HISTORICITY STUDY OF 1 MEXICAN CORRIDOS ABOUT ZAPATA Linda J. Hubbell University of California, Berkeley Songs about political events can be analyzed in many ways. The purpose of this paper is to discern meaning from the patterns of omission, change, emphasis, and addition in Mexican corridos about Emiliano Zapata.2 After a brief discussion of the form, performance, and development of Mexican corridos, particularly those of the Mexican Revolution, the Spanish texts of two corridos about the death of Zapata, with English summaries, will be compared with the "true" history of the period as found in the standard historical sources (Pinchon 1941; Cumber- land 1952; Parkes 1960; Herring 1962; and Simpson 1964). Finally, some tentative conclusions will be made about the significance of the manipu- lation of history which the corridos reveal. FORM AND PERFORMANCE Vicente Mendoza, the leading authority on the Mexican corrido, defines it as "a type of lyric, principally narrative, which relates in simple form (invariably a musical phrase composed of four parts).. .those events which strike powerfully on the feelings of the multitude: sensa- tional crimes, violent deaths, etc" (1939:117-118). Corridos always ap- pear in stanzas of four, six, or eight lines. Most common are four-line stanzas (eight syllables in each line) in a major key. Some alterations and additions i. this basic form are occasionally made, especially in cor- ridos of recent date. Corridos are sung accompanied by guitars, bandolons (similar to lutes), a harp or mariachi, with one to three or more voices, each on a different melody. The corridistas sing at fairs and markets and afterwards make a collection among the listeners or sell printed copies of the songs. Many singers have themselves contributed to the stock of cor- ridos by improvising new songs and additions to old songs. 68 DEVELOPMENT Spanish romances arrived in the New World with the conquista- dors. The Mexican corrido developed from the romance through the 19th century and took definitive form around 1860-1880, when Porfirio Diaz came to power in Mexico. "Since 1910, the corrido has not only increased, but has attained its full development... it has become the veritable archetype of Mexicanism" (Mendoza 1939:132). Historically the corrido took root first in southern Mexico and gradually spread north; today corridos occur all over Mexico, although with varying popularity. In the central states, including Morelos, music and literature from non- Iberian Europe have influenced the corrido to some degree (Mendoza 1939: 150-153). If, as Duvalier (1937:11) and Simmons suggest, "the genre's development can be projected chronologically upon the screen of Mexico's political past, it follows that there must be an intimate relationship between this uniquely Mexican type of ballad and history" (Simmons 1957: 33). Simmons concludes that the corridista's immediate economic dependence upon his audience [i.e., for his livelihood], with the corridista's resulting sensitivity to the changing moods of public opinion, justifies our belief that the corrido, when properly interpreted, is a significant historical document. Whatever the inaccuracies of detail that may be detected in the balladeer's version of the events he reports and whatever the fallacies contained in his inter- pretation and comments, he reflects with a high degree of fidelity what the pueblo in his particular area is thinking at the moment that he composes his ballad (1957:36-37). I would point out that these very inaccuracies and fallacies reveal much as well. It is because differences between "historical truth" and the corrido version exist that a historicity study can be useful. Emiliano Zapata was one of the Revolutionary heores who in- spired corridos. "Innumerable corridos celebrating his exploits were sung by minstrels in the southern villages, and some of the sentences 69 of his proclamations...were cherished like sentences of scripture" (Parkes 1960:364). Although Zapata was personally idealized by his ad- mirers, "from the inception of his rebellion until his death and after- wards, Zapata stood for aims which the peublo clearly understood" (Simmons 1957:296). The core of Zapata's program was agrarian reform and relief from exploitation by the rich and by the government. Even historians have seen Zapata as different from other Revolutionary leaders of 1910-1930: Zapata was less personally interested in gain and more purely interested in improving the life of the Indian populace (e.g., see Cumberland 1952:247-248 or Parkes 1960:343). Let us now examine two of these Zapata corridos from a historical point of view. I. Corrido de la muerte de Emiliano Zapata (1919) 1. Ha muerto don Emiliano, dicen los que a Cuautla van, que le mataron a tiros, cerca de Tlaltizapan. 