in girl's puberty also, Maricopa and Yuma war- riors used it during purification after contact with the dead and Navaho patients used it during the "war dance." 255 O-Steward, 1933:306. ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS In the southern part of the area, on the other hand, the girl is not isolated and, somewhat like southern California, her physical v-ell-being is more stressed, especially in her being "roasted" in a pit.164 See also notes 2304-2377. BOY'S PUBERTY OBSERVANCES (2381-2386) The initiation of adolescent boys into a men's tribal society is so widespread in America and elsewhere that some persons have assumed that it was once universal among primitive peoples and should still be found where elaborate cults have not absorbed it or crowded it out.105 The Nevada Shoshoni, who are totally without cult religion, should, upon this assumption, possess it.168 There is, however, no trace of it. The few boys' puberty observances can in no way be interpreted as survivals of tribal initiations. Moreover, as the Shoshoni had temporary large gatherings, like those which provided Australians, Fuegians, and others opportunities for boys' initiations, there is no obvious obstacle in the local society to such an institution. Adolescence brought only intensification of instruction, which had begun in childhood, con- cerning conduct and hunting (note 2381). The only event to mark the young man's changed status was his first large game kill (deer, antelope, sheep), the meat of which was taboo to him and sometimes to his parents. Confinement was dubiously report- ed only on the North Fork of the Humboldt River: TP's uncle, living near Cortez, was isolated, when his voice changed, in a sagebrush house built by his mother. He was fed mush, required to use the head scratcher, and told not to be lazy. He remained in the house one day, then ran away, contrary to instructions. JP had heard of nothing comparable to this at S-BtlM. The isolated NP-FSp instance of placing the loop of deer's intestines over the bo 187 is slightly paralleled in an account of the Humboldt Lake Paiute by Sarah Hopkins, who states that induction to manhood consists of boys hunting big game for the first time, using a sinew-backed bow. The boy "brings home the hide and his father cuts it into a long coil, which is wound into a loop, and the boy takes his quiver and throws it on his back as if he was going on a hunt, and takes his bow and arrows in his hand. Then his father throws the loop over him, and he jumps through it. This he does five times. Now for the first time he eats the flesh of the animal he has killed and from that time he eats whatever he kills." He may also go to war. 1 8 1 4Kroeber, 1922:311-313. Steward, 1933:293-294. 165See e.g., Loeb, 1929. "6'The lack of initiation among Owens Valley Paiute was previously shown to be contrary to this assumption (Steward, 1933:293-294). 187 Steward, 1933:294. 88Pp. 50-51. This area also lacked the more or less fo vision quest that, especially in the Plains, mally began at puberty."' DEATH CUSTOMS (2387-2468) Kroeber has shown that despite its emotio concomitants, methods of disposing of the da are extremely variable. 170 In this area, cir stances often determined whether a given grO abandoned the corpse in a house, buried it i rock slide or in the earth, or even cremated Always, however, grief of the bereaved was t conspicuous feature of the funeral, for ther considerable indifference to the afterworid little interest in ghosts. Funerals, though tended by people within convenient distance, community affairs only in the south. Cremation.-In and near S-DthV and Owens ley, cremation was most common. At SP-Ash at some extent, S-DthV, it was associated with annual mourning ceremony derived from southe California, though in Ovens Valley this cere is connected with burial. In some places, if person died far from mountains so that no wo for cremation could be had, he was buried. Hoffman records cremations among Southern Paiute of Spring Mountain171 (adjoining the rump group). S-DthV always cremated at Surve WTell (S-Bty verified this), but at Grapevine yon, where wood could not be procured, pract burial for all children and for adults, ex?f those who died away from home. S-Lida and S-; thought cremation was pre-Caucasian. S-GSmVt ever, only practiced it occasionally, for re unknown to JK. S-Mor cremated only people wh no families to bury them. S-Elko previously mated but began burial about seventy years a after acquiring shovels. S-Egan either crema or merely covered with brush shamans who wer killed for witchcraft or for declining a cas Burial.-This was the most common method disposing of the dead, but it was sometimes essary to abandon the corpse without interme Though there was no parenticide, the aged an firm were sometimes abandoned when the camp to be moved to seek food. Thus, S-Egan and S said that, especially in the spring when, af hard winter, the food supply was exhausted, and feeble persons were given food and water left to their fate. When, for some reason, e had to be moved at once after a death, the c might merely be left in the house, which was le9Something comparable to the Plains vii quest has been reported from northeastern Cl nia (Kroeber, 1922:314). Adjoining Surprise" ley Paiute transferred some features of the observances to boy'B (Kelly, 1932:162). 170?1927. 17 1Pp. 471-472. 256 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI p abandoned at death, or was covered with sh. In Independence Valley, northwest of S-Elko, tan172 found a shriveled corpse of a twelve- r-old boy which had been left six weeks earlier sa demolished hut. Corpses, he states, were ly covered with rubbish and abandoned; there no cremation. S-Egan left the corpse in the es and covered it with sticks; if found years r, it might be burned. Burial was preferably in rock slides or talus pes, which are common on most mountains, as brequired no digging. But burial in soft earth also practiced. (Also, notes 2406, 2408.) A house in which death occurred was usually Ded, but sometimes only abandoned. Except in north, where valued items might be spared, the deceased's possessions (which were no- re numerous) were burned or buried (note 2425) guse "to leave them around would cause unhap- ess to his relatives." For sentiment's sake, o, property to be burned or buried was often etributed by relatives and others at the funer- (note 2423). .-A true annual mourning ceremony occurred only Athe south, where it is probably pre-Caucasian. Several early writers have mentioned human kifice in Utah and eastern Nevada. Thus, Remy and Brenchley, writing apparently the Shoshoni of eastern Nevada173 say that y saw a young chief die. The prettiest wife selected and "after two horses had been rificed, the unfortunate young woman stepped hout flinching on the tomb of her husban , Be brother forthwith cut off her hair, and n shot her through the heart. We shuddered at spectacle, but the Indians remained unmoved. th was heaped over the two bodies, the horses e buried beside them, and, after hiding the tim's hair at some little distance, all was r." The mother, who was most grieved, wept chanted at the grave each evening. Inquiry about human sacrifice elicited no pwledge of it from informants except at S-Egan, re BM told of the death of a man thirty or ty years old. Three days later, the cousin led the wife, evidently against her will, by iking her on the head with a rock, then buried outside the house in which her husband's se had been left. The reason for this was un- 1n. Mourning (2432-2468) The primary mourning observance was cutting hair (notes 2432, 2437). In the south, the lifornia practice that the widow should not h her face for a year was observed (note 172 P. 471. 176 Pp. 131-132. 2440).174 Also, there was usually a taboo on remarriage for a year, which is more rigorous in the south but was mitigated in the case of the levirate and sororate. Though everywhere there was a theoretical taboo on the name of the dead, no informant hesi- tated to name dead persons, even his own rela- tives. (Also, notes 2450, 2451.) RELIGION (2469-2613) Shoshonean relationship to the supernatural is simple and direct, requiring no true priests and involving little more than visionary or dream ex- periences and a small amount of imitative magic. There is virtually no ritual, little prayer ex- cept that in the "Father dance" and Ghost dance, and few fetishes or other objective equipment ex- cept that used by shamans. Persons possessing supernatural po-;;ers and spirits acquired in dreams are here classed in three groups. One, general practitioners or sha- mans of general curing ability. Two, specialists, or shamans able to cure only specific ailments. Three, individuals whose powers are solely for their own benefit. There are also t-vwo kinds of dreamed powers, which a broad, comparative study might demon- strate to have historical significance. First, spirits, which are doctors' helpers or individ- uals' guardian spirits. These are usually animals or birds but sometimes are natural objects. Sec- ond, dreamed capabilities, which involve no spir- its whatever. In these, a dream of doing something gives the person power to do that thing; for ex- ample, a dream of curing a rattlesnake bite en- ables one to cure a bite. The principle of imi- tative magic which somewhat underlies the second is not, however, wholly lacking in the first, for often, though not always, the characteristic of the spirit relates to the power or capability granted; for example, a dream of a lizard gives the povwer to climb cliffs. Though logically distinct, these two kinds of powers do not wholly coincide with the threefold classification above. General practitioners al- ways have a spirit helper, but may also have dreamed capabilities. Specialists and individ- uals with private powers may have either. Shamanism (2469-2499) The shaman is called by most Shoshoni puha (power) giint (one who possesses or uses), though S-SmCr called him puhadandui. Still practiced throughout the area, shamanism well merits fur- ther study of problems which are little more than outlined here. As individual shamans differed in their dream powers, equipment, and curing methods, the lists 17 4 Kroeber, 1925:839-840. I I- K", 257 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS undoubtedly show greater local differences than actually existed. If many shamans could have been described in each locality, powers, curing meth- ods, etc., not used by the particular individuals who happened to be knowWrn to the informants would doubtless have been included. Moreover, as sha- mans were often called from a great distance, the examples given were frequently not local ones. From a broad point of view, however, certain re- gional differences are evident. To the classes of general practitioners and specialists (who were not distinguished in native terminology) might be added witches or sorcer- ers,175 at least in some localities, though the last were usually only doctors with evil intent. The general practitioners were often said to de- rive their power from "good?? birds and animals, the witches from "evil" ones, but it was impossi- ble to procure any real lists of good and evil creatures. Only coyote was generally classed with the latter. The general practitioners had spirit helpers acquired in dreams starting during childhood178 and frequently repeated with great intensity. These granted songs, procedure, and paraphernalia. Such doctors were presumed to be competent to cure all diseases, whether from soul loss, intrusion of a foreign object into the invalid, or witchcraft. They were public functionaries, alvvays subject to call. In most localities, they also cured ills for which some men had special powers, such as snake bites or wounds. Among these general practition- ers, singing and sucking doctors were not dis- tinguished, as in California,177 with the possible exception of NP-FSp and NP-FLk. Perhaps a significant regional difference is that, in the south, there was less idea of the sha- man's soul leaving his body in pursuit of the pa- tient's soul and a corresponding importance of sucking out disease objects. S-DthV thought only a few doctors could leave their bodies. -Bty, NP-FLk, and NP-FSp knew of none who could, though this ability was previ- ously recorded among Owens Valley Paiute. 178 The specialist's dream gave him power to doc- tor only a certain kind of ill or to accomplish only a special objective, though one man might 175Most of California, as with the Great Basin, failed to distinguish doctors and witches (Kroe- ber, 1922:302.). Apparently Chemehuevi Southern Paiute made little more distinction than Shoshoni (Kelly, 1936). This question, however, needs fur- ther study. 17'In contrast to Paviotso Northern Paiute sha- mans, whose dreams always came during adulthood (Park, 99). 177 Kroeber, 1922:303-304. 178 Steward, 1933:314 ff. Chemehuevi shamans were also unable to leave their bodies, though they might send the spirit powers (Kelly, 1936: 133). have several different powers at once and a. eral practitioner might have special powera addition to his general power. 179 Some of the special powers are: 180 curini rattlesnake bites, closing wounds, letting1 using the fire drill in curing, aiding chili birth, weather making, and capturing anteloj Most often, the special povker was granted bj dream of doing that thing, for example, a & of actually curing rattlesnake bites. But si times an animal was arbitrarily associated1 the power, for example, in the south the bu: zard, farther north the eagle, with curing tlesnake bites. Or the dream spirit was forl tously associated with the particular power. the individual dream. S-RsRi and S-Mor thoul there were few specialists. Though the shaman may everywhere be a wm it is usually a man. S-Mor thought that wom were more often doctors in the south. Predisposition to dream but not a specifli dream or power tended to be inherited, espe4 cially from the father. Thus, BG's 12-year-i son is now dreaming, but his dreams do not semble BG's. There was no case in which a da ceased shaman ancestor appeared in a dream, among Paviotso Northern Paiute. 181 Doctors' powers were rarely sought. SP-Ai use of jimson-veed for this is unique; jimso weed does not grow north of S-DthV and Owenj Valley. Sleeping in caves or on mountains fi visions was rare. 182 S-SmCr. Sleeping at certain places where there is water gave dreams of a "water baby pawT0hwa (pa, water; ohwa, small baby), whino did not give curing power but made the posei bullet-proof. S-Mor. Sleeping in a certain cave near ton gave visions of various "frightening" such as bears and snakes, but the powers gr by them were unknowv,n to BH. S-SnRv. A mountain where grown men staye alone one night and fasted, having bathed a: painted themselves. Various spirits appeard giving power for curing, vwar, gambling, and other purposes. I791n contrast to Paviotso, among whom i man gets but one power (Park, 100). I80The outstanding specialists in Califq were rain, rattlesnake, and bear doctors ( ber, 1922:302-303). The last, who are said able to change themselves into bears, were only in Owens Valley. Various Southern Pail specialists were: rattlesnake, "arrow," hoi "rock," and weather shamans. 1 8'Park, 101-102. Among Chemehuevi, spei supernatural spirits and songs were inheril (Kelly, 1936:130-131). 182 Park (pp. 102-104) reports this amoi so. Some Utah and Idaho Shoshoni often saW of dwarf when sleeping in caves or near cei springs. Chemehuevi also procured spiritsl sleeping in caves (Kelly, 1936:129). 258 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI oughout the area, refusal to accept and ite a doctor's power, especially if it were ted according to JP, brought the person's t informants thought that a youth called an hnced doctor to interpret his dream. Thus, Lne Pine Northern Paiute, AG said an expe- a doctor trained the novice in the use of rgs. JP, however, declared that it was dan- Fto call another doctor for such assistance p he might steal the power. tons gave not only spirit helpers, but songs iwere the most potent element in the power), int, and often food taboos and prescribed or. f.adoctors probably gave a free demonstration iady to practice. S-SmCr: a new doctor's 8ss to practice is announced by his father. other doctors know by means of their own whether a young man is a good doctor and for him. it is impossible to tabulate data on vi- r powers, the following accounts are of- o. BG, who is not considered a powerful dreamed of the mountain swallow and hum- which used to follow him. He also songs; of making trips accompanied by a lion; and of curing by laying on hands, 8"through" a long stick, and bloodletting. ot receive power to recover lost souls. toring, a dream (trance?) often instructed to cure. He first visited the patient and next day at least one animal spirit told he patient's fate, which he announced. wife had pneumonia, he dreamed that he bthe and dress her. He did so and she re- BG cured principally by laying on hands letting, specializing in the latter. His and hands (and those of several neigh- r many small scars where blood was let. ever used his sucking power. He largely power through two episodes. Once, he esarean section performed on his wife, ed his power. Another time, he dreamed patient would give him a two-dollar hief, beads, and a fawnskin. When the .failed to give him these things, he lost r. BG's son is now dreaming of otters and od animals. CTh's grandfather had three kinds of "telope shamanizing; bringing wind to re- and causing rain; curing pneumonia. said doctors' powers were dreams of imals and objects, for example, clouds, a whistles. ly suggestion of "pains" which possess fornia doctors183 was BD's remark that indicate that a person becoming a doc- times got a pain inside him when dream- doctors dreamed of birds, for example, ELm,ingbirds, probably buzzards, also of B was the main source of doctors' powers rn California (Kroeber, 1922:300-301). mountain sheep uwhich gave power to suck out and blow away disease. Men who dreamed of ice used a flute in curing. Men who dreamed that a rock burned up as if it were brush used a heated fire drill, which they applied to the pain. TSt said a certain doctor from Lida dreamed of bear, moun- tain sheep, and other animals, but as he only sings azhen doctoring, he is not very good. This possibly indicates also a distinction between singing and sucking doctors. S-BtLM. JP, who is a sweat-house doctor, said each of a doctor's spirits comes in a separate dream and gives him instructions. Some spirits are of little use to him; others are very po-wer- ful. The doctor keeps his assistant, degwov;ap, informed about his spirits, telling him vwhen a new one comes. Some spirits possessed by doctors are: flicker and bear, each giving strength; magpie, enabling him to see hidden objects.; coy- ote, giving intelligence; woodpecker, giving power to discover disease by tapping, as the woodpecker discovers worms and insects by tapping; also, deer, eagle, and other birds and animals. The most powerful spirit will tell the doctor to use the swveat house (see "Curing Performances") but all do not have this power. Two doctors hav- ing the same spirit, for example, bear, may sleep together in the hills. One may see part of the dream of the other, but gets the poaer in less degree. Two men having the same animal spirit, however, receive unlike methods, equipment, and general instructions in their dreams. Doctors can usually see part of other doctors' dreams and a powerful doctor may see all of them. When several men doctor one patient, it is to bring a greater variety of powers against the disease. White doctors are now more effective than Indian doctors. S-SnRv. Doctors had many different spirits, some men having several, especially birds, at once. Curing Performances (2500-2544) Doctoring depended upon the theory of disease. Excepting minor cuts, bruises, injuries, and mild internal disorders, which may be treated with herbs and simple home remedies, disease is be- lieved to be of supernatural cause. This accounts for the opinion of H, S-Mor, that white doctors are good for surgery but that medicines are less effective than the sucking of the old-time Indian doctor. The shaman or doctor is called when the patient does not respond to home treatment or when the ailment is serious or prolonged, thus proving that the cause is supernatural. Ailments requiring shamanistic treatment are: 1, intrusion of a foreign object, 184 which is usually, but by no means always, indicated by an acute pain; 2, loss of the soul, which is usually 184 This is the prevalent disease theory in Cali- fornia, except among the Colorado River tribes, where the soul-loss theory was held (Kroeber, 1922:299). Among Chemehuevi, belief in intrusion of objects and ghosts predominates; the soul-loss theory was weak (Kelly, 1936). 259 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS indicated by unconsciousness; 3, witchcraft, which is usually shown by depression, by incidents mak- ing someone suspect, or by the shaman's diagnosis, which in most places often and in some places al- ways casts blame on someone. Witchcraft, however, may be accomplished through either the first or second. Shamans seem not to have specialized in these three types of disease, any general prac- titioner treating all of them, except as sucking and attributing disease to witchcraft is more im- portant in the south. Intrusion of a foreign object is remedied by sucking. The object sucked out, which is often exhibited to the spectators, is usually a stone, stick, worm, blood, poison, or something else more or less appropriate to the illness. Soul loss is cured by bringing back and restoring the soul. The doctor goes into a trance, during which his own soul departs in pursuit of that of the inva- lid. S-RsRi and NP-MC thought the doctor's spirits accompanied his soul. The doctor may exhibit and clean the patient's soul before restoring it, usually in the head. S-Hmlt said the soul looks like a hailstone; if it is black, the patient will die; it is cleaned and restored to the pa- tient's chest. S-Mor doctors also cleaned the soul before restoring it. S-Elko thought that on the way to the land of the dead there is a stick, mugua (soul) bodo (stick). If the pa- tient's soul has passed beyond it, it cannot be brought back. 18 5 Witchcraft was cured by sucking out disease stuff intruded by the witch, by counteracting the spell produced by the witch's thought or wish, by apprehending the witch and having the spell withdrawn, or, NP-MC, by killing the witch. Curing performances are semisocial affairs, a considerable audience assembling when possible and joining the doctor in singing and smoking. Most doctors sing, walk around, smoke, and use some equipment, especially a stick and eagle feather. Other methods and objects which informants have seen used by various doctors are: Among S-Hmlt, a stick, sometimes placed under the patient; the doctor may "suck" through it. S-SnRv sometimes heated a stick and applied it to the pain,188 or "lifted out" the disease by means of the stick; the stick is of a wood called gunigwip. Use of a drinking tube was denied everywhere except among S-SnRv, where CT thought some doctors might have used it. Eagle feathers were always used whether or not the doctor had eagle power. S-SmCr doctors did not use the feathers when curing but kept them put away. HJ said Sally, a 185 This idea was reported only by one Owens Valley Paiute (Steward, 1934:427). 186 Any doctor might do this. But Owens Valley fire-drill doctors dreamed a special power. present doctor from Austin (?), had eagle fo ers tied on a stick. Among NP-FLk, MH had so a feathered staff. NP-FSp, SP-Ash, S-DthV, a S-Bty had not seen a feat her staff but S-Bt1 they were used farther north. ong S-SnRv, clay (evi), which was variq used for purification, was sometimes put on2 the doctor and patient. S-Bty doctor who dreamed of ice used a ft when curing. Each doctor had an assistant who lit his, helped him in other ways, and usually interi his diagnosis when his words would otherwis been unintelligible to the audience. JP, S-I said this assistant was kept informed of au details of the doctor's powers, was famili&E his methods, and might cause him harm by mak mistakes. The following illustrate the function oft assistant at S-SnRv: The assistant was called tegwowap (same t used for chief's speaker or assistant). A i always used the same man and paid him. A doq was engaged through his assistant, who arra the time and place of the doctoring, and Be rules for the performances, for example, ro ing that people be barefoot, that no lateca be admitted, etc. When the doctor performed his assistant lit his pipe and interpreted singing, thereby increasing its power. Late the doctor also told what he had been saya Each morning of the doctoring, the assistan stood facing the rising sun, saying, "ye:k dundu," meaning, "the disease will rise and1 with the sun." Among NP-MC, the assistant also lights t doctor's pipe. Other methods in curing depend upon the viduality of the doctor and the circumstana the case. The doctor's power diagnoses each' ailment and tells him what cure to use. Theo lowing illustrate doctors' curing methods. S-Elko. BG said that the doctor's soul sues that of the patient and may bring it if it has not passed the soul stick. Before storing it to the patient's head, he may el it. S-BtlM. JP said that the doctor announce' that he will go into a trance and asks that people prevent his touching the ground. F five young men catch him as he begins to f and lay him by the patient. Everyone is si Soon, the doctor cries that his soul has r the land of the dead and will look for the tient's soul, as the dead people have hidd Having found the soul, he commences his re trip, his voice becoming louder as he appr the living. He has asked that one of the a answer him when he calls. When he has arri with the patient's soul, the people prop u the patient and the doctor. Then the docto arises and dances with the patient's soul his hand. After this, he blows on the pati head and endeavors to rub the soul in. If 260 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI i in replacing it, the patient recovers. aly while recovering souls that the doctor to a trance. A doctor using a large enclo- th several fires in it shakes a rattle iclaws and eagle down when his power comes Dr. TH's uncle once went in pursuit of a lost soul. Early in the morning he brought , exhibited it-it resembled a downy feath- restored it in the back of her head. She gained consciousness. A girl in Austin r soul and went crazy. LD. BM told of a Paiute (probably Southern boy who lost his soul. The doctor was un- is while his soul pursued that of the boy. tht it back, exhibited it-it was a small, bject-cleaned it, and, after trying for to, restored it through the boy's fore- i said he doubted that it would remain in 8s head, but some time later the boy re- r. Doctors' souls could not leave their If a patient's soul strayed a short dis- Dto the brush, the doctor walked over and it back; if it went too far, he could Over it. TSt, however, heard of a shaman tawich Mountains who had dreamed of a wd could leave his body. Sp and NP-FLk thought that the doctor's but not the doctor's own soul, pursued a1l. jt. JW said people were sometimes sick be- pir breath, sUip:, was lost; the shaman Xwhite stone on the chest to restore it. Wi. JP said the sweat house was "given .world was made" to a certain man in a ich told him to use it for healing. For- n a man was sick or "did not feel s friends built him a one-man-size sweat Iated with hot rocks which were placed in vered with grass but were not sprinkled r. No shaman was involved in such treat- ay, the sweat house is larger, accommo- veral persons. When used by one man, are placed on one side; when used by pD, they are placed in the center. The heated outside and carried in. Today man may use the sweat house. When a oompanies a patient (or two patients) one of several special ways to drop the rocks as they are cooling, and a y of counting for each drop or splash his numbers being "little one," little Some shamans only drop two handfuls of ers drop a splash or handful for each e patient's body. However, anyone may on the rocks. The main performance in- doctor's spirits. The doctor's teg- assistant fills and hands him his pi e. smokes, then sings, while his assis knows the spirits well, calls upon them o the doctor and fight the disease. As r sings, the patient's sickness appears snd is visible to the doctor. The doctor, thened by his spirits, sucks out the d holds it in his hand for the specta- e, watching it carefully, however. He it to his mouth and blows his breath killing it, for he is now stronger than the disease. He then rubs it between his hands and blows it away toward the north. If the disease is the result of witchcraft, called duijiipiiu', he treats it as just described or buries it under the hot rocks. If he has treated the patient outside the sweat house, he thrusts his bare hand up to the wrist in the ashes under a hot fire to bury the duijiApwiU. (See also fire handling in note 2535.) CTh, NP-MC, said once a man had eaten poison- ous parsnip. The doctor held the patient on his back and vomited the poison, whereupon the pa- tient recovered. Another time, the doctor chewed the parsnip and spat it on the patient's chest. The patient vomited and recovered. S-Mor. Sometimes the illness was so virulent that the practicing doctor was "knocked down" by it.187 In this case, the spectators would pick him up and face him toward the north. NP-FSp said disease objects resembled white hailstones. NP-FLk, S-DthV, and S-Bty did not know what they were like. S-SmCr called the ob- ject ti'owoivi. Witches.-These were doctors who were ill- disposed toward certain individuals or, in avens Valley, whose power had turned bad, or, rarely, who had special dreamed power. Some of the dreams were: NP-FLk and NP-FSp, dreams of coyote. SP-Ash, dreams which were never revealed. S-DthV, prob- ably of coyote, snake, and tsoavitc (from tsoap, ghost). S-Btr of coyote or tsoavitc (trans- lated "devil 3; tsoavitc looks like a man or woman and wears usual clothes, but instead of talking, whistles; it may disappear or turn into a bird and fly away. S-SmCr, of snakes, coyotes, and bad animals. S-SnRv, the nature of the power unknown. S-BtlM, the power came in a dream and was inherited from one's father; the dream became worse as the person grew older; as a witch never performed publicly, the nature of the dream and identity of the spirits could not be known. S-RsRi thought witches had dreamed of killing birds. Sickness produced by witchcraft was generally the power of a wish and rarely involved objective magic. None "shot pains"- into their victims. The following gives some idea of sickness caused by witchcraft: S-SmCr witches cast a spell but apparently could not cause soul-loss. S-BtlM witches called duju (unwanted or bad) puha (power5, caused sickness by a mere wish When someone angered them. S-Elko said all Kawich Mountains Shoshoni were witches; they avoid looking at a person and make him sick. S-Mor witch would grind a dead man's bones, telling them to go 187 This and the S-BtlM case suggest that in this area, the disease object had a potency with which the doctor had to contend, somewhat resembling the "pains" causing disease and giving doctors power in northern California. 261 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS into a certain person and make him sick. An Indian so poisoned wou1d die in a few months; white men were invulnerable to this. S-Bty said sometimes old persons dream in a way to bewitch themselves. Possibly such dreams, like dreams of impending death at S-Elko, are really omens. SP-Ash, certain men of unknownn qualifications but who did not dream put some material in the tracks of their enemies or elsewhere to kill them. Game was ren- dered helpless in a similar manner in some places. Curing of witchcraft is illustrated by AG, Owens Valley Paiute of Lone Pine, as follows: Paiute are today often afraid of witches. A man once had a chest ailment. He went to a fa- mous vwoman doctor near Lake Tahoe, who told him that his mother-in-la- was trying to kill him. The doctor said that one day wvhile he was work- ing in a field, the mother-in-law sat in the sun near her sunshade and blew smoke at him, forcing the dryness of the smoke into his chest. The doc- tor instructed him to remain away from her for more than one month. He returned to his work in a week but failed to recover. AG did not think that curing ills caused by witchcraft differed from other doctoring. The doctor's main power is in his song. All night, he sings, sucks, perhaps extracting stringy blood, and lays on hands, thus discovering the identity of the witch. Witches, even those -whose skulls have been crushed with a rock, are said to return to life, at least for brief periods, and walk around. Possibly such a belief accounts for cremating witches in some regions. When MH, NP-FLk, was a young woman living at Oasis, she called a doctor to cure a pain in her breast and back. He said that a certain man had bewitched her, then found this man and asked him if it were so. The man did not answer, but com- menced to sing, then got an arrow which he pointed at her as he walked around the fire. Her pains began to disappear at once and soon she was well and hungry again. The accused had procured the arrow from another man. This is the only time MH was really sick. Special Shamans' Powers (2545-2566) Rattlesnake bites.-These were cured vari- ously. SP-Ash: The doctor, who probably had a spe- cial power, cured by singing, sucking, and lay- ing on hands. S-DthV: If a man dreamed of the rattlesnake in the fall, he could cure bites in the spring. S-RsRi: The power came from a dream of the eagle, which is perhaps connected with its derivation from the buzzard farther south. S-Elko: The power came from lizards and horned toads; if a man with this power attempted to cure anything other than snake bites, he would make the patient sicker. S-Mor: Thought there was some special power. S-Egan: Probably a spe- cial power. BM told of a doctor in Steptoe Val- ley wvho sucked and blew on the patient when cur- ing snake bites, and of Jack Eagle, a doctor in White River Valley, who sang a rattlesnake song. NP-MC snake doctors can also cure horses and other animals bitten by snakes; they suck ax rub the bitten leg toward the foot. S-Bty:A dream of killing a mountain sheep gives Pow to doctor rattlesnake bites; the doctor suc blood from the patient's heart" and spits il out. Only S-SnRv claimed specialists for closi wounds. The doctor dreams that he is closing wound. This also has some connection twith ti bear. The doctor cures by first sucking out bullet. He cannot cure wounds from poison ax rows. Usually antelope shamans and deer shamani possess different powers. But S-Hmlt descri a man (HJ's great-uncle) who charmed antelo for communal drives and deer for his own in vidual hunting; he also doctored sick men a talked at dances (the last probably being a] occupation). S-SnRv thought possibly the otter instruq a doctor how to let blood. Weather control power.-This is illustra by the following: NP-FSp and S-GSmV: The shaman dreams of thunder. PH heard of a man near Bishop, Owe Valley, who vwas paid shell money each spri to bring rain to make plants grow. Another could make hail fall. S-SnRv: A weather doe dreams of rain or snow. S-SmCr: Old "fWagon Jack" at Smith Creek probably dreamed rain snow. He "prays to the old man above" for He offered in 1935 to produce rain to end' recent drought for $500.00. He says there less rain now than formerly because the peo seldom do the round dance. S-RsRi: The brot of Totoi, a chief, made a heavy rain and ha to drive away people vio were gathering so on his land. He accomplished this by washi his face and hair in cold water, a practice also used at S-Mor and by JW's uncle at 3- S-BtlM: JP said the weather doctor does not rain but removes snow in winter when the pe are starving. He makes a pile of snow, som like a man, and puts a goose head in it. H then removes a piece of ice from it, sayin "This is the essential part of the snow. I have worked well tonight you will see blac clouds in the south. You will know that we done well. A warm wind will remove the snow Doctors were not concerned with stopping r in this arid country. As TH said, "We just, it stop itself." See also, "Bull-roarer," was used in some localities to produce a wind that would dispel snow. Round dances often believed to bring rain and general f ity. Childbirth power.-S-SnRv: This power c a dr~eamofbauwoh "water babies," that 1 springs. They are very strong and may "pul baby out." The doctor merely touches the rubs it and the mother; he calls upon the to bring the baby out. S-Bty: The doctor dreamed of falling in a hole and climbing A 262 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI lao, of being frightened by a bear, so can frighten the baby out. miscellaneous powers.-S-SnRv said that and probably of the ince, who sang prayer-songs during these had dreamed their power to do so when ibbit-hunt and fishing leaders did not powers through dreams. (For prognostica- * note 2566.) Miscellaneous (256Y-2590) Ps were not killed for the mere loss of ! Because, however, a doctor's power was to that of a witch and doctors were be- > be capable of witchcraft, if a man lost ipatients or if his behavior were abnor- s suspect. Everywhere, witchcraft was h few crimes against the community, 1l by death. i doctors always diagnosed illness as t and identified the witch, who was ap- tand killed. S-Bty always put witches CT, S-SnRv, said that if a doctor lost 'patients or was wont to remove too many bjects from a single patient, he was t of being a fraud and perhaps killed. botor's power might turn bad if his as- ad not perform properly. southern part of the area, shamans b1ine with impunity to accept a case. grth, they were obliged to accept, some to saying that they were killed for de- others, for example, S-SmCr, that they aoepted. JP, S-BtlM, said that a doctor Fpt, but if he knew he could not effect would suggest calling another doctor. , according to S-Hnlt and S-Elko in- 'rought a natural decline of the doc- but he was not killed for this Iere no permanent associations of doc- r JP, S-BtlM, said that men with the tit, for example, bear, might sometimes bther in the mountains and to some ex- .each other's power, though the reason 5 not clear. At S-RsRi and NP-MC sev- a8 might simultaneously perform on a Waent. SP-Ash had no public competi- Nugh sometimes doctors saw each other twhen they might compete a little. rl beinsg.-Besides myth personages and guardian spirits, there were tural beings of general interest. Fters were, with few exceptions, ani- rere not objects of supplication; they irgely outside the world of daily af- besides being the trickster of myth- ,sometimes regarded as an evil being cause trouble or motivate people to bad deeds. His brother, Wolf, who was a benevo- lent being, was rarely heeded outside of mythol- ogy, though S-SmCr claimed that he presided over the afterworld for Indians. At S-SnRv, wolf, called by his usual name, ija, was also called ap:a, father. In the north, ap:a, usually not identified with any animal and possibly derived from early missionary influence in northern Idaho, was the object of prayers and a dance which was led by a kind of priest-shaman (see "Father dance"). A more common being with generally evil quali- ties was a kind of personified ghost, tsoavitc (probably from tsoap, ghost, vitc, personal end- ing). Often prayers and offerings were made to prevent his ill will but not to procure his blessings. Ghosts, tsoop, were slightly feared but not taken seriously. Following are some ideas about tsoavitc: S-DthV made offerings of game killed or of food during a meal to tsoavitc, so that he would not cause trouble. BD called him a "devil" and said that he had dreamed during his youth of fighting him but did not kill him. S-Bty: One "talks" to prevent sickness when making the offer- ing to tsoavitc when game is killed or the first seeds gathered. S-Lida identified tcoavuTrgo, tsoavitc, or witsoavitc as a kind of were-coyote, which made the game run away. S-RsRi said that the tsoavitc were the original people, who lived in caves and were cannibals, but who disappeared long ago; they now have nothing to do with game. The "water baby" is probably more common than indicated here. He is a myth character in Owens Valley; a guardian spirit making a person bullet- proof at S-SmCr and giving childbirth power at S-SnRv. Offerings.-Offerings of game killed and seeds gathered were often, though not always, made to an ill-defined object. When not to tsoavitc, they were usually to "nature," which was animatistic, to use Marrett's term, rather than truly person- ified. Sometimes, however, "nature," the sun, or sky was substituted. Prayers, however, were semi- magical; one "talked" rather than asked for good luck or good harvest. Charms and fetishes, besides the equipment re- quired by shamanistic and guardian spirits, seem to have been used very little, except in gambling. NP-MC said that gambling medicine used incorrect- ly might kill its owner. Of objective magic, there are a few traces: a root used to kill people or animals, SP-Ash and S-Bty; association of gophers with female fer- tility (element 313); washing the face for rain- making; swinging the bull-roarer for wind; tak- ing ice out of a snow man to make the snow melt, S-Bt1M. Purification after a burial or bad dreams was accomplished by taking a cold bath, painting, or, in the north, applying white clay. 263 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Guardian Spirits (2591-2593) The possession of a dreamed capability or a guardian spirit usually accounted for a person's success in some particular thing. Unlike the sha- man, however, he did not use his power to help other persons. The varieties of these powers are legion, involving all kinds of activities. The ex- amples which follow, having been procured at ran- dom, are mere samples of the general area and do not necessarily illustrate local differences.188 Climbing povier.