THE ROCK E1;RAVIIX;S AT PORT HEDLAND,
NORTHWESTERN AUSTRALIA
Frederick McCarthy
Curator of Anthropology, Australian Museum
ABSTRACT
Port Hedland is on the northwest coast of Australia. It is situated
in an area of sandy plains covered with spinifex and scrub, rivers with
sandy beds which run only in the wet season and whose deltas form exten-
sive tidal flats along the coast. Great areas of the coast are covered
with mangroves, whose dense growth is broken here and there by sand dunes.
Bands up to 100 feet wide of rock engravings cover a total of about eight
miles of low limestone ridges in the immediate vicinity of the township.
The author spent seven weeks in 1958 recording the immense series of en-
gravings, detailed study of which had become an urgent task because of the
destruction of sections totalling about one mile in length of the main ridge
by the industrial and residential expansion of the township. The fieldwork
was financed by the Venner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research.
The-Port Hedland district was occupied by the Kariera and Ngarla tribes,
both of which are now almost extinct. T'hite occupation began in 1864, a
smallpox epidemic killed many natives in 1865 and 1866, and the generally
destructive results of white contact reduced them to less than 100 in each
tribe by 1910. The majority of Aborigines now living at Port Hedland are
southern Njangamada from the De Grey River, whose infiltration began in
about 1910.
Five ridges, from one-quarter to almost four miles long, bear engrav-
ings.- A census taken of two of them yielded a total of 7,051, and it is
.estimted that there are 15,000 or more engravings in the area. The plan
of study adopted was to record to scale all obvious groupings and composi-
tions, together with the densest assemblage of figures extending for 120
feet near an old well. Every separate motif and its variants were photo-
graphed and their range is illustrated.
Four techniques were employed. The simplest one consists of making
shallow and-narrow grooves in the rock; only one set of 20, up to a foot
long, was recorded.
The commonest technique is the conjoined-puncture groove from one-fourth
to three-fourths inches wide, and one-sixteenth to three-eighths inches deep.
The whole of the outline, outline with interior design, linear design, and
combined line and pecked figures were engraved with this technique. Several
1
2this article was published with the assistance of the Australian
Museum, Sydney,
figures only were found in which the conjoined-puncture grooves had been
abraded as wello
The importint technique of pecking is represented by banded, partial
and complete intaglios. There are two kinds of pecking, an early coarse
one of large punctures which appears to be a carry-over of the use of the
old conjoined-puncture technique, and a later one of fine pits and gashes
often applied in layers to give depths of up to half an inch to the
intaglios.
No stone implements were found on the sites or in the area that could
be-7used in the above techniques. Experiments were conducted with whelk
shells which produced perfect reproductions of the conjoined puncture and
pecked filgures, and as these shells are plentiful in the area, common in
shallow middens on and beside the limestone ridges, they could have served
the purpose of engraving tools.
The control of line, posture and anatomical details of the outline and
pecked hman and animal figures at Port Hedland agrees in general with sites
of ro-k engravings and. paintings elsewhere in Australiao The Minjiburu
spirit figures are the most interesting artistically, with their beautiful
line and poise of a dancer and actor, and the series forms an interesting
addition to aboriginal art motifs as a wholeo
Other human figures are shown in the usual front-wise position with the
arms horisontal or upraisedo  The birds and fish are shown in profile, and
the-rays and other flat fish , and the lizards, from above. The fish and
turtles are in swximing postures, portrayed as they were usually seen in the
witer. The -aimals are thus drawn in the posture in which the hunter sees
them prior to throwing his spear or clubo Some of the figures embody a
nominal degree of animation and graceo The numbers of fingers and toes on
both human and animal figures varies considerblyo
t)etailed study of the superimpositions revealed that definite phases
of art existed during the past history of these sites, two prehistoric and
one historic phases being distinguishedo  The abrded grooves cannot be con-
sidered in this chronology because they were not found in any of the super-
impositions lbut they^ represent the earliest technique on the lower Murray
ihver in South Australiao
The conjoined-puncture outlines are the earliest phase at Port Hedland.
Predominant motifs among them are humn figures and tracks, clutches of emu
and other eggs, fish, sting ray liver, boomerang (in sets of up to five),
clubs, hafted stone axes, sacred boards, circles and ovals, Rare and un-
.comon are m    ls, birds, snakes, lizards, turtles, invertebrates, plants
and important weapons like the spear, spearthrower and shield.