2. Para terminar con el tuvieron que urdir un plan, y el jefe Jes'us Guajardo trabajo con mucho afan. 3. Con Zapata tuvo arreglos diciendo se iba a voltear, queriendo en su campamento a Zapata aprisionar. 4. Pobre Emiliano Zapata, que suerte le fue a tocar, el que tenla tanta plata, como se dejo matar. 5. Creyo el muy tonto la lana, que Guajardo le conto, y un batallon del Gobierno, hasta su canton, entro. 6. Cuando le tendio la mano a su aliado que llego, al grito iViva Carranza, la lucha este principio! Title: Corrido about the death of Zapata 1) Zapata was shot near Tlaltizapan. 2) Guajardo eagerly plotted to do this. 3-5) Guajardo pretended to want to come over to Zapata's side with some of his troops. Zapata believed him and made arrangements for the trans- fer. 6-10) When Zapata and Guajardo shook hands, the fight began. Zapata and several of his chiefs were killed; other zapatistas fled to the hills. 70 7. Hubo un panico terrible, y nadie podla entender, las 8rdenes que se daban y tuvieron que perder. 8. Zapata quedo sin vida a los primeros balazos, lo mismo que varios jefes que lo sosten'an en brazos. 9. El resto de zapatistas por los montes se perdio, y otros fueron desarmados pues Guajardo les gano. 10. Los soldados victoriosos, con los prisioneros juntos, se encaminaron a Cuautla para enterrar los difuntos. 11. Con sorpresa sin segundo se recibio esta noticia, esperando que ya acabe esa lucha sin justicia. 12. Ojala que ya termine para trabajar en paz, que trabajo es lo que quiere desde el hombre hasta el rapaz. 13. Ya estamos muy bien cansados de revueltas y fatigas, y deseamos que haya paz, sin infamias, sin intrigas. 14. Pues el hombre que trabaja, solo pide garantias, no que suba Juan o Pedro sin el pan todos los dlas. 15. En mil novecientos diez Zapata se pronuncio y al grito iViva Madero! a todo el Sur levanto. 16. Desde entonces fue elogiado por su bravura sin par, y el Gobierno lo trataba, con respeto, sin igual. 11-14) The news was received with surprise. I (the corridista) hope that this unjust struggle is over and we can work in peace. The man who works only wants bread. 15-18) In 1910 Zapata pro- nounced (started fighting) and raised the south for Madero (against Diaz). When Madero took power, Zapata changed sides and for seven years fought against everybody. 71 17. Madero subio al poder, y Zapata se volteo, no quiso de el depender, contra el Gobierno se alzo. 18. Y desde entonces siete anios, contra de todos peleo, lo mismo que contra Huerta a Carranza combatio. 19. En su bandera llevaba, escritas promesas mil, ofrecio repartir tierras. y hacer al rico infeliz. 20. Pero al fin nada cumplio de tan notables doctrinas, y su riqulsimo Estada, quedo convertido en ruinas. 21. El se dedicaba al juego a los toros y mujeres, y los negocios de Estado los dejaba a los ujieres. 22. Reunida la Convencion no lo dejo gobernar, y le dio el triunfo a Carranza por no saber, el mandar. 23. Cuando debio ser notable por sus grandiosas acciones, asl termino sus d?as, por seguir viles acciones. 24. Les ruego que perdonen, si al narrar meti la pata, pero asl cuentan murio Don Emiliano Zapata. 19-20> Zapata made a thousand promises to redivide the land, but he only succeeded in ruining the state (Morelos). 21-23) He applied himself to bullfights and women, and left state affairs to others, not knowing how to govern. He ended his days vilely. 24) Closing. According to Vasquez (1924:240), this corrido was published and circulated the day after Zapata's death. It was sung in Mexico City and throughout the country by travelling singers. The author was Senor E. Warman, a popular singer of carrancista sympathies (Simmons 1957:603). Romero (1941:171) says it was sung by carrancistas, i.e., followers of Carranza, opponents of Zapata. This seems odd since Murillo (1922:139) states that it was especially popular in Morelos (Zapata's home state) 72 and Mexico state. Furthermore, Mendoza (1956:102) says the corrido "abounds in expressions of grief and of condemnation of the crafty way it [the murder] was done." While Simmons (1957:307, 337) notes that the first part of the corrido is sympathetic to Zapata and that Warman makes favorable references to Zapata's agrarian reform aims, he seems certain that Warman was a carrancista singer. Examination of the corrido inclines me to Romero's and Simmons' view. Verses 11-14 express hope for surcease from the warfare caused by Zapata. Verses 16-17: Zapata was ungrateful to a government which had treated him with honor. Verses 19-20: Zapata made many promises of land to the people