-JP's father at S-BtIM dreamed of a rat which can run on a cliff and of eagle down which is light. Only men with such power could climb cliffs. When catching eagles, he stripped, tied a rope around his waist, climbed up to the nest, tied the eagles' feet, and climbed down his rope. Once he was caught mid- way on a cliff in a bad wind; he thought of his power, made a noise like an eagle (because of having dreamed of eagle down), and clung safely until the wind subsided. H, now at Fallon, described a man at Lone Moun- tain, west of Tonopah who had power to climb cliffs "like a lizard when hunting mountain sheep. While scaling cliffs to get wounded sheep- a feat his companions would not dare to do-he sang of the butterfly. Another man dreamed of mountain sheep and rocks in his youth; he could walk up the side of a sheer cliff by merely plac- ing the palms of his hands and the soles of his feet fla against the rock. Once a man became stranded in the middle of a cliff wvhile climbing to an eagle aerie; the man with climbing power went to his assistance and carried him down on his shoulders. Bullet-proof men.-Though comparatively wide- spread recently, there may be doubt about the antiquity of the idea of invulnerability, as it was rarely associated with arrows and as warfare was infrequent in native times. H said that Reveille George, a bullet- proof Kawich Mountains Shoshoni, once accidentally dis- charged a shotgun against his chest and was only burned. He described two arrow-proof men, who competed by shooting arrows at each other and dodging. One was struck full in the chest but not injured. S-SmCr: If a man dreams of the water baby, he and his horse wear eagle feathers in war and both are bullet-proof. S-RsRi said that a man dreams that someone is shooting at him and that it feels like hail. S-Mor denied bullet-proof men, but had heard of them among people to the east. S-Elko: Tiimok, who became war leader among certain Humboldt River peoples during warfare against the whites, dreamed that he was bullet- proof. His dream told him that he must wear his hair with a long braid on one side with feathers in it and that he must never get food from the kettle by reaching under the tripod, but must have it handed to him by someone who carried it around one leg of the tripod and set it on the opposite side. When his wife carried his food di- 188For other Owens Valley Paiute examples, see Steward, 1934. rectly out from under the tripod, his charm lost and he was killed in 1891 by a relative Bullet-proof men were also reported among: N FSp; S-DthV, where the power was possessed b doctor; S-Lida; NP-MC; and possibly SP-Ash a S-SnRv. Control of wild game.-The conspicuous in stance of this is the antelope shaman (see lope Hunt"). Few other men had either shaman or magical control over game. NP-FSp, SP-Ash S-Elko thought there were some men with cont of game. S-DthV said that some men dreamed t they had power over game. NP-FLk said men ca kanuka got power from dreams to drive deer 6 from certain localities so that hunters coul not find them. Dreams of hunting power were known among: FSp and S-DthV; SP-Ash, who dreamed of mount and game and of meeting game which approach. without fear; S-Bty, who dreamed of hunting cessfully; North Fork Shoshoni, who acquired guardian spirits and instructions for huntin unsought visions during youth. Gambling luck.-NP-FSp, S-Lida, S-SmCr: $ men obtained gambling luck from dreams the i of which was unknown to informants. SP-Ash mi dreamed that they should use charms, for ex% salt, when gambling. S-DthV: One began to dr when he was a small boy that he had won in g bling; he had a different dream for each g there was no general luck. S-Bty: a dream ot the red racer snake made a man a good gamblo S-RsRi men dreamed that they had won in gamb S-SnRv thought a dream of a ghost gave gambi luck. Fleetness. -For this, S-DthV dreamed of z ning in the mountains; S-Bty, of kini'i, tho bullet hawk; S-RsRi, of running fast, like a eagle, against a fast runner. S-SnRv: CT has crane power which talks to him and tells h race; other men have antelope, ghost, or wi clouds so that they can run as fast as the cloud's shadow. CT says the dream comes rep' edly so that one knows it is a power and ob its instructions. Dreams gave fleetness also among NP-FSp and S-Lida. Longevity.-NP-FSp, and S-Lida: Some men dreamed that they would live to be old. S-Dt After sickness, men dreamed that they would' long. S-Bty thought there were no dreams il ing longevity. S-Elko said that people dre frequently, as omens; dreams of short life brought early death; dreams of green things dicated that one would live at least untilI end of the year. Miscellaneous.-S-DthV: Some men dreamed, they talked often and well. NP-FSp and possibly SP-Ash and S-Bty: MJO times acquired powers enabling them to escaj from danger. NP-FSp: TS's grandfather had p to be safe from fire. NP-MC said some men had power to seduce j There seems to have been no "medicine" for 1 264 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI ItlS and S-SnRv: Some men dreamed special -dance songs. bear impersonating, see note 2558. Destiny of the Soul (2597-2609) tugh there was little interest in the after- *some believed that souls of the deceased bve. As the exact nature and location of terworld was usually known only through the [once of shamans or persons who had "died" t unconscious in illness) and returned to there was much disagreement. Some ideas are: Ash: Souls went to nauvuixguvup, ghost land. r: Perhaps above; dead people see their rela- there. S-Bty: The place is above, close to irth. S-SmCr: TH learned from his uncle, a p, that the trail to the afterworld starts ,unknown direction and then forks, one fork og left to the white man's heaven where there pecial god and the people wear wings, one g right to Coyote's place where crazy In- go, and one leading straight ahead to where Indians go and where wolf, biaic, is god. DANCES (2614-2719) ,sole dance of most localities in pre-Cau- times was the Circle or Round dance, called nukaiyu or nukop, dance. Though varying y in details, in seasons held, and in ex- poses such as rainmaking or producing crop ty, it was substantially uniform through- area and may be considered a distinct- hoshonean dance. It has been held on res- n8 and elsewhere until recently, and in ly now is being supplanted by white man's , In native times, dance gatherings were ,tively small; in post-Caucasian times, transportation and larger communities en- eater numbers to participate. -Caucasian conditions have also caused a ble spread of the Circle dance to other .n connection with the Ghost dance. Origi- in Nevada, the Ghost dance naturally the local dance form. 189 Also, other have been introduced to the Great Basin: 'th dance," which was native only to the alley and Death Valley regions; the Bear S the Ute,'-90 which spread as the "Back- h" dance among Nevada Shoshoni; the Sun hich came recently to Idaho Shoshoni and o but scarcely touched the area under con- ion; and perhaps the "Father dance" as a form of the Circle dance. facts indicate that dance forms diffuse provided there is sufficient intertribal urse to introduce them. On the other hand, pier, 1928:269-272; Mooney. gan, 1930; Steward, 1932; Lowie, 1924: the abandonment or modification of a dance form in a changing culture will naturally depend upon the degree and manner in which it is integrated with other parts of the culture. Circle Dance (2614-2651) The Circle dance was primarily for pleasure, serving especially as an opportunity for court- ing, but had various other minor functions. It has recently been called the fandango. Native names are: Waigi nukidn:a, Little Lake Shoshoni; tuwa- hani, S-DthV; nulkaiya (dance), S-Mor; nakaiyu, S-Hmnlt, S-Ely, S-Elko, S-Egan, S-RubV, S-SnRv; nuwiuk: S-Bt M; nuga, NP-MC; waigi (side) nugatu (dance5, NP-FSp; also, nadzangai (holding hands), S-SnRv. sigo (drag feet) niukap: (dance) or buna (roundS nukap:, S-RsRi. S-RsRi and S-GSmV had a similar but slou;er dance, in which dancers embraced one another's waists, called ano (4orn) nukap:. This was first seen in S-GSmV about twenty years ago, having been introduced from the east where Coy- ote is said to have originated it. Following are some of the times and purposes of the Circle dance besides those in the lists: SP-Ash and S-DthV held the mourning ceremony on the first night of the Circle dance. S-BtlM: When performed in the spring when grass was about 4 inches high and called tawa (spring) nuka (dance), it helped seeds to grow; -hen held in summer and called taza (summer) nuka, it helped seeds to ripen. S-Egan: The fall dance, held prior to pine-nut gathering, made deer plentiful. S-SnRv held it whenever enough people were together, for example, at salmon-fishing time. TP said S-SnRv people at Owyhee danced as follows: early spring, called takavi (snow) tapazufrgun (tap:, to trample; paziir)gun, to make dry), to make the snow disappear; in May, called puip: (green) ta (foot?) suuTjgun (to accomplish by means of), to make plants green; when seeds (or, farther south, pine nuts) lvere ripe, it and the Back-and-forth dance were performed ten nights to produce a good harvest. Eureka, according to H, danced the Circle dance six nights; it brought enough rain to lay the dust but not enough to aid plant growth. He once saw a dance at Belmont, probably a circle dance, in which women jumped, throwing grass seeds (wai), Mentzelia (kuhwa), and pine nuts, which they carried in baskets. (See also notes 2621-2629, 2647.) Clowns seem to have been a recent feature of the Circle dance. S-SnRv said that in a compara- tively recent dance, two persons dressed like old men wore masks made of sacking, and sage-bark leggings, carried canes, and had bark-bundle slow matches tied to their belts. They were introduced as visitors and asked to sing. After performing, they unmasked and one was seen to be the local song leader, huvia gunt. For additional features of the Circle dance, see notes 2635-2651. 265 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Bear or Back-and-Forth Dance (2652-2673) This originated among Ute who danced it in the spring to placate the bear and called it "Bear dance." It spread among Shoshoni as the "Back- and-forth dance," descriptive of the step, "Em- bracing dance," or "Notched-stick dance, refer- ring to the musical instrument. SP-Ash acquired it probably from Shivwits Pai- ute or Yuman tribes, who recently had adopted it for mourning ceremonies, or from other Southern Paiute.191 It was danced in two forms: one called mamakomep (back-and-forth) wunu~miga (danceS, listed as A, used in the mourning ceremony alter- nating with the Circle dance; the other, called witsihuvia (bird song) wiiniimiga, listed as B, a purely social dance. There may have been another variety called mugua (soul?) pa (water) wiunu- miga, known as the "crazy dance," which had sev- eral singers without musical instruments and dancers who faced the singers. Most Shoshoni acquired this dance directly from the east. They devoted a day or so to it during the Circle dance. S-Mor, S-RsRi, and S- Hmlt danced it before the Circle dance each of five nights. S-Egan introduced it by way of vari- ety during the Circle dance each night. This was called: nagova (embracing) niuk: (dance), S-SmCr- nakova nukap:, S-RsRi; momokoin back-and-forth%, S-Mor, S-Hmlt; mamakoin, S-Ely, S-Egan, S-RubV; also, wuihiiniguint (from the musi- cal rasp, hiup, meaning literally, "cut"), S-Egan, S-RubV. TP said this has recently been danced by Owy- hee people, who go south for pine nuts. It is alternated with the Circle dance and is called wuihii (rubbing) nuki (over notches) nukaiyu (dance). He thought the name mamakoin was of Ute origin. All connection with the bear was lost but S- Ely knew that it had come from the Ute who had seen the bear dance this way in the mountains and S-Mor knew of an association of it with the bear somewhere, but said there were no bears at Morey. Except for the association with the bear, the Shoshoni borrowed the Ute dance almost in its entirety, including: women choosing partners, men paying them afterward, dancing back-and-forth in two lines facing each other, breaking up the line and dancing in couples, stopping the dance when someone fell and rubbing him with the rasp, and the musical rasp as the sole instrument. South or Exhibition Dance (2674-2710) This is a special performance by several cos- tumed men, usually visitors from another locality, who are remunerated by their hosts. It was jrevi- ously recorded among Owens Valley Paiute, who l91Spier, 1928: 272-274. Lowie, 1924:299. 192Steward, 1933:321-322. agreed upon its introduction from the sout] believing it to be pre-Caucasian, others pi it as late as 1850, that is, early Caucasii Lida, S-DthV, and S-Bty believed it to be Caucasian, but JS thought Belmont had not i it. However, CTh said his grandfather told it was introduced to NP-MC before CTh's bi from Paiute at Bishop in Owens Valley. The hl'nbq&a of Wlalker River and Fallon Northb Paiute is probably the same dance and was8 to have readhed these localities from the i It spread, therefore, rapidly northward in western part of the Shoshoni area perhaps i late pre-Caucasian or early Caucasian timei The northern part of the area, S-Egan, S and S-SnRv, curiously claim the dance to bi and pre-Caucasian, though they call it "Sot dance," whereas central and southern regioi S-SmCr, S-Mor, and S-Ely--acquired it recei or lacked it and S-SprV and S-Elko's lack a knowledge of it may indicate its absence. I S-Mor, saw it only at Currant Creek, perfot as an exhibition by Bill Kawich from the KA Mountains to the south; each person paid bl $25.00. That it was everywhere customarily danced by visitors from another community I cilitated its spread. This dance, recently known as the "War was called: wahvitc (the name given the TI tulabal [?] south of Little Lake and transi as "mean") yikiina (dance), Little Lake Shoi (who danced it like S-DthV); tu:gwa (night nuk:a (dance) or nukwanakud:a, S-Bty; mug (soul?) niAkan, S-DthV; pani (south) niik:a, S-SmCr, S-Mor; pani nuka, S-Ely, S-Egan; p nukaya, S-RubV, S-SnRv; pani nukaiyu, S-BN panu nuka, also "Rabbit dance," NP-MC; tote hoidU, NP-FSp. The name is always "South i among those who received it recently and io variable among those who had it earlier. For additional features of this dance, 8 notes 2678-2710. Sun Dance (2715) BG said that this was introduced to Stai ley about 1918, danced for about two years abandoned. AR, S-Elko, said it was danced Steptoe Valley for the first time in July,, but, being disliked, was given up. The pu of the latter was to cure rheumatism. Thel had a cow's head and eagle feathers on the' ter post; dancers had whistles and held ea feathers. It lasted two or three days. It i called tagowiih (thirsty). Ghost or Father Dance (2716-2719) Information on this was acquired inciad and is so fragmentary that it is now possiu do little more than state the problem. It i reported only at S-SnRv and S-Mor. PI l93Lowie, 1924:306. 266 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 1 following account is S-SnRv: the dance, ltsoa (from tsoap:, ghost) nukaiyu (dance) (father) nukaiyu, is claimed to have Zted Jack Wilson's visit. For five nights Me did the Round dance; they gambled dur- W dar. The dance leader, called ap:@ (fa- dukw (impersonating) or ap:a nakunt, had lial power which he dreamed as a boy. There ew such leaders. During the dance, the tood by the center pole. His song said t came from above. People joined him, sing- The good land is moving toward us; the here we will never die." Dead people were ad to appear by the pole but only the ap:e ouch them. There wras no belief in a pre- destruction of the world, but it was said Wi the future, the world would turn inside g be remade. This dance, which was formerly ibly at long intervals, has not been per- for many years. wtain facts suggest that the Father dance composite origin. First, HJ, S-Hmlt, said lther had related an early destruction of lrid by upheaval, which HJ vaguely thought ave meant an earthquake. The idea of a a destruction is absent from S-SnRv, but es a world renewal concept with S-Hmlt. Spier has shovm that in the northwest, a ance antedates the form spread by Jack 19'. Third, though the Father dance variety t dance was reported only at S-SnRv in ea, the "father" is supposed to give bene- answer to prayers during Circle dances daho and Utah Shoshoni (to be presented ture paper); and nature is supposed to be ed by prayers or "talking" in many Nevada tA t i f the Ghost dance of 1890 is sometimes called "father," 195 which might account for the sub- stitution at an early date of "father" for either "nature" or "wolf." The questions, then, are whether a w.orld re- newal concept is old and widespread in this area, whether the concept of a non-animal "father" is native or is derived from the Ghost dance or Christian influence, and whether the revival of the dead in the Ghost dance is native or is an interpretation of the Christian resurrection. S-Mor: BH's grandfather recounted a dance, brought by an Indian missionary, which included the Circle dance with new songs and the promise that the dead would return. It had failed and BH's grandfather said it was a "lie" and to pay no attention to it. BH said it was introduced before the white man entered the country. MISCELLANEOUS (2720-2742) Calendar.-Native month names ;1ere abandoned so long ago that few informants knew them. The names as listed on page 268, though elicited with much difficulty and subject to some doubt, are probably representative. In addition to months or moons (mua), fragments of evidence show that four seasons were also named. In addition to the names listed, S-Lida gave: March, bosi-mua; December and July, bia-mua. For Northern Paiute month names in Qvvens Valley, see Steward, 1933:289; in Surprise Valley, see Kelly, 1932:152-153. lances. There is, therefore, the question Astronomy.-The nature of celestial bodies and ier in the north, "father" has supolanted of meteorological phenomena was given little farther south. Wagon Jack, S-SmCr, a thought. shaman, is said to produce rain by hold- Names of the Milky W-ay were: kueci (dust) woyo- [rcle dance and praying to ntuwii (our) na (streak), S-Lida; busi wo'oyoin, S-GSmV; tugum- father), the "old man above." It is pos- bi (sky) ta (straight ?) waoda (backbone ?), 5- it the "father" concept was introduced RubV; tsoapobo: (ghost road) or muguabo (soul Lteau tribes who were early subject to road), NP-MC; tuvewnawuv (sky path), SP-Ash. influence. Further suspicion is cast on The cause of thunder and lightning had no ex- ive possession of this father" concept planation. The sex and nature of the sun and moon -statement: were unknown, except as the moon was made of sun gall in some myths. S-Lida, however, thought the '(wolf), our father, would tell the dance sun was male, the moon a woman with a hatchet to call a dance (probably Circle dance) (but hatchets were not part of the native cul- iarly spring so that food plants, would ture). NP-FSp said a pado'opi (bear ?; the usual iring the dance, the leader drayed to term for bear is pahavitci) ate the moon during ie leader dreamed his power. an eclipse; people threw fire toward it. S-RsRi , moreover, is the main character in ore- said it died during an eclipse, S-Lida, that the rths throughout the area, resides over sun covered it iCr afterworald, and unupi(twolf) is the The north star was called paduTpivunudu; the lintah Ute term for God among Christian Pleiades, awai (man); the Big Dipper, yahidu ..(John Duncan, informant) (is driving rabbits) or kvuazika (has a tail), De other hand, the Christ impersonator in NP-FSp and NP-FLk other hand, the Christ-impersonator in When the tips or "horns" of the crescent moon are up, the moon is full of water and it will p35. Mooney, 809, says that Wind River Sho- rain; horns down('), clear weather; horns to Laimed to have held a dance similar to the once 50 years before Jack Wilson's dance of 195Mooney, 802-809. 267 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS NATI -~~~~~ S-DthV S-Btyt S-RsRi S-SmCr December * ta-mua (winter) du-:-mu-a (little) bia-miua (big January ......... pia-mia (big) pia-m'ua (big) pia-mua (big) February ........ pivosi-m-ua C?) pivosi-muia ica-diua (coyote ica-dUa (coy (growth begins) [young born]) [young bor March........... April........... May............. taha-diua (spring) muza-mua (mt. sheep lamb) hu:pa-duia (green brush) tahwa-mua (spring) muza-mua (mt. sheep lamb) tukap:-muia (ripe) gwa-mu"a (fence- antelope corral) tghma-miua (spring) ?1 gwa-mtla (fen tahma-miua (o June ............ hupa-miua (green ? ? brush) July ? tatsa-mua (dried) ? bia-mUa (tie AugUst ? tubiji-mua (very ? hot) September ? yuva-muia (ripe tuba-miua (pine tuba-miia (pin pine nuts) nuts [ripe]) nuts [ripeJ October ? agui-mua (crack yuba-miua (fall) yuba-miua (f a] [pine nuts]) November ? pahumpi_mua (pah- na-mua (breeding) na-mfla (bree4 umpi seeds ripe) _____________I___________ l________________________ Year ordinarily is considered as beginning with December, except S-Egan, which regarded Nol ber as 1st month. Mfa, mu*a, and diua (Shoshoni) and miuh (N Paiute) mean "moon." tS-Bty: some doubt concerning this sequence of names. 268 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI S-Egan bia-muia (big) kua-m'ua (?) bositc-muia (big snowfall) S-RubV bia-miua (uig) kua-mua (?) S-Elko bia-muia (big) kua-muia (?) bositc-muia (big bositc-mua (big snowfall) snowfall) S-SnRv bia-miua (big) gua-mua (?) tahma-surwe- miua (spring- half)? NP-MC tamo-muih (storm [i.e., winter]) pinata-muh (middle (of winter]) tamo-muh-nawipowet (storm-moon-last one) rsi-mua ija-diua (coyote ija-dua (coyote ija-diua (coyote ica-dua (coyote tama-muh [young born]) [young born]) [young born]) [young born]) (spring) [spring) miuza-miua (mt. muza-muia (mt. muiza-mu"a (mt. ? pinata-muh sheep lamb sheep lamb sheep lamb (middle [of [born]) Lborn]) Lborn]) spring]) tubuci-miua (ante- tubuci-muia (an- ? ? tama-muih-nawipowet lope young telope young (spring-moon- [born]) [born]) last one) (hot) ewa-miua (fawn ewa-mua (fawn ewa-mua (spot- taza-muih [born]) [born]) ted [i.e., (summer) fawn3) tauwa-miua (fat tadza-mu"a (sum- taza-mua (sum- pinataza-muih [i.e., game]) mer) mer) (midsummer) pine akui-muia (sun- akui-mu"a (sun- ? taza-mUh-nawipowet ip.)) flower [ripe]) flower Lripe]) (summer-moon- last one) tuba-miua (pine tuba-muia (pine tuba-mua (pine agai-muia (sal- yuva-muh nuts [ripe]) nuts [ripe]) nuts [ripe]) mon) (fall) laga- tuhodu-mua (hole atogo-muia (an atogo-mUa (an pinatyuva-miuh iir [i.e., rodents insect, insect, (mid-fall) dig in]) freezes)f freezes) isga- tui-miua (small) tui-muia (small) tui-miua (small) naha-miua (breed- yuva-miuh-nawipowet ing) (fall-moon-last one) ed bositc (big snowfall) month. iter) Li-mua Lalf) fleshy insect with striped abdomen and powerful claws, said to freeze to death during I a I i i i 9169 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS one side, warm weather. S-DthV and S-Bty said moon indications of bad weather applied only to wvinter. The rainbow was called: u v.upadogoTvunu (red and blue stand up), S-Lida; uwvupadumbi (rain ? wnrater sky), S-RsRi; piagutupwinup (striped streak), NP-MC; padogowinupl (water standing up or much water), NP-FSp and NP-FLk; u-apodo (rain pole), S-DthV. The wihirlwind was called: tsoavitc (from tsoap, ghost), S-Lida; witsoavitc ("a dead In- dian going some place"), S-GSmV, S-SmCr, S-RsRi, S-Mor, S-RubV; witsooivitc, S-Hrnlt; witsoap:, S-Elko; wuadoavitc, S-Egan; wun (upright) adoip (?), S-BtlM; pitu'map (whirlwind), NP-MC. Omens.-S-RsRi: appearance of the rainbow in- dicates that the rain will stop. S-Ely: the rain- bow, though regarded indifferently elsewhere, is a good omen. S-Ely: snakes, though regarded in- differently elsewhere, bring bad luck. NP- coyote or owl cries indicate that somethin will happen. S-Lida: a falling star drops the water and shows that someone has died., Ely: a falling star indicates rain. Some o superstitions may have originated from 'whi people. Probably twitches in many muscles besid those listed were taken as omens, as among and Utah Shoshoni. Thus, S-SnRv said that twitch indicated that you would cry becaus one would die. NP-MC: CTh's interpretation admittedly guesses. S-Lida, S-Ely: the finger will rot if p at the moon. SP-Ash: the owl is an Indian's heart ta It is also bad to hear a bird called nuyogo whistling and talking in the mountains. S-B the owl, mumbitc, is very wise. S-DthV: the, meadowlark calls the name of a person who w 270 CULTURE ELEMENT DISTRIBUTION LIST SYMBOLS USED IN THE LIST Element present. Element absent, that is, denied. Element known to locality, but was not the ru le. Men, women; + = both Variable. Recent, that is, post-Caucasian. Eaten when hungry. Young only. Informant uncertain or his answer ambiguous Either that element was not on the list when locality was visited, or informant had no reliable knowledge of it. Indicates a note on the element under the same number in the section "Ethno- graphic Notes on the Element List. N,E,S,W North, east, south, west. A,B (under: Snares, Nets, etc.; Domed Wickiup; Bear or Back-and-forth Dance) ex- plained in Note section. Number followed by plus sign in the column en- try indicates that there is a range between that and a greater number. Sometimes the exact range has been given in the "Ethnographic Notes on the Element List." Two-letter abbreviations entered undarneath the longer abbreviations heading each column are those employed for comparative and map use in later work connected with this Culture Ele- ment Distributions survey. OCCURRENCE IT PL r-IA P1 r -X| i X sbLO 4--m : ELEMENTS co co co :i) co co | co co L u) co co co l z FS FL aSb Se Sd Se Sf S Sh Si Sj Sk S Sm Sn SoMC I ii I I S II~~~~~~ SUBSISTENCE Hunting Deer irround. . . . . . . . . . live . . . . . * . Past ambushed hunter. O. ver cliff . . . . . . . . . . . i. Into enclosure . . . . . . . . . |, Into enclosure with pit . . th. Trough V into pit ....... With fire ........... With dogs . . . . In relays * . Shamanism . ......... uh In pit beside trail ...... In pit beside spring ..... In pit around which brush fence gle hunter stalks. Rns down ........... ise . A ........... Deer head ........... Entire deerskin ........ Carry brish .......... on arrow ........... to signal hunters ... . l chief * .......... rial chief ........... . . . + + + + + + + + _ _ + - -? - _ - + +- _ _ + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + -? - + + - + + + + + + _ + + _ + + _ + + - +- +?+ + +? ++ +? - + + _ + + + + + + +?+ + + + + + - +_ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -? -? + + + - + _- - + _ + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ + - + - + + - + _ [271] + - + 272 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS |- ;I2 A | c ||Xo $L r. 4- t> 22 r- X 4 m- m X r- P4 X XX |FS FLI SYI Sa1 co SOI Sd 3 Se| Sf A PA Sh Si Sj A 1 S M CO) CO) CO) CO C C O) CO co C O co C O C O n c ____________________________ S FL SM SaS Sb sods SeJSf Sg Shi Si Sj Sk Si Sm S 28. Communal Antelope Hunt*. 28a.Brush corral . . I . . . . . . . 29. Solid fence . . . . . . . . 30. Brush at intervals. 31. Wiigs 32. Shaman. 33. Shaman is chief . . . . . . 34. Shaman's assistant . . . 35. Shaman's enclosure. 36. Fire. 37. Notched stick 38. Grass-stuffed hide ..... 39. Hoof rattle 40. Wand . . 41. Shaman smokes . 42. Passes pipe . . 43. Shaman sings .*. 44. Audience sings. 46. Antelope dance. 47. Antelope mask 48. Round dance ....... 49o Stumbling taboo . 50. Loss of objects taboo . . . 51. Antelope's souls caught 52. Number of nights to charm 53. Messengers to antelope .. 54. Scouts to antelope . . . . . . 55. Antelope driven in 56. Antelope charmed in 57. Fires to drive . . 58. Shaman in corral. 59. Shaman "closes*gate". 60. Special archer . . . . Other Antelope Hunting 61. Individual stalking*. 62. Run down on foot* 63. Run down on horseback 64. Drive past ambushed hunters 66. With dogs 67. With fire 69. Into trap, net, snare 70. Ambush by spring . 71. Hunters disguised . . . . . 72. Hunters in hole. 73. Disguise . . . . * . 74. Antelope skin . . 75. Brush disguise . Mt. Sheep Hunting 76. Surround. 77. Drive 78. Past hidden hunters . . *79. With fire 80. With dogs 81. Into enclosure . * . . 84. Stalking by individuals . . . . - + _ + _ + - + - + + + + + ? + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + _+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +? + +? + +? + + -9 + + + + + + + + 3 + + + + 5 + 1 5 + - + + + - + _ +- + _ 1 1 - + +- + + + + + + + + 1 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + +? + + + + + + - I CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI ttract by pounding . . . Isguise . . . . . B7. Head of sheep used . 88. Entire body used . . Lre to signal hunters ilay or back and forth . 92. Communal Rabbit Hnt%. * It . . . . . . . ab . . . . . . . . . . . . . b thrown. w and arrow. D only hunt. 1 people hunt. cial leader ration (days) . . . . . . . Snares, Nets, Etc. ipring-pole trap ....... 1. For birds Oa. For sage hen *. 103. Trap in enclosure . . O 104. Trap behind fence . . 05. Bird noose over hole 107. For rodents .09. For small mammals . L10. For large mammals . ianning noose for rabbits Ioose in fence gap . . . . . . L14. For deer* 115. Rabbits. 116. Birds . . . . . . . . 117. Sage hens . . . . . . ong rabbit net . . . . . . . . lird net * . . . . . . . . . . . 21. Circular dome 22. Tunnel shaped . . . . . . 23. Rabbit net used . . . . . 24. Willow frame . . . . . . . 25. Sagebrush support . . . . 26. Edges staked down* . . . . 27. Placed near water . . . . 28. Placed over creek . 29. Sagebrush wings .30. Pull-over type*. 30a.Sack type . . . . .31. Used mating season . . . . 82. For sage hens 33. For doves 34. For ducks . . . . . . . . 35. For eagles . .*. . . . . . irds driven to net . . . I I . 37. With antelope disguise . . 38. With antelope manure*. . . 39. With deer disguise . et snare for rabbits . . . . . P.4 * I I I I I I U III I I I I P.4 cFF SM1 Sa Sb co Sd Se cn Sh Si S cS cS cS Sn So tz |FS FL |SII |Sa Sb SocSd Se|Sf SgSh Si Sj|Sk S1 Sm,Sn So MC + + + + 2+ 4+ + + + + + + + + +- + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + (+) 30 (+) + + + + + + + 4- + + + + + + + + 10 + + V + + - - + - + - + - + - + - + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + -? + + + + + + + + + + + 30 + + + 30 + + + + +? + + + 5 + - - + - _ - + - + + + _ + + + - + + + - + + +_ + + + - + + + + _ + + - + + - + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + V 2+ + + + + + + I + + - 9 - + + + . + + + + + + - + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + B B B + + A + + + B + + + A + + + + + + + + + B B 273 + +? +? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ _ + +r ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 142. Deadfalls ........... 143. Figure-4 type ...... 144. Two-stick type . . 145. Bait ....... 147. For small game. 148. For birds generally 149. For grouse ........ 150. Pitfalls .. .. .. .. .. . 151. Cover cross bars. 152. Bait . . . . . . 153. For carnivores ...... 154. For rabbits and rodents Booths and Blinds 155. Brush enclosure. 156. Domed brush house . * 157. Stick and mud house . . 158. Conical house ...... 159. Pit ........... 160. With brush fence . . 161. With brush cover . . 162. Concealment near water 163. Shooting, birds ..... 164. Game ........ 165. Birds caught, bare hand 166. Perch 167. Inclined pole*. 168. Noose on stick . . . 169. Birds taken ....... 170. Bluebird ...... 171. Doves ....... 172. Grouse ....... 173. Game killed ....... 174. Sheep ....... 175. Antelope . . . 176. Tule blind ....... 177. Bird killed by sitting on . * . * * e * * e *i*t Decoys and Disguises 180. Stuffed birds ....... 181. Pulled with string 182. Birdskin over head .. 183. Animal disguise ...... 184. Head. 185. Whole skin. 186. Sticks as front legs 187. Paint arms ...... 188. Of deer . , ..... 189. Of antelope 190. Of mountain sheep . 191. Grass or brush disguise . VWaterfowl Drives 192. Communal drive ...... 193. Chief ........ 194. Killing with club . . rz4 ~%4 4-) 4-> -r-' r4) P4 0 - 1 C= . . )CO I- I L Z ) uz En co uz Enu cn En cl cl Cl co) cU )u 2C FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn So + + + + + + + + + + 4- 4- 4- + + + + + + - _ + ---4_ + - + - + - + +_ + _ - + - + - + - +- + _ +- +- + + + -9 + + + + + + + + + 4- + +I+ +- + + + + + + + _ - + + (+) - + + - - + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + _- - + - + - + + _ - + + + + + + + + + + + + 274 4-4+ + ++ + + + + + + + + + + (+) + + + + + - + + + - + + _- _ + + + + + + -I + + + + + + + + +? + 4- + + + + + - + I I + CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB .: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 195. Mud hens taken ..... 196. Ducks taken* . . . . . Individual drive: with animal ( guise. 198. Ducks taken . . 200. Sage hens driven into net dis- * . . 0 I * * . Mis cellaneous Rodent skewer ........ 202. For cottontail . . 203. For rat ........ 204. For chipmunk ...... Reptile hook ........ Game hung on belt by head Rats poked out ....... Rats burned out ....... Smoking out ......... 210. Jack rabbit ...... 211. Cottontail ....... 212. Other rodents 213. Bear ..... . Fan to blow smoke in den 215. Sage-hen wing . . 216. Crow wing ....... 217. Hawk wing. 218. Brush ......... 219. Feather ........ 220. Basket . . . Rodents flooded out *..... Flares for fowl ....... Eagle Catching Aeries owvned Young from nest. 225. Frighten off . .226. Hunter climbs 227. On rope . . 228. On net ...... 229. Carries cage 230. Seizes by hand Caught by deadfall Caught from pit ....... 234. Seized by hand. Caught from house. Take feathers and release Raise. 238. Nest in tree. 239. Tie up ......... 240. Cage ........ .1agle-catching-power dream Caught for feathers. ,243. Tail ..... . L244. Wing . . . . . ;245. For trade only*. -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~X CO CQ;0 A rI- P4 h,r-O Hh I 6L ;. r-4 I I 4-i .H -4 ) : w O w P 0 H S I | f) U COC U FFL CSb ScC Sd CO Sg CO Si SjS S1 Sm S X C FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si S j Sk Si Sm Sn So MC + + + + + + + + + + + I+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + _- + + + - + - + - + _ + - + _ + + + + + - + - + - + + + + + + + - - 9 + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + I? - 9 + + + + + + + _ + + + ?9 + + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + + + + + 1+ + + (?) + + + + + + +I + + + + + + + + + + _ + - + +- + + + + + + + + - + + + + + ? + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -+ + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + 275 0 0 0 0 0 I ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 1x~~~ ~~~ .H3 .4-' | 1= p t2 L rZ4 Pk .44 r.4 :: m . r0 . 0 -L 2 2 z n m C( , C m X CM Xm X 4a co co _ _ _ _ _ __ _ cn SM cc cn Sg Sk Si Sm Sz FS FL SlSa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si S; Sk S1 Sm ft .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. Rearing Other Birds 246. Chiefly mockingbird* . . . . . . . . . 247. Chiefly dove ............ 248. Other birds ............. 249. Young from nest . . . . . . . . . . . 250. Keep in cage . . . . . . . . . . . . 251. Twined willow, pointed top 252. Fishing ....... 253. Fish taboo ............. 254. Fish absent ............. 255. Fish nets ............ 256. Special form .......... 257. Rabbit net . . . . . . . . . . . 258. Wade in stream . . . . . . . . . 259. Use through ice . . . . . . . . 260. Weir ................ 261. Rock dam . . . . . . . . . . . 262. Willow*dam ............. 263. Basket . . . . . . . .* . . . . . 264. Conical carrying * . . . . . . 265. Special elongated . . . . . . 266. In weir . . . . . . . . . . . 267. In dam . . . . . . . . . . . 268. Supported by sticks 269. Held in hand . . . . . . . . . 270. Drive with willow bundle . . . . . . 271. Hand catch in shallow . 272. Harpco*n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273. Spear ................ 274. 1 prong . . . . . . . . . . . . 275. 2 prongs . . . . . . . . . . . . 276. Fish arrow, 1 prong . . . . . . . . . 277. Night fishing. ........ 278. Torch or fire . . . . . . . . . 279. Moonlight . . . . . . . . . . . 280. Hook ................ 281. Of bone ... . . 282. One barb at angle . . . . . . . 284. Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285. Pole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286. Bait: angleworm . . . . . . . 287. Bait: grasshopper . . . . . .. 288. Bait: salmon egg . . . . . . . 289. Bait: grub ......... . . 290. Bait bag, buckskin ....... 291. Fly ............ 292. Sinker. 293. Poison in stream 294. Dam stream . . . . . . . . . . . 295. Divert creek . . . . . . . . . . . . 296. Strike to kill . . . . . . . . . . . 297. Animals Eaten* 297a.Dog * . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298. Wolf . . . . . . . . . . . . + + + + + + + a- * + + + + + + + + + + ?+ ? -? + 4- + 4- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- +- +- -9- _ _ + _ - + - - + - + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + - + _ + _ + _ + - _ - + _ + - + + ? + + - + _ + + + '4 ) ? 276 + + +- + + +- + +- I- + + + -I -1 -4 -I 4 4 4 4 4 4 + + + + I F F F oyote - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bear . . . . . . . Badger . . * ... 'Porcupine . . . . . . . . Yt. lion ............ Wildcat . . . . . . .Ground hog ........... ~Skunk ,,Gopther.* lice . . . . . . . . . . . Vice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lole . Mole, gopher foot for fertility Eagle *. Buzzard . . . . . . . . . . . . Raven . . . . . . . . . . Crow . . . ;Dove . . . . . . loHakinbr . . . . . . Grouse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mockingbird ... Grouse .. Sage hen ............ Qg.ail . . . . . . . . . . Other . . . . . . Snakes (general).. Rattlesnake . .... . . Lizards (large only) . All lizards .......... Lizard egg*. ......... Chuckwalla........... Horned toad .......... Tortoise . Mud hen ............ Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frog . *. ... . . . . Caterpillars .... Larva in lake ......... Ants. 340. As food * ......... , 341. As tonic ......... .Ant eggs *. ......... Bee eggi ........... Cicadas 345. Gather in baskets. 346. Roast in coals . . . . . 347. Grind on metate ...... ,. Cricket 349. Drive into trench. 350. Drive into pit ...... 351. Drive into fire circle . . i. Grasshopper .......... 353. Catch by hand ..... 354. Gather in baskets . 355. Eviscerate . 277 II4 I A Z I 4 | I 4JI I I I I FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc S) Se Sf Sg Sli U) S ki Sn So MC FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk S1 Sm Sn So MC . _~~~i _ + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + y + + + + ? + + + H + - + - + + + + + + _- + + + + I? Y y + Y + ? + + + + + + + + ? y y +? + + + + + + + H H + + + + + + + + + + I? + (+) ? + + + + + + ++ + + + ? H + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _? + H? + + + -? H + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + H + + + + + H H + + _ + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + H ? + + + + - + _+ + + + - + - + + ++ + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + (+) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? (+) (+) + + + + + + (+) + +~ + 1+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS |L4 fZ4 -4 P - 4-'A |H ) I 0 * - r4 PX uIixIiw S -1C2 CQ) e O S H A) C.a A co Co co Co co co co co c__co_co_co_co_ F J CQ Sb Sc Sd S : cn h i X Sk a FSF SMaSSeSSefSgSSiSSkl SimSn Si 356. Roast in pit ...... 357. Grind on metate . 358. Store, buckskin bags 359. Angleworm. 360. Raw liver .......... Animal-Food Taboos, Etc. 361. Fetus taboo . . * 362. Deer heart taboo ...... 363. To young ........ 364. Liver taboo to young . 365. Deer lung taboo to young 366. Lung eaten for strength . 367. Bird eggs taboo to young . . 368. Scavenger eggs taboo . . 369. First kill taboo 370. To youth ........ 371. To mother ....... 372. To father ....... 373. Mother -mashes boy . . . 374. Youth eats special part 375. First kill after childbirth 376. Taboo to father .... 377. Taboo to mother .*. 378. Hunter distributes game 379. To all village. 380. To relatives. 381. To mother-in-law .... 382. Hunter keeps game ... 383. Ribs .......... 384. Hind quarter ...... 385. Side . 386. Best part 387. Any part ........ Miscellaneous Concepts 388. Women hostile to hunting ...... 389. Hunter avoids intercourse nights before 390. Talk before hunt . 391. Smoke before hunt .......... 392. Smoke during hunt .......... 393. Bathe before hunt: cold bath . 394. Sweat bath ........... 395. Talk during bath , ....... 396. Disposal of deer bones ....... 397. Kept from dogs ......... 398. Game immortal ............ 399. Game controlled by human beings 400. Spirits ............ 401. Offering of game kill ........ 402. To nature ........... 403. To spirit ........... 404. With prayer .......... 405. Piece of gall . 406. Throw in brush ........ + + +- +- + + + + + + + + -9 + + I? + + 9 I? +- + + -9 + + + + - + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + ? + + + _ + + + _-++ ? + ?+ + + ? - + _? ? + ? +I -9 -? I? -?9 + ??+-_- + +? + _- + + + + + ?