The outlines either developed into, or were contemporaneous with, simi-
lar figures with Interior barred, striped, gridded, and broken line designss,
curvilinear and dotted patterns, or a combination of these styles. Much the
same frequency of subjects occurs in these styles, exceptions being a not-
able increase in the number of turtles in the barred style, and of shields
in the striped and curvilinear styleso
2,
i   In a second phase of engraving the figures are in the linear design
style, predominant motifs being kangaroo--wllaby, lizard, emu and other
bird tracks, snakes (often associated with a hole), meandering lines,
barb"d spearhead, pubic fringes, feather plume ornament, arc, sets of
straight and sinuous lines, radiate, grid, concentric circle and spiral,
cress and a series of Indeterminate designso In this phase hunting comn-
positions of tracks, eggs and other items, but not the hunter or the game
as a rule, are important.
In the third or pecked phase, believed to have survived until the
coning of the whites, human, kangaroo and emu tracks, many of which are
exceptionally big and deeply engraved, far outnumber all other subjects.
Unusual subjects such as the marks made on the ground by a kangaroo sitting
down) an emu sitting on its nest, and clutches of emu and turtle eggs are
featured, while sting rays, lizards, snakes and banded designs are best
represented among the other subjects. Human figures, mamnals, birds and
fish are rare in this phase.
A series of stone heap* believed to be totem centers, are associated
with the engravings0 Potholes of all sizes in the limestone form an impor-
tant feature of the engraved designs, as the hole of a snake or other ani-
ml, the mouth, breasts, and vagina of spirit figures, the mouth of an
animl, symbolic waterholes frequented by emus and kangaroos, and totem
centerso
The nature of the subjects changed from phase to phase. The concept
that inspired the artists of the early outline phase is a complex of weapons,
ornaments, sacred boards and marine animls associated with the Minjiburu
spirit beings. According to early authorities, increase rites were carried
out at the totem centers, and during these ceremonies it is probable that the
lives of the Minjiburu spirits, who- were probably of the creator kind and at
least established the totem centers, were re-enactedo
The symbolism of the formal art motifs apparently still represented the
sme system of beliefs and rites in the Linear Design phase, as the evidence
from Central Australian art and its function demonstrates.
The acquisition of pecking brought with it a small range of human and
animal motifs, a reproduction of some of the linear motifs in the new tech-
nique, and a host of tracks. The old Minjiburu mythology apparently sur-
vived, as the engravings of human tracks around the old Minjiburu figures
indicates.o The Njangamada brought with them the Mungan-Bgadjimbiri mythol-
ogy which gradually supplanted the old Minjiburu beliefs.
The phases of art revealed by a stud;y of superimpositions at Port
Hedland have significant implications for the whole continent of Australia.
In technique, subjects and style the important Sydney-Hawkesbury outline
engravings, those at Burra in South Australia, and other outline sites may
be correlated with the outline phase at Port Hedland. The Linear Design
phase is represented profusely among both engravings and paintings through-
out northwestern Australia, central and South Australia, New South ales and
Queensland west of the Great Dividing Range, a distribution which represents
3
a w-videsp reddiffusion of these motifs from the northwest to the east and
soiithst of thie continent.   The pecked intaglios spread through the inter-
Ior of  heconninent as a nturalistic art which overlies the Linear designs
vherewr both pbses are present in the one site, as study of superimposi-
tiems i--  -stern Nlew South -les and the Flinders Range in South Australia
sltbrl1ihe..quite clearly.  Pecking, however, spread as a stone working tech-
-nie from the east into lestern Australia and not from the northwest into
the interior. Although the Outline and Linear Design phases are prehistoric
In tMnorthwest and other areas, it is important to note that the linear
de9sins, with an emphasis on the concentric circle and spiral, sinuous lines,
animel tracks and other motifs, survived among the Central Australian tribes
as a ritual art.
Little data are as yet available about the antiquity of these various
phases. In the Devon Downs cave on the lower Murray River in South Australia
the abraded grooves have been linked with the middle or Pirrian layers 3,500
to 2,500 years ago, the outlines with the late Pirrian 2,500 to 1,500 years
ago, and the linear designs with the late Murundian9 all pbases of the Tula
eulture.  There is virtually no evidence at Port Hedland to indicate the
antiquity of the engravings, but investigation of the shallow shell middens
there -ay throw light on this problem.
Whether the engravings in any one of these phases were prehistoric or
part of the living culture of the Aborigines appears to depend upon their
location to some extent. The outline engravings of the Sydney-Hawkesbury
district In eastern Australia probably survived as an active art until a late
period, or until the coming of the white man, as they are the only type in
the area. The linear design engravings are prehistoric in the northwest and
the interior generally, inc luding western New South Males and Queensland, but
they may have been an active culture element outside the distribution of the
pecked type,
Much more research needs to be done on the precise range of subjects in
-each pha-se of engraving in various parts of Australia, and upon their distri-
butions and antiquity. -Interpretations could probably be obtained of some of
the Port Hedland engravings from the few surviving Hariera and Ngarla natives
in the area.