but broke them all. Verses 21-23-. Zapata led a wild life and neglected his political responsibilities. In verses 3-10, Guajardo told Zapata he wanted to change sides. When the two shook hands over this transaction, the fight began and Zapata was killed. Zapata's men fled to the mountains or were taken by Guajardo's troops. The federales buried Zapata in Cuautla. This version of Zapata's death is truthful, except for three important omissions. First, Jesus Guajardo, already under criminal indictment for abduction, proposed to get immunity from this charge by capturing Zapata. Secondly, Guajardo got the 100,000 pesos reward which Carranza had placed on Zapata's head. Third, Zapata's severed head was displayed throughout Morelos. One sees immediately that the omissions bring discredit to Guajardo and Carranza. The corrido also states (v. 15-18) that Zapata pronounced for Madero in 1910, but (treacherously) deserted when Madero took power. Zapata did actually start out on Madero's side December 1910 - June 1911. As Madero took power in October 1911, Zapata became disillusioned with Madero's intentions to help the Indians. Therefore, he promulgated the Plan of Ayala in November 1911, which broke zapatismo off from Madero. There was no treachery involved; Zapata was holding to his ideal rather than following any particular politician. Obviously, the corrido version reflects ill on Zapata's character. 73 In verses 19-20, the corri.dista says Zapata made many promises of land, but onlv ruined the state, having fulfilled no promises. In reality, destruction of estates was due more to the "scorched earth" policies of General Pablo Gonzalez as he advanced southwards against Zapata in 1915 under orders from Carranza. According to Pinchon (1941: 265-266), Zapata himself was scrupulously careful of the haciendas, taking onlv what his armies needed; whereas Gonzalez burned crops and buildings and sent their furnishings back to Mexico Citv to be sold for his own personal profit (Pinchon 1941:315). Furthermore, some land dis- tribution was carried out in Morelos, even iF it was mainlv de facto. The land settlements were confirmed bv President Calles in 1923, making Morelos the first part of Mexico to get agrarian reform. Here again, facts are changed to make Zapata seem worse. Finally, Zapata is said to spend much time with women and bull- fights, to the detriment of state business (v. 21-22). According to Pinchon (1941:15, et passim), Zapata did love performina in rodeos and was a superb horseman; but he seemed not terriblv interested in women, at least not to the point of neglecting his responsibilities. He was, of course, inexperienced in government. This is a difficult part of a man's life about which to find the truth. However, emphasis on this point does put another black mark against Zapata. II. De la muerte de Title: The death of Zapata Emiliano Zapata (1919) 1. Escuchen, senores, oigan el corrido 1-2) Zapata was treacherouslv de un triste acontecimiento: murdered in Chinameca in pues en Chinameca fue muerto a April 1919. mansalva Zapata, el gran insurrecto. 2. Abril de mil novecientos diecinueve, en la memoria quedaras del campesino, como una mancha en la Historia. 3. Campanas de Villa Ayala 3) Verse 3 and every third cPor que tocan tan doliente? verse thereafter are "nature --Es que ya murio Zapata interludes." y era Zapata un valiente.-- 74 4. El buen Emiliano que amaba a los pobres quiso darles libertad; por eso los indios de todos los pueblos con el fueron a luchar. 5. De Cuautla hasta Amecameca, Matamoros y el Ajusco, con los pelones del viejo don Porfirio se dio gusto. 6. Trinitaria de los campos de las vegas de Morelos, si preguntan por Zapata di que ya se fue a los cielos. 7. Le dijo Zapata a don Pancho Madero cuando ya era gobernante: --Si no das las tierras, veras a los indios de nuevo entrar al combate.-- 8. Se enfrento al sefnor Madero, contra Huerta y a Carranza, pues no le querian cumplir su plan que era el Plan de Ayala. 9. Corre, corre, conejito cuentales a tus hermanos --iYa murio el senior Zapata el coco de los tiranos!...-- 10. Montado con garbo en yegua alazana era charro de admirar y en el coleadero era su mangana la de un jinete cabal. 11. Toca la charanga un son de los meros abajefios; rueda un toro por la arena, pues Zapata es de los buenos. 12. Una rana en un charquito cantaba en su serenata: --ZDonde hubo un charro mejor que mi general Zapata?-- 13. Con mucho entusiasmo aplaude la gente y hartas ninas concurrieron, que el jefe Zapata y sus generales dondequiera se lucieron. 