+ + + + 4- + + + + + + + + + + + Y +_- + ? ??9 + + ? -+ 2 + + + ?+ + + + + + + ? - + + 278 + _ + - + + + + - + - _ + - _ + _ + + + + + + + + + 2+ 9- ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + _ _ -?I+ _ _ -?I+ CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI . 4 -P-l *v-4 c2 4-' Ii I A P2 -1 c2 co P4 z1cr CO _I P.4 3 I I I I I I S I I I 3 I I __ bo cn Sd Se Sf Sg S Si cn Sj Sk Si Sm Sn SoM |FS FI| SYSa Sb Sc Sd Se| Sf Sg Sh Si Sj |Sk S1 S Sn So llC 07. Heart on stick . . . . 08. Liver . . . . . . . . 09. Ti.p of deer tail . . . Gathering corns . . . . . . . . . . . each in sage-lined pit iury in sand to cook . rind in mortar . . . . . . . oil mush . . . . . . . . . . 415. Mesquite . . . eat off tree wvith stick . . ick by hand . . . . . . . . omen gather . . . . . . . . ods . . . . . . . . . . . . 20. Young eaten . . . . . . 21. Mature pit stored . . . eeds . . . . . . . . . . . . 23. Thrown *away . . . . . . 24. Stored . . . . . . . . . rind wooden mortar . . . . . 26. Stone mortar . . . . . . Miscellaneous Plants acca . . . . . . . . . . . . Dshua tree . . . . . . . . . 29. Eat bud . . . . . . . . 30. Pull bud by hand . . . . 31. Pry with stick . . . . . 32. Roast in coals . . . . . nrass" seeds *. Ictus fruit eaten . 35. Stems eaten . . . . . . 36. Burn needles off . 37. Brush needles off* 38. Roast in ashes . . . . . 39. Roots . . . . . . . . . 10. Berries . . . . . . . . 12. Mescal . . . . . . . . . Pine Nuts )oked pole . . *. . . W. Natural hook . . . L5. End fire bent . . :6. End separate piece .imb . . . . . . . . L8. Men . . . . . . . L9. Women . . . . . . O. Climbing stick . . ;ore green, in stone circle' i2. Whole cone in cache . . ;3. Cooked seeds . . . .*. irn nuts from green cone*. . ;rike nuts from ripe cone + + + + + + 9 + + + + + + + + + + I+ + + 1+ + +1+ _ + _ - + _ + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +' I- I- I- F- I- F- I-. 4 4 4 -4 4 + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + 4- +- F- 279 A -4 -4 4 -1 - 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- * * 0 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS rZ4 IrZ4 4) 4-)l *Hi C/ 0 r- b4 o I II I I I . A C$2 X2 c mC/ X ) X C/2 XC/2 CXm X | FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm 456. Cache . . . . . . . . . . 457. Unlined pit 458. Grass lined 459. Pine-leaf-soil lined 460. Brush & stone covered 461. Juniper-bark lined . . . 462. Grind on meta-te . . . . . . . 463. Parch . . . . . . . . . . . . 464. In fan, twined basket O 465. In circular, coil basket 466. Conical gathering basket 467. Family owned plots . 467a.Offerings of pine nuts . . . 468. Eaten as flour. . . . . . . . 469. Mush . . . . . . . . . . 470. Chilled mush . . . . . . Miscellaneous Plant Foods 471. Cane sugar . . . . . . . . . . 472. Boil cane . . . . . . . 473. Dry and beat . . . . . . . 474. Dry and grind . . . . . 475. Willow-sap sugar ... . . . . 476. Pine sugar white*pine pitch . 477. Pinon pitch*. 478. Chewing gum .... * I I 479. From plant root . 480. Rabbit-brush root . 481. Rabbit-brush bark . . . . 482. Pitch 483. Berries dried .... . . . . . 484. Roots dried and stored . . . . Gathering Implements 485. Digging stick*. . . . . . . . 486. Point one end . . . . . . 487. Spatulate*end . . . . . 488. Horn shod .... . . . 489. Of mountain mahogany . . . 490. Of serviceberry . . 491. Of greasewood 492. Conical seed basket . . . . . . 493. Basketry seed beater . . . . . 494. Plain . . . . . . . . . . 495. Edged . . . . . . . . . . 496. Horn . . . . . . . . 497. Wlood ........ 498. Rib ........ 499. Seed knife . . . . . . . . . . 500. Wooden . . . . . . . . . . 501. Shin bone . . . . . . . . 502. Stone: wood handle . . . . 503. Stone: horn handle . + + + + +? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +' + ? ? + + (+) + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + + + + - + + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - + + _ +- ? - + + + + + + -I? + + + + + + + ? + + + +- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 280 + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + CULTURE ELEM DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHO6IONI Cultivation Wild Seeds ld seeds planted .*. . ld seeds irrigated . . S. Elected irrigator . 7. Dams . . . . . . . B. Ditches . . . . I I rn for wild tobacco *. rn for %vild seeds . . 511. Domesticated Plants Lriegated maize . . . . . . Lack-eyed bean ...... mpkin . . . . . . . . . . [uash. termelon . . . . . . . . . Uskmelon. . . Lanter dibble . . . . . . . ;ore in hpuse . . . . . . . rigation . . . . . . . . . Seed Storage In pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?2. Bark or grass lined . . . . . . In basket . . . . . . . . . . . . . En pot . . * I I I I I I I I I I I I [n bark bag . . . . . . . . . . . . 1n buckskin bag .......... :n rock cranny . . . . . . . . . . . Food Preparation salt from mineral from vlaya . . . . 530. Mineral from rocks . . . . . . j31. Burn brush *. . . . . . . . . . haal1 mammals roasted, eaten whole 583. Roasted, entrails removed . . . 384. Roasted, entrails boiled . bat dried on coals . . . . . . . . B6. Drying frame . . . . . . . . . S7. Dried in trees . . . . . . . . 538. Smoked* . . . . . . . . . . . . 589. Smoked in house . . . . . . . . $40. Pulverized . . . . . . . $41. Mixed with seeds . . . . . . . 43. Mixed with fat . . . . . . 44. Stored in sage bags . . . . . . 45. Tripe eaten . . . . . . . '46. Cook blood in paunch, gut .48. Dried in shade . . . . . . . . 149. Dried on coals . . . . . . . . Q50. Smoked in swveat house. 51. Frozen . . . . . . . . . . . . lOne: cooked bone ground . . . . . . 54. Ground bone cooked . . . . . . I .m p .4) . cH S o q c O r- i I . I I I I I I I I I I I I "Po x~~~~~~~~~~~C P4 < :W # cn W o U) pq 1 t; CX Ut ~~C/) co U)I cn U) ) U)I cU) W) CQ )CQ i FS F Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si S Sk Sl Sm Sn S MC JFS FLJSMS& Ci2 C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 C(2 C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 U)C12 CQ C/2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2C(2 C12C(2 C/)j ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + ? + + + + + R + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + f- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + R + + + + + + R + + + ? ? + + + + + ? + + + - + + + * + _ + - + -9 + + - + ? - + + - + + + + + _ ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + . + + + + + + + + ? - + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + - + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4- + + + + + + + + + I? -? + + _ + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + _ + + _ + + + 281 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 555. Vertebrae-. . . . . . . . . . . 556. Joints . . . . . . . . . . . 557. Entire bones: marro- extracted 558. Feet dried . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559. Feet ground . . . . . . . . . . . . 560. Earth oven . . . . . . 561. Hole with hot rocks, earth cover . . . . . . . . . . . . 562. Boiling sith stones in ribs 563. In basket . . . . . . . 564. Tongs for hot rocks* . . . . 565. One bent stick . . . . 566. Pair forked sticks 567. Pair straight sticks 568. Boil in pot . . . . . . . . 569. Broiling . . . . . . . . . . 570. Forked stick . . . . . 571. On coals . . . . . . . 572. Parching . . .*. . . . . . . 573. In basket . . . . . . . 574. In pot . . . . . . . . 575. Seed meal 576. Seed burned from husk . . . 577. Cannibalism . . . . . . . . HOUSES De lling Windbreak * 578. Brush . . . . . . . . . . 579. Withe fence . . . . . . . 580. For temporary camp . . . . 581. For summer camp . . . . . Sun Shade 582. Brush or tree only . 583. Posts supporting roof 584. Number of posts . . 585. Horizontal brush roof 586. Number of side walls 587. Domed Wickiup 588. For summer . . . . . . . . 589. For winter . . . . . . . . 590. Dome of arched villows . . 591. Cone of bent willows . . . 592. Circular ground plan 593. Portion of circle 593a.Full circle . . . . . 594. Height in feet . . . . . . 595. Diameter in feet. 596. House pit (depth in feet) 597. House covering . . 598. Of grass in layers PZ4 F 1. ~:-4- 4a * C O :, $4 - ' ~a :HP , b a) t v' M se o rd 14 Q X L r-i S F. P P III I I I I FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm S + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +~ + + 4 + V + + 6 * + + 4 + V 6 + + + + + + + + + 6 + + V + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + H + + + + + + V + 2 6 I- + 6 V + V + V + + + + V V V + + V R V V + + + + + + + + + + + R + + + + + + + + 9 H + + + + + + + + H - + + + + + + + _ +_ -+? - - - V?-- 282 - + + + + + + + + + + + +? + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + IH H H + + + + + + + + + . 0 0 . . 0 . . 0 0 . 0 . . 0 . 0 0 . . 0 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 283 [ I ; tI Pq I n m X S3 = >l M ^- X ,| dt I20; Ex I 'cl C !l D CQ) CU: C) ) C/) C)C) C C ) Z; _ FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk S1 Sm Sn So MC 599. Tule or brush ...... 600. Mat ....... 601. Earth covered, entirely 602. Earth covered, part 603. Pole-t1iatch binders . . Center post ......... Door. 606. Side of house (direction) 607. Flush with wall ..... 608. Of twined bark . 609. Of twined grass. Floor covered with grass . . . Fire indoors, center of house 612. Outside house . . . . . . Smoke hole in roof ...... 615. Tripod or Conical House . For winter . . . .. . No. of foundation poles . 619. Forked poles interlock 620. Tied at intersection . Pit depth (feet) .......... Cone-shaped, circular ground plan. House height (feet) * House diameter (feet)*. Encircled outside by stones . Cover er.............. 627. Of brush or tule ....... 628. Bark 629. Grass (number of layer s). 630. Twined sage-bark mats. 632. Pole-thatch binders ...... 633. Earth covered, entirely .... 634. Earth cove*ed, partly ..... 635. Pine humus *.......... 636. Stone slabs . . . Doorway ........... 638. Side of house (direction) . . . 639. Flush with wall . .*. 640. Vestibule or tunnel *...... 641. Excavated vestibule . . . . . 642.*Height (feet) of doorway Door .. * ............ I I 644. Of mat ......... .. 645. Skin ........... 646. Brush 647. Twined bark ....... Fireplace . . . 649. In center of house ...... 650. Indoors near door . 651. Pit (depth inches) Smoke hole in roof center . . 653. Gabled House .. For winter ............. Number of vertical posts ...... Ridgepole + + + +? (+)I + E E + + + + 3 + 6 V + E + 3 3+ + + + + + 3 + 6 V + + E + 3 + 3+ 3+ + + 2? + + (+) + +? - - (+) - + + + t + + 2 + 1 + V V + V + 3 + + + + + 4 4 + 2 - + + 6+ V (+) + +- _ + + - _ + + + +- - + 3 + + +- _ + + + + + + + + + + 4 + + V V v 3 + + 4 + V V 3 + - + R - 2 2 +? - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ +? - _ _ _ _ +? - _ _ + + 4 + 2 + V V + + V 3 + + 4 2 + V V + + + + + + + 3 + + + V V + + + + + 4 4 +- 2 2 + + V 7 V V + + + +- + + + + + + E? V - + + + +? + + + + + + + -A -B - - + - - + -B + - - + + + 1 + 9 V + 3 + + V + 6 + + + 1+ + V V + +? + V 4 + + +I V + + + v V 5 + 1 + V + + 5 + + + + V + + I v L 6- - I 284 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Z4 F -P P '4CO : a .:p.IrN.~ S I tor | FS FL| SY|Sa Sb Sc ISd Se I Sf Sg S _________________________________ ~~~~~~~FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc ~Sd Se Sf Sg Shi Si SjjSk 51 Sm S 658. House height (feet) .-.-.... . . . 6 - 5 659. House width (feet) .9 - 9 660. House length (feet) . . . . . . . . . 11 - 15 661. Pit depth (feet) ......... . - - 2 662. Cover .-... .......... . _ + - + 663. Of brush .-.-.-. . . . . . . . . +? - + 664. Bark ... *.. . . . . . . _ _ _ + 666. Pine s od . . . . . . . . . . . + + 667. Earth .-.-.. . . . . . . . . . + - 668. Doorway .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . _ - + + 669. Side .-.-.-.-. . . . . . . . . . - + 670. End . + - - + 672. Vestibule or tunnel . _ - + + 673. Fireplace inside . . . . . . . . . . + - + + 675. Smoke hole in roof .. . . . . .. . _ + - + + House Interior 676. Sleep on grass og brush ... . . . . + + + 677. Twined bark . . . . . . . . . . + + + - + + + _ + - + + + + 678. Twined-rush mat .* . ..... + ? + 679. Furs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + - + + + 680. Skins .+ + ? + + + + + 681. Woven-fur blanket. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 682. Cover self with woven-fur blanket + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 683. Furs sewed together. + _ + -? ? + 684. Tanned skins . + + ? + 684a.Vegetable-fiber* blanket + + 685. Indoor storage pits. . . . . . . . . . + 686. Indoor storage bags . . . . . . . . . 4- + + + 687. Special storehouse* . . . . . . . . . 688. Sweat House .+ + + + + + - + + + + + + + - + 689. Wickiup Type *. + + + + 689a.Domed willow frame . . + + - + + 691. Covered with spirogyra ? . . . . ..+ - 692. Grass . . . . . . . . . + + 693. Brush . . + 694. Skin . . . . . . . . . . 695. Canvas . . . .R 696. Earth. . . . + + 697. Pine humus ; .+??? 698. Pit (depth feet) . . . . . . . . . . + 1 ? 700. Door: side (direction) . . . . . - V - - - ? 701. Of twined brush. . 702. Of twined bark . . . . + + 703. Of twined grass . . . . . . + 704. Conical Type*. - - + + - - +- + + - + _ - 705. Roof, conical pole*. - - + + - _ + - + + - + - _ _ 706. Earth covered . . + + - - + - + + - + - - - 707. Circular ground plan . . . . . . . . _- - + + - + - + + - + - - _ 708. Diameter (feet) . . . . . . . . . . . - - - 10 15 -- 6- 6 6 - 6 709. Pit depth (feet) . . . . . . 2 - - + - 2+ + +- - - 710. Door . . . . . . . . . . . . . + 711. Of bark . - . . . . + _ - 712. Center.post . . . . . . . . . . . . . + + CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 285 FX4 rX4 .4 .4-) 4J- .Hi Co 0 02 0 r-4 P4 r-I bO a A 4-) ~ I I I 4= - c? 4~m P CO w ~o w ~zCO~ I |____ __ __ _ A | _ $ _1 F S X S S Sm Sn S M C X ( CO cr n co co n n mm c cnm co co cocn mm z |FS FL SM Sa Sb So Sd SeTSf Sg Sh Si Sj|Sk S1 Sm Sn So M 73.GbledTyp + + +? + ber interior posts . . . . . . . . 22 --2? dgepole .+ + _ + rcular ground plan . . . . . . . . + + t (depth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2++ --1? f covering . . . . . . . . . . . . + + - _ L. Brush . . . 0. . 0 . . . . . + + __ +_____________ DO. Gras s . . . . . . . . . . + + __ _____________ lo Earth o .. + . . . . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ zor . .. + + _ _ _ _ _ _ . . . . _ _ _ _ _ ?3o Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . + + __ +_____________ 5. Twined bark . . . . . . . . . + C. Twined grass . . . . . . + + - _ Sweat House Operation and Use ated by fire inside . + + ? + + + 8. By rocks (heated outside). . . . + + + + + + + + + + it for rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ _ - - ? + - + + + + + ocks around patient . . ? . . .+ + + _ ocks in pile . . . . . . . . . + + 2. Covered with brush or grass - + + ter poured on rocks . . . . + + - + + + + + R + zter in baske ts . . . . . . . . o + + + :ed for sickness * . . . . . . . + + + + + .+ + + + + + + + + + + 36.aColds . . . . .o . . . . . . . -+ + + + + + 37. Rheumatism . . . . . . . . . . . + + + + 38. General debility . . . . . . . . + + + + + + 39.Shaman treats inside . . . . _ + + R sedfor bathing, i.e., cleansing . . + + + + ?????????? + + 41. Daily.. . . . . . - (+) - l42. Bather removes clothing . . . + ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?+ + + 43. Attendant for bather . . . . . + + + 4. Pray while bathing * . . . + + + + + + +? + + + 745. Tell bad dream . . . . . + + + + + + 746. Talk to personal power . . + + + + + _ 747. Talk for hunting luck . - + - 748. Cold bath afterward . .. . + + + + + +? 49. Smoke while bathing . . . + + + + _ sedby men .* . . . . + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 51.By women . . . . . . (+)(+) + + + - + + + + + + + - + + + + wmber persons accommodated . . . . 30 30 10 - 1 2+ 1 2+ 1 1 3+ 1 3 sed for clubhouse ................+ + + + + _ _ _ _ Jsed for gambling house . . . . . . . + + + + + _ ,Jsed for dormitory . o o o .......+ + + + ;Used for meeting house. . . + + _ + tned by individual. ..- - . + +? + - + + + + + + + - + + + + Owned by community .o ...........+ + + + + _ Used by community. .. ... + + - 9 + - + Miscellaneous Houses DDog house . . . . . . - - - - ++ + + - 761. Small domed willow.. _ _ _ + + - Special grinding house _ . _ _ .+ +? ? ? ?- 4enstrual house o ... .... _ - + + + + + + + + + + + + + 764. Ceremonial Enclosure . . + + - + + - - R R R + + - - + _ - _ General gatherings only . . + + - + + - - + + + + + - - + - - ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 766. Circular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767. Brush fence . . . . . . . . . . . . 768. Direction of opening . . . . . . . . 769. Fire in center . . . . . . . . . . . 770. Fires around fence . . . . . . . . . 771. NAVIGATION ...... 773. Balsa raft . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774. Number of bundles . . . . . . . 775. Bundles side by side 776. Bundles lashed together . 777. Bundles pinned together . . . . 778. Length (feet) . . .. . 779. Prox curved up . . . . . . . . 780. Number of persons held . . . . 781. Pole propelled . . . . . . . . 782. Hands and feet propelled. . * . 783. Pulled by rope across stream FIRE MAKING 784. Simple drill*. . . . . . . . . . . . 785. Compound drill . . . . . . . . . . . 786. Cane shaft . . . . . . . . . . 787. Hardwood shaft . . . . . . . . 788. Foreshaft in socket . . . . . . 789. Foreshaft in split . . . . . . 790. Foreshaft sRliced . . . . . . . 792. Artemisia hearth . . . . . . . . . . 793. Charcoal in pit . .*. . . . . . 794. Ground stone in pi-' . . . . . . 795. Bark in pit . . . . . . . . . . 796. Number of pits in hearth . . . 797. Artemisia-bark tinder . . . . . . . 798. Cottonwood-punk tinder . . . . . . . 799. 2 pieces of rock struck for fire . . 800. Flint . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801. Obsidian . . . . . . . . . . . 802. Strike flint and iron ore for fire 803. Carrying coals in sheeq horn . . . . 804. Bark-bundle slov match . . . . . . . 805. Bark-bundle torch 807. Preserve fire by covering with earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808. By burning sage into roots . . MISCELLANEOUS IMPLEMENTS Mortar and Pestle 809. Stone mortar, large . . . . . . . . 810. Bedrock . . . * I I I I I I I I 811. Made by Coyote . . . . . . . . 812. Portable, spheroid . . . . . . A( mG do * =o P4 IL r- -w AdB& 4--)uz 4- xr- co Oz X- X4 v): v) U) U) CO U) U) CU cU U C U U) CO co Cl) FS F Sa Sb Sc Sd Sei Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk S1 Sm Sn S V + + + + + + + 1+ 3 + + + + V + V + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + V S + + + + ++ 1 1+ - + + R +? - + + + + + + + V + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + - + + - + + + + + + + + V V X V + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- + - + + + + + + + + + + + - + _ _ - + _- _ - - V - - + + + + + 3+ 3+ 6 2 2 + + + + 3? 3 + + +? + + + i 3 + 7 3+ 4 + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4+ 5. + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + +2 + + + + + + - - _ + 286 U I I 9 -1 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 813. Portable, irregular . 814. Portable, slab . . . . . . 815. Portable, sunk in ground Stone mortar, small ...... 817. For paint, medicine, etc. 818. For griinding food. Wood mortar .......... 820. Cavity in log end ..... 821. Sunk in ground ...... Pestle, of stone 825. Cylindrical (length inches) Used for acorns ........ 827. Mesquite ......... 828. Pine nuts ......... * Metate and Muller Thin, oval metate Grinding on 1 side only ...... Used for seeds ........... 832. Meat ............ 833. Bone ............. 834. Paint ............ Cleaned with: fingers s....... 836. Porcupine tail ........ 837. Brush of sage bark ..... 838. Brush of mescal fiber ..... 839. Brush of Joshua fiber. 840. Brush of hair ......... 841. Scraped with stick ...... 842. Brush ........ Oval-shaped muller ......... 844. Back-and-forth motion. Mush Stirrer Single straight stick Looped stick* . Paddle . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spoon, Dipper, Etc. Dipper of: turtle sbIell 852. Mt.-sheep horn ........ 853. Deer skull ........... 854. Pottery .... . . 855. Basketry with handle 856. Basketry without handle .. Spoon of: cottonwood bark 858. Jack-rabbit scapula. 859. Wildcat scapula. Wooden spatula for eating Dishes of horn. . . . . . . . 862. Rough wooden slab ....... ,,863. Twined-willow cup ....... 864. Stone bowls .......... 866. Pottery bowls . . . ..... Water container animal stomach bag. C I x > | ) X 1 | c - | M I bO r I__2l m ~-4 cl) ~ :4 U)CO |) POSS e S S k S FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn So MC + + 14 + + + 14 + + + + + (+) L7 + + + + +i: + -9 + + + + + ? ? + + + + + + + + + 17 + (+) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- + - +- +- + - +- + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + - _ _ + - _ _ + + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + ? + + + -9 + + + + + + + + _ _ _ + _ + + + _ + + + -1 287 ?- +- +- +- + + + + + ? + + + + + + + _ ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +? + +? + + + + - I + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -+ + + ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 868. Basketry olla . . . . . 869. Wooden scoop for digging . . Knife 870. Unhafted flint blade . . . . . . . 871. Wrapped in buckskin. 872. Flint blade hafted in wood . 873. Horn handle . . . . . . . . . 874. Bone knife . . . . . . . . . . 875. Broken cobble for cutting . . Scraper 876. Stone, broken cobble . . . . . . . 877. Horn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878. Bone*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 879. Rib, various . . . . . . . . 880. Horse rib . . . . . . . . . . 881. Shin . . . . . . . . . . . 882. Femur, end notched . . . . . 883. Pelvis . . . . . . . . . . . Awl 884. Bone. . . . . . . . . . 885. Cannon (deer). . . 886. Ulna (deer) . . . . . . . . . 887. Humerus . . . . . . . . . . . 888. Rabbit tibia . . . . . . . . 889. Rabbit hip . . . . . . . . . 890. Cactus spine . . . . . . . . . . . 891. Handle pitch- or gum-covered 892. Awl case, bark bundle . . . . . . 893. Buckskin . . . . . . . . . . Drill 894. 895. 896. 897. Shaft with stone poin *. . . Shaft with bone point* . . . Shaft with horn point . . . Stone knife for drill . . . Various 901. Broken cobble for chopping 902. Natural cobble for hammer Flint Flakn 903. Flint flaker . . . . . . . . 904. Sharp point *. . . . . . 905. Notched end*. . . . 906. Of antler tip . . . 907. Of mt.-sheep horn 908. Flint roasted in ground 909. Flint warmed . . . . . 910. Buckskin hand pad . . . . . 911. Pressure flaking . . . . . . 4I) 4J -r4 0 r-' M b0 1; FS FL S Sa Sb S- Sd S Sg S S Sk Si S S CO I CO C( C( uz u fz u) a) u 3 CO u) cn uz u CQ) U) |FS FL| SMl Sa Sb So Sd Sel Sf Sg Sh Si Sj |Sk S1 Sm SD; + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _C + + + + + + + + + - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + ?+ + _ + , Y + + + + + + + + + + + I+ + 1+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +-4+ + +- _ + -9 R + + + + + + + +- + _ + + + - + + + + + + + + + - -? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ + ?+ + + ? + + + + + +- 4-4+ + + + _ _ + - ~+ + + + R + + + + + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + +? + + + + _ _ + ? ? + 288 + + _ _ CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI SKIN DRESSING Skin soaked first . Hair removed on inclined rubbing post for scraper (see 876) . . . . Tanning with brain . . . . . . . . 916. With spinal cord . . . . . . . . 917. With marrow . . . . . . . . . . 918. With liver . . . . . . . . . . . 919. With wood ashes . . . . . . 920. Tanning agent cooked . . . . . . 921. Kept in piece of intestine. . Graining: soak and stretch 923. Rubbing stone . . . . . . . . . Smoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925. One side only . . . . . . . . . 926. Both sides . . . . . . . . . . . 927. Hide tied funnel shape. 928. Hide on tripod over fire . 929. Cedar-bark smoke . . . . . . . . 930. Wood-chip smoke . . . . . . . . Done by men . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEAPONS Bow Self bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934. Length (feet) . . . . . . . . . 935. Middle of bow sinewv wrapped. 936. Of willow . . . . . . . . . . . Sinew-back bow . . . . . . . . . . . 938. Length (feet) . . . . . . . . . 939. Width (in half inches) . . . . . 940. Double curve . . . . . . . . . . 941. Ends recurved . . . . . . . . . 942. Of juniper . . 943. Of serviceberry 944. Sinew (no. of layers)' 945. Glue of horn*. . . . . . . . . . 946. Glue of fish . . . . . . . . . . 947. Glue from greasewood . . . . . . Horn bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949. Sheep horn. 950. 2 horns end to end . . . . . . . 951. Sinew backed . . . . . . . . . . Horn-backed wood bow . . . . . . . . Bowstring, sinew . . . . . . . . . . 954. Vegetable fiber . . . . . . . . 955. Number of ply . . . . . . . . . Position of bow when shot approxi- mately horizontal . . . . . . . . . 957. Slanting . . . 958. Approximately vertical. Wristguard . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bow designi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960a.Paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . I z m1 % ~-d % u [41= r o ,. hPt -"A C, %- P1 r X4 F - t * ElorH U) r n o S 4 A4 PI4 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ( 2o. CQ U) CQ U) U) U) U) U) U) U) n m U) U U) U) UZ FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn So MC + +1+ + + + + + ++++ + + - 1-I- + + -I-I+ - + + + +- v + + 3 3+ 3+ v 1 + + + + + + +S 1 R + + + + +- 4 + - + + + 3 4 21 3+ 4+ 4 + + + + +- +- + + + + ? + 3 ? + ?t ? ? + + + 1 + + + + + + + +- + +- + + + + + + + + + + R + + ~++ + R + + ++ + + +- +- + ? + 31 3 3 3 + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + +) + + + + + ? + V. + + + + + 3 3 + + + + + + + ? 3 + 3 4 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 3 +3 + + + - + + + 4-I + + + +- + + + + + + + + + +++ + + + 2 + + + + + 2 + + + 289 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +? I a 4 Go r ) o ..rH i 84 X X , . .f,4 P , , , ,I __|______ CO S S Si _____________________________________ FS FL SM Sa Sb Se Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Si Arrow 961. Without foreshaft . . . . . . . . . 962. Length (feet)* . . . . . . . . 963. Hardwood . . . . . . . . . . 964. Sharpened point . . . . . . . 965. Crossed sticks for birds . . . 966. Stone head . . . . . . . . . 967. With foreshaft *. . . . . . . . . . 968. Cane shaft . . . . . . . . . . 969. Hardwood shaft . . . . . 970. Hardwood foreshaft* .* . . . . 971. Plain vooden point . . . . . . 972. Wrapped for ducks . . . 973. 4 cross sticks for birds 974. 1 cross stick, gophers 975. Stone point (types X and Y) 976. Bone point . . . . . . . . . . 977. Horn point . . . . . 978. 2-pointed bird arrow. 979. Ornament: 3 spiral grooves . 980. Paint . . . . . . . . . . . . 981. Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . 982. Featbers: three . . . . . . . . . . 983. Or two . . . . . . . . . . . . 984. Or four . . . . . . . . . . . 985. Spiral . . . . ... 986. Gum or pitch adhesive . 987. Sinew tied . . . . . . . . . . 988. Arrow poison . . . . . . . . . . . 989. Liver . . . . . . . . . . . . 991. Decayed blood from heart*. 992. Rattlesnake poison . . . . . . 993. Red ants . . . . . . . . . . . 994. Special . . . . I I I I I . 995. Arrow release, primary . . . . . . 996. Arrow release, special . . . . . . Arrow Straightener 997. Flat stone slab. unshaped *. 997a.One-piece stone . . . . . . . . . . 998. Oval . . . . . . . 999. Transverse grooves (number) 1000. For cane shafts only . . . . . 1001. Two-piece stone . . . . . . . . . . 1002. 1 groove in each* . . . . . . 1003. For hardwood only . . . . . . 1004. Perforated horn .- . . . .*. . . . . 1005. Mountain-sheep horn. 1006. Antelope horn. 1007. 1 hole . . . . . . 1008. 2 graduated holes . . . . . . 1009. 3 graduated holes . . . . . . Quiver 1010. Whole skin, head down . . . . . . + + + + + + + + + + x x + + + + + + + + + + + + 1 +- + + + + + + + + + + + x x x + + + + + + + + +. _ + _ + +? + y -? - + + + - + + + + + ++ + + + + -+ + + + + + + + + + + 1 + + 2 + + + + + + - +_ + + + 3 + 3 + 3 + + + + + 2 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + + -? - Y? Y _+ XY -? +? - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - V 1 + ++ + + + + + ++ + + + + + + -+ + - + + ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 290 +?I + + + + + ? + 1+ + + + CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI P4 I ro % ( % r-4 -ri -4 P 0 =- bO - 0 m m 0- X 9o = Po r- r- t- -LA Cd ra (3 Ol !Lt PX -4 4-n 4m- -,_ 9 0E m to r- P4 r- eo 0 r-: 4-' > III C: m .-4 co P) ~: w UzC) jzw ~PU) IB ,2.- C(Q ri) u) CO C u ( co C cn co co co co Cl CQ Ct)jZ FS FL SM Sa Sb Se Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk S1 Sm Sn Sc MC L011. Fox . . . . . . . . . .012. Wildcat . . . . . . . L013. Buckskin . . . . . . L014. Fawn . . . . . . . . L015. Young antelope . . . L016. Coyote . . . . . . . ,ut skin, selved up stomach ,arry also bow . . . . . . L019. Fire outfit. hu11 arrow over shoulder hu11 arrow under arm . . . Miscellaneous Weapons rrusting spear . . . . . . . . . . hield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L024. Rawhide . . I I I I I I I I I L025. Wooden rim . . . . . . . . . 1026; Feathers attached . . . . . . slub . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . L029. Plain rabbit club only . . . ling, toy only . BASKETRY lade by women only . . . . . . . . Materials fillow-coil foundation . . . . . . rillow-twine foundation . kil and twine weft of willow sapwood 036. Devil's claw L037. Joshua-tree root . . . . . . L038. Root for yellow . . . .* . .039. Inner willow bark brown . .040. Pussywillow black . . . . . . L041. Red feather quills .42. Yellow feather quills . f43. Pull through tin can . . . . kpplied decoration: black paint . . L045. Red paint . . . . . . . . . . .046. Yellow paint . . . . . . . . L048. White paint . . . . . . . . . Weaves :oil, foundation . . . . . . . . . W50. Grass bundle . . . . . . . . Al51. 1 rod . . . . . . . . . . . . [052. 2 rods . . . . . . . . . . . L53. 3 rods . . . . . . . . . . . .054. 2 large, 1 small rod . L055. 4 rods oil (looking into basket) clock- bwise . . . . . . . . + + + + + + + + + + + + + +: + + + + + + + + + + + + _ _ - + + + + _:Iz+K+ + + + +~~~ _- + R + + + + + . + + + + + + + + + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + - + + + + + + 9 - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -7? -9? I? + ? + + + - + + R - + + + + + + + + + + + _ - + + + + + +? + + + + + + R + + + + + + + + + - + + + + R? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 291 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 1057. Counterclockwise . . . . . . . 1058. Awl through outside basket . . . . . 1059. Twine weaves plain 2 strand . . . . 1060. Diagonal . . . . . . . . . . . 1061. 3 strand . . . . . . . . . . . 1062. Open work . . . . . . . . . . 1063. Close work . . . . . . . . . . 1064. Bead covering . . . . . . . . . . 1065. Stitch noninterlocking . . . . 1066. Feathers woven in . . . . . . . . . Forms 1067. Seed beater, twined . . . . . . . . 1068. Oval . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069. Circular . . . . . . . . . . . 1070. Parallel warp . . . . . . . . 1071. Winnowing basket, twined . . ... . . 1072. Fan shaped, triangular . . . . 1073. More rounded . . . . . . . . . 1074. Parallel warps . . . . . . . . 1075. Open twine . . . . . . . . . . 1076. Close twine 1077. Used also for parching . 1078. Circular tray . . . . . . . . . . . 1079. Coiled . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080. Twined . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081. Used for parching . . . . . . 1082. Conical carrying basket . . . . . . 1083. Twined . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084. Open twine * . . . . . . . . 1085. Close twine . . . . 1086. Coiled bottom . . . . . . . . 1087. Wicker bottom . . . . . . . . 1088. Buckskin-covered bottom . . . 1089. Pointed bottom .. . . . . . . 1090. Rod-and-bundle rim . . . . . . 1091. Fishing basket . . . . . . . . . . . 1092. Plain twine . . . . . . . . . 1093. Basketry hat, twined . . . . . . . . 1094. Hemispherical . 1095. Applied black design. 1096. Water jug, twined . . . . . . . . . 1097. Wicker bottom . . . . . . . . 1098. Flat bottom . . . . . . . . . 099. Rounded bottom . . . . . . . . 100. Pointed bottom. 1101. Tapers to spout 1102. Pitched outside . . . . . . . 1103. Pitched inside . . . . . . . . 1104. Pitched bottom . . . . . . . . 1105. Painted red . . . . . . . . . 1106. Painted white . . . . . . . . 1107. Painted yellow . . . . . . . . 1108. Handle of horsehair . 1109. Handle of human hair . . . . . 1110. Handle of buckskin . . . . . 1111. Handle of vegetable string P4 9- I I I i $ I X X X I M I I 3 3 _ uC cl ) CQ cn Co co CO Cf 2 CQ C/) co CA FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se[ Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk S1 Sm Sn + R + R + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + + + + + + + + + + + +++ + + + + + + + + + + - + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + R ++ + + + + + + R + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +? + + + + + + + + + + + +++ + + + + + + + _ _ + +? - + + + + ? + + + + + + + + + R + + + +? + + + + + + 292 + + + + ++ + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + _ _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + - + CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI P4-4-0 co x I r sC B o P4 q , l PL4 I I B I II I I I I I I I P-4 cn) c/) CQ cO CO c c co c C oc cn Co C co u I FS FL SM Sa Sb SC Sd SeTSf Sg Sh Si Si Sk MC 1112. Stopper of cedar bark . 1113. Stopper of grass, etc. Basketry bowl ........... 1115. Coiled . 1116. Twined . . * '1117. Pitch coated ........ .1118. For boiling ....... ,Basketry ladle .......... 1120. Twined . 1121. Coiled 1122. With handle ......... .Basket sifter . . "Caterpillar basket .... . ... YF1124. Open twine . . . . . . . . 1125. Parallel sides, round bottom. Bottleneck basket, coiled. i 1127. Round shoulder . . . . . . . 1128. Square shoulder ....... ULids modern ............ Handles modern ....... Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132. Sage bark, twined ...... .1133. Tule, twined Mats . . t:1135. Twined sage bark .1136. Twined tule ......... WEAVING Skin Blanket Animal furs used (twisted strips) 1138. Rabbi t . . . . . . . . 1139. Rat ........... 1140. Wildcat ......... 1141. Squirrel ........ 1142. Coyote ......... J.oom, 2 parallel bars ..... 1144. Horizontal ....... 1145. Vertical Loom, 1 horizontal bar and pegs Warp 2-ply .. ..... 1148. Single strip ...... 1149. Plain stick tor twisting -1150. Through hole ...... 1151. Twist on thigh ..... left of string ........ .1153. Of buckskin ....... 1154. Twined weave 'Sex of maker (+ = both) .... * Feather Blanket irdskins used ........ .157. Mud-hen skins ...... .158. Other than mud-hen skins kins sewn together ...... + (+) + (+) + -+ -+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- +- + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + +- +- + + ?- 9 9- + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + M + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +? +? R + + + + + +9? +9- + + + + + + + + + + + + + R + + + + +? - +? + + + + + + + + - +- + + + + + + + + + +1 + + + + + +1 + + + + 9- + + -9 ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ + + + + + + + - + + + + + 1+ + + + + + + + + R + + + + + + + + + + + _ + + _- - + + _- _ + - + + + - + + _ 293 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +1 + + + - I ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS T x 1 3Tm X tH 9 1 = ; ! X 41> 0 t Pz4 Pz. -c 4.P 4-P -H- 0 Go 0 . ~ P~4 bO 1 PL I I I I I I I I I , , C C( u /3 u CO CO CO Cn CO CO cu o Cm CO co co C' F S FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn 1160. Skins woven, like for fur (above) 1161. Twist on string . *. 1162. NTumber of ply warp 1163. Vegetable-Fiber Blanket * 1164. Materia1s: juniper bark . . . . . . 1165. Sage bark . . . . . . . . . . 1166. Willow bark. 1167. Inner cottonwood bark . . . . 1168. Spirogyra (?)* . . . . . 1169. Woven, like for fur blankets (above). 1170. With plain (checker) 'eave' 1171. Nets . . . . . . . 1172. Material: milkweed . . . . . . . . 1173. Ar)gawana . . . . . . . . . . 1174. Shuttle: string lengthwise on stick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175. String around 2 sticks . . . 1176. String ball on stick . . . . 1177. String ball, no stick . . . . 1178. Knots: bowline at edge . . . . . . 1179. Weaver's . . . . . . . . . . 1180. Overhand . . . . . . . . . . 1180a.Square . . . . . . . . . . . Cordage (twisted) 1181. Material~ milkweed . . . . . . . . 1182. Wana 1183. Amsonia (sicivi). . . . . . . 1184. Sinew . . . . . . . . . 1186. Number of ply for string: 2 ply 1187. 3 ply . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188. Clockwise . . . . . . . . 1189. Counterclockwise . . . . . . 1190. Number of ply rope . . . . . . . . 1191. Braided rope (strands) . . . . . . 1192. Sex of maker (+ = both) . . . . 1193. Rope of withes . . . . . . . . . . 1194. String rolled on thigh . . . . . . 1195. POTTERY . . . . . . 1196. Clay ground on metate . 1197. Temper of sand . . .. 1198. Of crushed rock . 1199. Mallow juice in clay* . 1200. Cactus juice in clay . 1201. Construction: coils . 1203. Continuous spiral of clay . . 1204. Rests on basket . . . . . . 1205. Coil clockwise (looking in to pot) . +- + + +- - + + + + + + + MM+ + + + + + + + +? + +' (+) + + + + + M + + + + _ + + _ + + + + + + +? + + + + ? - + + + + + + + + ? + + _ + +- + M + + M + + + + + + + 3 ? - M M M + + + + + + + + +? + + + + + -?I + + + + + + + _ + + - + + + + ? - + +- + + + - + + + _ + _ + + _ + 3 + 3 M + M + + + + + + + -? -? + + + 294 V - + + + + + + + + _ _ + + + ? + + + ?+ + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + 3 + 3 3 -3 F M + 1+ + + + + + + + + -Y - + + + + + +? + ce I I1J J1 0 . . . . 0 . . . . . 0 0 0 . . . 0 0 . 0 . . . 0 . . . . . CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 1207. Coil counterclockwise . 1208. Cobble and paddle. 1209. Cobble and hand ....... 1210. Scraped with fingers only 1211. Scraped with stick ..... . Clay slip ............. . Rim bound with fiber* ....... 4. Pot fired, .open fire ....... . Decoration ....... 1216. Red paint * . . . . . . . 1217. Black paint ......... 1218. Incised with stick . 1219. Incised with thumbnail . . . 1220. Paint after firing 1221. Vessel Shapes (see fig. 11) M. Miscellaneous: stone pot rests (number) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1224. Unbaked clay effigies .... 1225. Baked clay pipes ...... 1226. Unbaked clay pipes . .* . . 1227. Suspend pot from tripod . . . BURDENS . Pack strap, skin (+, both sexes) Pack strap, vegetable fiber (+, both sexes) 1230. Twisted rope (no. of ply; 1231. Braided (no. of strands) . Over head (+, both sexes). 1233. Over basketry hat ...... 1234. Over bark head pad... Across shoulder chest (+, both sexes) . . 1236. Held hand at chest . Carrying nets ........... 1238. Piece of rabbit net . .... 1239. Hammock shaped, on back . . . Deerskin bag* ......... 1241. Used by men ......... Conical basket .......... Coolie yoke ............ CRADLES . Oval ladder *............ Basketry ....... 1246. Elliptical outline 1247. Oval outline ... 1248. Rectangular outline. 1249. Rod rim ... 1250. Twined horizontal rods ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- ' . 4-3 4-i-*-4 C O c riO b rH O r b 4 B f m 4 C 4 w * Pn o A w P Pq F1 C CO CO C oco co u) uC U) tC o Co) Co Co C( Co c_z FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk S1 Sm Sn Mc (+) + + + +? + -? + - + + - - IF + + + + + + + + + -9 + + + + _ F F + + + + + 4 + + + + V F M F F F F - M - + + + + + (+) + + + -M R R + + 3 + + 2 F M + + + + + + - R? + + + + - +? + + + + + - + + + + + + + + F + F F + F F F F 4 F F M M + F F F F M M M M M + + + + + + + + +? + - + +? + + + + + + + + + - + - - -?- + + + + + -9- -9- +? +? - + V - - 4- + +? --- + + - + + + + + + F 3 F 3 F + + M M + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +i + + R + + + + + 295 I 1, 296 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS cn u C u co On co c /r cH c/ vC | FS FL S4 Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk 51 Sm Sn 1251. Twined vertical rods . 1252. Horizontal reinforcing rod 1253. Vertical reinforcing rod . . 1254. Bottom tip buckskin covered 1255. All buckskin covered .... 1256. Board, buckskin covered 1257. Hood . .............. 1258. Twiined basketry 1259. Pendants ... . . 1260. Hood design for child's sex 1261. Boy: diagonal lines .... 1262. Boy: zigzag line ...... 1263. Girl: diamond chain . 1264. Lashing for infant ........ 1265. Laced buckskin ....... 1266. Twined sage-bark blanket 1267. Rabbitskin blanket. 1268. Ground-hog blanket ..... 1269. Carried: cradle strap across breast *. 1270. Strap across forehead MUTILATIONS 1271. Ear lobe bored *....... 1272. One hole ....... 1273. Several holes .... 1274. With cactus needle 1275. With bone awl , . . . 1276. With wooden awl . . . 1277. When child ...... 1278. When youth ...... 1279. All males . 1280. Most males ...... 1281. Some males . 1282. All females ..... 1284. Some females ..... 1285. Men's ear ornament .*.... 1286. Bead on string ... 1287. Glass beads . . . . 1288. Shell pendant .... 1289. Stone pendant .... 1290. Wooden stick . . . . 1291. Bone tube ...... 1292. Bone rings . 1293. Feather on stick 1294. Flint ........ 1295. Women's ear ornament . . . 1296. Bone tube ...... 1297. Shell pendant . . . . 1298. Feather on stick 1299. Bone rings . . * 1300. Bead on strin*g . 1301. Nasal septum bored . 1302. Males ........ 1303. Females ....... 1304. Men's bone nose pin .. + + + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + F + + + + + ++ + + ++ + + +~~ + + + + F F ? + + ? + + + + + + +? + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + R + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + F FF + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -t + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + (+) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CULTURE ELEM. DlSTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI .H%3 FI -- .4-) t:o 0 $ :,. 0 4-1 1 4- * (f - I rb0 r4 rH b0 :J $:=I PQ 1-4 m:o I ID PQ _) CO CO co co J co CO ) c co Co Co co co) c Z | FS F SMSa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk S1 Sm Sn S MC Women's bone nose pin . . . Tattoo . . . . . . 1307. With cactus needle . * 1308. Pigment: wood charcoal 1309. Burned pihon shells . 1310. Pigment: gray. 1312. When youth or maiden 1313. Any time*. . . 1314. On face ....... 1315. On arms ......... 1316. On legs . . . . . . Head deformation . . . . . . . Read-shape correction. 1320. With hands at birth Nose correction ........ DRESS AND ADORNMENT 1322. Necklaces*. hell beads . .324. Shell disk .... L325. Olivella L326. Dentalium . . . rlass beads ....... nimal claws ...... .329. Bear ....... !330. Wildcat ...... nimal teeth .. )ewclaws . . . . hrned pine seeds . lone tubes ... . 335. Bird bones .... 336. Mammal bones . . 1337. Belts hikskin nimal fur . leads . . . . . . Ioofs * . . . . . lones . . . . . . . . Paint .pply dry pigment . .844. Over greased skins. ,845. Over saliva on skin Eix pigment with: marrow 347. Water ....... .pplied to: face . * . . .349. Face *as rouge . 350. Body ....... .351. Hair ....... Lpplied witb: fingers . . .353. Stick ....... Brush . . . . . . . . . . . . +- (+) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +? +? + +? + + + -? + +? - ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4-? + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + +- +- +- + + + + + + - _ + + + ?+ + + + + + + +? + + + + + + - + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- + + - + _ - + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 297 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + * R R R R 298 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS r14 co ~ p - |c | ^t|o |c P4 IL,^$ I I C= q~4 c Aa A D _ _ ,. r C / C)C3C / / c n l CO C n c OIn FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk 5) Sm S 1355. Applied after bad dream ... . . . . + 1356. Applied to prevent skin darkening in summer 1357. Pigments: black mineral . . . . . . .+ + + + + - + + - + + 1358. Black charjoal ....... . + - _ + _ + 1359. Black soot .... . . . . . . 1360. White mineral* ........ . + + + + + + + + + + + + + 1361. Red mineral .I I I ........I + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 1362. Blue mineral .. . + + .. - + + _ - + 1363. Yellow mineral* .-.... . + - - + + 1364. Green mineral. + + 1365. Galena * Hair Dressing 1366. Hairbrush: porcupiI4e tail.- - + - 1367. Grass bundle + 1368. Grass-root bundle ... . . . . 1369. Brush bundle. + 1370. Men: length to neck . . . . . .+ + - + 1371. Length past shoulders. . + ? + _ + + + + + + + + + t + 1372. Hangs loose . K . . . + + + _ + 1373. Coiled on head .. ...... . - (+) - 1374. Tied up on head .. + - + 1375. Bangs . _ _ _ _ _ _ + et 1377. Part middle . + + - + + + + + + + + + + + 1378. Braid each shoulder .+ - _ _ + + + + + + + + + + + 1379. Braid fur wrapped .... . . o + + + 1380. Women: length to neck . . . . + _ _ + 1381. Length past shoulder .'..'.... + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + 1382. Hangs loose .... . . . . _ + + + - + 1383. Tuck under basket hat ... . . (+) + _ + _ - + 1384. Tie back of neck .... . . + ? 1385. Part middle .+... . . . . . . + - + + + + + + + + + + + + 1386. Braid over each shoulder . . +? ? ? ? ? ?+ + + + + + + + + 1387. One braid (behind) . ......_ (+) + 1388. Bangs ............ . + + + + + + + - R - - _ + - _ 1389. Tie on top of head ... . . . ? + _ 1390. Hair adornment and ointment: white clay .. . . . . . . . . . . + 1391. Red paint ... . .. . . _ + _ _ + 1392. Red paint in part .... . - + + + _ 4 (-) - + - _ - + 1393. Marrow. - + - - +? +? - - + + - + + + 1394. Mud against lice ............_ 1396. Wash with plain water . + 1397. Wash with white clay + - - + - _ 1398. Cutting head hair: with stone . . _ _ _ - + + + + - + 1399. Singe off . . ; I ...... + + + + + + -? + 1400. Depilation: of beard . . . . . . . + + + + + + + ? + + + + + - + 1401. Of eyebrows .......... + + 1404. With fingernails . . + ? ? + + + +? + + + +? + Headgear 1406. Woman's basketry hat .+..... . . + + + + + + + + + + + + - - 1407. For carrying only .... . . . + + - _ _ 1408. Twined bark hat* . . . . . . . .s. + - CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI P4 t::, JL.H- 4-3 0 r-4 r | > 1< 1Mz $ e < 1 =; M ^ | > > ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ri W Cc rX4 Pr4 -4 4-) 4-P .H y c 0 ~ -P r4 bO -4' f I I I u u c I I e n I C V U FSFL M S Sb Sc Sdi Se Sf Sg S SiSj CSk US1 SC ) C()Z ___________________________________ ~~~~FS FSMSa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn So MC M. lAan's fur cap ......... 1410. Tanned buckskin. 1411. Fawn *......... 1412 . Antelope 1413. Mt. sheep lamb 1415. Muskrat. 1417. Wildcat ......... 1418. Coyote ......... 1419. Peaked 1420. With quail tufts .... 1421. With other feathers . . . 1422. With horns*. 3. Hair net ........... 1424. For dancing only . . 5. Fur eyeshade, held by string Band around head ....... 1427. Tanned buckskin. 1428. Cottontail fur 1429. Other fur>. 1430. Horse mane . . 1. Hairpin, wood ......... GARN4ENTS Robes and Capes Woven (twined) vegetable fiber Woven (twined) fur ........ Sewed hides, fur left on 1435. Deer ............ 1436. Wildcat ........... 1437. Badger .......... 1438. Ground hog ......... 1439. Coyote ........... 1440. Mt. sheep .......... Gloves or mittens ......... Hand muff of fur ......... Feather robes ........... Shirts and Dresses Women's long gown. 1445. Deerskins (number) 1446. Antelope skins (number) 1447. Mt. sheep skins (number) 1448. Knee length ......... 1449. Shin length ......... 1450. Skins, front and back .... 1451. Inset on sides ....... 1452. Poncho type *. . 1453. Sleeves elbow length .... 1455. Flaps over upper arms .... 1456. Sleeveless . Women's gown decorated with: paint. 1458. Tubular bone beads *..... 1459. Glass beads ......... 1460. Haliotis shell pendants . . . + + - - 1+ + + +? ? + + + +' + + + +S + + + + + ?9- +_ + + _ + + - + - + - + - + - + + + + + + _ - + + + + - 3+ + + - + + - +?7+ + + - + + + - + - + + + + + + + + + + _+ + + + + ++ + + + + +S + +? + + + 22 2 + 2 + + + + + 2+ 2+ 2+ + 2 + - + + + + + + + + + + _-+ ? + _ - + 299 +T +- +- + + + _ _ _ + +- + + + + + + + + + - + + + + 2 2 2 + + 2 2 2 + 3 + + + + + + I 1+ 2 2 +I + + + + V L "i ?w ?11 i - ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 1461. Men's shirt . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462. Deerskins (number) . . . . . 1463. Mt. sheep skins (number) . . 1464. Antelope skins (number) . . . 1465. Skins, front and back . . . . 1466. One skin, poncho style* 1467. Tied at neck 1468. Open front, tied thong 1469. Sleeves, elbow length . . . . 1470. Sleeves, wrist length . . . 1471. Sleeves, fringed . . . . . . 1472. Sleeveless . . . . . . . . . 1473. Painted . . . . . . . . . . . 1474. Bone-bead pendants . . . . . Skirts * 1475. One skin around waist . . . . . . . 1476. For women . . . . . . . . . . 1477. Of buckskin . . . . . . . . . 1478. Of mt. sheep skin . . . . . . 1479. Of mt. lion skin . . . . . . 1480. Fringed . . . . . . . . . . . 1481. Tho skins, sewed sides . . . . . . 1482. For women . . . . . . . . . . 1483. Knee length . . . . . . . . . 1484. Fringed. 1485. Of deerskin . . . . . . . . . 1486. Of mt. sheep skin . . . . . . 1487. Of antelope skin . 1488. Small front aprn . . . . . . . . . 1489. For women . . . . . . . . . . 1490. For men . . . . . . . . . . . 1491. Of skin . . . . . . . . . . . 1492. Fringed . . . . . . . . . . . 1493. Shredded bark . . . . . . . 1494. Braids or cord . . ; . . . 1495. Worn with back apron . . . . 1496. Worn under dress . . . . . . 1497. Large back apron . . . . . . . . . 1498. For women . . . . . . . . . . 1499. Of skin . . . . . . . . . . . 1500. Fringed.. . .*. . . . . . . . 1501. Shredded bark . . . . . . . . 1502. Braids or cord . . . . . . . 1503. Vegetable-fiber skirt . . . . . . . 1504. For women. 1505. Shredded bark, hanging loose. 1506. Twined bark a . . . . . . . . 1507. Grass, hanging loose . . . . 1508. Breecholout . . . . . . . . . . . 1509. For men . . . . . . . . . . . 1510. For women . . . . . . . . . . 1511. Buckskin . . . . . . . . . . 1512. Of fur . . . . . . . . . . . 1513. Of bark .. . . . . . . . . . 1514. Of woven vegetable fiber . . 1514a.Habitually nude . . . . . . . . . . P4 4-3 ~~~~~~~~~~0 t:.I PL4 1Z4 -4 4-3 4- -H - 0 0 .~rH P- r4 b I I4 - c %2 e Cz1 U I __;- CC CQ U) CO U) U)__ _ U) U) U) U) U) co X FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Si + + -? + -9 - - + + -? + + (+) + + + + -2 2? + + + + + 2 + + + + -(+) + + + + + + + + + + + +? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +? + + + + + + + + + + + _ _ - + (+) - + + + 2 2 2 2 + + -? I- +- 2 + + + 3 3 + + + + + + + + + + + + - ? + - + - + - + + _- + + + + + + + + + + + + + -r + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 2 + + 1 1 1 1 1 +? + +- + - + + + + -? + + + + + + ?+ + ?+ + + + + ++ + + - + + _ + _ + + + + +_ + + + + - 300 M M + + CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEMIARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 1515. Leggings . . . br men ........ _* 1or women .......... Skin, sevied flle .. . . .. . . 1521. Sage, twined *. 1522. Juniper ... ,Length: hip to an1Xle .... 1524. Hip to knee ...... 1525. Knee to ankle. Footgear habitually barefoot. KSkin moccasin, 2-piece 1528. Soft upper 1529. Harder sole ...... 1530. Badgerskin sole . i531. Sole flat ....... i1632. Sole molded to foot . . 533. Heel seam ....... 1534. Ankle flaps added . 01535. Ankle height ..... 536. Calf height. 1537. Knee height. 1538. Tongue added . Skin moccasin, 1-piece 1540. Seam outside of foot 1541. Seam inside of foot 1542. Seam up heel ..... '1543. Seam up toe ...... 1544. Toe puckered ..... '1545. Uppers added ..... 1546. Ankle height . 1547. Calf height . . . . . 1549. Hard sole added . :1550. Tongue added Skin moccasins of: deerskin 1552. Badgerskin . 1553. Ground-hog skin . 1554. Fur left on for winter 'Woven-bark moccasin. loccasin lining. 1557. Shredded bark 1558. Deer hair . . . 01559. Rabbit hide. 1560. Badger hair . .... Woven-bark overshoe .... Sandal 1563. Leather 1564. Bark . . . "Snowshoe 1566. C ircular shape . 1567. Oval shape . 1568. Tennis-racket shape -1569. Thongs of leather . rz.F4 -- - *U o 4-) r-Pr r - pq J M X e 9 o *H o H S > > > B X M -~~~~~~~~ro I x <: - U ) co P r- P b S r4 P'- I a a I m ua I :a m I ua P. u c) u) UC U) CQ U) co cn U) uc co U) U) rnU U z FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn So MC + + + + ++ + + + + + + + - - + ++ + + + + + + (+) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- + + + (+) (+) (+) + + + + + (+) (+' (+4) (+) (+) (+) +- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ?+ + + + ? w (+) (+) (+) + + + (+) (+-) + + + + + +? + + + + (+) (+) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + (+) + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + * + + + (+) (+) ? + - + +? + +- + + - -9 _ + + + + + + + + w + w + + + + + + + + + + w + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 301 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS CO ro $L4~~co r . ~ I~~~~ ~ ~~~ m II IIa$,E olX5 ! 4 _( CQ C( C/) CO c/ co C CO) C) CO Cl) U) cl CQ , | FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Sei Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn S 1570. Tnongs of sinew . . . . . . . 1571. Thongs of vegetable cord . . 1572. Thongs of avithes . . . . . . 1573. Thongs of sticks ...... 1574. Laced across ........ 1575. Laced lengthwise ...... 1576. Laced radially ....... Ceremonial Dress (See under Dances.) GAMES 1577. Ball Race*. * 1578. Race along course ......... 1579. And return . . . . . . . . . 1580. Line on ground as goal . . . 1581. Puck . 1582. Stuffed-skin ball. 1583. Approximate diameter (inches) * . . . . . . . . . 1585. Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . 1586. Foot ............ 1587. Bare foot. ........ 1588. Carrying puck permitted*. 1589. To win, get puck to goal. . . 1591. Number players on side ..... 1592. Number of sides . . . . . . . . . . 1594. Played by men only ........ 1595. Betting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596. Shinny *....... 1597. Field ............... 1598. Goal ............... 1599. At each end of field ... 1600. Paired posts . . . . . . . . 1601. Willow arch ......... 1602. Single post and hole ... 1604. Rock pile . . . . . . . . . . 1605. Sack ............ 1606 Line on ground (circle) 1607. Puck.c. 1608. Stuffed-skin ball. 1608a.Diameter in inches . . . . . 1609. Stuffed skin, dumbbell shape. 1610. Braided-skin cord . 1611. Braided-bark cord ...... 1612. Hide strip 1613. Puck in middle to start . 1614. On ground to start . . 1615. Throw in air to start . 1616. Propulsion straight stick . . 1617. Feet 1618. Number of goals to win ...... 1619. Carrying ball permitted ...... + + +- +- +- +- 4 + - _ _ _ + + + + - ?/ - -9- + + + + + + + + + 5 + M? + + + + + + + + + ++ + + M? - 1 + + + 1 - + + + + + 1- + + ? + + + + + (+) + + + + + + + + + + +? + I + + + + + + + + + + 2V SV 2 2 + + 2 2 + + + + + + + + 5v 2 + + 6 + + + + + 1+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + 1 + + + + + + + + + + + +? 1? + + + + + 302 l _ _ _ + - - _ + - l - + + + + ++ + + + + + 6 + + ++ ++ ++ ++ 4+ 8 + + +4t + + + + 2 2 +4+ +4t 12 8V 2 2 + + + + + +4t + + + t +4 +4+ MI + t 1 2 W - - 4 MI} WX W X M l I I R R f + + + + CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI O. Grappling permitted ....... 11. Referee .............. 2. Betting .............. 8. Played by men ........... 4. Played by vvomen .......... 5. Number players each side ... 1626. Hoop and Pole ... 07. Hoop ............... 1628. Of twigs .......... . 1629. Wrapped bark ........ 1630. Buckskin covered 1632. Diameter (inches) . I, Pole, plain ............ 1634. Length (feet) . . . . I. Course .............. 1636. Pile of horizontal willows 1638. At both ends ........ I, Play: bound ring from willows . . . 1640. Sides cast simultaneously 1641. Sides cast successively . . . t 1642. Pole through hoop counts . . . 1643. Pole under hoop counts . . . 1644. Pole over hoop counts . 1645. Play for counters ...... r 1646. Points to win ........ 1647. Win by elimination ... 1. Number players each side ... I. Played by men . . . Referee ............. Betting .............. 1653. Ring and Pin ..... Number of pins .......... Number of strings ....... Ring of: rabbit skull ...... 1657. Pine cone .......... 1658. Brush ball 1659. Barrel cactus. 1660. Cane, one hole . Played by: men .......... 1662. Women ....... . 1663. Children .......... 1664. Old men ........... Playing in summer taboo ...... 1666. Hand Game * "Sticks": hollow bone ...... 1668. BitaRered, solid bone 1669. Wood 1670. With finger looqs ..... 1671. String of beads ...... Play with: two sticks. 1673. Four sticks. 1674. Eight sticks *. . 1675. 1 of each pair wrapped S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P |I A t!| .m- 43| JI3Mg ; 1 p.4 i I B I I I I I I I I I I I I P4 cf OU OC2C CO cf)U t)~ cfz cf f) cl FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn So MC + 6 + + + +5 7 + 2 1 1 3 1+ + ? + + + (+i) ? + + + + + 1 ++ +1 - + + _ + _ + -1 ? - 10 V + + + + + + - + + + 6 + + + 8 10 + + + + 2 1 0 3 1+ 5? 1 1 5 1+ + 3 1 1 3 2+ + + _ + +- 5 7 + + + + I? + + 64 9 - 19 *i 1 ? 5 1 + + + + + 1 1 - + - + - + - + - + - + 1 1 + + + + V + + + V 4+ + + +? 1? I? 5 + - + -1 -1 - + - + + + + + + 1+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +? +? + R + + + + + + +J + 4 -? - tB 1t - + + - + + _ + + - ? ?- ? ?- 99- ? ? ? ?- * - + 1 +. + 1 + 1 + + + + (+) + + W? +? + + + - +? + + + + +- + + 5 5+ 7+ M + 4 8+ V _ _ - + _ _ - + _ _ - + _ _ - 12 _ _ _ + _ _ _ + _ _ _ + -? + - 1 - 1 - + M M + + + V + + 12 + 6 + + V + - + - - 9 - 9 - 9 - + + + + + + + W + + + + + + + + + + + + + + V + + + 303 I r ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS i6(b. Giuess for unwrapped 1677. Hide in bare hand .... . 1678. Guesses indicated by palm. 1679. By motion ........ 1680. Only true guess vocalized . . . 1681. Side holding sticks sings . . . 1682. Counters: plain, straight twigs 1683. Number 1684. In neutral pile at start 1685. Divided at start .... 1686. Called "cooked" and "raw" 1687. Played by men. 1688. Played by women ........ 1689. Betting ........... 1690. Sing while play ........ * 1691. 4-Stick Guessing Game 1692. Sticks of wood .......... 1693. 4 sticks . . . . . . . . . 1694. 2 long or thin ....... 1695. 2 short or thick ...... 1696. Same as hand-game sticks 1697. Cover with winnowing basket . 1698. With basketry bowl 1699. Guess for: long . . . . . . . . . 1700. Short ............ 1701. Thick ............ 1702. Unwrapped... ........ 1703. Position guessed indicated as in hand game. .. ....... 1705. Plain t*wigs ......... 1706. Number . . . . . . . . . . . 1707. In neutral pile to start . . 1708. Divided at start ...... 1709. Called 'cooked" and "raw" 1710. Played by men ........... 1711. Played by women .... * ..... 1712. Number players each side ... 1713. Sing while play .......... 1714. 4-Stick Dice ..... 1715. Dice, length in inches . . . . 1716. All red on one jide. 1717. 2 marked on end . 1718. 2 marked in middle ..... 1719. 2 plain ........... 1720. 1 with cross in middle 1721. 1 with Rarallel lines . 1722. Called mother," "father" 1723. "Little ones". 1724. Play throw on winnowing basket 1725. Strike on rock ....... 1726. Counters, number . . . . . . . 1727. Divide to begin ....... 1728. Neutral pile to begin .... 1729. Mark on ground .......... a) z4 | ^td P- r |>2Si 4-> -> 14 . -P ,. 0 b ,4~Z4~O 'I O - m i. e 4 XX ) r4 DO X ) g ~ ~ i i Ai X I Igag ,, , ,, Co zCO c CQ) C/) c o CO CO COv CQ C) FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn + + + + + + + + ? + 10 ? ++ ++ + + + + + + 1+ 1+ + + + + + + + 10 + + + + + + + + 10 10 + + + + + + + + + + + + + 14 + + + 10 I+ + + +? +? + + + + 24 +I + + + + + + + + 10 10 + + + 10 + V -? - _l -? -? 8 + 8 + + + + + + 6+ - +- + +0 + + (+) + + + 12 + + + + 12 + + + 14 + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + - + + - 10 12 12 - _ (+) _- + + + _ + + + - + 8 + + + 6 6 + +- + + 6 + + + + + + 5+ ? -? I + + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + + .2 12 12 12 1 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -+ + - + + -+ + _ _ + + _ - + + + - + - + + + + _ + - _ _ + _ + - .+ + + + + + + + ++ + + 12 ? + + + V + + 6 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +5+ + + 304 1 I CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI .a | w | A [ M X e 9 ;1 *$ ; ^ X l; to | X n %:: 4 -, Cd < PC4 ZC4 -4 0 r-P *4 4 -4 b-i r~~~~~~~~~ A t )p z~ X X X I A I co I CO I PA COI IP4 ., Z Uz m ul m u/ CO u() U) U) U) CU) cn coQ u u uz FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Sl Sm Sn S MC 1730. Number marks to win . . . Scoring .......... . Played by men ........ l. Played by women ....... 1734. Many Dice or Basket Dice . Dice of wood* ........... 1736. Square . . . 1737. Oval ............ 1738. One side red ........ 1739. Length (inches). 1740. Number . . Throw on winnowing basket . Scoring: all white up counts . 1743. All white up wins game . 1744. 1 red up counts ....... 1745. 2 reds up counts ...... 1746. 3 reds up counts . 1747. 4 reds up counts ...... 1748. 5 reds up counts 1749. 6 reds up counts ...... 1750. 7 reds up counts . 1751. 8 reds up counts ...... 1752. 9 reds up counts ...... 1753. 10 reds up counts ...... 1754. 11 reds up*counts ...... 1755. 12 reds up*counts . . 1757. All red up counts ..... Counting: pebbles as counters . . . 1759. Marks on ground ....... 1760. Pebble pile = 5 marks .... 1761. Earth pile = 5 marks .... 1762. Number to win ........ Played by women ......... Played by men . . . . . 1765. 8-Stick Dice . Dice of split cane 1767. Split hardwood 1767a.Length in inches ...... 1768. Peach stone. 1769. One side red . . . . . . . 1770. One side black . 1771. Number of dice . . . . Casting: twirl in air ....... 1773. Knock from knee ....... 1774. Knock from hand ....... 1775. Bounce end on ground .... 1776. Bounce end on rock ..... Scoring: all white up counts . . . 1778. 1 red up counts ....... 1779. 2 reds up counts ...... 1780. 3 reds up counts ...... 1781. 4 reds up counts ...... 1782. 5 reds up counts ...... 1783. 6 reds up counts ...... + -? -i -i -? -? ? + 10 8 + 16 7 6 5 4 3 2 8 ? + + + + + + + + 13 + 15 12 10 10 5 5 0 ? O 1 0 1 0 0 5 10 30 + + + 15 + + + + + + 25 + + + + + + + + 8 8 8 ? 8 w + 16 7 6 5 4 3 2 16 16 7 14 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 ? 16 7 6 5 4 3 2 - + + + + + + + + + 4 + + + + ? + 2 12 + 10 5 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 5 10 + + + 25 + + 12 ? + + 2 ll 8 10 30 + + + 8 + 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 8? 1 2 + - + 7?? + + + + ? + + - + + + + + 8 16 14 6 5 4 3 2 8 M w 8 + + 16 7 6 5 4 3 2 ? 8 ? ? 16 2 3 4 5 4 3 10 (+) _- + + + + R + + + + + 8 8 + + + + 10 + + + + + + + + 16 16 16 16 16 14 14 14 14 14 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 55 4 4 4 44 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 +1 + 16 14 6 5 4 3 2 + 8 I 61- -t a p 0 305 A m M ^ e 9 ~~~-4 o SL4 r O. X `50 AB 306 ANTHROPOLOGI~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CAL RECORDS :1 W O 0 U I L4 I I I I I., a ) CFS U) CO lS) Sb CO CO S| CO CO o o S mnS FS_FL Sj Sa Sb Se Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si SijSk Si Sm Sn St 1784. 7 reds up counts . 1785. 8 reds up counts . . 1786. Counting: move counters between sticks in ground . * 1787. Sticks arranged in arc . 1788. Number of spaces ....... 1789. Number of moving counters . 1790. Go back when meet opponent . 1791. Played by men ........... 1792. Played by women .......... 1793. Betting .............. Archery 1794. Target ............... 1795. Arrow previously shot . 1796. Arrow previously thrown 1797. Stick .. . 1798. Brush bundle. 1799. Willow shavings 1800. Approximate distance (feet) 1801. Shoot arrow ............ 1802. Over tree at target 1803. Throw long arrow ....... 1804. Number shot, each player . . . 1805. Scoring: nearest to target caunts 1806. Touching target counts .. 1807. Number points to win ........ 1808. Played by men *........... 1809. Played by boys ........... 1810. Arrows thrown for distance. 1811. Ring and Dart .... 1812. Ring of willow .......... 1813. Netted with vegetable string. 1814. Diameter (inches). . . . . . . 1815. Dart with feather ......... 1816. Length (inches) . . . . . . 1817. Catch dart in ring ......... 1818. One point each catch. 1819. Number points to win. 1820. Played by men ........... 1821. Played by children ......... 1822. Quoits . . . . . . . 1823. Target: stick . . . . . . . . . . . 1824. Rock ............. 1825. Qaoit: rock . . . . . . . . . . . 1826. Rounded rock ......... 1827. Number throws each player ..... 1828. Scoring: nearest goal counts .... 1829. To hit goal counts ...... 1830. Snow Snake ...... 1831. Stick bounced off ......... 1832. Snow on ground ........ 16 32 2 + +0 + + + 50 + 2 1 6 ? + 12 1 + ? 2 + + 1 1 1 16 16 16 + + + + + 32 24 32 2 2 2 + + + + + + + + + + + 50 10 + + 2 1 1 1 16 16 16 32 40 2 2 + + + + + + +? -+? + + 1 5 - + + + 25 2 + + + + 2 1 2 5 + 36: 2 + + +* 2 11 1 16 1 16 16 16 16 16 16 10 2 + + + + + V 2 + + 4. 2 + ?I ? ? ? ? ?I ? ? ? ? ? ? + + + + + + + + + + + ? 60 2 + + + 5 + 10 5 36 2 + + + + + + 42 60 68 222 + + + + + +- + + + + + A + + + B - A ? 2 1 1 1 2 * 2 5 4 4 A B B A 2 1 5 5 + _-_ 4 + 4+ + + + 4 + 4 + + + + 4 + 4 + 5 + ? +? ? + - 1 - 1 - + + +- I I 306 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 4 -4- .r y j O rH P4 bLO * I t 2 I ''~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:I M X4 co | X CO i 14 U) I I I I I P-4 iri c( c( CO FSCO) FL cf) CO Sb a) co co co S ____________________________________ _____ SMS F Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn So MC 1834. Brush pile, snow capped IP. Throw at snow pile . . . . . 1836. Through air . . . . . . 7. Played by children only . . . 1838. Juggling . . . . 9. Objects juggled: stones ...... 1840. Wild gourds ., ....... 1841. Maximum number ....... g . Played by women ..... . . Played by girls .......... 4. Played while walking ....... 1845. Foot Race. ..... 16. Cross country . . . . . . . . 1847. Wrestling * 1848. Shot Putting. 9. With rock ............. 0. Played by men ........... ;1. Played by boys . 1852. Stilts a8. Used by boys .......... 1855. Jacks ....... 6. Jacks (number) .......... 1857. Stones . . . . . . . 18. Used by girls only ....... 1859. Tops . 5O. Top: stick with pitch ....... 1861. Rounded rock .. * ..... 2. Spin: twirl with fingers *.. . 1863. Twirl with string . .... . 1864. Lash with whip ....... 1865. Spin on ice . . . 6. Played by boys ... ;7. Played by girls .......... 1868. Sling 39. As toy only. 1870. Bull-roarer ..... n. Whirrer of wood ..... 1872. Of sheep horn ........ .Used as toy. ... 4. Used to make wind blow . . . 1875. Cat's Cradles . Toes used .. ........ .. + + + 1+ + + + + + 3 3 + I + + + + + + + + + + + + +? + + 3 + ? + + + + 8 9 9 9 9 + + + 10 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +_ + + + ? + + + + + + 1+ + +? R? + + + + + + _ - + _ + + + + + + + + _ + + 2+ ? + + + I + + + + + ? ? + R V + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ - + - + + + + + + + + ? + + +' + + + R + + + + + + + + + 3 4 3 + 2 + + + + - - + + - _ + + - - + -(?) _+ + + R _ _ + + _ - + + + + + + + _- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ + + + + +- + + + + + + + + + + + + 307 + + + + + + 1+ I + + + + + + ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS x x <: G G *H G4 X o P4 r A tL S: A Or7C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ XT _1 1 _ * 1 1i (1. Neck used . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1878. Static figures . . . . . . . . . . 1879. Moving figures . . . . . . . . . . 1880. Played by men . . . . . . . . . . . 1881. Played by women . . . . . . . . . . 1882. Played by children . . . . . . . . 1883. Dolls . . . . . . . 1884. Unbaked clay effigies . . . . . . . 1885. Toy cradles . . . . . . . . . . . . 1886. Water Pistol. 1887. p . . . . . . 1888. MONEY* .. . . . . 1889. Beads: shell disk . . . . . . . . . 1890. Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . 1891. Measure around hand . . . . . . . . 1892. On thumb . . . . . . . . . . 1893. Hand to elbow . . . . . . . . 1894. TOBACCO AND SMOKING 1895. Pipe. 1895a. Tubular bowl C I 1896. Of stone . . . . 1897. Of horn or bone ....... 1899. Of pottery ......... 1900. Convex sides 1901. With stem. 1902. L-shaped bowl. 1903. Of stone 1904. With stem .......... 1905. Monitor, of stone 1906. Stem of: wood ........... 1907. Cane ............ 1908. Elderberry ......... 1909. Rosewood . 1910. Pipe smoked by men ........ 1911. Primarily old men. 1912. By women .*............ 1913. Pipe passed ............ Cigarette 1914. Cane, tobacco filled . . * 1915. Elderberry, tobacco filled .. 1916. Chewing. 1917. Mixed with: burned rock 1918. Wood*ashes 1919. Lime ............ 1920. Primarily women chew ....... + + + + + + + + + + + + +I + + +1+ + + + + + + +' + + + + + + + + + + + +? + + + + _ ? ? ? ? I +1 + + + + + + + + + + + + +? + + + + + + + + + + + + R? - +- + + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + _ + ?~~ + + + - + - + + + + + -? - + + + + 9 9 * . 9 + + + + + + + + +? + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ + + + + - + + + + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + ? ? ++- ? ? ? ? + + + + + + + + + + R + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ + - + + 308 Ii I I i 7 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 4--) 4J -r- - c -4- P4 0- F 4= C/3 ~~rH w ) w w P.U I I I I I I I I I I I I - _ z co c cn co u cn cn co cn cococ z;2 FS F SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Sel Sf Sg Sh Si Sj' Sk Si SmSn S- MC ___________ __-_____ _____ Smoking, Miscellaneous Any time ............. Bedtime Bedtime .. . . . . . . ..... Occasional only . At gatherings, etc. By shamans ............ As offering ........... 1927. To spirit ......... 1928. To ghost ......... Tobacco Gathered wild ... ;, ...... Dry and thresh leaves ..... Mixed with other plant: . . .. . 1932. Leaf of buhu ........ 1933. Leaf of dumayu ( kinikinii) 1934. Leaf of naicutumayu . 1935. Root of tazap for colds 1936. Artemisia bark .. .. 1937. Other bark ......... 1938. Suguwiuv. 1939. Arambi ........... Grind on metate ......... )ake into balls ... Keep in: buckskin pouch . 1943. Fur pouch ......... MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Rattle Cocoon . . 1945. Attached to stick . . . 1946. Attached to arm ...... 1947. Used by shaman . . . 1948. Used dancing *. 1949. Used sweat-house singing Split stick 1951. One split ......... 1952. Used exhibition" or "south" dance . . Sheephorn 1954. On stick .......... Rawhide . . . . . . . . . . 1956. Used bT shaman ....... Rabbit's ear ........... 1958. Used by shaman ....... 1959. Used by women in hand game . Deer's ear . . . . . 1961. Used by women in hand game Deer's testicle on stick. Wood-rat fur ..... Gourd .. ] ........... Hoof rattle ........... 1966. Antelope hoofs ....... 1967. Mt.-sheep hoofs ...... 309 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ +_ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + - + + + + + + + +- + + + +I + + + +?I+ + + + + + + + + 1+ + 1+ + + + -? ? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +?1+ + - + - + - + + + + + + + + ? R + +- + + - + _ + + + + ? + -?I + + + + + + + + + - + - +- +- +- + - - + + + + -? + + + + I -r I U C) 4 f Cx | C/F U U) C/) b) CO S f ) CO U)_h co co co cm Sn SC FS_F4 SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se- Sf SgShSi SjJ Sk 51 Sm Sn Sc 1968. Deer hoofs . . . . . . . . . 1969. Number of hoofs . . . . . . . 1970. Hoofs in bunch . . . . . . . . 1971. Hoofs in line . . . . . . . . 1972. Used by shaman . . . . . . . . 1973. Notched stick . . . . . . . . . . . 1974. Plain, notched . . . . . . . . 1975. Ornamented, notched . . . . . 1976. Rub with stick . . . . . . . . 1977. On stuffed hide "resonator 1978. Used by antelope shaman . . . 1979. Used in "bear dance"?. 1980. Used for amusement . . . . . . Buzzer 1981. Hoofs twirled on string . 1982. Deer patella twirled on string 1983. Buckskin twirled on string . (Bull-roarer, see elements 1870 ff.) 1985. Drum . . . . . . . 1986. 2-headed drum . . . . . . . . . . . 1987. Body of willow rings . . . . . 1988. 1-headed drum, or tambourine . . 1989. Body of wood . . . . . . . . . 1990. Diameter (inches) . . . . . . 1991. Depth (inches) . . . . . . . . 1992. Drumstick, simple . . . . . . . . . 1993. Fur on end . . . . . . . . . . 1994. Musical Bow . . . . . 1995. Archer's bow used . . . . . . . . . 1996. Held in teeth . . . . . . . . . . . 1997. Plucked with fingers . . . . . . . . 1998. Rubbed with stick . . . . . . . . . 1999. Used by antelope shaman . . . . . . 2000. As toy . . . . . . . . . . . . 2001. Whistle 2002. Bone, number ot holes . 2003. Willow, as toy . . . . . . . . .. . 2004. Flute . . 2005. Material, elderberry . . . . . . . . 2006. Willow ............ 2007. Bone . . v . . . . . . . . . . 2008. Length (inches) . . . . . . . . . . 2009. Pitch stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2010. Number of holes . . . . . . . . . . 2011. End blown . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2012. End cut diagonally . . . . . . 2013. Mouth blown . . . . . . . . . . . . 2014. Used for casual music . . . . . . . + + +I+ + + 18 + + 3+ + - + R _ - + _ _ + _ - + _ - + _ - + -9 + +? _ + - + _ + + + + + + + + + 15 4 4 4? 4 + + + + + + + + -? ? 8+ - R RR + + + R + + + + + + + + + + + _ _ - + + + + + + +? - + - + + 2 - + - + + + + + + + + 4 4? 4 2 + + + + + + + -+ 4 + + ++ + R + R + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + _- - + _- - + - - 10 - -- - + - - + - -9 + + + + + + + + + +: + + 24 18 18 21 18~ 4 3+ 6 6 6 + + + +2 + + + +; +- I I 310 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS _ _ + CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI =- . 4 H rX4 -cg 4-CQ4CI U)-U U) Cl)j bLC()U)4l) pq S M S e 9 co P o w CO >= M 1 CO_ / cn c o co cozuzu co co co c cn uz co co co u Z FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn So MC _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1 2015. As toy .... 2016. Courting 2017. By shaman . . MARRIAGE 8. Bride price ............ 2019. As present .......... 2020. Reciprocal present ...... 1. Bride service (months)*. 2. Marriage by abduction ....... 3. Another 's wife won by fight . 2024. Friends assist . t5. Polygyny permitted ......... 7. Polyandry permitted ........ 2028. Fraternal necessary '9. Sororate .............. 2030. Required ........... 11. Levirate .............. 2032. Required ........... ?. Choice of mates: any blood relative taboo . . . . 2034. Father's sister's daughter preferred . 2035. Father's sister's step- daughter preferred. 2036. Mother's brother's step- daughter preferred ..... . Child betrothal .... 8 Post-marital residence: patrilocal V 2039. Matrilocal .......... 2040. Variable. . Adultery: vvife sometimes beaten . F 2042. Wife sometimes killed . 2043. Wife sometimes rubbed with blood 2044. Paramour beaten 2045. Paramour's horse killed 2046. Husband sometimes divoried Divorce may be for: sterility . . . 2048. Infidelity .......... 2049. Incompatibility ....... Prostitution. Premarital intercourse: with be- trothed only ........... 2052. Girl's mother paid ...... KINSHIP RELATIONS Avoidances Mother-in-law son-in-law. 2055. Address as plural person . . . 2056. "Respect" required ...... 2057. Passing in front of taboo . . 2058. Continues for life ...... + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + - (+) + + + + + + + + + + (+) (+) +~ + 1+ + + + + + + + + + + + -? + + + -+ -?9 + + + - + + (+) + I? ? + + + + + + + + -7 -? -? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ + _ + + + + + + + + + -? -? -? -? -?I- - -9 -9 -9 -9 -? +? (+) + + + + + + + ++ + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + (+) + (+ - + + 12 + + - + - +- + + (+) + + (+) + + + + + + (+) + + + + + + + + + 12 + + + (+) + + + + + ? + + 311 + + - - _. + + + + i+ + + + + + + + R + R t - +? 312 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS P- M cd r- !t Id Al F- rm P. X|- |FS FL SM Sa Sb So Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj|Sk S1 Sm SD 2059. Mother-in-law daughter-in-law . . + +? 2061. Address as plural person . + +? 2062. "Respect" required . + + 2064. Restraint required . . . . . + + 2065. Continues for life . . . . . + + 2066. Father-in-law daughter-in-law . . + + ??? - 2068. Address as plural person . + +? 2069. "Respect" required . . . . . + +? 2071. Restraint required . ++ 2072. Continues for life . + +? 2073. Father-in-law son-in-law . + +? 2075. Address as plural person . + +? 2076. "Respect" required . + + 2078. Restraint required . . . . . + +? 2079. Continues for life . . . . + + 2081. Brother and sister avoid obscenity . . . . . . . . . + + + ? Joking Relations 2084. Brothers-in-law . . . . . . . . . . + 2085. Play jokes . . . . . . . . . 2086. Aid each other . . . . . . . 2087. Cousins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + + Adoption 2088. Of orphan . . . . . . . . . . . . . + + + + 2089. When parents impoverished . . . . . + BERDACBES OR TRANSVESTITES 2090. Male . . . . . . . + . . . . . . . + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + 2091. Wears woman's dress . . . . + _ + + + + + - + - + - - 2092. Does woman's work . . . . . . + + + + + + + + + _ + + + 2093. Has female organs . . . . . . ? + + 2094. Marriage to man . . . . . . . + 2095. Lives with man . . . . .. . + 2096. Is shaman . . . . . . . . + 2098. Regarded disapprovingly . . + + 2099. Regarded indifferently .. + + + + 2100. Female . . . . - . . . . . + + + + + 2101. Wears man's dress . . + ??? + _ _ + _ 2102. Does man's work . . . . . . . ? + - ? + - 2104. Marriage to woman . . . . . . + ? 2110. Fire test in youth . . . . . . . . + DIVISION OF LABOR (M, men; W, women; +, both) 2111. General seed gathering . . . . . . W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W 2112. Pine-nut gathering . . . . . . . . + + W + + + + + + + + + + - - 2113. Knocking down . . . . . . . . + + + M M M M M M M M M - - 2114. Picking up . . . . . . . . . W W + W W W W W W W + W 2115. Transporting . . . . . . . . + + + W + + + + + W + + W - - CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 2116. Preparing. . Cooking ........ . Carrying water ....... 2119. Near camp ....... 2120. Long distance . . . . . Fire tending: gathering wood Hunting............ . Fishing ..........O * Gathering: larvae ...... 2125. Grubs. 2126. Grasshoppers "I Rats and mice catching* * Lizard catching ....... * Pine nuts from mt. cache M Manufacturing: house .... 2131. Baskets . . . 2132. Skin preparat ions 2133. Clothing *....... 2134. Moccasirs . . . . 2135. Potte r. 2136. Metate . 2137. Skin blanket . . . 2138. Cord ......... 2139. Weaving ........ 2140. Rabbit net . . . POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Political Group Sovereign body is localized band 2142. Village ........... Temporary large organization for: annual dance . . . . . . . 2144. Rabbit drive ........ 2145. Antelope drive ....... 2146. Fishing. .......... 2147. Mud-hen (or duck) drive . . . 2148. Pine-nut trip ........ Chief Band chief 2150. Patrilineal succession -2151. Comnunity aVproval required ~Chief's assistant ......... 'Chief's announicer *. . . Chief's messenger ...* . 5pecial chief for dance ...... 2156. Rabbit drive ........ 02157. Antelope drive . . . 2158. Mud-hen (or duck) drive . . . 2159. Fishing ........... 160. Hunting generally ...... 161. Pine-nut trip ........ 'llage chief ........... ader in ill-defined region . . . 2164. Patrilineal succession . I m 1--' 1 0 r -4H l XBC III IIII I I C z~I I I I- cn u( CQ UO c/) U) CQ) c cl co) CoU) CQ cc) cn co Z FS FL SM|Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh SiSj Sk S1 Sm SnS MC W W W + + MM M W W W + + WW M M M + + + + + + + + + + + + + + W W + M M M W W W + + *+ + + W M + + + + W M M M M M M W + W + M+ M M M M M M + + + MM + W'W W M M + M M W M M + + W M M W M M M M W W W M W M M M M M + + + + + + + (+) _ +? + + + + + + + + + ++ + + - - + - + + + + w W + W w M M M M + + + + M M M M W M + W W W + + W + M M M W M M M W M M M W M M W M + + M + w M + W W w M W W + W + + M M W W W M M M M w + + + W M + M W M W M M W M + + M W M + + + + + + + + + + R + + + + + + () - 9+ + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + W W - - - _ w w W W w w + M M W W M + W M + + M + M M M M + W + W M W W + W + M M W M M M W M W M M M + W + + W + M - (+) - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + W M M W M + W + W + W W M M M M M M M W M m m + + +I+ + (+) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -+ (+) + +. + + + + + + (+) IR + 313 . 0 0 0 0 * + ?1 (+) I(+) - 46 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS -~~ :' I x 1 X ~~I I I I I X I __ __ _ _ _ c_ C_ co _ _ _ cF Sn Si Sk So SmSn FS F S Sa Sb Se Sdc Sej Sf S g Sh Si SI Sk S1 Sm Sn' PROPERTY 2165. Land: band owned hunting territory 2166. Band owned pine-nut territory 2167. Band owned fishing streams . 2168. Disputes settled by fight . 2169. Family owned seed plots . . 2170. Family owned fishing place . 2170a.Family owned plots of planted wild seeds . . . . . . . . . 2171. Chattels: all privately owned . . . 2172. All destroyed at death . . . . 2173. Eagle aeries privately owned . . . 2173a.Doctor's songs privately owned . . . WARFARE 2174. Raids only . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2175. Rare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2177. Captives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIRTH CUSTOMS 2178. Special house for c1ildbirth . . . . 2179. Like dwelling . .*. . . . . . 2180. Domed willow house . . . . . . 2181. Number of days confined* 2182. Ground warmed . . . . . . . . 2183. Ground covered grass, bark 2184. Hot stones . . . . . . 2185. Warmed pit, number days 2186. Husband gets firewood . 2187. Delivery: mother kneels . . . . . . 2188. Lies flat . . . . . . . . . . 2189. Holds to stake . . . . . . . . 2190. Is lifted . . . . . . 2191. Ties strap around waist 2192. Is shaken . . . . . . . . . . 2193. Drinks hot water . . . . . . . 2194. Midwife usually is: husband . *. 2195. Person with special power .. 2196. Any woman . . . . . . . . . . 2197. Any female relative . . . . . 2198. Strong man . . . . . . . . . . 2199. Grandmother . . . . . . . . . 2200. Midwife in difficult case is: person with special power . . . . . . . . 2201. Man to frighten baby out . . . 2202. Man to squeeze*or shake . 2203. Afterbirth is buried. 2204. Wrapped in bark . . . . . . . 2205. Thrown in brush ....... 2206. Thrown away .. . 2207. Mother bathed after birth*. 2208. Treatment of mother (no. days) . . . 2209. Has nurse or attendant + (+) + + (+) + + + + 5 5 9 5 5 + + + + + + + 5+ + + + 5+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 5 5 5 5 30 30 + + + + 30 + + + + + - _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + 314 (+) (+) + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 30 30 30 + + + 30 30 + + + 30 30 + + + _ + + 5 90 + + 5 90 + + + + - + - + 30 + 5 + + + ? 30 + + _ + +- W + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + I_ - CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI P-4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- rA brd C b- ri .4P4 -,,A CC) . 