4-5) Zapata loved the poor and therefore all the Indians fought for him against Diaz. 7-8) Zapata said to Madero (then president): "We will fight again if you don't give us land." Zapata fought Madero, Huerta, and Carranza for land. 10-11) Zapata was a charro to be admired. 13-14) The people celebrated his victories. 75 14. Con jaripeo celebraba su victoria en la refriega, y entre los meros surianos, que es charro, nadie lo niega. 15. Camino de Huehuetoca preguntaba asl un turpial: --Caminante, Lque se hizo del famoso caporal?-- 16. Nacio entre y por ellos --No quiero A todos asl los pobres, vivio entre los pobres combat'ia, riquezas, yo no quiero honores.-- decla. 16-17) Zapata was born and lived among the poor, and fought for them. He wanted no riches and honored his subordinates. 17. En la toma de Jojutla dice a un mayor de su gente: --iTraete al general Garcla que le entre conmigo al frente!-- 18. A la sombra de un guayabo contaban dos chapulines: --!Ya murio el sefior Zapata, terror de los gachupines!-- 19. Fumando tranquilo se pasea sereno en medio de los balazos, y grita: --iMuchachos, a esos muertos de hambre hay que darles sus pambazos!-- 20. Cuando acaba la refriega perdona a los prisioneros, a los heridos los cura y a los pobres da dinero. 21. Estrellita que en las noches te prendes de aquellos picos, ZDonde esta el jefe Zapata que era azote de los ricos? 22. --Cuando yo haya muerto, dice a un subalterno, les diras a los muchachos: con l'arma en la mano defiendan su ejido como deben ser los machos.-- 19-20) He smoked tranquilly in battle, pardoned pris- oners, etc. 22-26) "After I'm dead," said Zapata, "defend your village lands. While I live, the land belongs to the Indians. I feel depressed." 76 23. Dice a su fiel asistente cuando andaba Dor !as sierras: --Mientras yo vivia, los indios seran dueDos de sus tierras.-- 24. AmaDolita olorosa de las lomas de ;uerrero, no volveras a ver nunca al famoso guerrillero. 25. Con gran pesadumbre le dice a su vieja --Me siento muy abatido; :utes todos descansan, yo soy peregrino, coro pAjaro sin nido.-- 26. Generales van y vienen Udizoue para apaciguarlo; n ro ,udi?ndo a la buena un plan ponen pa' enganfarlo. 27. Ca(nta, canta, gorrioncito, di en tu canci.on melodiosa: -- 2; 6o el general Zapata en rorma muy alevosa.-- 28. Don Pablo Gonzalez ordena a 5u&iardo ..ue le `inja un rendimiento, y al jefe Zapata disDaran sus armas al li.egar al campamento. 29. Guajardo dice a Zapata: --Me le rindo con mi tro,a, en ChLnameca lo espero, tomaremos una copa.-- 30. Arroyito revoltoso, cQue te dijo aquel clavel? --Dice que no ha muerto el jefe, que ZaData ha de volver... 31. Abraza Emiliano al felon Guajardo en Drueba de su amistad, sin pensar el pobre, que aquel pretoriano lo iba ya a sacrificar. 32. Y tranquilo se dirige a la hacienda con su escolta; los traidores le disparan por la espalda a quemarropa. 28-29) General Gonzalez ordered Guajardo to trick Zapata into a meeting. Guajardo told Zapata that he and his troops would sur- render in Chinameca. 31-32) Trusting Guajardo, Zapata went to the hacienda (of Chinameca), where the traitors (Guajardo) shot him. 77 33. Jilguerito mafianero de las cumbres soberano, !Mira en aue forma tan triste ultimaron a Emiliano! 34. Cayo del caballo el jefe Zapata y tambien sus asistentes. Asi en Chinameca perdieron la vida un punlado de valientes. 35. Seniores, ya me despido, que no tengan novedad. Cual heroe murio Zapata por dar Tierra y Libertad. 36. A la orilla de un camino habLa una blanca azucena, a la tumba de Zapata la lleve como una ofrenda... 34-35) Zapata rell from his horse dead, with his com- panions. He died for Land and Liberty. 36) I (the corridista) laid a lily on his grave. This second corrido about Zapata's death is definitely svmpa- thetic. Every third verse is a "nature interlude," which makes the whole song sadder. It is as if even Nature mourns for Zapata. Simmons (1957:313, 556) states that the author of this semi-popular corrido "tried to synthesize in a single corrido the character of the southern chieftain, his ideological purposes, and the pueblo's reaction to his leadership." In verses 7-8, Zapata said to Madero, "If we do not get land, we will fight;" i.e., he confronted Madero with the demands of the Plan of Ayala. Historically, Madero visited Morelos in June and in August 1911, at which times Zapata expressed his fear of the governors ap- pointed by de la Barra (Huerta and Figueroa), and of Madero's own in- tentions with regard to land redistribution. Zapata wanted what had been promised. (The Plan of Ayala was not written until November 1911, after Madero had been officially inaugurated.) So, the corrido more or less presents the truth, even if a little over-dramatically. It is true (Pinchon 1941:7-9) that Zapata was born, lived, and fought among the poor (v. 16)--although his family did own a tiny bit of land (Pinchon 1941:7-8). While this corrido does not actually state 78 that Zapata was completely landless, the fact that it omits mention of his land emphasizes his poverty and his commonality of cause with other poor Mexicans. It is more difficult to tell if Zapata actually pardoned prisoners, cured the wounded, and gave money to the poor (v. 20). For example, he probably did not himself tend wounds, but the idea is com- plimentary. Verse 28 states that General Pablo Gonzalez ordered Guajardo to pretend to surrender to Zapata, etc. As far as we know (Pinchon 1941: 317-318), Gonzalaz did not so order Guajardo. Instead Guajardo saw the scheme as a way out of his own problems (see p. 73) and began it on his own account. Involving Gonzalez makes the plot more "high-level," closer to Carranza himself. Thus, Zapata is portrayed as opposing a greater number of more powerful men. CONCLUSIONS One can compare the two corridos written on the same subject. I emphasizes Zapata's dissolute life, broken promises, etc.; II empha- sizes Zapata's love of the poor. In I Zapata dishonorably changes sides and fights everybody; in II he begins to fight again because land had not been distributed to Indians as promised. In I Guajardo is mentioned as the sole betrayer. In II Guajardo's superior, General Pablo Gonzalez, is also implicated; i.e., a more direct connection between President Carranza and the actual treachery is pointed out. Historical facts are often manipulated to suit the purposes and partialities of the singers and audiences involved. Manipulation ranges from subtle emphasis to omission of uncomplimentary details. The anti-zapatista corrido (I) tries to blacken Zapatats name-- e.g., by emphasizing his loose living (I:v.21-22); by interpreting Zapata's disillusionment with Madero as treacherous desertion (I:v.15- 18); or by accusing him of ruining the state of Morelos (I:v.19-20). It also tries to enhance his enemies' reputation--e.g., by omitting certain aspects of Guajardo's character (I:v.3-10). 79 On the other hand, the pro-zapatista corrido (II) tries to make Zapata seem more brave, righteous, and dedicated to the poor--e.g., by emphasizing Zapata's poverty and good works (II:16-20). It also den- igrates his opponents--e.g., by extending blame for Guajardo's trea-chery one step higher in the military hierarchy (II:v.28). NOTES The much longer original version of this paper was written for Dr. Alan Dundes, University of California at Berkeley. I gratefully acknowledge his advice and also that of Dr. Americo Paredes, University of Texas. The author was supported by an NIMH fellowship grant while writing this paper. 2 references, explanatory exist; some Limitations 3 240; Romero 4 All translations, of the corridos themselves and of other are mine. Parentheses in the English summaries indicate my notes. Of course, many other corridos about Zapata also of these were included in the original version of this paper. of space here required me to select only two. Sources: Murillo 1922:139 (v. 1-12 only); Vasquez 1924:237- 1941:169-171; Mendoza 1956:102-103 (v. 1-10 only). Source: Mendoza 1939:690-694. REFERENCES Cumberland 1952 Duvalier, 1937 Charles Mexican Revolution: Genesis Under Madero. University of Texas Press. Austin: Armand Romance y corrido. Crisol, Revista Mensual Publicado por el Bloque de Obreros Intelectuales de Mexico XV (Sept.): 8-16; (Nov.):135-141. Herring, Hubert 1962 A History of Latin America. New York: Alfred Knopf Co. Mendoza, Vicente T. 1939 El Romance Espanlol y el Corrido Mexicano: Estudio Compara- tivo. Me'xico: Ediciones de la Universidad Nacional Auto- noma. 80 I1, Mendoza, Vicente T. 1956 El Corrido de la Revolucion Mexicana. Mexico: Los Talleres Graficos de la Nacion. Murillo, Gerardo 1922 Las Artes Populares en Mexico, v. II. Mexico: Editorial Cultura. Pseudonym "Dr. Atl." Parkes, Henry B. 1960 A History of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Co. Pinchon, Edgcumb 1941 Zapata the Unconquerable. New York: Doubleday, Doran, and Co., Inc. Romero Flores, Jesius 1941 Corridos de la Revolucion Mexicana. Anales Historicos de la Revolucion Mexicana. V. 5: Sus Corridos. Mexico: El Nacional. Sinmons, Merle E. 1957 The Mexican Corrido as a Source for Interpretive Study of Modern Mexico (1870-1950). Indiana University Publications, Humanities Series #38. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. S iin son, Lesley Byrd 1964 Manv Mexicos, 4th ed. Berkeley: University of California Press. Vas,c ez Santa Ana, Higinio 1924? Canciones, Cantares y Corridos Mexicanos. Mexico: Ediciones Leon Sganchez. Biblioteca Popular de Autores Mexicanos, #8. 81