4 - 4 3 I ir IE I *- Pa a- aL a, a I P. Cl) C) Cl Cl) Cl) Cl lCl l c o)l Cl Cl C) C) Z I~~~~~~~~ x 1 < 1 1 e 1 1 X 1 X 1 co co co co co cn co co cO co co Co co co u m_ PSFL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk S1 Sm Sn S MC _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2210. Drinks warm water. 2211. Meat and grease taboo . 2212. Salt taboo ......... 2213. Work taboo . . . . . . 2214. Uses scratching stick .... Mother, at end of confinement bathes . . . . . . 2216. Paints self 2217. Gives away old. clothes 2218. Burns old clothes ...... 2219. Throws away old clothes . . . 2220. Leaves old clothes on tree Treatment of infant: bathed when * born . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2222. Steamed when born. 2223. Stroked with eagle feathers. 2224. Bathed every morning . Umbilical cord cut with stone knife 2226. Cut with sharp cane. 2227. Tied with string .... ,2228. Tied with antelope sinew . . Umbilical cord, disposal: removed (number of days). 2230. Placed on cradle ...... 2231. Placed in rat hole 2232. Placed in antelope wallow 2233. Placed in red-ant nest . 2234. Placed in rock cranny . 2235. Placed in tree 2236. Placed in deer trail . 2237. Buried in birth house .... 2238. Buried shady side of sage Cradle, days until given 1st cradle . . . 2240. 2d cradle .. 2241. 2d, when 1st outgrown . 2242. 3d, when 2d outgrown . . . . Cradle made by maternal grandmother 2244. Paternal grandmother . 2245. Any woman . . . . . .*. Treatment of father: bathed . . 2247. Hot bath at birth 2248. Cold bath at birth 2249. Bathed by another man ... 2250. Runs after bath. 2251. Confined in birth house, days ......... . . 2252. Confined in separate house 'Father may not drink cold water (days)* . . . . . . . . . . . 2254. Eat meat and*grease (days) V2256. Smoke (days)* . ~2257. Gamble (days) . 2258. Take sweat bath*(days) . . . lather must run daily ....... 2260. Number of days ....... 2261. Twice daily ......... 2262. Any direction ........ 30 10 6 5 5 5 30 30 30 10 6 30 30 30 30 30 6 1- ? 10 6 1? 5 5 6 5 + + + + + + + + + 44 + + - + + - 11 55 + + + + + 5 5, 10 6 6 30 6 + 5 + 5 5 5 5 5 + 5 + + + + + + 5 5 30 + 5 30 30 + + + + + + + + + ? + + ? ? + -I 5 + + + + 1 1 1 5 30 10 30 + + + + + 30 30 30 90 5 30 30 60 90 30 30 ? - - - 5 30 30 5 30 30 30 5 90 5 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + _ 6 + + + 1114 30 + + + + + + 3 30 3 30 5 + + 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5? 5 5 5 5I + + + + + + 5 5 + + + 30 30 30 90 30 30 30 30 90 30 30 30 - - 30 30 30 90 ? + + + + + + + + +- - + + ? + + + + + 5+ + + 7 -? + +? + + + + 1 30 1 3 14 20 90 2 5 90 14 30 30 30 + 30 + + 5 + + + + + + 5 5 5 30 5 30 5 - 5 30 + + 5 30 5 5 + 5 55 55 5 5? - + + 5 5 + + + + + + 6 6 ? I? 6 + (+) 5 5 + 5 - + + + + (+) + + +- +s 5 5 5 ?+ 5 5 5 + 5 + + + 5 5? 5 25 25 I? + + + + + +5 + + 25 315 - -?I Iz 1z PQ GQ C) :l Cm c C) ) C( C u / Cn 0) | FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se| Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn 2263. In morning . * . . . . . . . 2264. East in morning . . . . . . . 2265. West in evening . . . . . . . 2266. Clockwise around camp . . . . 2267. Bring back firewood . . . . . 2268. Father must also use scratching stick (days) 2269. Bathe (days) . . . . . . . . 2270. Do housework . . . . . . . . 2271. Father, at end of observances, gets new clothes . . . . . . . . 2272. Gives away old clothes . . . 2273. Throws*away old clothes . . . 2274. Bathes . . . . . . . . . . . 2275. Paints self red . . . . . . . 2276. Hunts . . . 2277. Gives away first kill . 2278. Father's requirements observed at all births . . . . . . . . . . . 2280. First of each sex only . . 2281. Parents' sex restrictions (days) Twins 2282. Feared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2283. Regarded as good luck . . . . . . . 2284. One killed . . . . . . . . . . . . 2285. Death of one brings death of other . 2286. Mother'*s sister adopts one . Infanticide 2287. Of deformed *. 2288. Of unwanted . . . . . . . . . . . . 2289. Of illegitimate . . . . . . . . . . 2290. Killed by sitting on . . . . . . . 2291. Putting in badger hole . . . 2292. Leaving outdoors . . . . . . 2293. Abortion . . . .*. . . . . . . . 2294. By pressure . . . . . . . . . 2295. By lying on rock . . . . . . Names Loss of Milk Teeth 2296. Thrown away . . . . . . . . . 2297. Thrown over shoulder . . . . . . . 2298. And call own name . . . 2299. Relative flips at child . . . . . . 2300. Thrown under green bush . 2301. Buried under green bush . . . . . . 2302. Buried under sand grass . . * . . . 2303. Bark-wrapped, buried in mts. . . + + + + + + + + + 30 ? (+ ) + _ + - + +- _ + + + _ - 5 + 9 + + ? 5 + ? + + + ? + + + 5 30 30 30 5 5 + Y + + + + 30 + + + + + + + + + +- + + + + ? ? + + + + + ? + + + + + 5 16 5 5 +? ?+ + + 1+ + + + ++ _ + _~ _ _ K 11 +_ + +? - + +?- + ? I? + + + - + + + ? + + + - + + + + + + + + ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 316 _ _ - +?- CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI Pr4 Pr-4 4-.4*) 4-,4.. 0 K ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~U)U)~~~~~~U) U) Uf (C) co U)U) U/) U) (U)j Uf) U/) /) C U) 2 L________________________ |FS FL SM Sa Sb So Sd Sel Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn So MC GIRL'S PUBERTY First Menstruation* hs. Observance for each girl alone . 06. Confinement . . 2307. Number of days. 2308. In family house * 2309. In special house ...... 2310. Behind home 2311. In isolated plaie 2. Lies on heated ground ...... 2312a. In pit, steamed. B. Attended .. 2314. By mother . . . . . . , 2315. By any female relative . . . 7 2316. By any woman . .. . . . 2317. Attendant combs girl' s hair 8. Instructed about conduct ..... 9. Girl may not eat meat or grease (days ). 2320. Fish ............ 2321. Salt . . . . , 2322. Cold water ......... 2323. Talk ............ 2324. Laugh . . . > 2325. Be visited. 2326. Look at people. j 2327. Scratch self with fingers 2328. Comb hair ......... l9 Girl must arise early 2330. Run daily 2331. Carry firewood . . 2332. Work hard ......... 2333. Veil self when outside 2334. Wear basket hat outside 2335. Use scratching stick (days) 2336. Use drinking tube 2337. Avoid hunters i 2338. Avoid sick . 2339. Avoid all m%n ....... 2340. Bathe daily ........ W 2341. Bathe twice daily ..... At end of confinement girl bathes 2343. Hair is cut ........ 2344. Girl painted red ...... 2345. Clothes destroyed . 2346. Clothes kept for future menses. j 2347. Gets new clothes. 2348. Deloused by mother 2349. Deloused by attendanrt 2350. Wears sage leggings .... Scratching stick: wood . . . . . 2352. Single . . . 2353. Double ........... + + + 10 + 10 + 10 + + + 6 5 + + + + + + + + + + + + + 5? 5 + + + + + + S 5 + + -5 - + 5 V _+ 30 + V + + + 5 ? + 5 5 + - + + + + + + _ _ + + + _ + + + + + + ? + + + + + - + + 30 ? + + 30 + 5 + 5 + + 30 + V + 30 30 30 5 - + _ + + + + + + - + + + - + - + _ _ - + - + + + + _ + + + + _ + + ? 30 + + + + + + + + + 30 + V + 30 + V + + 30 + V + + + 30 + V + + + 30 + V + + 30 + V + + + 10 V + + 30 30 30130 30 30 10 - 30 30 130 30 30 10 30 14 + + +0 + 30 + + + + 30 + + + + + + + + + + + 30 + +0 + + + 30 - - 30 30 - - + _ _ + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ - + + + + + + 30 + ++ ? + ? ? + + + + + + + + + 10 + + ++ + + ++ + + 317 6 + 6 + (+) + 6 6 + (?) + ? + + 5 + V + + + + 5 + + + + + I f I L- ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS P4 roCd ro 4- _f U) CO coz co U) U/) co U) Uf) ctz U) U/) co CQ | FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk S1 Sm Sn Subsequent Menstruation 2354. Seclusion ...........I I 2355. Number of days 2356. Until flow stops . . . . 2357. Special house ...... 2358. Warm ground .. * .. 2359. Attendant: grandmother . . 2360. Wboman may not eat meat (days) 2361. Eat fish ........ 2362. Eat fat ......... 2364. Drink cold water .... 2365. Cook . . . . . . . . . . 2366. Have intercourse . . . . 2367. Scratch self . . . . . . 2368. Woman must use scratching stick (days) 2369. Bathe .......... 2370. Avoid sick . . . . . . . 2371. Avoid dances . . . . . . 2372. Avoid hunters . . . . . . 2373. Husband may not hunt ..... 2374. Fish .......... 2375. Gamble ......... 2376. Take sweat bath. 2377. Husband must build nea fire home . . . . . . . . . . 2378. Hunt . . . . . . . . in BOY'S PUBERTY 2381. Boy lectured by father* 2382. Boy's first game killed: deer insides placed over boy . . . . 2383. Father talks for hunting luck . . . . . . . . . 2384. Mother xashes boy*. . . . . 2385. Game taboo to boy. 2386. Game taboo to parents . DEATH CUSTOMS 2387. Abandon in house before death*. 2388. Corpse left in house, burned . . 2389. Removed from house at death 2390. Removed from house next day 2391. Corpse prepared: painted . . . . 2392. Face washed . . . . . . . . 2393. Wrapped in blanket . . 2394. Adorned . . . 2395. Cover tracks of dead 2396. Undertaker a relative. 2397. Any man . . . . . . . . . . 2398. Purified by sweating . .. 2399. Purified by washing . . . . 2400. Purified with clay* . .. - _ 5 5?- 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 + + ? + 5 5 5 5 + 5 + + 9 + - I -_ + + + + - + + ? 5 5 ? 5 5- + - -9 + -9 + ? +? S S 5 5 5 + + + 5 5 5 + + + + 5 5 + + + + _ _1_ - + + ? - I + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 5 5 + + 5 5 + + + + + + 5 5 5 5 5 + 5 + + + + + + 5 5 5 5 5 -5 + + + + + + + + _ + - + + + + - - +? (+) + - + - + + + - + + + + + +5 + 5+ 5 5 6 + + + + _- ++5 5+ 5 5 5+ 5 5 5+ 5 5 + - 5+ +? + + + -(4 6 6 6 4 + 4 +4 + + + + -? - + + + + _ - + - + + _ _ - + + + - _ + 4 4 318 i I 4 F 9 + - - - - M - CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 319 4-- 4;- 3 i r-t i 0 o$a P4 b! > > > X M a ________________ FS Fl SMSa m S- Sd Se S CO S Si SX X Xn mSl z i CO CO co coutu cn co co cQ co co co co co n u uzZ |FS FL SMI|Sa Sb Swc Sd Se| Sf Sg Sh Si S j Sk S1 Sm Sn So MC Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2402. Body extended ........ 2403. Body flexed . * ...... 2404. Direction of head ...... 2405. Head uphill ......... 2406. In rocks ........... 2407. Rock covered ......... 2408. In earth ........... 2409. Family plots ......... 2410. In mountains ......... 2411. Left in house ........ Cremation . . . . . . . . . . . . 2413. Of all deceased 2414. Those dying away from home 2415. Bones brought home ...... 2416. Witches ........... Cremation in house ......... 2418. In pyre ........... 2419. On pyre ........... 2420. Bones buried afterward . Funeral speech by old man 2422. Relatives cry 2422a.Relatives step over corpse 2423. Gifts to deceased* 2424. Sacrifice of relatives .... Destruction of property ...... 2426. Burn house. 2427. Burn other property ... 2428. Bury other property. ... 2429. Relatives take some ..... 2430. Cultivated crops in field destroyed . . . . Deceased children treated like adults . . . . . . . Mourning Female relatives crop hair ... 2433. Burn hair clippings .... 2434. Throw away hair clippings 2435. Throw hair on grave ... 2436. Gash ear lobes ....... 2437. Gash legs ......... 2438. Abstain from meat ..... 2439. Abstain from washing . .*. 2440. Months before remarriage MIale relatives crop hair. 2442. Burn hair clippings . 2443. Throw away hair clippings 2444. Abstain from gambling (months 2446. Abstain from washing .... 2447. Months before remarriage Mourning terminated by washing mourner 2449. At annual mourning ceremony Taboo on name ot dead ... 2451. Permanent . . . . . 2452. Only in presence of kin + + + + S W + + + + + + +? + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + V 12 + + + + + + 12 12 (+) (+) + + + + + + ? I? I? ? I? I? + + + + + - +- + + - (+) - + - + - +? - + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 9- +- + + + + + + + + + + + + + 2 1 12 + + + + -+ _ + + I 1 2 ?12 +? ? + + +- +- + + 12 + -? ? 12 - + + + + + + + + + + v + + + (+) + (+) 30 1 +? +? +? _ + _ _ +? 12 1 0- R - + + + + + + (+) (+) (+) + + + + + (+) + + + 9 - + - + + + _ _ + + + + - + + + t + R + + + _ + _ + V 12 (+) 12 12 + + + _ + VVV V + 12 V + + 1 1 + V + + + + + + L2 L2 + + 4 + 0 0 f ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 4a 4-)' *Hi C co~~ 0 r- 4 r- 4 4 rx~~~~~~~~ 1r 1 1 t t co_ ri 2Q co C CQ) V) Cc c C l c r c r c ) c r C r C / co __FS F_ SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk Si Sm Sn Sc 2453. Annual Mourning Ceremony . . 2454. Held in spring . . . . . . . . . . 2455. Held in fall . . . . . . . . . . . 2456. For all year's dead . . . . . . . . 2457. Leader is band chief . . . . . . . 2458. Dancing * . . . . . . . . . . . . 2459. Singing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2460. Mourning songs . . . 2461. Singers given property . . . 2462. Oratory . . . . . . .*. . . . . . . 2463. Property for deceased : clothes . . 2464. Valuables . . . . . . . . . . 2465. Hung on pole . . . . . . . . 2466. Burned 2468. Mock battle . . . . . . . . . . . . RELIGION Shamanism 2469. Men are shamans . . . . . . . . . . 2470. Women are shamans . . . . . . . . . 2471. Shamanistic power received when child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2472. Any time 2473. Power inherited from father . 2474. Mother . . . . . . . . . . . 2475. Before relative's death . . . 2476. After relative's death . . . 2477. Source of powaer in natural dreams, unsought . . . . . . I . I . . . 2478. Sought in mountains . 2479. Sought in cave . . . . . . . 2480. Sought through jimsonweed . . 2481. Shaman called to interpret vision . 2482. Shaman called to supervise youth. . 2483. Power may be refused. 2484. One doctor has several powers 2485. Vision gives songs . . . . . . . . 2486. Dances . . . . . . . . . . . 2487. Paraphernalia . . . . . . . . 2488. Paint . . . . . . . . . . . . 2489. Methods . . . . . . . . . . . 2490. Doctor's assistant . . . . . . . . 2491. Equipment of various doctors: stick 2492. Feathers . . . . . . . . . . 2493. Eagle-down . . . . . . . . . 2494. Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . 2495. Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . 2496. Dewolaw or hoof rattle . . . 2497. Cocoon rattle . . . . . . . . 2498. Flute . . . . . . . . . . . . 2499. Loss of equipment dangerous to doctor . . . . . . . . . + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + I + + + + + + (+ + (+) + + - + _- + _- + _- + + + + + (+) (+) (+) (+) (+) +i: : I? +I + -I + + + + + -? + + + + ? +? t + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + - + + + (+) (+) (+) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + (+) + (+)+)( + ? ++. (+), + + + + ? + + + _ + +, _ - + + + + +l + ++ ++ + ++ + +~ + + + -+? + + + + ?. + + + + + + + + +1 + + + + + + + 320 U .j I i I CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI m A M P4 e t X;LH 0 4-X x x < G G *H U) g X o S COA ) r Q 1 A X X | l ~ c~~ ff z f z; U) ) co cn co co uzc cn Cl co co uc l) Z |FS FL SM Ia Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sjj Sk Si Sm Sn So MC 2500. Curing Performances In outdoor brush enclosure .... 2502. In house .......... Doctor sings . . . . . . . . . . . 2504. Audience joins song ..... Doctor smokes ........... 2506. Assistant lights his pipe . . 2507. Passes pipe to audience . 2508. Passes pipe to right . 2508a.To left . . . . . . . . . . . Doctor talks ........... 2509a.Assistant interprets . Doctor dances ........... Doctor walks . Doctor sucks out of patient . 2513. Blood ............ 2514. Snake ............ 2515. Flint . . . . . . . . . . . 2516. Stick . . . 2517. Worm . 2518. Other or various objects Doctor sucks through: mouth only 2520. Stick ............ 2521. Pipe ............ 2522. Feather . . Doctor goes into trance*. Doctor vomits disease object Doctor exhibits disease object Disease blown away ........ 2528. Brushed away Doctor sprinkles water on patient 2530. Blows from mouth ...... Doctor presses ashes on patient . Doctor lays hands on patient Doctor touches patient with stick Doctor touches patient with fire drill. . . . . . Doctor handles fire ........ 2536. Places hands in fire . 2537. Picks up fire ........ 2538. Stands in fire . 2539. Puts coals in mouth . Shaman recovers lost soul . . . . 2542. Doctor's soul leaves body . 2543. Patient's soul stick . 2544. Exhibits and restores soul Special Shamans' Powers .Rattlesnake curing dream . . . . 2546. Dream of rattlesnake . 2547. Dream of buzzard ... ... 2548. Handles snakes ....... 2549. Cures by sucking . . . 2550. Sucks out snake . Wound-curing dream . . . 2552. Dream of closing hole .... 321 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + - + + + + + + + + + + + - + ? + + ? + (+) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + +- + - + - + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + + (+) (+) + + 4- + V + + + + + + + + +? + + + + + + + + + _ + +? + _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +? + + + + - -9? + +- +- ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS ______________________________FS FL SM Sa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si SjJ Sk 51 Sm Sn 34 P4~~~~~~~~ 4_ 2553. Weather control, special dream 2554. Makes rain. 2555. Makes rain stop 2556. Makes wind to remove snow 2557. Childbirth . . . . . . . . . 2558. Bear shamans impersonate bear 2559. Transform self into bear 2560. Po-wer of rapid travel . 2561. Invulnerable . . . . . . . . 2562. Poisoners distinct from doctors 2563. Power from coyote 2564. Power from various animals 2565. Power from evil spirit . . . 2566. Foretell future . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous 2567. Shaman may decline case 2568. Killed for declining . 2569. Unsuccessful shaman returns fee 2570. Killed for many failures 2571. New doctor demonstrates power 2572. By free doctoring . . . . . 2573. At general gathering . 2574. Prayers to personal power (guardian spirit) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2575. Nature . . . . . . . . . . . 2576. Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . 2576a.Spirit . . . . . . . . . . . 2577. Offerings to nature . . . . . . 2578. Ghost . . . . . . . . . . . 2579. Spirit (tsoavitc) . . . . . 2580. Night . . . . . . . . . . . . 2581. Offerings of food . . . . . . . . 2582. Game . . ... . . . . . . . . 2583. Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . 2584. Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . 2585. Shell beads . . . . . . . . . 2587. Offerings at meals .*. . . . . . . . 2588. When traveling . . . . . . . . 2589. When hunting . . . . . . . . 2590. When first seeds gathered . . Guardian Spirits 2591. Source: childhood dreams . 2592. Adult dreams . . . . . . . 2593. Give various powers . . . . . . Nonshamanistic Curing 2594. Herbs, special doctors*. 2595. Blood-letting . . . . . . . . . 2596. Sweating * . . . . . . . . . . Destiny of Soul 2597. Above, to sky . . . . . . . . . + + + - + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + (+) + ? + + + + + + + + + - + _ + +? + + -9 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -? + + + + _ _ + + + + +? + + - I + + + + _ + ? +?~ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + +'I + (+) + -9 + + + ? + ? r- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ? + + + _- + _- ? ? + + ?9 + + +? +? -+ + + +? + (+)- + + + + + + + ? + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 322 I I I I I _ er CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEW4RD: NEVADA SHOSHONI II rco ro -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~42 -fim9 M I 4 ~ C Ca O CO CA PA COP CO CO 4 1< 11 ^t 1giIl I I P R4 ________________________ FSOFLS S bm c S Se mS g X n n o Sn S n Z FSF aS oSdS fS hS Sj k S1 Sm SnS MC I, North, south, east, or west . . l: Along Milky Way .. . . . .. Ghost 1 Leaves body at death 2601. Shortly before death . * Ghost visible ........... 2603. Ghost audible . . . . 2604. Ghost feared ........ 2605. Ghost in whirlwind .... * Dream of dead is ill omen * ... 2607. Cold bath to nullify . 2608. Pray to nullify. 2609. Blow smoke to nullify . Jimsonweed . Eaten to find lost objects .. 2611. For weakness in winter . . . 2612. For spirit vision ...... 2613. For "second sight" DANCES 2614. Circle Dance ..... i. Brush corral ........... * Times performed: at fall rabbit hunt . . . . . . . . . . . . 2617. Fall pine-nut harvests . . . 2618. Spring ........... 2619. Summer . Purpose: mainly pleasu*re 2621. Make seeds grow. 2622. Make pine nuts grow ..... 2623. Produce rain ........ 2624. Bring deer ......... 2625. Mourning ceremony . . . . . . Center post to dance around . 2627. Dry cottonwood . . . . . . 2628. Pine-nut tree ........ 2629. Juniper tree ....... Music: all dancers sing. 2632. Split-stick rattle 2633. Drum ......... 2634. Number of special singer . i, Dancing: women choose partners - 2636. Men choose partners ... 2637. Dance in one circle ... 2638. Dance in two concentric circles. 2639. Sexes. alternate. 2640. Shuffle step . . . 2641. Hopping step . . . . 2642. Dance clockwise. 2643. Dance counterclockwise . S + + I- (+) + + +- + (+) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + (+ + + + + 3 + (+ + + (+) (+) +? + + + -? + ?+ + + + + + + + E + + _? + -? + -? + +? + + ++ ++ + + ++ + + S + + + R - R R R - - -I R?- - - - I- + + + + + + +1 + + + + + + + + + + -_ + + + + + + + + + + + +1 + + 2+ + + + + + + V + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + - (+) 1+ + (+) + + ? 1 + + -_ + - + + + 2+ + V + +- + + + + + - + (+) _ - + _- (+) + + + + + + + (+) V 1 _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + (?) + 1 1 + + + + 1 323 S + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 3P REC oRD C/I P-b C/) P4 1 SI 1 1 11 1 C( CQ C( U) U/3 CO U/3 U) cC CO C( [O cc co r/ FS FL SM a Sb SO Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj Sk SSm Su 2644. Dance leader: special chief. 2645. Band chief ....... . . 2646. Messengers carry invitations 2647. Additional features: occasion for cour ing . . . . . . . . . . . . 2648. Occasion for public mourning. 2649. Clowns1 .......... 2650. Duration (days) . . 2651. Camp circle ............ 2652. Bear or "Back-and-Forth" Dance 2653. Number years ago introduced . 2654. Corral of brish 2655. Musical rasp . 2656. Resonator: wash tub. 2657. Resonator: board . . . . 2658. Gourd rattle 2659. Number musicians *. . . 2660. Dancing: women choose partners- touch with stick ........ 2661. Men pay partners ...... 2662. Dance in lines ....... 2663. Dance in couples ...... 2664. Whip to make dance ..... 2665. Chief urges dancers with stick . . . . . . . . . 2667. Stop dance at fall .. 2668. Rub fallen person with rasp 2669. Cover fallen person with blanket. 2670. Held same time as Circle dance . 2671. Held at mourning ceremony. 2672. Same chief as Circle dance .... 2673. Duration (days) . . . . . . . . . . 2674. "South" or Exhibition Dance . 2675. Pre-Caucasian . . . . . . . . . . 2676. Number years ago introduced .... 2677. Dancers' parapher'nalia: eagle-dorvn head ring . . . .*. 2678. Feather crown ....... 2679. Separate feathers on head 2680. Yellowhatmmer band on head . . 2681. Yellowhammer band on chest 2682. Feather necklace ...... 2683. Eagle-down rope skirt* . . 2684. Breechclout ......... 2685. Wilacat fur hung on belt .*. 2686. Fox fur hung behind on belt 2687. Barefoot .... 2688. Carry feathers in hand . 2689. Carry bow and arrow .. 2690. Carry mock biw and arrow 2691. Dancers paint face ........ 2692. Body ........... 2693. Music (number musicians)* .... + + + + + + + + + + (+) + + + + + 4 + + 3+ 3+ ? A I? B V A AB A A A A + V + _ _ _ +I + + + ? + + + - + + + + + + 1+ + 5 5 (+) - - + 1+ R + 2+ + + + + + + + +?- _ ~~40 (+) + + + ? (+) + + + +? ? - + - -+ + +- ++ + ++ ++ + + - + + + + + + + +- + + + +- 2+ V V 1 40 + + + V 2 --(?) + + (+) + + + + 5 5 5 + .+ + :0 20 30 V + V V + + + + + (+) -? ? + + + + + 5 5 + + 5 5 -? + + + - 40 ? + + + + + + V + + + + + + + + + R 5 55 5 + + + + _ 35 30 R - + + - + + _ + + _ 2+ + - + + - + + - + + _ + + + - 25+- ? + + + + + + _ + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + 3+ - ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 324 -?Q CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI |P |A| $ | 4 4- I_I | F F | I S S S S S S I S I ' k m _______________________________ ~~~~~FS FLSMJSa Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg ShSi Sj Sk SI. Sm Sn Sd MC 2694. Split-stick rattle ...... 2695. Skin rattle . . . . . 2696. Rap bundle of thin boards . . 2697. Strike two sticks together . . 2698. Weaselskin necklace Dancing: individuals perform sepa- rately.. . . . 2700. Pretend to ihoot spectators * Number of dancers ......... Dancers are* men 2703. Women ............ 2704. Visitors ........... Pay to dancers from hosts 2706. Coins held in split stick 2707. Property spread on blanket Dance performed at time of Circle dance . . . 2709. At midnight, one night .... 2710. In afternoon, one day . Crazy Dance Special singers . . . . . . . . Dancers in line, men one end, women other . othe . . . t . . . . . . . . . . 2714. Dance back and forth and side- ways . . . . . . . . . . . . 2715. Sun Dance ...... 2716. Ghost Dance . .Circle dance . . . . . Shaman by center post ....... Dead return to post ........ 'Duration of dance (nights). MISCELLANEOUS Calendar + V V + + + ? I? ?9 + + + + + + Descriptive month nam%s . ..... . + + + Number of month names . . . . . . . 12 12 12 As tronomy MAilky Way named . . . . . . . . . 2723. Dust road . . . . . . . 2724. Smoke from fire ....... 2725. Sky path ......... Thinder: pregnant women cover selves Position of new moon indicates weather . . . . . . . . ... . . . Whirlwind +? +9 I? ? + + + + [0 10 + + + +? + + + + + + 4 + + + + + + + 10 1 + + + + + + + + + + ? 12 12 + + I? + + + + + + + + + + 1 10 10 + + + + + _ _ -* (+ ) 12 + + + + 10: + + + 10 + + + + 6 + + + + + + + + - I(+) - 5 + + 10 + + + + + + +1 + 12 12 12 12 12 112 + + + Is spirit or ghost .+.+.+.+.+.+.+.+.+I 325 I + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 326 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS U) eXI ra -P 4 r c r-4 P 1 4 ; 1 Ce l PQ e- cr Pe. pa CO W pa C4 | b) ;4~~~~~~~~~~~~ S m I 3 3zXx z av COC (C(C)C c o u/3 co CQ ) co C/) cn co | FS F SM|a Sb Sc Sd Se Sf Sg Sh Si Sj fSk S1 Sm Sn 2729. People hit with stick ..................... . . . . . + _ + 2730. People throw water at it + Onens 2731. Twitching back muscle: someone will die .... . . . . + _ + + + + 2732. You will carry a deer ... . _ + 2733. Twitching leg muscle: someone is coming .... . . . . . . . . . + + + + + + + + 2734. Sneeze: someone talking about you . + 2735. Opposite sex talking of you . + + + ? ? + + 2736. Bird calls omens of death: owl . . + + +? + + + + + + 2737. Magpie + 2738. Crow + 2739. Dove . + + _ 2740. Meadowlark .... . . . . . + + Various 2741. Point at rainbow, finger rots . . + + + + + + - + + 2742. Worm causes toothache + + + +? - I ELEMENTS DENIED BY ALL INFORMANTS e elements have the numbers which they would Fe had if they had been retained in the tabu- list. "Denied by all informants" means "by informants asked."] SUBSISTENCE Hunting )eer.-(8) Driven into trap, net, or snare. Enal antelope hunt.- (53) Messengers to ante- Other antelope hunting.- (68) Driven over rf. Mt. sheep hunting.- (82) Driven into trap, , or snare; (83 through V-fence. (91) Magic. res, nets, etc.-(106) Spring-pole trap for arfowl. (111) Running noose for deer. (119) rnet. (141) Basketry traps. (146) Deadfalls large mammals. Decoys and disguises.-(178) a birds. (179) Live animals. Waterfowl res.-(199) Individual drive for mud hens. :elaneous.-(222) Flares for fowl. Eagle :hing. (233) Caught from pit with bait. i g-(283) Two-bark hook. Food Preparation (542) Meat mixed with berries. (552) Fish pul- ized. HOUSES Dwelling kPmed wickiup.-(613) Fire in shallow it. Tri- or conical house. (616) For summer. (631)Cover iats; (636) stone slabs. Gabled house.-(655) summer. (665) Twined-bark mat cover. (671) Door h with wall. (674) Pit fireplace inside. Sweat House ickiup type. (690) Covered with mats. Gabled . -(724) Door flush. NAVIGATION; FIRE MAKING 772) Pole raft. (791) Bow drill. MISCELLANEOUS IMPLEMENTS Drtar and estle.-(822) Used with basket Wood pestle. Metate and muller.- Muller used with rotary motion. Spoons, ers, etc.-(849) Dipper of wood; (850) gourd. ) Steatite bowls. Various.-(898) Adz. (899) e. (900) Stone ax. I SKIN DRESSING 932) Done by women. WEAPONS rrow.-(990) Gall for arrow poison. Miscel- i?.-.(1027) Armor. (1030) Dagger. BASKETRY; CORDAGE; POTTERY 1047) Whole feathers applied as basket decora- (1185) Buckskin cordage material. (1202) ory construction: rings of clay. MUTILATIONS; DRESS AND ADORNMENT; GARMENTS (1283) Most females bored ear lobes. (1311) Tattoo when child. (1317) Tattoo on body. (1318) Head deformation. (1376) Men's hair: front lock sticks up. (1394) Mud used against lice. (1395) Braids fur wrapped. (1402) Depilation of pubic hair; (1403) by stone flake. 1(405) Shaving. (1416) Man's fur cap of beaver. (1454) Women's long gown: sleeves fringed. (1519) Fur leggings. (1548) 1-piece skin moccasin knee height. GAMES Ball race.- (1584) Puck a wooden stick. (1590) To win, runner gets to goal. (1593) Referee. Shinny.- (1603) Goal a single post and ring. S and pole. -(1631) Tule-ring hoop. (1637) Course at one end. (1650) Played by women. Hand game. (1674) Play with 8 sticks. 4-stick guessing &e.- (1704) Counters. Many dice or basket dice.-(1756) 13 reds up scores. Snow snake.- (1833) Stick bounced off snow pile. TOBACCO AND SMOKING (1898) Tubular pipe bowl of wood. MARRIAGE; KINSHIP RELATIONS (2026) Sororal polygyny necessary. (2054) Mother-in-law son-in-law: speech taboo. (2060) Mother-in-law daughter-in-law: speech taboo; (2063) passing in front of taboo. (2067) Father- in-law daughter-in-law: speech taboo; (2070) passing in front of taboo. (2074) Father-in-law son-in-law: speech taboo; (2077) passing in front of taboo. (2080) Brother-sister avoidance. (2082) Brothers-in-law avoidance; (2083) avoid obscenity. BERDACHES OR TRANSVESTITES (2097) Male: social restrictions. (2103) Fe- male: has male organs; (2105) lives with woman; (2106) is shaman; (2107) social restrictions. (2108) Regarded disapprovingly; (2109) regarded indifferently. WARFARE; BIRTH CUSTOMS (2176) War ritual. (2255) At a birth, father may not eat salt. (2279) Father's requirements observed at birth of 1st child only. GIRL'S PUBERTY; BOY'S PUBERTY (2363) At subsequent menstruations women may not eat salt. (2379) Boy confined; (2380) uses head scratcher. DEATH CUSTOMS; RELIGION (2445) Male relatives abstain from meat during mourning. (2467) Image of the dead used at annual mourning ceremony. (2540) Slight-of-hand employed in curing performances. [327] ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTES ON THE ELEMENT LIST (Note numbers correspond to element-list numbers.) SUBSISTENCE Hunting Deer 1. S-BtlM: one man frightens deer out of brush to hunters. 6. S-RubV: relationship of pit to enclosure not clear, but may have consisted of V-fence and pit. Deer dra-wn into it by shaman who sang. 10. NP-FLk: night before hunting, dogs were bathed and their faces painted with red stripes (but hunters had no ritual for selves). S-BtlM: dogs drove deer out of brush at their owner's commands. NP-MC: native dogs very rare and too small to hunt anything larger than squirrels and ground hogs. Bonneville reported that among Sho- shokoes (probably N Paiute) at mouth of Powder R. on Snake R., children used dogs to hunt small game (Irving, 1:333-334). 12. S-Egan, S-Mor: antelope shamans could also charm deer. 14. Pit variously used as a blind. S-BtlM: dug beside game trails over which deer driven. Not used near springs because one "could not know from which direction deer would come to water." S-SnRv: used beside trails on which deer travel S in fall. Simpson (p. 70) wrote of an arrange- ment in Pah-hun-upe V. (somewhere near Humboldt R. in Shoshoni territory) which is a "couple of brush-fences or barriers converging to a narrow pass and a large hole in this last portion. Pete says they are to guide deer near the hole, in which the Indian hides himself and shoots them as they pass with bow and arrows at night, a fire being used as a lure.?" 18. S-SnRv: hunter (duhuyu, deer, hont, one who does) trails deer for 2 days; when it begins to tire and leaves trail to hide, hunter, know- ing its habits, tries to head it off. Large deer may "walk on its toes so that its tracks appear to be those of small animal." 20. NP-FLk: deer's sense of smell so acute that could not be deceived by disguise (MH). S- SnRv: deer would kill man in deer disguise (CT). 23. S-SnRv: after deer killed with poisoned arrow, hunter talked to animals used to make the poison-horned toad, red ants, a fly, and a beetle-telling them not to poison him, then "blew away" the poison. This is called mavocitai. 25. Where shaman performs, he is chief. 27. S-Lida: plant mixed with deer manure and placed on deer trail. S-SnRv: disclaimed deer magic, but said some Shoshoni in Nevada put arjga- wansonip (red grass) on deer trail and talked to buiyuhii (some substance ?) to attract sage hens, but such people did "not last long," being some- how destroyed by this practice. S-BtlM: hunter put aT)gawanasonip straws into 1st fresh deer tracks, urine, or manure he found; following deer trail, he would soon find deer dead. Communal Antelope Hunt 28. TP said North Fork Shoshoni lacked ant corrals and shamans, hunting instead on horse in relays. Antelope formerly very numerous. 9 CT had heard of people from S (near Elko) who tered Owyhee region in summertime and used am lope corral and shaman. Snake R. Shoshoni had antelope; these were hunted in native times o with bow and later on horseback. But Bonnevil 1832 saw women at mouth of Powder R. on Snake Oregon (called Shoshokoes; in recent times tb Paiute country) make sage fences 3 ft. high i gle opening enclosing about 100 acres. Women selves behind fence; when antelope inside, ml turns chasing them around until they were exb and could be killed with clubs (Irving, 2:331 29. S-Elko: corral always built by shaman, of small stones laid in circle 50 ft. in dia, animals would not step over it. If timbers ai however, fence 7 ft. high might be built. Coi 3 mi. long, of juniper brush. S-SmCr: corral ft. high. Everywhere, opening was on side fro antelope were to come. 30. Sarah Hopkins described similar corral Humboldt Lake N Paiute (p. 55). 31. S-SprV: wings 1/2-mi. long. 32. Shamans were men in all instances exo4 one: BM knew of old woman shaman in Butte V. may have had 2 antelope shamans, though each ity usually had only 1 and some localities h 34. NP-MC: shaman's assistant fills his p talks for him. 38. Among Humboldt Lake Paiute (Hopkins,] stuffed tapered hide wrapped with rope, was i with stick, like musical rasp. 40. Short stick, painted red, held aloft 1 shaman as he sings. 42. Record also by Sarah Hopkins (p. 56)l Humboldt Lake Paiute. 44. S-SprV: all people hold sticks pointeQ toward hole in center of corral. Pine Cr. and Diamond V.: had 4 chiefs and several girls w sisted in singing (SF). 48. S-Hmlt: dance only 1st night. Painteda women dance. a 50. If anyone loses anything while buildi, fence, antelope's spell will be broken so thi they will escape through that place. Also, a Humboldt Lake Paiute, stumbling, any acciden failure to keep one s mind on antelope broke where this happened (Hopkins, pp. 55-56). 52. S-SprV: shaman bathes 5th night, aftei ing. Pine Cr. and Diamond V.: shaman sang 3t (SF). Sarah Hopkins gives 5 nights for BumboQ Lake Paiute (pp. 55-57), but CTh gave 1 nigh NP-MC. 53. Sarah Hopkins (pp. 55-57) says among} boldt Lake Paiute, 2 messengers, carrying saI bark torches and pipes, make ceremonial cirel of antelope every day for 5 days. CTh did nol about messengers. [328] CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 55. S-Egan, S-RubV: 4 or 5 men drive antelope. 56. Antelope said to be irresistibly drawn so ~at driving unnecessary. S-SprV: antelope at- Oacted at night, during the singing, toward cor- W1, into which they are driven final day. 60. NP-MC: although it is not necessary to t1 the 1st antelope shot at, 1st one killed st be cooked and eaten in general feast before thers are skinned, otherwise antelope will not Pter corral following year. S-Elko: shaman Dots all antelope. Other Antelope Hunting 61. S-SnRv: only expert hunters said to be e to crawl up to antelope Nith their bowys and ows, because antelope tended to remain in open re they could see in all directions. 62. S-SnRv: antelope tended to run in large cle and hunter pursuing them on foot took by heading off their leader. 74. S-BtlM: JP's father used cloth painted to emble skin. NP-MC: painted hunter's arms to emble antelope's leg. Among Humboldt River shoni, Remy and Brenchley, traveling in 1861, a antelope hunter wears mask of antelope head h horns. He puts on some red cloth and "at- oted by curiosity, the antelope approach with- bow or gun shot" (pp. 128, 156). Antelope-skin guise for hunting antelope with bow observed anonymous traveler at Antelope Spring, some- re E of Ruby V., in 1854 (Eventful Narratives, 97). Mt. Sheep Hunting 80. S-BtlM: dogs, directed by hunter's motions, ve sheep over cliffs. 81. Reported only at S-Egan. Corral, of moun- Dmahogany sticks sloping inward in circle t 100 ft. in diam., is near spring and has s. There is said to be one on mountains W of ranch in Ruby V. 84. S-BtlM: stalked sheep from above, on fs. S-DthV: shot sheep with poisoned arrows. 85. Attract by pounding. S-Lida: done in No- br, when rams were fighting, hunter conceal- self in pit. S-RubV: hunter hides in hole, e he has built fire to keep warm. NP-MC: ok rock with moccasin to attract sheep. Communal Rabbit Hunt .SP-Ash: thought rabbits had been driven fire; nets not used. S-Elko: 8 or 10 men e rabbits onto trails where they ran into 1 nets propped up on sticks. a.S-Egan: 4-8 nets. S-Hmlt and Duckwater honi: 20-30 nets. S-RsRi: 3 or 4, each 3 ft. These lengths of each section of net were S-DthV, 200 ft.; S-BtIM, 600 ft.; NP-MC, ft.; S-SmCr, 10 ft.; S-Egan, 20 ft. S-BtlM: supported at their ends by posts in between h they were propped on lighter sticks. 98. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: director is any competent hunter. Elsewhere, generally a special man who always undertook the task. 99. "Month" entered as 30 days in List. These durations were also given: NP-FSp, 2-3 days; NP- FLk, 4-6; S-Hmlt, 30-45; S-Egan, 30; S-RubV, 2-4. Snares, Nets, Etc. 100. S-SnRv: called huja (sage hen) nuep:. 102. S-Elko: used during August. 109. NP-MC: for rabbits only when they are sufficiently numerous to make a trail. 114. TS quoted his grandfather that a Paiute man had tried this near Black Rock, in Owens V., the noose of spring-pole trap being set in open- ing in rock fence. He thought it had not worked. 120. S-BtlM: used both dome and tunnel shapes (entered respectively as A and B in List). 127. S-Bty: caiught eagles in net propped up beside spring and fastened to log. 130. NP-MC: used some form of horizontal net propped up on sticks; sagebrush wings converged to its opening. 131. S-Elko: this was done in August. 134. N Paiute at Fallon, Nevada, but not S- SmCr, used net for ducks. Diamond Valley Shoshoni placed net, like that used for sage hens, on land for ducks (SF). 136. S-Hmlt: antelope disguise also used when shooting ducks. 138. Antelope manure is smeared on the hunter to conceal human odors. 147. S-Lida: deadfalls only for coyote and wildcat. NP-MC: figure-4 type without bait set at holes of squirrels (tzip:); also used among pine- nut trees for brown bird, called kaim. 150. See also "Deer Hunting" in section, "Eth- nographic Discussion." CTh said former inhabi- tants (non-Paiute) of Lovelock during his grand- father's day, used pitfalls for wolves and coy- otes; NP-MC: did not use them. People, probably N Paiute of Dixie V., near S-SmCr, are reported in 1854 to have fenced a spring, with pit inside fence, covered with springy wire grass for rab- bits; also, similar pitfalls for antelope (Event- ful Narratives, p. 88). 153. S-BtIM: claimed coyotes cannot be caught by traps because they do not travel regular trail. Booths and Blinds 156. S-RubV: called paitoni; holds 1 man; is covered with cedar boughs and earth; mainly for hunting mountain bluebird, kaiyats (feathers of this bird removed in wanm water prior to cooking) JK said this structure probably used also in Ka- wich Mts. 157. Construction unknown. 167. S-GSmV: in some manner bird could only reach water, which was surrounded by stakes, by sliding down inclined pole which hidden hunter could reach through hole in blind. I 329 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 168. S-Egan: sinew noose on stick 2 ft. long. S-RubV: BM thought this used only by Bannocks. 169. S-Hmlt: took mountain bluebird, aiyats; also large bird with white head, dogvots; also flicker, biitumitc. Flicker feathers or shafts not used for dance regalia as they were farther S. 174. N Paiute in Deep Springs V. hid in stone blinds near Deep Springs Lake to kill mountain sheep coming down to springs (JA). 176. S-DthV: built like domed house; for duck shooting. Decoys and Disguises 180. NP-MC: used at Lovelock by Paiute, but not at NP-MC, where insufficient water for ducks. 181. S-BtIM: tied 3 decoys on long string, and pulled them slowly toward bank in Humboldt R.; ducks followed them and were shot. 182. Claimed also for N Paiute of George's Cr., Owens V. (GR), but denied at NP-FSp. 184. Though use of disguises denied in Owens V. and Death V., TSt, S-Bty, claimed to have heard of them in Owens V. GH also denied their use in S-DthV. 188. S-Hmlt: used for stalking ducks. 189. S-BtlM: hunter waiting in ambush for sage hens once saw man in antelope disguise, mistook him for antelope, shot and killed him. Waterfowl Drives 196. Duck drives held at Lovelock but not by NP-MC. S-SnRv: held duck drives on upper Owyhee R. but not on Snake R. Miscellaneous 201. S-BtlM: rodent skewer called punda (twist) sotoin. Simpson (p. 37) lists this, along with bows, traps and nets, as the "principal instru- ments of subsistence" of Shoshoni between Cooper Range and Pe-er-re-ah Range, probably near S- BtlM. 213. S-SnRv: bear not hunted formerly. 214. S-SmCr: used only for smoking cottontail rabbits out of rocks. 215. S-BtlM: or duck wing. Smoke fanned into den (called kuitsatoi, from kuip, smoke, tsatoi, fan); when rabbit ceased squealing it was pulled out by means of rodent skewer. 217. S-Hmlt: hunter always carries wing of red-tail hawk, sana kwina. 221. S-BtlM: squirrel, gopher, and young badg- er. On South Fork of Humboldt R., Simpson (p. 66) saw "places where the Indians have dammed up the rills to cause them to flood the habitations or holes of badgers, gophers, rats, etc., and thus secure them for their flesh and skins." Eagle Catching 232. JP had heard of using pits around Bruneau and Jarbidge. 240. SP-Ash: eagle kept in dome-shaped bru cage and fed rabbits and meat. 241. For examples of eagle-catching power, "Religion; Qardian spirits" under "Ethnograpl Discussion. 245. S-Egan and probably most other places eagle feathers for arrows and trade. Greatest. mand for them, however, was by shamans. Raising Other Birds 246. S-Egan: procured most mockingbirds (co saiyam:) from S, though few could be found in Spruce Mts. 247. S-BtlM: sometimes kept dove (hewi) loc in dwelling to pick up seeds dropped on floor: During winter, it was put in cage with nest oi rabbit fur, then released in spring. Fishing 252. S-Egan: doubted that Steptoe Valley SI shoni took any fish in pre-Caucasian times, uX less they went S to Cave Cr. where people tooi fish with baskets. S-RsRi: fish were: minnows (tuumbaT)wi), "mountain trout" (toya, mountaini baTjwi, fish), and very small fish, puiwa, whid lived in mountain streams. 255. SP-Ash: used dip (?) nets for some ver small fish in rills in Ash Meadows. 263. NP-FLk: 1 person holds basket, others drive fish into it. 264. S-SnRv: used for catching minnows. S-S called osa, name of conical seed basket. S-Rub knew of such baskets, called wosa, but did not use them in Ruby V. ahere there were no fish. 265. S-Hmlt: called par)wi (fish) wosa andi without any dam or weir, merely supported in stream on 2 sticks. S-Elko: called paT)ga (fie wosa or agai (salmon) wosa; twining is widely spaced. TP said similar basket used by North Shoshoni. 273. S-Hmlt: denied fish spear, but SF cla it for Diamond V. 278. Torch or fire disclaimed throughout a but TP said recently introduced at Ft. Hall, 280. NP-MC: CTh's father made hooks of han of iron bucket procured from immigrants, and it with vegetable-fiber string (wiha'). He he that Lovelock Paiute had made rabbit-bone hoo] 282. Hoffman (p. 469) reports hook of bone splinter with smaller splinter tied at end to 400 angle, used for salmon trout in Maggie Cr dependence Cr., and Owyhee R., all in region 288. S-SnRv: dried salmon eggs kept in saJ skins and soaked in water before used for bai 289. NP-FLk: large, tough red worm, calleda bohowavi (bohovi, sage; wavi, worm), up to lj long, dug in winter from sage roots. S-Elko: fishing through ice in winter, 200 small hook put on one line, each baited with "long black worm" procured from slough; when many fish on hooks, line pulled up. 330 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEZAARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 291. S-Elko: fly made of feathers. 293. Shoshoni stupefied fish in Little Lake rputting mashed root in "tule bundle ring," 10 in diam., and pushing it in water. Effect on L8h lasted about 1/2-hour (GG). North Fork Sho- Ini: poured ground root, tooza, procured from ilsides, into streams. Fish subject to this too Mg have strong taste. S-BtIM: similarly used me plant, to:dza. Animals Eaten 297. Game of Humboldt River Shoshoni, accord- ig to Remy and Brenchley (p. 128), includes leer, lynx, fox, wolf, minx (Putorius bison hz.), white ermine, mountain sheep (Ovis mon- ta Desm.), grouse (Tetrao), crows, magpies, ng doves, and a few other animals." 297a.S-SmCr: knew of eating dogs only among e non-Shoshoni peoples to E called tsadii' (dog) ka (eater). Dogs rarely eaten anywhere and then y in time of famine. 298. S-SnRv: heard of eating wolf near Owyhee; id to be similar in taste to mountain sheep. 299. Coyote. S-Lida: as food and tonic. JS en some after sickness in his childhood, and overed within 2 or 3 days. 301. SP-Ash: no bear in this region. 303. S-BtlM: JP did not like porcupine but d some people ate it. 309. S-SnRv: ate large mountain rat but not ler species. 313. NP-FSp: right front foot of mole or go- r roasted and eaten by women who meanwhile ed or talked for children, stating number sex desired. SP-Ash reversed this, putting er's foot into girl's food to insure steril- Idaho Shoshoni forbade gophers to pregnant n for fear of causing miscarriage. 315. Buzzard. S-Hnlt: called wiuimbitc. S-SnRv: ed kiambitc, said odor too bad to eat. 19. Hawk. S-RsRi: only small species eaten. 34. Quail. S-SnRv: called paTgowo. 26. S-SprV: bull snake, gogo, and "water e," baskogo (from pa, water), eaten. 38. NP-FLk, S-Bty: ate only large blue lizard. Lt and S-SprV: ate lizard called bogojia. 31. S-DthV: chuckwalla caught while feeding in ly morning or pulled from rock crannies by a of reptile hook (element 205). These were times traded to neighboring localities where did not occur but were relished. S-SmCr: red them occasionally for medicine against ation. S-Elko: procured lizard of an un- species from S for use on skin injuries and a; BG now has some of this, pulverized. 4. S-Hmlt: mud hen called saya. 7. NP-FLk, NP-FSp, S-Bty, and SP-Ash: called . In Owens V. these were the caterpillar of oth, Coloradia pandora, occurring on Pinus eyi in Sierra Nevada Mts. (see Steward, 1933, but elsewhere they lived on brush and were bly different species; no specimens were col- ed. NP-FLk: ate another species which lived on ground near certain bushes and was called tsagwano i. S-RubV: prepared such caterpillars by removing their heads, roasting them in coals. 338. Pupae of fly, Ephydra hians Say., which breeds in Owens Lake and was called cuija'vi, NP-FSp; irjada, S-DthV. Shoshoni said 2 other spe- cies of pupae procured in Owens Lake: pisa'wada, which resembles first but is white, and iivieta, which resembles small seeds. 339. Procuring and preparing ants, a large black species called ani'i, was described by S-RsRi as follows: dug from nest in early morn- ing while still cold; dirt winnowed out in bas- ket; killed with coals in parching tray; entire ants ground on metate; boiled into mush. 341. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: tubercular person ate 3 or 4 live red ants; vomited next day; if ants alive, he would live; if dead, he would die. S- Ely: eaten as tonic when person thin. 343. S-Elko: ate eggs of yellow jacket, pena. 344. S-BtlM: cicadas gathered from bushes in early morning into conical basket; parched in coals which burned off legs and wings; dried and ground on metate; could be stored for winter. Called: kua, S-Lida, S-SnRv; giia by other Sho- shoni. S-SnRv: same preparation as that for cricket (element 348) but did not store them. In February, 1826, Ogden noted absence of large game on Snake R. below Malad R. and found In- dians eating locusts and ants which they had stored in summer (Oregon Hist. Quart., 10:354). 348. Cricket called: maico', S-SmCr, S-RsRi, S-Egan, S-RubV; me:sU, S-SnRv. S-BtlM: gathered into conical basket before sunrise; same prepa- ration as for cicada (note 344). S-SnRv: scooped into conical basket in early morning; thrown into Pit from which fire had been removed; covered with grass; when roasted, insides removed by pulling off head; legs pulled off; dried; ground; stored in buckskin bags for winter use. S-Elko: drove them into fire; then dried and ground them. 352. Grasshopper. S-RubV, S-SnRv: called a:tin. S-BtlM: eaten only when hungry; thrown into grass fire and eaten when turned red. 355. S-SnRv: eviscerate by pulling off head. Animal-Food Taboos, Etc. 362. S-GSmV: also rabbit and sheep hearts. SP- Ash: taboo only to women. 363. S-RsRi: flesh along inside of backbone and tubes of lungs also taboo. May eat these only after marriage and birth of both boy and girl. NP-FLk, NP-FSp, S-Lida, S-GSmV, S-SnRv, S-RsRi: heart taboo to young persons lest it weaken their hearts. 369. S-RsRi: youth eats only a little. 370. S-BtlM: only heart, liver, etc., taboo to boy. 375. S-RsRi: parents eat only small amount. S- SnRv: taboo until after birth of both boy and girl. 378. S-Hnlt: this distribution called nanahoin (from nanagat, giving). A little given to each household in village. S-Elko: hunter gives por- 331 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS tions most often to aunts, uncles, and relations by marriage, especially mother-in-law to whom he must take some even though she may live 20 mi. away. Miscellaneous Concepts 396. NP-LFLk: bones of deer and other large- game animals burned. S-Bty: deer had to be car- ried so far that the bones were never brought home by hunter. Gathering Acorns 410. Little Lake Shoshoni gathered acorns from eastern slope of Sierra Nevada Mts., pounded them in mortars, leached them in sand craters which were recently lined with sacking, boiled them in- to mush adding meat if available. 412. S-Bty: acorns roasted in pit from which fire had been removed, then ground and boiled into mush. Mesquite 415. S-DthV: Coville says (1893) mesquite (Pro- sopis juliflora) was gathered in autumn, the pods cached until spring, then pounded, the flour sifted and made into loaves. Little Lake Shoshoni: boiled young beans (like done with modern string beans); ground older, ripe pods in deep wooden or stone mortars and sometimes ate the flour uncooked (GG). SP-Ash: sifted flour through basket, made it into paste, and moulded it into uncooked cakes which were stored in ground; pieces broken from cakes and eaten. 424. S-DthV: stored in bag in cave. Miscellaneous Plants 433. Most important seed in S half of this area was sand bunch grass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), called wai, which was pulled by hand, dried, seeds knocked into basket, then winnowed. Other seed plants and their distributions have been given (Steward, 1938). 434. S-DthV: Coville (1892) reports use of prickly pear (Opuntia basilaris), called na'va, the joints formed by the season's growth being dried and later boiled or steamed in large, rock- lined pits. S-RsRi: used round (barrel ?) cactus, muza, and prickly pear, wo:gaibi. S-SnRv: occa- sionally ate species called muts, removing needles by burning or rubbing on rock and roasting it. 437. SP-Ash: used bundle of stems to brush off needles. 442. Coville (1892, 356) says S Paiute procured mescal, which does not occur in Death V., at Charleston Mts. He saw stone-lined pits, 1-3 ft. deep, 6-20 ft. in circumference, where, with some ceremonies, the short, thick plant axes and leaf bases were steamed for 2 days. Pine Nuts 444. Dutcher (1893) observed in Panamint region a pine-nut pole 1 in. in diam., 6 ft. stripped of bark and having a branch 6 in. 1e one end, bound with a thong to prevent spli4 which served as hook. 451. S-RubV: stored no pine nuts in mounti NP-MC: covered them with rocks and boughs bul no pit. 454. Panamint Valley Indians (Dutcher, 181 dried cones in huge brush fire, pounded the! rock with another small rock, twisted the coi shook nuts out, then winnowed out leaves and chaff. 456. Hoffman (p. 473) reports pine-nut c04 of stone circles, 2-4 ft. in diam., between] and Belmont; he thought birds and animals go caches more often than their owners. 467a. Pine nuts, like game, were offered "country" to prevent sickness; offering calli tuba (pine nut) dii (?), S-Hmlt. Miscellaneous Plant Foods 471. Cane sugar called: hu:gabi, S-SmCr;I piha, S-Hmlt, S-SnRv; wikw-dkhobiha, NP-MC. S9 procured near Bliss, Idaho; cane boiled down S-RubV: cut cane in springtime, dried it, th scraped the sugar off into basketry bowl. 475. S-Elko: called suhuvi (willow) ha (8' it is sap exuded where insects have bitten t S-SnRv: procured willow sugar from Elko peop 477. S-SmCr: pitch, called sanako'o, from nut trees, wa:pi i. S-Hmlt: gum called sanak (probably pitch). 479. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: milkweed boiled down also, nodule on roots of plant, kutsohonobi, grows near Fish Springs. S-Lida, S-GSmV: cal muguri canakum; is gum from some low-growing not definitely known to be rabbit brush. 480. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: bark from rabbit-bru root. SP-Ash: from bottom of brush called ta (probably rabbit brush). Rabbit brush called sivapi'i, S-SmCr; siwap:, S-Elko, S-Egan, S- sigapi, NP-MC. Bark from root is chewed unti forms. Gathering Implements 485. Called bodo (stick), S-RsRi, S-Mor, S-SprV, S-RubV; or dunambi (mountain mahogar extremely hard wood) bodo; or duhabodo (duha serviceberry), S-Elko, S-Egan. S-BtlM: used wood, as green wood wears out too rapidly. 9 Diamond V., made a specimen of green mountai mahogany wood for Peabody Museum of Harvard versity, 3m ft. long, unusual in having poim each end; for digging roots, burrowing animi potter's clay, etc. The only shovel-like imI ment was reported by S-RsRi: a flat piece of per, wider at one end, called wo:gwa:. 488. S-SprV: made stick with deerhorn poi 332 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI oked deerhorn handle; this seems to have been talking stick," not digging stick. TS said ISp hunters always carried a stick when in itains to facilitate climbing steep hills. 195. S-Hmlt: used mountain mahogany or serv- berry. 499. Little Lake Shoshoni: used seed knives e of sharp deer ribs or of somewhat sickle- ped piece of mountain mahogany, about 10 in. g, A. in. wide, sharp on inner edge. Cultivation Wild Seeds k04. S-Hmlt: probably sowed lamb's-quarters, ,zelia, and a plant called wu:sia in spring, having been burned over previous fall. IR, S-Egan: sowed lamb's-quarters. S-Mor: sly had sufficient seeds to spare for sowing. cnd Valley: burned brush in fall, planted 's-quarters, Sophia parviflora (boina), and opsis hymenoides (wai, sand grass) in spring >E.S-BtlM: JP thought people did not know kts needed water, hence did not irrigate. lt claimed not to have irrigated, but SF Diamond Valley practiced some. 0. S-BtlM: said people continually burned country but reason not known. 0. S-RubV: burned to promote growth of Atri- argentia (suna). Diamond Valley: burned to ote growth of lamb's-quarters. 0. S-Ely: HJ says there are native irriga- ditches near Ely. JR thought all villages ake and Spring valleys irrigated. p. Seed Storage 01. S-BtlM: pit is partitioned for each kind sed, each of which is placed in old buckskin ound-hog skin, or sage-bark bag. Pits pre- d to storage houses because could be con- d, as people were constantly searching for s to rob. NP-MC: when taken from pit, seeds innowed from any earth that has been picked Lth them. |5. S-SnRv: especially for storing camass, is cooked, dried, and put in sage-bark ; the bags are buried in holes covered with rocks, and earth. Food Preparation 9. S-SprV: from salt marsh N of Baker. S-Elko: E of Wells. S-Lida: from Silver Peak playa. from salt flat; earth dissolved in water; nt poured off; evaporated by fire. NP-MC: a not to have used salt aboriginally. . S-SnRv: procured salt from rocks near age. S-GSmV: certain grass stalk. S-Egan: i, called onok:hwa, from White R., S of Ely. salt is scraped up under dead rye grass in flats along Reese R., S of Battle Mt. S-RsRi: burned rye-grass (wadunzip) roots. 532. S-DthV: ate chuckwallas, large lizards, some snakes, rats, mice and gophers, roasted in earth oven without removing entrails. In Pah- hun-upe V., near Humboldt R., Simpson (p. 72) saw Indians throw rats into fire, then eat them, entrails and all, children being especially fond of juices. They also ate lizards. 535. NP-MC: said seldom enough meat or fish to be dried for winter; people ate rabbits or caught fish from Humboldt Lake in winter. 536. S-RubV: meat merely hung on horizontal pole. 538. S-SprV: used mountain mahogany wood for smoking. 541. S-SprV: mixed with sunflower seeds (akti). 543. S-BtUM: pounded with fat on any flat rock to prepare it for eating but not stored in this form. 544. Bags hung in trees. 546. NP-FSp: mix blood and fat in intestines; cook in coals. 548. S-Mor: fish taken from White R. were dried. Bonneville saw "Shoshokoes" (N Paiute ?) on Snake R. in October drying fish on scaf- folds (Irving, 2:190-191) and storing it (Irv- ing, 1:338); also, Shoshoni on Snake R. below Twin Falls living largely on salmon (Irving, 1:329-330). 554. NP-FLk, NP-FSp: bones of rabbits and deer (joints only ?). 555. S-DthV: mountain-sheep bones only. 557. Marrow called: undu:gu, S-SmCr; du:gu, S-Hmlt. S-SnRv: only old people ate marrow; it would cause children to "make too much noise." S-RubV: only young people ate marrow. 558. S-Egan, S-SnRv: hoof removed, inside dried and later used for soup. S-BtlM: ground to prepare for eating. 561. SP-Ash: for mescal. S-SnRv: for camass (yamba) roots; communal oven is large, circular hole, lined with rocks; it has large central rock called heart (bih); after fire built in hole has burned down, coals are covered with grass; bundles of wet grass radiate like spokes from the "heart" to divide oven into family com- partments; camass put in, covered with wet grass and hot ashes and left 2 days, during which people must refrain from intercourse which would spoil the cooking. 563. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: used only to make sueam during childbirth. 565. NP-MC: apparently bent into diamond shape. 573. Parching basket everywhere was the fan- shaped, twined tray, coarsely woven for large seeds, finely woven for small seeds. Little Lake and Pana- mint Valley Shoshoni also used circular, coiled tray. 575. S-BtlM: seed-meal mush is stirred in a twined basket about 2 ft. in diam. Woman serves it into small baskets, taking each person's por- tion to him where he sits. S-SnRv: chokecherries 333 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS pounded, seeds included, made into cakes and dried; this process general throughout northern Utah and Idaho which lie in habitat of choke- cherry. HOUSES Dwelling Windbreak 578. Among Panamint Valley Indians gathering pine nuts, Dutcher (1893) observed that each of 5 or 6 families made a circle, 8-10 ft. in diam., of pifnon branches and brush, 2-3 ft. thick and equally high, leaving opening in 1 side and having fire in center. S-RubV: Simpson in 1859 observed Shoshoni using only "brush barriers" or inclosed fences, summer and winter, to protect them from weather, though some erected pole- lodges (p. 64). Houses of Shoshokoes (N Paiute ?) met by Bonneville in 1832 at mouth of Powder R. on Snake R. were merely semicircular brush fences or windbreaks (Irving, 1:336). Sun Shade 584. S-Bty: usually 4 posts. 586. S-Bty: usually on S and W sides. Domed Wickiup 587. S-Bty: called huva (willow) gani (house). George's Creek Paiute, Owens V., made houses as follows: dome of willows, 10-12 ft. in diam., bent over pit 4 ft. deep; roof covered with grass laid vertically and held down by poles; no earth cover; smoke hole in center; doorway E (?) just large enough to admit person; door of willows twined together and set but not tied over open- ing; fireplace in center. S-SnRv: in the List, A is domed willow house (element 590), B, conical willow house (element 591). The winter house, B, called dohokahni, has willows with their butts planted in the earth and their tops brought to a point instead of forming usual dome. On Snake R. below Twin Falls, Bonneville in 1832 saw houses like "haystacks" constructed on branches of wil- low, covered with long grass and occasionally surrounded by sage enclosures about 3 ft. high (Irving, 1:333-334). S-BtlM: like the S-SnRv type B, may really have been conical form. Butts of roof poles planted in the earth, bent in toward top and tied to leave a smoke hole where they do not meet; covering is loose grass layers near ground, twined to poles; twined grass mats cover it near top. NP-MC: domed house, novi, was built when there were no timbers (but may have been the only type built). 593. NP-FSp, NP-FLk, SP-Ash: full-circle ground plan. 595. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: 10-12 ft. in diam. 598. NP-FLk, SP-Ash: grass, sigup:U, up to 3 ft. long, placed in several overlapping layers. 604. NP-FLk: sometimes had center post. 606. Unless always E, it was merely on s: away from prevailing winds. 608. S-SnRv: door has stick along the bol to make it rigid. 610. TP observed that abundant grass onl floor is characteristic of Shoshoni (this if true of modern tents at Owyhee) and believe( name Shoshoni might have been derived from fact-so (much) sonip (grass). Tripod or Conical House 615. Called tohni (perhaps contraction oi winter, gahni, house), S-SmCr, S-RsRi, S-Moi S-SprV; tohokahni, S-Hmlt; dookahni, S-Egan kahni or tohokahni, S-RubV (BM and RVJ). S-' did not use this type, but called Bannock t: nUmii (persons) gahni (house). NP-MC claimed pre-Caucasian log cabin having circular groi plan and logs laid horizontally with interl ing ends; walls vertical; roof of poles, bri and earth, with smoke hole in center; door 4 side; not pit. (It is inconceivable that thl unique type was really pre-Caucasian.) 618. S-Mor, S-Elko: poles planted solid earth and not interlocking to support one a at their intersection. S-RubV: used dry cot wood poles. S-Egan: cedar boughs. S-DthV: h foundation of 2 sloping poles, one resting" fork at the top of other. 624. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: 7-10 ft.; S-Elko: M 630. S-RubV: uncertain whether mats used stead of or in addition to grass; mats twiUl 3-4 ft. sq., placed in 4 or 5 layers on houl (BM). 634. S-RubV: placed on roof up to 5 ft. ground. 635. Interstices between vertical poles with sticks, then whole covered with humus cayed pine needles. 636. S-SprV: rock slabs laid flat over covering to height of 5 ft. from ground; pi possible because of peculiar local rocks. t and chimney are post-Caucasian. 638. S-Bty: door away from wind. 640. S-RubV: may run out 6 or 8 ft., is covered; used for food storage (BM); tunne]l arched willows, earth covered; sage-bark fo bags hung here (RVJ). 643. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: doorway not covered 644. S-Bty: door of twined tule mat. Gabled House 653. The Owens V. Paiute gabled winter described in Steward (1933, 263). On page there is shown a house in pine-nut belt in covered hills ca. 20-25 mi. N of Deep SpriM in country frequented probably by NP-FLk ute from vicinity of Benton, N of Owens V. fessor George H. Anderson, of California of Technology, who kindly supplied photogr, 334 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI ites (March 1, 1937): "The house is the only X I have seen intact, but I have seen other kses in various degrees of ruin throughout the Wre White Mountain region. They are made with dar logs the lower ends of which are held in bition by large rocks, the upper ends resting ~inst each other. In many places only the rocks am in position, occasionally one or two cedar lying scattered about. In many instances in t of the opening in the circle of rocks where a door was located one can observe the stones ich they chipped their arrowheads, with many ents of flint and obsidian scattered near by. uliarly enough the remnants of the houses are 't invariably on the tops of ridges. I do not I have ever seen one in the floor of the ons. Moreover, most of them are at high ele- ions, ranging from 9500 to 13,000 feet. Many them are located at considerable distances the nearest water supply." Although Owens ey Paiute claimed to have wintered in these ains when pine-nut harvest good, it is dif- t to see why houses were so often built the pinon zone, in places which must been intensely cold in winter. It may be summer seeds in this high, well-watered zone ed them to live in mountains also in other ons. It is also possible that these were oc- d by hunters pursuing mountain sheep. Use of s may explain stone circles previously noted ens V. (Steward, 1933, 334-335). ttle Lake Shoshoni made gabled winter house llows: 2 posts support ridgepole, 5-6 ft. ground; wall posts lean against ridgepole; a plan circular or oval; pit 2 ft. deep; ed with brush or grass, held down by hori- 1 poles; no earth covering; vestibule door- n E end; door of boughs or mat of twined or cane, hung from its top edge; smoke hole of center. SP-Ash, S-Bty: used this type es- ily at pine-nut camps in mountains. B S-Bty: door away from prevailing wind. 0. SP-Ash: door in S end. House Interior 6. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: sleep on deer brush. t: grass called wa:vi. 7. SP-Ash: sleep on twined sage or juniper . S-Elko: mat of cattails, toip:. . NP-FLk: sewed wildcat furs together. especially woodchuck and ground-hog fur. boldt R., Ogden saw "Snakes with little ing besides beaverskin robes (Oreg. Hist. 11:384-385). On Mary's R. near Elko, d saw a large robe of many "beaver skins ed together (p. 157). .Especially rabbitskin blanket. NP-FSp: woven mud-hen-skin blankets. 3,Especially rabbitskin blanket. S S-BtlM: only seeds for immediate use so 686. S-SnRv: bags of sage bark; also store in pots inside house. 687. See note 521. Sweat House 688. S-GSmV: had no sweat house; sick persons lay all night in hole with water from hot springs. Wickiup 1ype 689. Called: paitoni, S-Elko; paitohni, S-SnRv, probably from pa (water) tohni (house); musa, NP- FSp, S-DthV; nava (steam) diiwa (sweat) kahni (house), S-RsRi; navasukogadi7lgunt (something with which to steam or sweat), S-Egan, S-RubV. 696. S-SnRv: earth around bottom only; ground- hog blanket over top. 698. S-SnRv: pit lined with rye grass. Conical Type 704. Called: paitohni, S-SmCr; patohni, S-SprV. 705. S-DthV: constructed like the winter dwelling, except for center post; was 10 ft. high; earth covered; fire next to doorway. S-Bty: fire near doorway; low wall of stones and mud projects from each side of doorway with small space between them for air to blow on fire. Sweat-House Operation and Use 729. S-RubV: rocks covered with sagebrush; pa- tient sits on top. 735. S-Bty: used also when fatigued. S-SmCr: this is only use of sweat house. S-Hmlt: called paitohni; prescribed by shaman; patient sits in pit, surrounded by hot stones. 743. S-BtlM: attendant necessary because of danger of patient succumbing to heat. Woman once died in one, her legs being burned before she was found. 745. S-RsRi, S-Hmlt: especially after dream of sickness. S-Bty: after dreaming of ghost. 751. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: women would not enter when group of men were in sweat house. 752. S-BtlM: accommodated 4 recently. Miscellaneous Houses 760. S-BtlM: small, grass covered, built against outside of dwelling, with door through wall into dwelling. NAVIGATION 773. S-RubV: balsa of tules, saip:, or willows. Used on Ruby Lake. 774. S-SnRv: middle bundle little smaller than others. 779. S-BtlM: prow turned up only on some; others roughly made. 335 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 783. S-BtlM: ropt of a grass having sharp blades and growing near water. NP-MC: rope of sage bark. FIRE MAKING 784. S-Mor: no foreshaft on this type; shaft of serviceberry, diuavi. 785. S-Hmlt, S-Egan, S-RubV: shaft of service- berry, foreshaft of sage, Artemisia. S-BtlM: shaft of willow or serviceberry, about 14 in. long; foreshaft, sage. 790. S-SmCr, S-RsRi: foreshaft of rabbit brush. TH said only strong men could make fire with drill; women could not do it. 792. Hearth usually of sage, Artemisia tri- dentata, called bohovi most places (S-SprV, boovi). S-BtlM: hearth called wag. These lengths of hearth were given in inches: S-BtlM, 10; NP- FLk, NP-FSp, 24-30; SP-Ash, 12; S-DthV, 18-24; S-Bty, 18. S-Elko: hearth made by RB for the Pea- body Museum of Harvard University is 3 in. wide, 112 in. long, has 2 pits. 794. S-Bty: pulverized rock put in end of drill (?). S-BtlM: said sand was put in hearth pits only by persons who did not know how to make fire properly. Jack Stewart, old Owens Valley Paiute, placed charcoal in end of cane fire drill. 796. S-Bty: 1-2 pits. 804. SP-Ash: carry burning Joshua-tree limb. S-Lida: carried match suspended from burden bas- ket. S-SmCr: made of rabbit-brush bark. S-Elko: fig. 4,g, specimen of sage-bark match made by RB, now in Peabody Museum of Harvard University. Long ends plucked and ignited from other end which carries spark to start fire. S-BtlM: slow match is swung to fan it into flame. 805. S-Lida: bundle of sage bark. NP-FSp, NP- FLk: bundle of shredded bark, 10 in. long, tied up. S-DthV: of juniper bark. Bonneville observed long sage-bark-rope torches among Shoshokoes (N Paiute ?) on Snake R. at mouth of Powder R., Ore- gon (Irving, 2:335). MISCELLANEOUS IMPLEMENTS Mortar and Pestle 809. NP-MC: said mortars used only by pre- Paiute inhabitants of Lovelock region, who ground all seeds in them. 810. S-SmCr: known to have been used among N Paiute. 811. SP-Ash: deep, bedrock mortars said to have been made by Coyote. 819. S-GSmV: very little used and rarely if ever of wood. 820. NP-FLk: called tut)go'0 (tumbi, stone; go'?, hole or deep depression), used near Lida. SP-Ash: usually mesquite log; hole burned in. 824. S-Bty: stone pestle called pa:kii. 825. NP-FSp: 12-16; SP-Ash, 16-18. Metate and Muller 830. S-Hmlt: back of metate used for crm pine nuts or for other rough work. S-SnRv: used for grinding paint. Mush Stirrer 847. S-Elko: fig. 2,i, mush stirrer made RB for Peabody Museum of Harvard University wiyumbi wood, 12 in. long, top tied by 3-plJ twisted buckskin cord; used for stirring m= a large, twined basket. Occurrence of mush rer at S-RubV on authority of BM. NP-MC: Cn positive at one time that single stick benti triangle; at another time that it was benti a loop. Spoon, Dipper, Etc. 852. S-BtUM: mt. -sheep-horn dipper was a shallow; purpose unknown, perhaps for stirri mush. SP-Ash: shaped by heating. S-Bty: usel ing water boiling for childbirth. i 855. S-BtlM: basketry dipper (with handl4 breaks easily. S-Elko: fig. 4,i, specimenui by RB for the Peabody Museum of Harvard Uni sity; warps of willow extend to form hand1t twined; 10 in. long but most specimens fore larger; for ladling mush from main pot or bi into individual cups. 1 856. Basketry dipper (without handle) ea] suhu (willow) awa'i (cup or bowl), S-SnRvy,1 awa, S-RubV; for dipping mush from large bsj into small ones from which it is eaten. 862. S-Bt1M: slab right size might be u84 dish if found. JP said there was no way ofl dishes of wood. 867. S-RsRi, S-Hmlt: only used at time ol S-BtlM: said they crack when dry, hence do last long. S-Bty: perforations made arounda of paunch with stick, bag then laced up wiu string. 869. S-RsRi: flattish piece of juniper, wider at one end. Knife 870. S-Hmlt, S-Elko: called tumbi (stoni (knife); carried in quiver. S-SnRv: of whil traded from the Humboldt R. Presence of thl in vininity of Battle Mt. gave name tosa (1 wi: (knife) to Indians of that region. Scraper 877. S-RubV: sharp edge of horn is notol while warm with flint knife. 878. S-BtlM: also long, slender bone in shoulder (clavicle ?), having 1 sharp edge, wrapped in buckskin, for removing hair. For ing, notched end of deer scapula. S-SnRv: scraped off with deer scapula; fleshed with notched end of femur. 336 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI Awl 884. Although use of bone awl denied in S part area, awl 2" in. long, made of a rib, found at ,N Paiute camp in Deep Springs V., associated th Paiute-type pottery. ;890. Panamint Valley Indians used-cactus spine bi devil's pincushion (Echinocactus polycepha- b) for making baskets, according to Coville 892). Fig. 3,k is cactus-spine awl with butt based in pitch found in Death V. near Stove- @e Wells; several like this were in bark case. 4891. SP-Ash: covered with gum from greasewood 6obably kind of shellac), which was used for 1 glue and was kept in buckskin trinket bag. 892. Elongated bundle of bark into which sev- ia awls stuck found near Stovepipe Wells, Death jley. Drill N894. P-MC: CTh said shaft was rolled on thigh twirl when drilling. SP-Ash: denied making as in wood or other materials! '895. S-RsRi: rabbit leg bone. 896. S-BtlM: portion of deerhorn near skull is d, like flint. S-DthV: unhafted mountain-sheep (?). Flint Flaking '903. Called: kipu, S-SmCr, S-Hmlt, S-RubV; S, S-Elko: gip:, S-BtlM. S-SnRv: only locality be it was positively stated that there were ialists in flint chipping. 05. S-Hmlt: used sharp point, as elsewhere. , antler point notched in end, to pry off t flakes. 908. S-RsRi: put under fire ashes for 5 nights. SKIN DRESSING 12. NP-MC: brain applied and hide put away several weeks. 5. S-RubV: skin placed over metate and brain d in with muller. 6. S-Egan: applied twice at interval of sev- days. 0. S-SprV: cooked between hot, flat stones, d into hide with muller on metate. 8. S-SnRv: stone used for heavy skins. 4. S-Lida: held over juniper-bark smoke. : for heavy hides. 0. S-SnRv: different kinds of wood chips for different colors or shades on hide. :any kind of wood; smoked about 10 minutes. li: any kind of wood; hide hung in closed * WEAPONS Bow S-Egan: of serviceberry, duhavi, for all S-BtIM: of any wood; used only by men too to back them with sinew. 935. S-RubV: and wrapped with sinew at inter- vals of 6-8 in., entire length. 938. NP-FLk, SP-Ash: measure from tip of fin- gers of outstretched arm to opposite shoulder. 939. Also, in half-inches: 3-4, NP-FLk, NP- FSp; 4-6, S-Bty. 943. S-BtlM: JP said serviceberry seldom large enough to make good bow. 945. S-BtlM: deer leg sinew (elsewhere usually deer back sinew), each strip running from one end to little past middle to overlap with that from opposite end. 946. S-SnRv: swimming bladder boiled. NP-MC: traded salmon skins from N; wrapped in green, wet grass and buried; when taken out they have dis- integrated into glue, called tza:gu. 947. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: kept in fawnskin pouch. 949. S-RubV: horn softened for straightening by soaking in warm hot ground. S-Elko: not used, but known at Laneville. 951. S-Egan: sinew in 3 or 4 layers, glued with deerhorn which has first been burned a lit- tle, then boiled. Each sinew layer allowed to dry, then scraped before adding next. 957. S-DthV and Panamint V.: bows held slant- ing (BD and GH). 960a. S-BtlM: outside of arc painted red. Arrow 961. SP-Ash: made of arrowweed; for large- game hunting with sinew-back bow. 962. NP-FSp: hunting arrow measured finger tip to sternum; war arrow measured finger tip to shoulder of same arm. 963. S-Mor, S-SprV: serviceberry. S-SnRv: young serviceberry, bark removed, dried. S-BtlM: serviceberry. currant, rose; greasewood too heavy. NP-MC: currant and rose. 966. S-BtlM: JP said no foreshaft used for stone-head arrows. Heads had 3 notches on each side (doubtful). 967. S-SmCr: TH said Paiute used cane arrows with foreshafts, but doubted whether Shoshoni used them. S-SmCr: 4 ft. long. S-RsRi: 2-3 ft. long; used only by boys. Some Utes were called hupa (cane) huga (arrow). 970. Greasewood at S-SnRv, S-BtlM, and prob- ably elsewhere. 971. S-DthV: some arrows had wooden point with extra barb of wood tied in place. This may have been 2-prong bird arrow (note 978) (GH). Wooden- pointed arrows ordinarily for small mammals, es- pecially rabbits. 973. S-RubV: used by boys. 975. S-DthV: other types of head made by Coy- ote or tsoavitc. S-BtlM: see note 966. Types of head shown in fig. 2,c,d. 978. Said to be 4 ft. long, prongs each 8 in. long. 980. NP-MC: green. 982. S-RubV, S-SnRv, S-BtlM: sage-hen feathers. S-BtlM, NP-MC: eagle tail feathers. Eagle feath- 337 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS ers prettier, sage-hen tail or wing faster (JP). S-DthV: duck, hawk, eagle feathers. 985. S-BtlM: few were spiraled. JP said more important to bave feathers equally spaced. 986. NP-FSp: pitch mixed with charcoal, heated, applied in spiral. 988. S-SprV: black rabbit blood (?) smeared on stone point. S-Egan: hegwi (some internal organ ?) of deer boiled, not rotted, and mixed with rattle- snake poison. 991. S-Bty: rotted in ground; cooked under fire S-DthV: from mountain sheep heart; placed in sec- tion of intestine and allowed to decay in ground; smeared for 2 or 3 in. on arrow foreshaft and in grooves cut in bullets. A white man, doubting its efficacy, put poison in cut on his wrist and died (BD). Shoshoni at Eureka used deer blood and rat- tlesnake poison (BH). 992. S-RubV: rattlesnake heart. 994. S-RsRi: consists of seed cluster from sage, baumbi, some kind of rotten sage wood, an old pine cone, blood from a deer's or sheep's heart, obsidian flakes; all are mixed, placed in a deer's stomach and hung in hole about arm deep in red-ant nest for 5 nights; then smeared on ar- rows. S-BtlM: poison is black substance, includ- ing decayed heart blood and many other ingre- dients. NP-MC: greasewood shavings, mashed ants, and blood, preferably from deer, placed in sec- tion of intestine and hung 1 night in hole. S- SnRv: dried horned toad, dried red ants (these have painful bite), small fly called bipoduki, which lives in holes in ground, and greenish beetle mixed and smeared on arrowhead; mere scratch from such points claimed to be fatal. NP-FSp: deer blood, salt, ashes, rock, and cac- tus needles. 995. S-SmCr: TH can use only primary, but said some old Indians also used 3d and 4th finger on bowstring. Arrow Straightener 997. S-SprV: JR claimed an arrow wrench made of stone, having 3 holes in it! 997a. In Panamint V., Coville (1892, 360-361) observed cane arrows straightened by holding them on a stone having 2 grooves, or, if they were thin, by holding them with hands and teeth. Fig. 3,g,h,j shows 2 grooved arrow straighteners found near Stovepipe Wells, Death V. S-SmCr: said used only by Paiute to W. S-Hmlt: known at Pine Cr. 1001. S-DthV denied it, but Coville (1892, 360-361) says willow arrowshafts were "sand pa- pered" by drawing them between 2 flat stones Lungrooved ?I held in palm of hand, in Panamint Valley. 1002. S-Hmlt: not used but known at Pine Cr. (SF). 1004. S-RsRi: for rosewood arrows. S-BtlM: ordinarily bark peeled, arrow dried, then straight- ened with hands and teeth; when difficult, horn wrench is used. NP-MC: ewe horn. 1005. S-Egan: young mountain sheep. Quiver 1010. S-DthV: also used skunk. NP-FSp: for hunting arrows, of gray fox; for war arrows,of buckskin. S-Bty: also of dog and bear-cub fur. S-Hmlt: called hu: (arrow) guna; NP-FSp: cal1ed podohogona. S-RubV: may hold 50 arrows. S-Snv also of ground-hog fur. S-BtlM: of any fur whiq will make bag long enough so bow just protrude 1012. S-SnRv: fig. 2,b, wildcat-skin quiver length 3 ft., made by Dave Humpy, inow in Peabod Museum of Harvard University. Upper edge (in i lustration) stiffened by means of rod, to whi carrying strap attached. Miscellaneous Weapons 1028. S-SmCr: type unknown. TH thought used only in absence of arrows. 1029. S-Hmlt: called wur)go. 1031. Called: tapuji"i, S-SprV; wutiT)gobo, S-Egan, S-SnRv, S-BtiM; tigwiivUvui, NP-MC. BASKETRY Materials 1034. SP-Ash: used tall plant called sui:v (probably special willow), which is stronger than ardinary willow, for both foundation and weft of twining. Coville (1892) said Panamint Valley choshoni used year-old shoots of willow Salix lasiandra, and sumac, Rhus trilobata, fo white. GG, Little Lake Shoshoni, called willow tsiubi. 1036. Also called devil's horn or unicorn plant, Martynia proboscidea (Coville, 1892), used widely in southern Nevada, California, an Arizona (Mason, p. 207). NP-FSp: procured it from Saline V., though TS said his father had planted it at Fish Springs. Little Lake Shoshon used a grass, tdr}wip:, instead of devil's clawt for black. S-Lida: planted devil's claw in gar. dens. 1037. Joshua-tree roots afford red material. Coville (1892) gives this as Yucca brevifolia,: used in Panamint V. NP-FSp: imported it. Littl Lake Shoshoni: red, which perhaps is Joshua tr is called Ump:. Mason (p. 213) gives tree yucc as Yucca arborescens. 1039. SP-Ash: used root of tule-like plant called tsokomosiv for brown. 1044. NP-FLk: used on large conical seed b ket and on hat. S-GSmV: black paint from du (Ephedra sp.?), boiled with yellow rock which been burned; applied especially to basketry ha willow inner bark having been left on the weft to hold paint in design area. S-DthV: burned ground and mixed with chewed Ephedra. S-RubV: black paint or weft (?) called tuusip:; only1 line dyes now used. I j 33 8 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 1048. S-DthV: white rock ground and mixed with hewed Ephedra. Weaves 1050. Coville (1892) saw in Panamint V. foun- ions consisting of thin willow and 2 or 3 .8 of Epicampes rigens, a grass. Forms 1067. S-Elko: up to 14 in. long. S-SnRv: spe- n at CT's home resembles that collected in bV. 1085. S-GSmV: gadzaya'a , like conical carry- basket, but smaller; used also for gathering o nuts from ground to carry them to larger ket; used also for fishing. 1089. S-RubV: basket, 20 in. deep, 20 in. in -., has warp ends projecting straight down at tom and coming to point instead of crossing being bent back up opposite side to give ghtly rounded bottom, as observed everywhere 0. 090. Top of basket finished with bundle of 1 rods, surmounted by heavy rod, as in Stew- 1933, pl. l0,c. 091. Open-twined conical carrying basket lly employed for fishing. 096. NP-MC: said to hold 2-3 gallons. 1105. Sometimes mixed with pitch and applied ug exterior with bark brush, S-BtlM. 114. S-Bty: a specimen found near White ng, in Belted Mts., NE of Beatty, is in pos- ion of Mr. Greenwood, of Beatty. 115. S-RsRi: specimen made by MJa. 1117. S-SmCr: soaked overnight to make it rtight. 118. NP-FSp: used only for heating water at abirth. 119. S-GSmV: called aigwudzi'1. 1135. Made also in North Fork region (TP). WEAVING Skin Blanket 46. Twining begun at stake end of warp. int Valley looms horizontal (GH); sometimes .cal in Saline and Death valleys (WP). 50. S-Bty: skin strip put through hole in to twist; elsewhere, merely twisted around f stick. Feather Blanket 58. S-DthV: bluebirds. 82. S-RubV: 1- to 4-ply. Vegetable-Fiber Blanket I 63. S-Mor: made rarely if at all. 8. S-Elko: green, stringy material (spiro- ?) from water tied onto twined sage bark; blanket used for bedding. S-RubV: same material called baya-uh. It is dried on sand, not twisted, and used as both warp and weft of blankets. Used on beds, over rabbitskin blanket; has little warmth. Same is called: paya gap:, S-SnRv, S-BtlM. 1172. Called: pijigw bahwe, S-SnRv; wicivi, S-Bty. 1173. Called wiha', NP-MC. 1181. NP-FLk: used human-hair cord for basketry olla handle. 1184. Sinew mainly for sewing. 1191. NP-MC: sometimes 4 strands. POTTERY 1195. S-SmCr: TH knew of only 1 woman who could make pots. Pots called: tumbi wltua (tumbi, stone, witua, bowl), S-Hmlt, S-SprV; tumbi wYtua or wina wYtua (winabi'i, clay), S-GSmV, S-Elko, S-Egan, S-RubV; sogo wYtua (sogo, earth) or wina vwltua, S-SnRv. 1199. NP-FLk: also boiled small nodules from rabbit brush into paste and smeared it on pot while shaping it. S-DthV: boiled a plant, wido- gomb (probably mallow; N Paiute of Owens V. called desert mallow, Sphaeralcae fremontii, widogomb). GG said Little Lake Shoshoni mixed boiled plant, not mallow, with clay. 1200. S-GSmV, S-DthV: wogabi, prickly pear with yellow and pink flowers. S-SprV: hogabi, probably prickly pear. 1214. SP-Ash: recently cover pot with manure to fire. S-DthV: covered with brush to fire. 1215. S-Egan: sherds of flat-pot bottom were found by BM in Butte Mts.; he said some were painted. These might have been from a Pueblo site. 1216. S-SprV: claimed red (pisep), black (from an earth called tudumb [tuhu, black, tumb, rock]), white, and yellow paint. Use of any color, to say nothing of 4, doubtful. He may, however, also have seen a Pueblo site, where black-on-red, as well as black-on-gray, occurs occasionally. 1217. S-SnRv: stained after firing with black, tudumb:. NP-FSp: TS saw sherd with black line. Of hundreds of sherds from sites in this area, I have seen none painted. 1219. S-DthV: said rims were incised with thumb- nail. Several archaeological sherds from near Lone Pine, Owens V., and from near Lida, Nevada, bear incised rims (fig. 3,b,d,e). S-Bty: similar in- cised sherds have been reported. Vessel Shapes 1221. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: sherds suggesting such shapes as fig. ll,a'b,c, which were described by informants, have been found in Owens V. and Deep Springs V. (See also Steward, 1933:266-269.) SP- Ash: fig. ll,d,e. Olla-like shape, fig. ll,d, may be informant's confusion with basketry olla. S-Bty: fig. ll,f,g. Very small bQwl with pointed I 6 339 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS bottom found near Hot Springs, 4 mi. from Beatty. S-Lida: fig. ll,h,i,j. Bowl probable, ladle more doubtful. Fig. ll,k, S-GSmV, S-DthV, S-Hmlt. S-DthV: some pots had pointed bottoms so that they could be set in ground and fire built around them for cooking. S-GSmV: some bowls are small, others as much as 15 in. in height. JK thought ladles also made. Fig. 11,1, S-RsRi, up to 12 in. tall, with slight lugs on opposite sides, under rim, by which to grasp them. (Yokuts pots sometimes have such lugs or handles, Kroeber, 1925: pl. 51.) Fig. ll,m, NP-FSp;NP-FLk SP-Ash ef\ S-Bt) S-GSmV S-DthV S-HmIt S-HmIt S-Mor h i S-Lida S-RsRi S-Elko S-RubV I 2I INCHES , S-SmCr S-SprV Fig. 11. Pottery shapes. S-SmCr, up to 18 in. tall. Fig. ll,n, S-Hmlt, S-Mor. Conical shape has also been found near Beatty and in S Paiute territory. Fig. ll,o, S- Elko; BG thought these had handles to hang from a tripod; a Diamond Valley Shoshoni (SF) dis- agreed, but said they had flat bottoms. BG claimed to have found sherd with side carried down 1/2 in. below flat bottom. Fig. ll,p, S-RubV, has lugs below rim by which it is picked up, bark being used as pot holder. Fig. ll,q, S-SprV, 6-8 in. tall, 15 in. in diam. As with claim of 4 colors, 3-legged pots also may be doubted. 1227. On Snake R., below Twin Falls, Bonneville in 1832 saw Shoshoni cooking salmon in "pot" (not stated definitely to be earthenware, however) "hung over a fire" (Irving, 2:165). BURDENS 1229. S-RsRi: may double rope over head. S. juniper-bark pack strap. S-RubV, S-SnRv: sage, 1231. S-Hmlt: 4 or 5 (probably 6) strands., 1239. Called: tapi" ha, NP-FLk, NP-FSp; taj S-DthV, S-Bty. 1240. S-SprV: JR said he once saw parfleoh Deep Cr., among Gosiute Shoshoni, which, howe is no proof that it was used in pre-Caucas1e times even as far W as Gosiute. S-Mor: uncut with holes sewed up. CRADLES 1244. S-Bty and S-DthV differ only in that mer used 1-piece rim, latter 2-piece rim wit joined on each side (fig. 12,b,c, p. 341). V. Paiute type has lately begun to supplant S-Lida: probably formerly like native S-DthV S-Bty type; now like Owens Valley type. S-E HJ's was 31 ft. long, 12-14 in. wide. 1245. S-GSmV: like Kroeber's Handbook pl..I with heavy willow rim. S-RsRi, S-Mor: heavyg willow rim and heavy horizontal reinforcing vertical willow rods, some of which are bent and lashed to rim at top and bottom. S-SmCr: ably like last; hood called tsokohnu. S-BtlKX said old type was like fig. 12,d, having hea across where carrying strap fastened and hooa that on modern cradle. NP-MC: like fig. 12,e having buckskin over bottom. 1246. S-RsRi: fig. 12,i, modern adaptatio length, 40 in.; width, 15 in.; rim 3/4-inch top half of frame canvas covered, having no bottom half made up of vertical wooden slats hood twined basketry; rods in hood, 12 per run vertically, and are twined together eve 1-li inches. S-Egan: fig. 12,g shows cradle out twined hood. Top portion covered with hide (or canvas recently); willow rod rim jo on each side near bottom; infant tied on im skin blanket. S-RubV: similar to preceding Egan). 1247. S-Elko: fig. 12,e has vertical rei ing rod and horizontal reinforcing rod at t horizontal willows; willow rods tied to rim to vertical rod. Twined hood not shown in ing. 1259. SP-Ash, S-Bty: deer-hoof rattles. 1260. S-BtlM: girls' cradles only have 1269. S-BtlM, NP-MC: used exclusively to MUTILATIONS 1271. Panamint Valley Shoshoni: GH's ea pierced for shell pendants. 1276. S-SnRv: with piece of rabbit brush BtlM: with greasewood or thistle. 1281. S-SmCr, S-BtlM: women more often b their ears. 1282. S-BtlM: done when girl or when lst born, but without ceremony. 1286. S-Egan: wore only buckskin string., 340 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 288. S-Mor, S-BtlM: probably Haliotis shell. 300. S-SprV: bead of soft stone called tup:. 301. (1, Panamint V., knew of woman whose was bored and who wore in it section of bone 1 in. long. S-Mor: BH knew of only 1 man who torn piece of wood through his nose "for fun." X: CTh knew of nose pin, short section of frog , used only among Pitt River Indians and by a lock and McDermitt Paiute. B05. S-DthV: also wore string of beads in 808. Pigment. S-Egan: charcoal of mountain gany; S-RubV: of sage wood. 114. S-SmCr, S-RsRi, S-Mor: tattoo mainly corners of mouth; also, chin, cheeks, and ead. e 8. SP-Ash: recognized that the head is pitally flattened somewhat by cradle. k_ I S-Bty S-SnRv Little Lake Shoshoni S-Egan S-RubV children's necks. This is to smell; believed also to hold their necks erect. 1323. S-Egan: Haliotis. BM has 2 Haliotis-shell pendants, 1 circular, other heart shaped. 1334. S-SnRv: bone tubes lacking but heard of among Bannock. S-BtlM: each about 1 in. long, strung alternately with glass (?) beads. Three strings of these worn at once. 1335. S-Hmlt: sage-hen-bone tubes. 1336. S-Hmlt: wildcat-bone tubes. Belts 1339. had been 1342. S-Bty S-DthV S-BtlM: JP thought no other kind of belt usedc. S-Hmlt: wildcat-bone belt. d e S-BtIM.S-Hmlt S-Elko S-gprV NP-MC S-SmCr.RsRi S-RsRi S-Mor S-Elko Fig. 12. Cradles. (Most are shown without hood.) a, recent basketry type; b, "ladder type"; c, old "ladder type"; d, elliptical type with horizontal rods; f, side view (with hood in place) and front view (without hood) of oval type with horizontal rods; g, oval type with horizontal rods; h, rectangular type with vertical rods; i, recent, slat cradle, with hood; 1, model made by RB, S-Elko, with vertical and horizontal rods, hood, and sage-bark blanket. S-BtlM: newborn baby's mouth and forehead raightened, but JP doubts that they remain l Infant's nose "pushed out from inside ger" to make bridge more prominent. Sev- tormants independently spoke of this. DRESS AND ADORNMENT Necklaces 1 S-SaRv: needles of white pine in elon- ck which tapers into string tied around Paint 1343. S-SnRv: deer grease; paint applied as powder. 1344. S-BtlM: young men apply powdered pigment over grease, old men over saliva. 1348. Humboldt River Shoshoni: according to Remy and Brenchley (p. 127), men and women "de- light...., in painting themselves red, and daub- ing their faces, and around their eyes with many colors," especially at dances. 1349. S-BtlM: old persons rouge entire faces; young persons apply stripes of different colors, 341 d go a .b ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS especially on cheeks. Women may also lightly ap- ply a little white paint. 1350. S-RubV: old men only. S-SnRv: after bad dream, bathe, paint body red. 1353. S-Ely: stick used only to apply black paint. 1355. NP-FSp: mud applied. 1357. S-DthV: burned and mixed with Brigham tea (Ephedra sp.) previously chewed. S-Lida: yellow earth burned to black. SP-Ash: also burned galena. 1359. S-BtlM: small fire built on flat stone; another stone held above fire to catch soot. 1360. S-DthV: ground and mixed with chewed Ephedra. 1361. Whitish rock burned to red. S-BtlM: small, soft lumps of this rock put into basin- shaped stone, covered with fire, burned until red; then wrapped in sage bark and soaked sev- eral days (purpose unknown); then ground on back of metate. 1362. Blue mineral. S-Bty: rare. S-SnRv: pro- cured from warm springs. S-BtlM: merely scraped from cliff. 1363. S-BtlM: yellow mineral scraped from cliff. 1364. S-RubV: green paint (bui) scraped from rock near Duck R. with stick; transported in buckskin. NP-MC: used only on arrows. 1365. NP-MC: galena procured near Boise, Idaho; used for face paint. Hair Dressing 1367. S-BtlM: stalk of probably broom grass (wtizanasonip). 1369. S-Hmlt: brush made of dried rabbit brush; called wuidzahna. S-SnRv: fig. 4,h, specimen of grass-root (waduzip) brush, now in Peabody Museum of Harvard University. 1371. S-BtlM: some hair reaches to knees; men took pride in their hair. S-Elko: TUmok, follow- ing instructions received in vision, wore one braid longer than other. 1373. GH, Panamint V., said hair braided (?) and coiled on head. 1375. Humboldt River Shoshoni men and women trim their hair "according to their fancy; they generally cut it straight across the forehead, leaving it to fall from the temples to the neck, and adorn it with all sorts of pieces of old iron" (Remy and Brenchley, p. 127). 1380. GH, Panamint V., said women parted their hair in middle and did it up in knot behind; bangs hung to their eyebrows. 1384. S-BtlM: only when gathering seeds. 1390. S-RubV: used only by old men and women for beauty; applied in spots with finger tips. Humboldt River Shoshoni frequently "powder a part of their hair" (Remy and Brenchley, p. 127). 1391. S-BtlM: at dances only feast chief (kwinidagwani) paints his hair and entire body. 1394. S-SnRv: heard of this somewhere in re- gion but not locally. 1397. This clay or chalk called evi, S-R, S-Elko: used something other than evi. 1400. S-RsRi: claimed formerly Indians ha beards; young men now have them because they white people's food. (These young men are ol mixed bloods.) 1401. S-SnRv: heard that this was done by nock. S-BtlM: JP denied it, though his own e brows appear plucked. Plucked eyebrows obser among S Ute. Headgear 1406. Coville (1892) mentions basket hats Panamint V. gat of GH's niece, Panamint V., S-Lida: JS also described man's basketry hat brim; post-Caucasian (?). 1408. S-Elko: fig. 9, made by RB, now ins body Museum of Harvard University; for men A women, winter use; the sage-bark (Artemisia dentata) warp strands cross at top of crown hang down on all sides, about 3 per inch, aA, twined together with same bark. 1409. S-RubV: in winter, rabbit hide wore head, its ends tied together under chin. S-S like S-RubV type, of rabbit or badger fur. 1411. Poll of young animal. S-Mor: roe di with ears cut off. 1412. Poll of young animal. 1413. Poll of young animal. 1422. S-SprV: horns left on lamb's-poll 1423. S-Bty: used only during dances, fe being attached to it. 1425. Fur band across forehead, fur proij as eyeshade; band held by string passing a, head. 1429. S-Elko: beaver. NP-MC: ends of fw twisted once over each other at back of hea hang down. 1430. Horse mane tied with hide strip, h hanging down over eyes. GARMENTS Robes and Capes GG, Little Lake Shoshoni, said robes of tain-lion, coyote, bear, and wildcat, but badger, fur. 1436. S-Hmlt: JW thought wildcat skin nD SF (Diamond V.) thought several wildcat sk together to form robe. Shirts and Dresses 1444. S-Hmlt: size, style, etc., depend number of skins available and size of pers4 S-Egan: a third skin cut in two to make an set on each side. BM said Steptoe V. gowns lar. 1445. In the List, plus means "or 1 mori 1452. S-BtlM: if only 1 skin used, dresq like man's shirt, but longer. Pieces added 342 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI iasary to increase length. Sleeve, sewed over not beneath shoulder, also added. 1458. NP-MC: hanging from various places on ast. 1461. NP-MC: fringed along bottom. 1466. S-SnRv: like NP-MC (see note 1461), but i from deer leg sewed on to make elbow-length ive. S-BtlM: short split down front of neck Ilitates putting on shirt; neck drawn up with skin thong. 1471. Fringed along seam on underside of sleeve, F sleeve long, and sewed closed. Skirts 1475. GH, Panamint V., said women wore 1-piece tt, of several pieces of sheepskin if neces- r hung from buckskin belt; it overlapped in Ft, had 6-in. fringe at bottom; worn over t apron. Women wore nothing above their t8. S-BtlM: always wore long dress. NP-FLk: winter only. .80. S-SnRv: skirt hung nearly to knees but k half cut into fringe. |481. S-GSmV: actually large back apron and front apron, which are sometimes tied at 8. S-RsRi: skirt actually front and back sns sewed together at sides. 88. S-Elko: of buckskin or badger or ground- Lfur, sewed together to form front and back s which are open on sides. NP-MC: possibly front apron and large back apron worn under kskin dress. 189. S-BtlM: aprons worn under buckskin dress, ccasionally worn alone when woman has no . S-Bty: for young girls only. 90. S-SnRv: worn habitually by men, except hunting. 94. S-Elko: specimens of front and back s of twined sage bark, made by RB, now in dy Museum of Harvard University. 95. SP-Ash: also worn alone. 97. S-BtlM, NP-MC: worn under full-length . See also, NP-MC, note 1488. 498. S-Bty: worn only by young girls. See S-BtlM, note 1489. 01. NP-MC: shredded-bark apron rare. B03. S-Egan: claimed also to have made skirts ngling ropes of rabbit fur. Such skirts used ncers among Owens Valley Paiute (Steward, pls. 7,d, 8,e,f). 06. S-Hmlt: badger-brush (hunavi) bark. 08. GH, Panamint V., said breechclouts of ikn; called navi'tcoponiap:. 12. S-SnRv: ground-hog-fur breecholout; ,only when chasing game; other times men wore small front apron. S-Hmlt: of wildcat fur. 13. S-Elko: specimen, of twined sage bark, by RB, now in Peabody Museum of Harvard Uni- ity. Leggings , S-Lida: JS thought these had been sewed into 1 garment, i.e., trousers, but this is un- doubtedly post-Caucasian, if true. SP-Ash, S-Lida: leggings not necessary because moccasins knee height. 1517. S-RsRi: worn by women in winter. 1518. S-GSmV: of badger skin. 1521. S-RubV: when no buckskin available, sage bark was spiraled around leg from belt to ankle or tied around lower leg. 1523. S-BtlM: known to informant only among Bannock. 1524. S-BtlM: hip halfway down thigh; each separate; worn with breechclout. Footgear 1527. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: fig. 13,g. SP-Ash: fig. 13,i; top, knee height. S-DthV: like fig. 13,g, but nearly knee height; soft sole. Fig. 13,a, S-Lida S-RsRi S P-Ash S-Elko S iEureka S-Elko Shoshoni N-Lk NP-FSp Fig. 13. Moccasins. a, 2-piece or hard sole; uppers and tongue added. b, 1-piece or soft sole. c, 1-piece; uppers added. d, 3-piece, hard sole. e, 1-piece; uppers added. f, cut of skin for type shown in "c." g, 2-piece; uppers and tongue added: made by RB, S-Elko. h, 2- piece, with instep gusset, tongue, and upper. i, 2-piece, upper added. 2-piece moccasin with hard sole and tongue and uppers added, S-Lida, S-GSmV. S-SmCr: like fig. 13,a, but sole flat, not molded; sole of hard deer's neck skin; uppers soft; ankle height; badgerskin, fur inside, especially for winter; called mumbu. Panamint V. woman's moccasins de- scribed by Dutcher (p. 378) as heavy skin soles sewed to uppers. Curtis (15:58) claims E Mono (i.e., N Paiute) moccasins were 2-piece with 343 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS deer neck skin only for use in rough country. GH said Panamint V. moccasins were of soft sheepskin, with 2-piece sole; tongue lacking; ankle height; but most people went barefoot. S-Hmlt: moccasins recently made by AR are like fig. 13,g, having separate sole and tongue; but AR said old type was 1-piece, like fig. 13,c. S-Elko: BG described 1-piece moccasin as native type, but RB made pair of soft moccasins, fig. 13,g, for the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. S-RubV: 2-piece moccasins, made with badger fur inside and lined with juniper bark; sole of hard buckskin for win- ter; had 1-piece tongue, like fig. 13,a, or gus- set and tongue added, like fig. 13,d, according to RVJ. RVJ's daughter, MM, described 1-piece type, like fig. 13,c,f, having uppers which over- lap in front and are bound with long string. Bronco Charlie, Eureka, had moccasins like fig. 13,d, which had been half-soled several times. 1539. S-RsRi: fig. 13,b, 1-piece, sewed up in- step and heel, toe puckered; made entirely of badger hide; fur turned inside; worn winter only; called nuwu (man) mamb. Fig. 13,c, also 1-piece; skin cut as in fig. 13,f and sewed along outside of sole and up heel; this usually of deer neck; tongue and uppers may be added; this type occurs at S-Mor, S-Ely, S-SprV, S-Elko. S-Egan: 2-piece, i.e., separate sole, moccasin; of deer hide; tongue sometimes added. S-Egan winter moccasin, 1-piece badger hide; fur inside; seam runs up toe as in fig. 13,b, but toe not puckered. S-SnRv: like fig. 13,c,f; buckskin or badger fur; both sexes have uppers same height. S-BtlM: buckskin moccasin like fig.13,c,f. Winter moccasin of badger fur, hair turned inside, toe being puckered and slightly bent back (fig. 13,e); shredded bark pushed inside with stick after moccasin placed on foot. NP-MC: buckskin moccasin like fig. 13, c,f, with tongue and badger-skin sole added. Win- ter moccasin of badger skin; 1 skin served for 2 moccasins, each being single piece of skin; these not sewed but .uncertain whether they were merely held on foot by means of a thong. 1551. Skin from deer's, neck was hardest, hence used for soles at S-SmCr, S-Mor, S-Ely, S-SprV, S-Egan, and probably others. 1552. S-GSmV, NP-MC: cut badger skin in 2 for winter. S-Egan: made winter moccasins of badger fur, hair inside. 1555. S-Elko: fig. 13,g, specimen made by RB for Peabody Museum of Harvard University. 1563. SP-Ash: bark or leather. S-GSmV: im- ported. 1565. NP-FSp: probably somewhat like fig. 14,g, about 14 in. long, tied to foot, heel and toe. S-RsRi: fig. 14,a. S-Mor: fig. 14,b; rim of juniper, loop for heel and toe. S-Hmlt: fig. 14,c. S-SprV: fig. 14,d; rim of serviceberry; bark woven into buckskin thongs where foot rests; JR also claimed shapes like figs. 14,e,f. S-Elko: fig. 14,g, type having willow rim, sinew lashing with place where foot rests reinforced with shrub called huwijep:; snowshoe called zink:. Fig. 14, h, type having 2 thin pieces of wood runni diameter over which lie 2 heavier piecesX long diameter. S-Egan: fig. 14,i. S-RubV: 14,j; rim of serviceberry; snowshoe calle S-Mor S! pr _ I _ i S-Egan S-RubV MP-MC Fig. 14. Snowshoes. dziT)ghu. S-SnRv: CT said there was too 1i snow on Snake R. to use snowshoes, but st made of a wooden rim with harness strapsj across both long and short diameters was lected from a Snake River Shoshoni for P9 Museum of Harvard Univ. S-BtiM: fig. 14, of willow; lacing of cord, aT)gawana; eac about inch apart; 3 loops to hold foot. U fig. 14,k; rim of willow. GAMES Ball Race 1577. S-Lida: known near Belmont, NeV* not at Lida. Two or 3 men race to distant then return, kicking stuffed-skin ball. 4 line on ground. S-Bt1M: played when peopt to eat fish. Someone yells, clapping hi8?j over his mouth, then announces race, dist and number of runners on each side. Cour be 5 mi. long. Goal any well-known spot.> FSp, NP-FLk: recounted in myths (Steward 388-395) but never played. 1583. S-BtlM: ball too heavy for 1 maS all kicking. TP saw some balls which wet ably Paiute in Owyhee region; they werea in diam. 1588. S-BtlM: if 1 side carries ballr,' may do likewise. 1591. S-Elko: 5-7. S-RubV: 8-9. S-Bt1 1595. S-BtlM: people bet buckskin sh1 beaded moccasins (beaded moccasins proba& 344 .Z r - CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI t), arrows and arrow feathers, but not their Shinny 596. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: known to have been played me people to N who kicked ball. S-Elko: re- ly men have played shinny against N Paiute, g very small ball that could be grasped in .In the List, M is man's game, played with ball and feet; W, woman's game, played with skin strip, or dumbbell-shaped skin and W See note 1596 for explanation of List s, M and W. 7. S-Lida: this game similar at Belmont and F Men played with skin ball using their feet. F, or sometimes men and women, used rope or Kring propelled by stick. In mixed games ly 3 men and 3 women on each side. 1l. S-BtlM: with heavy ends. S-SprV: JR saw S Paiute (?) girls play- th buckskin strap near Salt Marsh beyond V. in western Utah. . NP-MC: placed between feet of a player oh side. . CT thought Paiute threw puck into air t, but CTh, NP-MC, said it was placed on S-SnRv: recently only. S-SnRv: 8-10 women. Hoop-and-Pole Fig. 6,e, a Saline Valley ohoshoni d-pole made by JH for Peabody Museum of University: hoop is mesquite-bark ring, with bark, 4* in. in diam.; pole of screw in. in diam., 5 ft. long, with bark off; course had 2 parallel piles of wil- ach pile 15 ft. long, laid on ground 42 t. S-SnRv, S-BtlM: had heard of southern hoop-and-pole among "Pine-nut eaters" ufficient identification) to S. NP-MC: game only among Lovelock Paiute, where by men, 2 sides simultaneously casting ft. long at tule ring rolled toward pile Os at 1 end of playing course. S-DthV: 1 pole marked. S 3-Lida: 10-12 ft.; S-SmCr: 6-8; S-RsRi: The play in S-DthV and Saline V. is * One player, standing in middle of court, p against pile of willows and, when it ced off, casts his pole, holding butt in and sliding it along ground. If his pole es or touches hoop, his opponent casts, to knock off his pole. First continues itil he misses hoop, when his opponent both poles penetrate or touch hoop in , no score. Unlike S-DthV, however, Saline 5 points for penetrating, 1 for lying on 'points win. 1648. NP-FSp, NP-FLk, S-DthV, S-Bty: 1-2; S- Lida, 2-4; S-RubV: 5 or variable. 1651. NP-FLk, NP-FSp: referee called huna (badger). Ring-and-Pin 1656. SP-Ash: all large holes count 1; tooth sockets and orifices in malar bone, 10; small hole on each side of palate wins. Pegs moved in holes (variable number) in board to keep score. Hand Game 1666. S-Lida: played same way at Belmont, Nevada. 1667. Sticks collected for Peabody Museum of Harvard University from WP, Saline Valley Shoshoni, are hollow bone, cylindrical, 3* in. long, !-* in. in diam.; 2 are wrapped for 9 in. in middle with black thread. 1669. S-RsRi: wooden sticks collected from JF for Peabody Museum of Harvard University are cylin- drical, 3i in. long, l& in. in diam.; 2 are grooved in center and wrapped with black rag. 1670. S-Bty: used when players are suspected of cheating. 1671. S-BtlM: formerly used loop, about 1 in. in diam., of small shell-disk beads, thought to have been traded in from Pacific Ocean. Only 2 of these were used, each player holding 1 in palm of 1 hand. This facilitated cheating. Bone sticks said to have been introduced recently from Paiute. 1672. Used only when there is 1 player on each side. 1674. S-Egan, S-RubV: only when tied in pairs to prevent cheating. S-SnRv: seen tied in pairs at Ft. Hall, Idaho. 1678. Guesser's palm held horizontal indicates unmarked sticks in outside positions; vertical, unmarked sticks inside positions; points left, sticks are toward his left (i.e., in opponents' right hands); points right, sticks are toward his right. 1679. Clasp hands together and motion left, right, center; separate hands and point both ways to indicate sticks are in outside positions. 1683. S-Lida: 8-10 counters. 1686. Sticks, first called "raw" (saundeho, S-SnRv, S-BtlM; sauka'Yu, NP-MC), are divided evenly to start game. When 1 side has lost all these, other side hands back original number, now called "cooked" (biadeho, S-SnRv, S-BtlM; kwasip, NP-MC). If these also lost, game lost. 1689. Remy and Brenchley (p. 130) record that hand game was favorite among Humboldt River Sho- shoni, men even betting their wives. 4-Stick Guessing Game 1692. NP-MC: all sticks same length, but 2 have smaller diameters and are wrapped. SP-Ash: sticks are bone. S-RsRi: sticks collected for Peabody 345 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Museum of Harvard University from JF: 2 are 5 in. long, x in. in diam.; 2 are 4i in. long, 1l in. in diam.; all wooden, unmarked. S-BtlM: 2 about 2 in. in diem., 6 in. long; 2 thinner and longer; none wrapped. 1693. NP-FSp: 2 sticks may be used. 1706. S-Mor: 12-16 counters. 1707. NP-MC: neutral pile called "raw"; sticks won from it called "cooked." 1712. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: 1-2 players; SP-Ash: 2-4. 4-Stick Dice 1716. S-SnRv: marked sticks red on marked side; other sticks plain on 1 side, red on other. S-Egan, S-RubV, S-BtlM: all sticks red on 1 side, white on other; one has cross, the "mother"; one, 10 paral- lel lines, the "father"; 2 unmarked, "little ones" (fig. 6,k). At S-BtlM, dice are split rose or currant stems, about X in. thick, flat side paint- ed,other side left rounded and plain. 1717. S-SmCr, S-GSmV: 2 of 4 sticks marked as in fig. 6,j. S-RsRi: in fig. 6,i marks are burned on. 1724. S-BtlM: 2 sides, 2 persons on each. Each side continues to cast until it fails to score. 1726. S-GSmV: 6-7(?)counters. S-Hmlt: 5(?) or 10(?) counters. 1731. S-Elko: BG knew little about scoring but thought all red and all white gave double count. S-Egan thought scoring was as follows (certain combinations are not recorded here): 3 red and cross . . l 3 red and parallel lines . . 1 3 red and white . .............. O All red . .............................1 All white . ........................... l Both marked . .........................0 S-RubV and perhaps S-BtlM scored as follows: All red . .................. wins 3 red and 1 white ....................0 3 red and parallel lines .............1 3 red and cross ......................1 2 red and 2 white ....................0 2 red and cross ......................1 2 red and parallel lines. 0 2 red, cross, and parallel lines-..1..l 1 red and cross ......................1 1 red, cross, and parallel lines ..1 1 red and parallel lines .............0 All white . ...........................1 Thus the cross ("mother") always scores 1, the parallel lines ("father") scores only vwhen com- bined with 3 reds. All white or all red scores 1. S-SnRv scored as follows: Father, mother, and 1 white ..........1 Father, mother, and 2 white ..........2 Mother and 3 white . . 3 Father and 3 white . .................. 4 1 red and 3 white . ............1..... 2 red and 2 white . ................. 2 (When players have agreed to count red.) Father, 2 red and 1 white .......0 Father, 1 red and 2 white ........ Mother, 2 red and 1 white...... .1 Mother, 1 red and 2 white....,,? All red ......................... 4 All white .......................0 Also, score may be based solely upon numb( white sides turning up. Many Dice or Basket Dice 1734. S-Elko: introduced recently from 1735. Specimens from JF, S-RsRi, now io body Museum, Harvard University, are 2 in. i in. wide, about i in. thick. 1740. S-SmCr: probably 12 dice. 1755. S-SmCr, S-RsRi: all red up wins a pays double the amount bet. S-Hmlt: all rg merely wins. 1757. Same as note 1755. 8-Stick Dice 1765. S-RsRi: JF described two 8-stickf games, calling one topaidu, which name he. previously assigned to standard 4-stick dA calling other danzahni, which is usual naq 8-stick cane dice. His 8-stick "topaidu" t merely confusion of names. He described fi follows: played by women with 8 wooden aie 8 in. long, painted red on 1 side and thrd winnowing basket; scoring was: all white,." red, 1; 2 red, 2; 3, 4, and 5 red, 0; 6 r, 7 red, 1; all red, 5; 5 points win; score. means of pebbles on ground. Except for nu dice, resembles 4-stick dice else-where. Saline Valley Shoshoni called 8-stick d tazani"intip; used 8 cane dice, each 14 i women whirled and dropped them, men bounce from their knee; scoring circuit had 30 t grouped 7,8,8,7; game was played and scoro elsewhere. 1767. NP-MC: rosewood dice. 1767a. NP-FSp: 10-16 inches long. J 1770. S-Egan: red probably native coloD BM's present set are bamboo, painted blao' side. 1771. S-GSmV: thought there might be U 1777, 1785. Each counter or peg moved d giving double total points of 16. 1787. S-Egan: scoring circuit sticks aQ in arc, sticks having larger spaces at cez intervals which give them following group 6,8,8,8,6. S-RubV: groupings are 6,7,8,8, S-SnRv: groupings are: 6,8,8,8,8,8,8,6. groupings are: 6,8,8,8,8,8,8,8,6. Pegs ma; moved once around arc or around and back 4 Pegs called bak:. Each cluster of sticks cuit called ohwi. When pegs stop in inter tween clusters, called tumagumawando, "g to be sharpened." - - -- --- 346 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 1788. S-GSmV, S-Mor, S-Hmlt, NP-MC: uncertain the number given. S-SprV: thought 300-400. Archery L 1806. S-RsRi: uncertain whether 2 or 3. S- t: wins. 1807. S-Mor: or perhaps 10. S-Elko: usually 10. RubV: 4 or 5. 1809. S-SnRv: boys do not bet on games. Ring-and-Dart 1813. S-Elko: tting. 1815. Dart is ge-hen feather s butt. 1841. S-SmCr: small hole left in center of sharpened stick having single tied to project backward from Juggling 8 is undoubtedly excessive. Foot Race 1846. S-SnRv: 2 contestants run distances up 10 mi. There is much betting. Wrestling 1847. S-SnRv: touching knee to ground or lying lt on back may count as fall. Jacks 1855. TP played jacks at Owyhee in his boyhood. Tops 1859. S-BtlM: rock about 18 in. long, 6 in. in ., coated several times with pitch which is plied to the upper portion and melted by fire as to run down. It is spun between hands or ipped on ice. 1862. S-SnRv, S-BtlM: boys attempt to make ir tops run into their opponents' tops and gak them. 1863. S-Egan: cast on hard ground to spin. Bull-roarer 1874. S-Elko: anyone may use bull-roarer in kly spring to bring warm wind. S-BtlM: boys used to make wind blow during hot weather. Cat's Cradles 1875. S-Egan: figures include: eagle, sun, man, house, antelope, lizard. S-RubV: figures slude in addition to those enumerated under S- , boy and girl. S-BtlM: figures include: bird, tbit net, summer house, louse, deer, antelope, i, woman, and others. Dolls 1883. S-BtlM: girls made small play houses and various clay dolls and animal effigies, with which they played all day. MONEY 1888. S-DthV: said whole shells sometimes im- ported and beads manufactured locally. Strings of glass beads, in sections of different colors, used as money and as necklaces. Money called nawfiku. Saline V. Shoshoni measured money as in fig. 2,k (GH). Money consisted of strings of shells from W and of glass beads, both called nauwiuk:u. One measure around the hand called stiwu (one) hupi, 2 measures called wa (wahata, two) hupi. GG, Little Lake Shoshoni, described 2 kinds of money: one, cylinders (of Columella shell ?) about 3 in. long, A in. in diam., perforated lengthwise and carried on strings but counted individually, called ku'tsidamb'ui; other, round, flat shells from S, called motso'k:o, also on strings; both worn by women as necklaces. S-GSmV: one measure, called mako:n, was 5 times as long as last 2 thumb joints. S-Bty: red, white, and blue glass beads, appa- rently traded from S in pre-Caucasian days, worth $.25 for length equal to circumference of hand; shell beads worth more. SP-Ash: price of dog was a string of shell money that would encircle his neck. S-Mor: twisted rabbitskins measured around hand, standards being 2 or 4 such lengths. 40 lengths worth $5.00. Formerly, these traded for buckskins, etc. S-SnRv: deer hides most frequently traded, but did not always have same value. Exchange with Nez Perce at Boise V., Idaho, sometimes brought 1 horse for 3 buckskins, also, 1 colt for abouti bushel of camass roots. S-GSmV: pot worth 1 buckskin. TOBACCO AND SMOKING Pipe 1895. Remy and Brenchley observed (p. 130) that Humboldt River Shoshoni pipes are of wood or "red earth" and that "sometimes these earthenware pipes are exceedingly valuable, and Indians have been known to give a horse in exchange for one of them." S-SprV, S-Elko: called pipe bowl toi, wooden stem, pitcimu. 1895a. S-Elko: fig. 4,d, stone pipe found near Elko by BG. S-DthV: fig. 4,e, pottery pipe in possession of Shoshoni Johnny. NP-MC: pipes usually held sufficient tobacco for 2 men. 1896. S-Lida, S-GSmV: procured steatite from near Blue Dick mine, N of Lida. S-BtlM: procured red stone from near Owyhee. Pt 4 I I f, ! 347 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 1901. S-Egan: stem may sometimes have been of rabbit leg bone. 1905. Monitor or platform pipe collected from SF, Diamond Valley Shoshoni. Stems for this type are of wood or cane. 1906. S-BtlM: said tubular pipes had no stems. 1910. S-BtlM: only women who are doctors smoke pipes. 1913. S-BtlM: pass pipe with right hand to neighbor on left. Pipes for gatherings have large bowls. Cigarette 1914. S-BtlM: rarely used. 1915. Used only temporarily if pipe is lost. Chewing 1919. NP-FLk: lime from burned clamshells. MH and others still use it today. Smokihg, Miscellaneous Remy and Brenchley (p. 130) note that Humboldt River Shoshoni "like to puff the smoke of the tobacco out through their nostrils." 1922. NP-MC: also smoked in morning. S-BtlM, some persons smoke after meals; inhale and blow smoke out through nose. S-SnRv: never smoke in- doors; man goes outside at bedtime and smokes rapidly until "he falls down." 1928. UnU'pi, ghost or whirlwind. Tobacco 1930. S-BtlM: gather, stack until dry, knock leaves onto blanket, winnow out flowers. S-SnRv: leaves kept stacked; some crushed and put into pouch for use. 1935. S-Elko: leaf of tatsip and root of nati- vada smoked. 1936. S-Lida: used only by children in play. 1943. S-SmCr: pouch of fur of large rat. S- RsRi: foxskin, fur turned inside. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Rattle 1948. S-Bty: used in "war dance," probably South dance. 1957. S-DthV: fig. 4,b, rawhide rattle found in vicinity of Stovepipe Wells, Death V., and now at Bungalow City. Skin is in 2 pieces, sewed to- gether, and perforated by wooden handle, 9' in. long. 1965. S-DthV: only as pendant on cradle. NP- MC: called duitci (deer) tosik (hoof). S-BtlM: fawn's dewclaws are dried, strung on buckskin, and put on end of stick 6 in. long, with eagle feathers and eagle down (see use under "Shaman- ism"). 1973. S-Elko: introduced about 35 years ^ with Back-and-forth dance (Ute, Bear dance). Egan: claimed pre-Caucasian, but used only t company singing for amusement. (See also, Ba and-forth dance.) 1977. Hide stuffed with rabbitskin blanke Drum 1985. S-Ely: willows bent and "woven" Inti to form body of drum (informant's confusion' S-SprV: several rings of serviceberry superii in some way to form drum body, 8 in. deep; db called wUtua (this term used for any bowl).A single wooden ring forms body; drum called Si (willow ?) witua (bowl). Whistle 2003. S-BtlM: willow type made by young in May when willow bark peels easily. Flute 2004. S-Lida: JS saw one at Lida, probab] brought there from Grapevine Canyon, DeathI S-SnRv: fig. 4,a, flute made by Ben Boney fi Peabody Museum of Harvard University; of e14 berry; length, 21 in.; pine (woTrgovi) pitch holes, each 1-. in. in diam., burned in; wral with native cord, ar)gawana. 2007. S-Egan: flute of wildcat thigh boni with 3, 4, or 6 holes. 2008. S-Elko: 2-3 ft. long; S-SnRv: 21-21 inches. 2010. S-Egan: gave 3, 4, or 6 holes. S-& said 6, but specimen in fig. 4,a had only 4. MARRIAGE 2021. S-Mor, NP-MC: 1-2 months bride sen S-Ely: 2-3 years (probably exaggerated). i 2030. S-Bty, S-DthV: payment to avoid soi (GH). 2032. See note 2030. 2034. S-SprV: also mother's brother's daZ preferred. 2035. S-Mor: also mother's brother's stel daughter preferred. 2039. S-DthV: GH said matrilocal until 1i child born, then independent residence. 2047. S-Bty: payment must be made to wit divorce. 2050. Prostitution for a night only by c about to marry, NP-FSp, NP-FLk. KINSHIP RELATIONS Joking Relations 2084. Brothers- and sisters-in-law are pi ted more obscenity than are other relatives, 348 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI DIVISION OF LABOR im and Brenchley observed (pp. 127-128) that gHumboldt River Shoshoni women do all the r, even fetching home on their shoulders game ed. l12. Dutcher, 1893, observed Panamint V. wo- loing all work of gathering pine nuts. }15. S-Elko: all pine nuts carried down to or camp in fall, perhaps requiring several I:. 117. S-SprV: men did all cooking. (Question- i21. S-SnRv: men sometimes call their wives kowep: (nu, my, goto, fire, wep:, maker), p new fires made with drill by men. S-BtlM: ly old women gathered firewood, but hunter zning home without load expected to bring in vood. 23. Women rarely assisted men in fishing at lv and S-BtlM. 27. Rats and mice caught by boys. '32. Skin preparations at present done by in Owyhee region. 34. S-SmCr: TH's father made moccasins. 5. NP-FLk: pots made sometimes by man also. JH has recently been making pots to sell. B6. S-Elko, S-BtlM: man procures rock and hews it with another rock; woman finishes 37. S-DthV: skin blanket sometimes made by ,.also. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Chief 52. NP-FLk: assistant helps chief plan fes- and feed visitors. A. S-DthV: messenger no special person. 55. S-DthV: usually 2, more or less equal, rchiefs. S-Bty: several. PROPERTY 3. SP-Ash: aeries on Charleston Mts. owned ilies. BIRTH CUSTOMS 78. Birth house called (same as menstrual hunikat, S-Elko; hunagant, S-Egan, S-RubV; (self-burning) kahni (house), S-SnRv; (baby) novi (house), NP-MC. S-RsRi, S-RubV: in winter, use houses gular winter house. S-RubV: domed willow house used in summer 1. Among Humboldt River Shoshoni (probably inity of Elko), Remy and Brenchley (pages 7) observed that at childbirth woman retired days alone. They encountered woman secluded w child, eating roots she had cooked; her husband squatted on ground 2 mi. away, not per- mitted to approach her. S-SnRv: after birth of 1st child of each sex mother's confinement and restrictions are for 1 month only for each sub- sequent child. 2182. S-SnRv: ground warmed to prevent mother's blood from "clogging." 2185. S-Bty: pit 2 ft. deep; woman covered with blankets. 2186. Sarah Winnemucca says (pp. 49-50) that among Humboldt Lake Paiute, father gathers fire- wood and does all household chores for 25 days. 2187. SP-Ashs mother "sits" (kneels ?). 2191. S-RubV: waist strap sometimes used. 2195. See "Shamanism" under "Religion" in sec- tion "Ethnographic Discussion." 2196. That is, any woman who understands task of midwife. S-SmCr: 4 or 5 women assist. 2200. S-BtlM: older woman who understands childbirth but has no special shamanistic power assists, merely manipulating mother so as to work out child. NP-FLk: man with special power says to baby: "This is a fine country." He walks back and forth, asking baby to follow him, that is, to come out. Or, he may bring a bow and arrow and pretend to shoot so as to frighten out baby. Women also have such midwife power. S-Bty: person with spe- cial power frightens out baby. See "Shamanism." 2203. S-SprV: afterbirth is first dried on tree, then buried. 2207. NP-MC: mother bathed every 5th day for 25 days. S-Bt1M: mother may bathe any time, but must bathe previous to returning to dwelling. 2208. S-Bty: fire built morning and evening for 5 days, when mother tells her dreams so that child cannot be bewitched and will live long. 2210. S-DthV: warm water drunk until baby's umbilical cord detaches. S-Hmlt: 1-2 months. S-BtlM: water must have reached boiling point, then cooled slightly. 2211. Sarah Winnemucca (p. 49) claims Humboldt Lake Paiute women observed 25-day meat taboo. 2212. NP-MC: claims to have used no salt pre- vious to the coming of white man. 2214. S-SnRv: scratching stick used lest hair cease growing. S-Bty: used for 1st infant only; stick marked with infant's excrement. S-DthV: used until umbilical cord falls off. 2215. S-SnRv, S-BtlM: woman, after washing and painting self, returns to dwelling in early morning before people have arisen. 2216. S-Egan: both mother and baby are painted. 2221. S-GSmV: if boy, bathed by stroking with eagle feather to make him grow large and strong. 2224. NP-MC: baby bathed every 5th day for 25 days. 2235. Recorded also among Humboldt Lake Paiute by Sarah Winnemucca (p. 50). 2237. S-RubV: umbilical cord buried when baby can walk. 2239. S-DthV: at birth, infant put on an old cradle. S-RsRi: infant cradled in bark and brush until completion of basketry cradle which is com- 349 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS menced at birth. SP-Ash: at birth maternal grand- mother begins to make cradle. 2240. S-DthV: When umbilical cord detaches, 2d cradle given. S-Lida: more than 10 days. S-BtlM: 2d cradle given when mother returns to dwelling; old cradle left in birth house. Sarah Winnemucca claims (p. 50) Humboldt Lake Paiute infants re- ceived new cradle every 5th day for first 25 days. 2241. NP-FLk, NP-FSp, S-Bty: 2d cradle at half- year. 2246. S-BtlM: all father's restrictions and taboos for benefit of infant. 2248. S-SnRv: when birth announced, father at once jumps into water, then runs; this is for his strength, called nauma (self) vuya (making). 2249. S-Hmlt: man splashes water from bowl with leaves onto father. 2251. Confinement fairly complete, except when father leaves house to run. 2252. S-SnRv: confined until umbilical cord de- taches, which requires 4-5 days. 2253. NP-FSp, S-Mor: uncertainty concerning answers 10 and 30, respectively. 2254. S-DthV: meat taboo until umbilical cord detaches. TS said Paiute at Bishop, Calif., ob- served meat taboo only 5 days. S-SmCr: observed to prevent father becoming heavy. S-SnRv: observed to prevent child "bloating." S-Hmlt: observed to prevent father from aging; when confinement over, he eats sage with his first meat. Humboldt Lake Paiute men, according to Sarah Winnemucca (p. 45), abstained from meat for 25 days. 2256. S-BtlM: man must stop smoking when his wife first known to be pregnant. 2257. S-DthV: gambling taboo until umbilical cord detaches. 2259. SP-Ash: if boy born, father must hunt and bring back deer, probably at time of birth. S-Elko: running prevents father's aging. 2263. S-RubV: father must not run too early for fear his eyes will water. 2264. S-BtlM: runs E in morning until sun rises, W in evening until sun sets. Each day, for 5 days, he runs shorter distance. S-Bty: E all day. 2267. S-BtlM: gathers wood 1st day only, run- ning with it to birth house, when his wife is re- turning from her bath, and casting it under a bush. 2268. Scratching stick. S-Mor: to prevent fa- ther's wrinkling when old. 2273. S-SnRv: hangs old clothes on willows. 2274. S-BtlM: takes several baths at this time. 2276. S-SmCr: when first hunting after child- birth, if father hits game with his 1st shot, he will be good archer; if he misses, he will be poor thereafter. S-Egan: game given to woman who has cared for mother. 2278. S-Mor: probably required fewer restric- tions after 1st birth. Twins 2284. S-GSmV: if one twin was killed, other was covered with basket so as not to see it; this prevented other dying. S-DthV: may kill one or keep both. 2285. S-Egan: only if same sex; S-BtlM: if opposite sexes. 2286. S-GSmV: JK's grandmother had twins gave 1 to wet nurse and later took it back4 mother may give one to suitable person for tion. Infanticide 2288. S-DthV: may give I child away for tion. S-Elko: if child is killed, woman doe tell her husband. 2292. S-RubV: mother conceals infant som until it dies, then buries it. 2293. S-Egan: abortion disapproved. 2294. S-BtlM: pressure abortion often ca woman's death. Loss of Milk Teeth 2299. NP-FLk: relative, usually mother, tooth at child who says, "Old woman, give a teeth." 2300. S-SnRv: placed under any growing b make new teeth grow. 2302. S-RubV: hidden in grass. 2303. S-Hmlt: after being thrown over oh head. Names NP-FSp: names usually given by paternal parents. NP-FLk: given by paternal aunts an uncles. SP-Ash: taken from some object ins and dreamed by a relative. S-Bty: given by "smart man," perhaps a chief. Sarah WinneE probably overemphasizing one of many kinad names, says Humboldt Lake Paiute girls were named after flowers (pp. 46-48) and someti after rocks. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: reluctance to own name to white persons is recent. Shosho names, to be listed in a future paper, are, usually personal characteristics or various natural objects. GIRL'S PUBERTY First Menstruation S-GSmV: emphasize girl's learning to woX cook. S-Lida: data were observed by infor Belmont, Nevada, but probably apply also t 2305. CTh, NP-MC, seemed to know very about girl's puberty rites. Sarah Hopkins (p. 48) that the Humboldt Lake Paiute girl, isolated 25 days, accompanied by 2 frienas stay in a special house. 2306. S-DthV: confinement was not compl 2309. MenstiQal hut built like and give name as birth house: hunaguto', S-Hmlt; hu (lst menstruation called hunaokumba), S-R huninobi, NP-MC. 2311. Menstrual house usually near cam 350 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI situated as to keep woman from male contact. men may visit her, men must talk from distance. 2312 S-BtlM: ground warmed somewhat around a, but not so much as for childbirth. 2315. S-Hmlt: attended by her grandmother. NP- sister or some other girl stays with her at ght. - 2317. SP-Ash: some other woman combs her hair; S-RubV, brush used. S-Egan: girl's mother bs her hair with porcupine tail. 2318. S-Egan, S-SnRv: girl instructed to arise rly, fetch wood and water, cook, not be lazy, It talk too much, and avoid eating too much; last to prevent her skin from becoming dark. S- li: instructed for 2 or 3 days only. 2319. Meat or grease taboo. S-SnRv: would make r lazy. S-BtlM: girl, upon returning to dwell- after menstruation, must chew 1st mouthful any game hunted by men, then spit it into fire. al Hopkins says (p. 48) Humboldt Lake Paiute ls abstained from meat for 25 days. 2322. S-DthV: may drink cold water only in 11 sips. 2325. S-BtlM: only women may visit her. Though estion not explicitly asked elsewhere, informa- on clearly implies that isolation was to keep from contaminating men and household articles. 2327. S-GSmV: hair would fall out if scratched th fingers. 2329. S-RubV: MU said her aunt came early each rning to make her arise, then returned home. 2330. S-BtlM: girl must move rapidly in all suits, but does not actually run at any special e. 2331. Sarah Hopkins claimed (p. 48) that Hum- ldt Lake Paiute girls had to make 5 piles of rewood 3 times each day. 2340. S-RubV: girl bathed by attendant every days. Sarah Hopkins says (p. 48) that Humboldt e Paiute girls bathed in river every 5th day r 25 days. 2344. S-BtlM, S-SnRv: girl is painted on final r before returning to dwelling. 2346. S-SnRv: if camp moved by means of horses, atrual clothes always transported on same horse. 2347. Sarah Hopkins says (p. 48) Humboldt Lake iute girl got new clothes and gave her old ones her attendants. 2350. S-RubV: worn while in menstrual house and r 30 days after confinement. S-SnRv: worn only en girl leaves menstrual house. Subsequent Menstruation 2355. Sarah Hopkins verifies (p. 48) CTh's as- ortion that seclusion for subsequent menstrual iriods was 5 days. 2359 Girl or woman stays alone in most in- *nces; though women may visit her. 2365. S-Ely: formerly menstruating woman did , cook for other persons; now she does. 2377. S-SnRv: when woman goes to menstrual pse, her husband or some other occupant of dwelling cleans out remains of old fire and builds new one with fire drill. BOY'S PUBERTY 2381. TP said boys were told not to be lazy, also that young children of both sexes were told not to drink at well lest they die when they marry, not to take 1st cup of water, and not to take largest roots out of mush lest they become too heavy and drown when crossing river. This, however, is general child training, not specific puberty instruction. 2385. Game taboo in Panamint V. but not in Death V. S-RsRi: boy eats very little of it. DEATH CUSTOMS 2387. S-BtlM: when death is certain, friends gather around invalid and remain until death oc- curs. This was observed at Owyhee, large crowd of visitors remaining also day or so after death, until funeral. 2395. SP-Ash: by sweeping around house where deceased has been. 2400. S-SnRv: undertaker covers self with white clay, evi, which often but not always used for other purification. 2404. Burial. NP-MC: head S or W. 2406. S-SnRv: in rocks if available; or in bank where earth may be pulled down; or abandoned in house when hope for life is gone. 2408. S-BtlM: in earth if soft; grave covered with sticks. 2421. S-BtlM: funeral speech tells of deceased's life, character, and how his family will miss him. 2423. S-Bty: people contribute food, clothing, weapons, money, etc. Recently at Owyhee, property is thrown on pile; custom learned from Bannocks, who have adopted it recently from unknown source. 2425. S-Hmlt: property either given away or put in tree beside grave. S-Egan: corpse clothed, covered with rabbitskin blanket, food being left near-by. Son or brother gets bow and arrows and dog. Woman's metate broken, baskets burned. S- RubV: bury blankets and clothes with corpse; keep metate; burn baskets. S-SnRv: some property buried with corpse, but clothing and bedding burned; such valuable articles as bow and rabbit net taken by any relative. S-BtlM: clothing buried with corpse, household articles burned. Mourning 2432. S-SnRv: widow's hair cropped irregularly and ear lobe sometimes mutilated by her sister. Other female relatives cut their own hair to bob length. Sarah Hopkins reports (p. 21) that Hum- boldt Lake Paiute men and women cut off their hair and gashed their arms and legs for several days; widow cuts her hair first, braiding it and putting it across deceased's breast. I i i 351 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS 2437. S-BtlM: female relatives gash their legs on both sides until blood flows, by rubbing them in "pile of obsidian chips." 2440. NP-FSp: 2-3 years before remarry. Sarah Hopkins (p. 21) says Humboldt Lake Paiute woman may not remarry until her hair has regrown to its length before cut and she may not wash her face, use paint, or participate in festivities until her father-in-law or mother-in-law allows her to do so. S-SnRv: deceased's brother may marry widow at once but others must wait. S-BtlM: widow may marry within few days, especially to husband's brother. At Owyhee, feeling has recently devel- oped that widowed person should not remarry for year. 2450. NP-FSp, NP-FLk: deceased's name mentioned with reluctance; usually designated by relation- ship to some living person. 2451. S-BtlM: but name may be mentioned if nep, "late" or "past," added. Annual Mourning Ceremony 2458. S-DthV: dance called mugua nukana (soul dance); danced 1st night; 2d day and night no dance; 3d morning burned property; that night danced Circle dance (element 2614); 4th day went home. 2461. SP-Ash: singers and old men may take property from pole. 2463. S-DthV: burn pine nuts and other seeds, baskets, clothes, and shell money, which have been accumulated by relatives of deceased. RELIGION Shamanism 2473. S-BtlM: people inherit predisposition tu shamanism but not particular power of ancestor. Curing Performances 2501. Large circular corral, with 1 opening or gate. S-Bty: visitors camp around inside of cor- ral. 2523. When pursuing patient's soul. 2534. SP-Ash, S-DthV: some kind of root ig- nited and pressed over pain. S-Bty: men dreaming of stone burning up used fire drill on pain. 2535. S-BtlM: JP saw man named wihi (iron) danep (knee) near Elko who could spread out coals of fire and lie on them without injury, thus burn- ing out his illness. S-SnRv: doctors with power of handling fire sometimes put coals in their mouths and blow them out on patient. Special Shamans' Powers 2551. Wound curing was ordinarily done by gen- eral practitioner. 2558. S-Bt1M: JP saw man in Bannock country impersonate bear. S-SnRv: some men behaved like bears around camp; they were believed to be in- vulnerable in warfare. 2566. S-SnRv: some men had power to send souls out to see enemy approaching. Miscellaneous 2576. S-SnRv: when person washes early in ing, he "talks for good luck" to sun; when I he beats his chest and blows, which ends or' prayer. S-RsRi: also prayed to sky. 2588. SP-Ash, S-Bty: offering of food or -aade upon reaching one's destination. Nonshamanistic Curing 2594. Herbs used also by anyone who unaer their qualities. 2596. S-SnRv: sweating might be done unad tor's directions. Ghost 2605. S-SnRv: whirlwind may turn into pe for short time, then back into whirlwind. 2607. S-Bty: take sweat bath and pray to NP-FLk, NP-FSp: take cold bath and talk to 2608. SP-Ash: person tells dream and blo (the ghost) away; otherwise, ghost may stay side him and "lead him around." Jimsonweed 2610. Acquired recently by trade. It eni one to see through solid materials and thus lost or stolen objects. 2613. GG said Little Lake Shoshoni call muipu. Person soaked root all night and dar in order to divine cause of his own sickn.m SP-Ash: root boiled and liquid put in bask4 about 12 in. in diam., 6 in. deep, having i down around its edge. People sit around baa and drink it to find location of lost objei to gain other information. It is considered very dangerous. DANCES Circle Dance 2614. S-Lida: said Belmont Shoshoni dan as at Lida. 2621. S-BtlM: dance leader stands in fr his house and "talks" for rain and growth plants. 2623. S-Egan, S-SmCr: recent droughts a tributed for recently abandoning round dan 2628. S-Egan: for summer dance, young p tree with green cones pulled up by roots a in center of dance corral; this helps insu pine-nut harvest. 2629. S-SnRv: young juniper or spruce t S-RsRi: according to FSm, also used young tree. 352 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI 2634. S-BtlM, S-SnRv: singer, called huvia ong) gunt (possessor or performer), has dreamed oial songs. 2635. S-RsRi: before dance starts, everyone .8 hands in a line, with musicians in center, walks around. Dance concluded final day in Fe way. When women choose partners, men first m circle, each woman then enters it to the tht of her chosen man. S-BtlM: sometimes group 4women dance alone, dance then being called ghO (end) nukaiyu. 2644. S-BtlM: leader called kwini (mush) dag- ii (chief) because of his responsibility of ptributing food. He has "talker" or assistant. ,2646. S-Egan: several boys sent to camps in parate directions, but no official messengers. '2647. CT regarded courting as main purpose of pQe. ",2650. S-BtlM: might dance extra day to insure ,a fortune of group which had arrived toward 4 of dance. NP-MC: danced 3, 4, or 5 days. .2651. FSm, from Austin, Nevada, and now at hee, thought all Shoshoni had made camp cir- 8, referring probably to custom of camping mund dance ground or corral. S-RsRi: went to ptin for dances and made camp circle with open- toward E. Bear or "Back-and-Forth" Dance ~2655. SP-Ash: "A," in element list, applies to. X 1 of the dance; this form was called mama- aep wUnumiga (back-and-forth dance) and was d in the mourning ceremony, alternating with Circle dance. "B," in the element list, ap- .es to form 2 of the dance; this form was called 8ihuvia wUniumiga (bird-song dance), and was ely a social dance. 2659. SP-Ash: 3 or 4 musicians. 2662. See note 2655. "South" or Exhibition Dance 2678. S-DthV: magpie tail feathers. SP-Ash: le and yellowhammer feathers. S-RubV: worn by kce chief only, according to RBJ's son-in-law. 2676. NP-MC: introduced 100 yrs. ago. 2679. One or 2 eagle feathers worn. Little ae Shoshoni: each of several men wore 1 feather khis hair. S-BtlM: hair done up on head, 2 thers stuck in it. 2680. NP-FSp: sometimes worn instead of head- dress of usual type; also worn as ornament when not dancing. 2683. SP-Ash: no eagle-down skirt; wore eagle feathers pendent at waist and along bottom of buckskin shirt. S-DthV: hawk feathers hang from end of each eagle-down rope. 2686. S-RubV, NP-MC: only 1 dancer wears this. 2688. NP-FLk: eagle and unknown-bird feathers carried in hand. 2689. S-Egan: threaten to shoot spectators. S-RubV: carried only by leader who threatens to shoot spectators. 2690. S-BtlM: bow is kind used by boys; arrows are rye grass. 2691. S-Bty, S-DthV: cplor may be red, black, or white. 2692. S-DthV: crosses, stripes, and dots on chest. S-RubV: legs painted with horizontal black and white bands, upper body all white, face with spots of white clay, evi. 2693. S-BtlM: special singers transfer song to dancers by blowing and saying, "whoooo." NP-MC: singing done by dancers. 2700. S-Bty: may shoot baskets, kill dogs, and be otherwise destructive. 2701. S-Lida: 4-5 dancers; S-Egan, S-RubV, NP- MC, 10-12; S-BtlM, 6-7. 2702. S-RubV: RVJ's son-in-law said boy was in- cluded among dancers; RVJ denied this. 2703. S-Ely, S-Egan: 2 women wearing ordinary dresses participated. 2706. S-DthV, S-Bty: dancers paid in shell money, which is spread on blanket. S-DthV: dancers pay some to singers. S-Egan: dancer attempts to seize coin held by spectator in split stick; if successful, he puts it on rabbitskin blanket spread out on ground for such gifts. Formerly, gifts were stone beads (called biadzo'?, about 4 in. long), glass beads, feathers, and other ob- jects. S-BtlM: 2 dancers try to seize presents held on sticks and jerked back as they approach; property seized is spread on mat in center of dance ground. This property usually given to singers. 2708. S-DthV: danced 1st night of Circle dance. S-RubV, S-SnRv: held during day, the 1st day of Circle dance. 2710. S-BtlM: dance only during 5 or 6 songs; then performers run to water, bathe, and place their paraphernalia all on 1 horse. Dance must be finished before dark. 2721. S-Lida, S-GSmV, S-BtlM: Uncertainty con- cerning the answer "12." 353 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS SUMMARY Different kinds of elements have dissimilar relationships to the total culture. Some have a relatively fixed place not only in the Shoshonean but in other cultures because they meet important human needs, for example, fire-making apparatus and the bow. Others also have a wide distribution because the satisfactions they provide do not de-- pend upon strictly local cultures, for example, songs, games, dances, some features of religion, and others. Both kinds of elements are, for dif- ferent reasons, incompletely integrated with other parts of the culture, hence may persist when other elements change or may be changed when the re- mainder of the culture is static. A third class of elements bears an important relationship to the local ecology and is incapable of great varia- tion under local conditions, for example, many features of political and social organization, and related elements. Still other elements are par- tially predetermined by local peculiarities, for example, house types. In synthesizing Shoshonean data, it is con- venient to start with the place of economic traits in the total ecology. I must repeat, however, that an effort to ascertain the extent to wihich ecology is a cultural determinant is very different from a position of environmental or economic determin- ism. To the contrary, as the treatment throughout this paper has indicated, complexes unrelated to ecology and various psychological attitudes as well as historical factors are clearly determi- nants of some classes of elements. So far as ecol- ogy is concerned, the problem is simply to dis- cover the portions of the culture upon which its effect has been greatest. The physical environment of this area is com- paratively uniform and the economic traits re- lated to it are relatively unvarying, some ex- tending into neighboring areas where they fill similar functions. Whether traits in the economic complexes have uniformity because of great antiq- uity or because of rapid diffusion, it is not always possible to know, though comparative eth- nographic data and archaeological data have yielded some results on this point. In either case, their universality in this area seems ex- plainable by their general usefulness. Uniformity is greatest in the essential eco- nomic traits, which are: in hunting large game, animal drives of some sort, stalking, ambushing, shooting with poisoned arrows, corrals when practicable, communal antelope drives with the shaman (where antelope were abundant; but lacking in Owens Valley), and communal deer drives under leaders when practicable; communal rabbit drives with nets; spring-pole traps for small birds; small nets for birds (especially sage hens; and, except in the south, driving to nets with ante- lope disguise); deadfalls; probably some kind of blind; nooses; rodent skewers; smoking andl ably flooding out rodents from their holeas ritualized hunting including a scarcity of taboos (practical hunting devices may obviA be borrowed without their ritual concomit4 The limitation of pit blinds and pitfalls northern portions of the area may indicate cency. Fishing, where unimportant, employO seed baskets as scoops, and where important adopted methods from the north and west, f ample, nets, weirs, hooks, and harpoons. Greatest variation in hunting was in del which were dispensable to the main activit masks and disguises, which were limited toX north; sinew backing to the bow, which was3 ent everywhere but not used on all bows; bc terial; material, type, and heads of arrows magical ingredients of arrow poison; consti tion of ambushes; shape of rabbit clubs; r details of antelope and deer hunts; and ot To a certain extent, bow and arrow woods da upon environmental materials. There was a similar uniformity in the a$ gathering complex. Everywhere it included:: ketry water ollas for desert travel; conic seed and carrying baskets (though the shap the carrying basket in other areas is round cylindrical, square or rectangular); baskel seed beater; seed knife; basketry winnowinm parching tray; digging stick; hooked pole 1 pine nuts; storage pits; threshing. Varianl toward a different ecology, such as irrigal and sowing of wild seeds, had made little b way. The general traits of gathering were a to some extent by neighboring areas where 1 filled similar functions. In food-gathering traits, variation was est in details: weave and precise shapes oi kets; type of seed knife and digging stick; of basketry hat; and others. Methods of preparing food were also fair uniform: meat of large game was dried, pouw and stored for the future, or broiled or i and eaten at once; small game, unsuited foi preservation, was eaten at once. Hard-shel] seeds required grinding, for which the meti was everywhere employed (though the mortar once to have served in a part of Northern l territory). But for acorns and mesquite, iw required pounding, the mortar was adopted I California. The earth oven and broiling on fire are simple and probably old. Parching, efficient means of cooking seeds, especial] when prolonged boiling is impracticable, 'i eral. Basket and pot boiling are more varli and the latter clearly more recent. Pottei7 therefore, though functionally of great I tance to Pueblo cultures, was a variable am largely dispensable element in this area. Some traits are simple, effective, and} spread outside this area. They may, therefc [354] CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI considered to have stability irrespective of Le particular cultural matrix in which they are und. They are: fire drill (though constructed L three different ways; woven and sewed fur robes ipped flint blades and unretouched flint flakes r cutting; skin dressing (including scraping, eshing, and tanning; fleshers and scrapers vary type; the tanning process varied in some de- d1s; smoking, a dispensable element, introduced lom the north, acquired only limited distribu- ,on); the balsa raft where useful; the snowshoe, ich varied greatly in details of shape and shing; carrying frames or cradles for infants. Another trait which had general stability, as own by its enormous distribution across primi- Te culture areas and its remarkable survival to le present day, is shamanism. Its secondary fea- res, such as the particular spirits and powers, Ltual equipment and behavior patterns, are more riable, but have persisted because of the cen- tsJ concepts. Some of the same elements in other ociations have changed more rapidly. For ex- Le, smoking as a general shaman's practice was le, whereas in lay smoking, the pipe form, ing of tobacco with other plants, and chewing iLed considerably within the area and have iged within historic times. t Certain practical aspects of childbirth are, course, necessary and therefore comparatively Iarying; others, including most of the treat- t of the father, are ritual in nature and not vary somewhat within this area, but cut 0ss neighboring areas, for example, the tching stick, hunting, gambling and food os, bathing, painting, new clothes, and the fire. The ritual elements of childbirth are also used girl's puberty; but whereas both have in common fear of contamination by the woman, the latter a totally different purpose, namely prepara- for adulthood with emphasis upon behavior. the same elements used here for different poses fail to correlate elsewhere with culture as (witness the varied use of the scratching ok in the Southwest). Moreover, the very pur- e of puberty rites varies within the area and Snot correlate elsewhere with major areas. Dath, like puberty rites, was necessarily a ly affair. Elaborate group ritual was impos- Le. The dominating theme was grief. Were group al possible, the rites might have changed lexion, as they indeed did where the annual *ing ceremony was introduced, though this was mnemoration rather than funeral ceremony. Man- of disposal of the corpse is extremely varn- -cremation, burial, abandonment. olitical and social organization, (Steward, 3), were predetermined within certain definable ta by the local ecology. The political unit, sue of the low population density and the un- ictable annual abundance of seeds, especially pine nut, was necessarily limited to the ely knit, non-land-owning aggregate of fam- ilies that comprised the winter village. But spe- cial localities, like Owens Valley, produced land- owning bands. Local ecology also affected property concepts. And it precluded societies, clubs, rank, slavery, and so forth, though the absence of clans, moieties, and the men's tribal society is merely due to lack of historical contacts that would in- troduce them. The bilateral family was present be- cause of substantial sex equality in economic ac- tivities and lack of social superstructures to af- fect it. It included polygyny correlated with the sororate and polyandry correlated with the levirate. But features .of kinship, cross-cousin marriage, marriage by theft, and so on, are variable and not readily explainable by local ecology. The social and political types produced a peaceful existence which in turn blocked warfare and the implements and concepts associated with it. But among eastern Idaho Shoshoni, the intro- duction of the horse made tribal clashes inevi- table and provided a condition for the rapid spread of many elements of the Plains war com- plex. It also produced strong bands. Similarly in Nevada, the arrival of the white man and bet- ter transportation quickly produced large bands for the purpose of warfare. Other phases of Shoshonean culture could vary and did vary within certain limits. House types vwere predetermined only by the requirements that they must not necessitate chopping; must, due to social type, accommodate one family; must, because of use for only part of the year, frequent change of residence, and abandonment at.death, be easily erected. Within these limits, special construc- tion was historically determined. Conical pole lodges, covered with materials locally available, were borrowed from the north. Gabled houses were introduced only to the more permanent settlements of the Owens Valley region. Use of sweat houses as clubs and dormitories presupposes a comparatively large, permanent vil- lage, a condition fulfilled only in the Owens Valley region. Elsewhere, sweating was the main function and was done by a maximum of three or four persons at once; hence large, permanent sweat houses were not needed. The construction of the small sweat house, moreover, differed in two parts of the area, which had derived it from various sources. Secondary features of sweating, such as dropping water on rocks, praying, and so on, were only partly predetermined by use of the house itself. Garments, though dispensable as shown by the fact that many individuals possessed only robes, afford some extra comfort in cold weather. The choice between the scanty Pacific Coast dress and the more complete Plains garments and moccasins, however, was determined in individual cases by the quantity of material available. But both styles would have been absent from the area but for historical contacts. Considerable variation was possible in devices for transportation by human beings, but the use 355 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS of the seed basket by women is natural-the bas- kets were already made and had to be carried any- how. Though men sometimes used these baskets, their other devices varied somewhat: nets, buck- skins, and ropes. That women used the tumpline and men the chest strap appears to be more a mat- ter of historical tradition than of necessity. Two facts indicate a lack of intimate connec- tion of games with the specific Basin culture: first, many have a general western or even con- tinental distribution; second, many have only partial distribution in this area. But even where not intimately integrated with other activities, like the ritualized games of the Pueblo, some seem to be unaffected by culture change because of some great appeal, for example, the hand game. It may safely be predicted that the stock of games may be added to more readily than the stock of economic devices in which each fills a par- ticular function. Dances, with their costumes, songs, musical instruments, and so on, were also readily adopted irrespective of the remainder of the culture, as vwitnessed by the recent rapid spread of several into the area. A partial condition of the spread of dances, however, is the possibility of large gatherings to perform them. This condition was better fulfilled in post-Caucasian times and new dances were introduced even when the culture be- gan to break down. Like games, dances as lay pur- suits may be added to or abandoned. In this area, they were almost entirely without religious sig- nificance, which may account for their being abandoned in recent days more rapidly than the highly religious dances of other regions. Though regard for personal adornment appears to be basic and ancient, the specific ornaments vary enormously. Not stabilized in this area by connection with social groups, status, or other reinforcing factors, necklaces, ear ornaments, tattooing, painting, and other items seemed de- termined only by individual taste, that is, by some vanity. The comparative uniformity of hair dressing, if the data are correct, may be merely a rapid spread of the Plains style, which also penetrated the Columbia plateau and was thus common to several unlike cultures. Depilation is general in this area but also spread over many other areas. The indifference to ritual barred acceptance of many ritual elements. Those accepted have a wide distribution and extraordinarily varied use in the west, indicating their inherent variabil- ity as elements-for example, head scratchers, bull-roarer, food taboos, painting. CONCLUSIONS Culture change involves three general proc- esses: alteration of or substitution for exist- ing traits; addition of new traits; loss of traits without substitution. Of the last, there is little evidence in this area. The effect 4 the first two differs not only in different tures but in different kinds of elements. Elements of the Great Basin economic oomp had clearly been altered and changed by subs tion from time to time. But an increase in total number of elements was partly delimit transportational difficulties. Under native E ditions, therefore, the ecology was comparati fixed except as it might have been alteredl introduction of horticulture. (But even hort ture existed in much of the area during ear: Pueblo times where it has since been unknown The ecology in turn largely predetermined th political groups, land ownership, and other tures of property, kinds of houses and garm and a few other elements. Some aspects of 8so however, developed through internal speciali tion-for example, cross-cousin marriage- or through historical contacts. The ecology ale barred rank, slavery, warfare, and other tra When the local ecology changed after the. val of the white man, at first because of thf troduction of the horse, political and socia groups were first to change. Some parts of Great Basin culture were ae rooted in mental attitudes of the people and consequently resistant to change. They had 1 connection with ecology. These were shamanil the emphasis upon crisis rites, which also o in very similar patterns elsewhere. Alterat them entailed mainly an increase of their ri content. In spite of the revolutionary ch Shoshonean economic life and even of the ad of Christian worship, these persist with re able vigor today. Finally, some kinds of elements were rea susceptible to alteration or addition witho reference to ecology or to the total cultur These are songs, dances, games, and ornament Innovations add to rather than replace the isting stock. Until recently, Indians adopt songs, games, and dances from the white man they had previously from their Indian neigh but did not abandon those they already pose8 thus accumulating an enormous repertoire. It only in the last few years that a consciouau of the prestige value of those contributed the white man has led to abandoning the ola' The processes underlying change in the d ferent kinds of culture elements are claime only for the Great Basin. Whether these hay wider applicability may only be established a similar analysis of each area or of each of element. In cultures with a different eo' ogy or with a more complex social superstru factors which are totally lacking in this a will often be important cultural determinan kinds of elements which here are subject to, variation, elsewhere will be fixed, and vic versa. While the method used here employs both 356 CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI and functional analysis, it implies that any )rical reconstruction per se must pay close ition to the individuality of elements and a truly "functional" view of culture must ,a beyond the traditional limits of kinship nbrace the totality of human activities in- Lng their relationship to the local environ- ment. It further implies that the elements of a local culture do not form a completely integrated pattern either for the group or for an individual. (Since the above was written, a similar analy- sis based on more recent sources and coveriAg the entire Intermontane-Basin-Plateau-area has been published, Steward, 1940.) 357 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbreviations: AA American Anthropologist. AAA-M American Anthropological Association, Memoirs. AMNH-AP American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers. BAE-R Bureau of American Ethnology, Report. MAIHF-NM Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, Notes and Monographs. PM-P Peabody Museum (Harvard University), Papers. SI-R Smithsonian Institution, Report. SI-MC Smithsonian Institution Miscellaneous Collections. UC-PAAE University of California, Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnol- ogy. UNM-B University of New Mexico, Bulletin. USNM-R United States National Museum, Report. YIU-PA Yale University, Publications in Anthro- pology. GSA General Series in Anthropology. Anonymous 1854. Eventful Narratives. Thirteenth Book of the Faith-Promoting Series. Juvenile In- structor's Office, Salt Lake City, Utah. Chamberlin, Ralph V. 1911. The Ethno-Botany of the Gosiute Indians. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. (Phila.), pp. 24-99. Clements, F. E. 1928. Quantitative Method in Ethnography. AA 30:295-310. Coville, Frederick V. 1892. The Panamint Indians of California. AA 5:351-361. Culin, Stewart 1907. Games of the North American Indians. BAE- R 24. Curtis, Edward S. 1926. The American Indian. Vol. 15. Publ. by the author, Norwood, Mass. Driver, Harold E., and Kroeber, A. L. 1932. Quantitative Expression of Cultural Re- lationships. UC-PAAE 31:211-256. Dutcher, B. H. 1893. Pinion Gathering among the Panamint In- dians. AA 6:377-380. Guernsey, S. J., and Kidder, A. V. 1921. Basket-Maker Caves of Northeastern Ari- zona. PM-P 8:1-117. 1919. See Kidder. Hitchcock, A. S. 1935. Manual of the Grasses of the United States. U.S. Dept. Agr., Miscl. Publ. 200. Hoffman, J. W. 1891. Poisoned Arrows. AA 4:67-71. Hoffman, W. T. 1878. Miscellaneous Ethnographic Observations on Indians Inhabiting Nevada, California and Arizona. U.S. Geol. and Geod. Sur Ann. Rept. 10, Washington. Hopkins, Sarah Winnemucca 1883. Life Among the Piutes: their Wrong Claims. Boston. Hough, Walter 1890. Fire-Making Apparatus in the U.S. A Museum. USNM-R, 1888:531-587. Irving, Washington 1898. The Adventures of Captain Bonnevill U.S.A., in the Rocky Mountains and the West, Digested from his Journals and trated from Various Other Sources. New York, "Pawnee Edition," 2 vols. Kelly, Isabel T. 1932. Ethnography of the Surprise Valley' ute. UC-PAAE 31:67-210. 1934. Southern Paiute Bands. AA 36:548-56 1936. Chemehuevi Shamanism. In Essays in of A. L. Kroeber, pp. 129-142. Univ. a Calif. Press. Kidder, A. V., and Guernsey, S. J. 1919. Archaeological Explorations in Nort eastern Arizona. BAE-B 65. 1922. See Nusbaum, Jesse L., pp. 64-153. Klimek, Stanislaw 1935. Culture Element Distributions: I-I Structure of California Indian Society UC-PAAE 37:1-70. Kroeber, A. L. 1907. Shoshonean Dialects of California. PAAE 4:65-165. 1920. Games of the California Indians. U 272-277. 1922. Elements of Culture in Native Calif nia. UC-PAAE 13:259-328. 1925. Handbook of the Indians of Califor BAE-B 78. 1927. Disposal of the Dead. AA 29:308-315 1932. See Driver, H. E., and Kroeber, A. 1935. See "Preface" in Klimek, Stanislaw. Leonard, Zenas 1904. Leonard's Narrative. Adventures of Leonard, Fur Trader and Trapper, 1831- Edited by W. F. Wagner, 1904, from orn edition of 1839. Cleveland. Loeb, Edwin M. 1929. Tribal Initiations and Secret Socie UC-PAAE 25:249-288. Lowie, Robert H. 1909. The Northern Shoshone. AMNH-AP 2:16 1923. The Cultural Connection of Califori Plateau Shoshonean Tribes. UC-PAAE 20: 1924. Notes on Shoshonean Ethnography. A1 20:187-314. 1935. The Crow Indians. New York. Mason, Otis T. 1889. Cradles of the American Aborigines. for 1887: 161-212. 1889a. The Human Beast of Burden. USNM-R 1887:237-295. [358] CULTURE ELEM. DISTRIB.: XIII-STEWARD: NEVADA SHOSHONI L, Otis T. (continued) 391. Aboriginal Skin-Dressing. USNM-R for 1889:553-589. 394. North American Bows, Arrows and Quivers. SI-R for 1893:631-679. ?01. The Technic of Aboriginal American Bas- ketry. AA 3:109-128. ?02. Traps of the American Indians-a Study in Psychology and Invention. SI-R for 1901: 461-473. 304. Aboriginal American Basketry: Studies in a Textile Art without Machinery. USNM-R for 1902:171-548. By, James 396. The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890. BAE-R 14. gum, Jesse L. 322. A Basket-Maker Cave in Kane County, Utah. MAIHF-NM, pp. 1-64. i, PeteY Skeen ?09, 1910. The Peter Skeen Ogden Journals. Edited by Ellis. Oregon Hist. Soc. Quart., 10:331-365; 11:206-396. Willard Z. 34. Paviotso Shamanism. AA 36:98-113. )37. Paviotso Polyandry. AA 39:366-368. tn, Albert B. 317. The Deep Creek Indians. El Palacio 5:30- 42. 330. The Bear Dance of the Ouray Utes. Wiscon- sin Arch. 9:148-150. Jules, and Brenchley, Julius 361. A Journey to Great Salt Lake City. London. rts, Helen H. DB6. Musical Areas in Aboriginal North America. YU-PA 12:1-41. son, Capt. J. H. 376. Report of Explorations Across the Great Basin of the Territory of Utah for a Direct Wagon-Route from Camp Floyd to Genoa, in Carson Valley, in 1859. U.S. Army, Engineer- ing Dept., Washington. , Leslie 28. Havasupai Ethnography. AIMNH-AP 29:81-392. Spier, Leslie (continued) 1935. The Prophet Dance of the Northwest and Its Derivatives: the Source of the Ghost Dance. GSA 1. 1936. Cultural Relations of the Gila and Lower Colorado River Tribes. YU-PA 3:1-22. Spinden, Herbert J. 1908. The Nez Perc6 Indians. AAA-M 2:167-328. Steward, Julian H. 1930. Irrigation Without Agriculture. Mich. Acad. Sci. 12:149-156. 1932. The Uintah Ute Bear Dance, March 21-29, 1931. AA 34:263-273. 1933. Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute. UC-PAAE 33:233-350. 1934. Two Paiute Autobiographies. UC-PAAE 33: 423-438. 1936. Myths of the Owens Valley Paiute. UC- PAAE 34:355-440. 1936a. Shoshoni Polyandry. AA 38:561-564. 1936b. Puebloan Material Culture in Western Utah. UNM-B 287 (Anthro. ser. 1):1-63. 1936c. The Economic and Social Basis of Primi- tive Bands. In Essays in Anthropology in Honor of A. L. Kroeber, pp. 331-350. Univ. of Calif. Press. 1937. Ancient Caves of the Great Salt Lake Re- gion. BAE-B 116. 1938. Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups. BAE-B 120:1-346. 1940. Native Cultures of the Intermontane (Great Basin) Area. In Essays in Historical Anthropology of North America, published in honor of John R. Swanton. SI-MC 100:445-502. Stewart, Omer C. 1937. Northern Paiute Polyandry. AA 39:368-369. Sullivan, Maurice S. 1934. Travels of Jedediah Smith. A Documentary Outline Including the Journal of the Great American Pathfinder. The Fine Arts Press, Santa Ana, California. Wissler, Clark 1922. The American Indian. 2d edition. New York. 359