INTRODUCTION
In July and August, 1958, I spent seven weeks recording the remarkable
series of rock engrvings at Port Hedland. This work was financed by the
Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research in New York. It was in-
spired by Father E. A. Worms, who, like myself, was anxious to have made a
detailed study of this important site, for both scientific and conservational
purposes, because at the time of my visit the use of the main ridge (46a). be-
side the Highway for the One Mile native camp,, the manganese cracking plant,
and several quarries had already obliterated unrecorded sections of the en-
gravings.  Scientifically, the site is of fundamental importance in the study
of aboriginal art and cultural history, and my study of the range and super-
impositions of the techniques and motifs at Port Hedland has revealed a
'4
clearer picture than was hitherto known about the archaeological history
of rock engraving in the whole of Australia.
Port Hedland is a busy supply and shipping port on the northwestern
coast of the continent. The estuary, a mile or so long, drains a vast net-
work of mangrove lined shoals, channels, and islands, the biggest, of the
latter being Finucane.  Low limestone ridges outcrop here and there on
these -islands. 'Extending inland from the estuary is a flat expanse of red
sandy plains covered with spinifex grass and low scrub, which is invaded to
the east and west by extensive-tidal areas that are a mixture of sand and
mud flats. This somewhat monotonous landscape is relieved on the coast by
high sand dunes, and elsewhere by scattered limestone ridges which bear the
engravings. At low tide coral reefs are exposed both in the estuary and
along the coast.  Here and there sandy bedded rivers, which flow in the wet
season, spread their deltas where they meet the sea.
The seas and estuar y abound in fish, turtles, dolphins and other marine
life, dugongs were previously abundant and whales were occasionally stranded.
In pre-white man days the plains supported a wide range of animal life in
normal seasons. The environment was a comparatively pleasant, well stocked
one for the coastal Kariera, in whose territory the engravings are situated,
despite the extremes of climate that prevailed. The rinfall is only thir-
teen inches per annum, and the wet season months in the summer are very hot
with temperatures frequently over the century. In the dry season supplies
of fresh water were widely scattered and for this reason the spring at the
Two Mile (deepened some years ago by Port Hedland Road Board into a well
for the settlement natives), and the numerous holes in the limestone which
held water after rain, were of prime importance in the economic life of the
people. The availability of water and the suitability of the limestone for
engraving, combined to make this area a center of petroglyphs in the North-
west where rock engraving was an integral trait in the aesthetic and ritual
life of many tribes as Davidson's study (1952) has shown.
The engravings at Port Hedland are in the territory of the Kariera
tribe according to Harper (1886, 291), Brown (1913, 143) and Tindale (1940,
204 map), but Clement (1903, fig. 1) and Petri (1960) place this township
in Ngalla (Ngarla') territory. These two tribes together with the Ngalum
to the west were non-circumcizing, with a similar culture, way of life and
environment, and many of the words in their languages are similar. The
Kariera's country of 3,500 to 4,000 squre miles was sub-divided into from
20 to 25 local group' territories, each of 80 to 100 square miles in size,
among the seven coastal groups (Brown, 1913, lk-5). The members of these
groups lived by hunting and fishing, and by collecting plant foods (Harper,
-1886, 'Richardson, 1886, Withnell, 1901, Clement, 1903). When a particular
kind' of food was abundant in one group's country other groups visited them
(Brown, 1913, 146-7).
The country was occupied in 1864 by white settlers. An epidemic of
smallpox decimated the native tribes in 1865 and 1866, when it is probable
that active interest in their ritual and rock art was seriously affected by
the loss of many of their totemic clan headmen. Gold and other mining ac-
tivities from 1880 onwards further disrupted tribal interests. There were
5
100 Kariera left when Brown studied their social organization in 1910, and
he, as the first anthropologist in the area, missed an invaluable opportunity
of questioning the natives about the mythology and engravings. Most of the
Kariera worked on sheep stations, the men as drovers, the women as servants.
Like the Ngalum and Ngarla, the Kariera tribe is virtually extinct today.
The natives at Port Hedland are predomimntly southern Njangamada who settled
in this area after 1910, with a few Ngarla.  They are interested in the Mungan
(Bagadj3imbiri) legend and its sacred boards (ulliwinna), but not in the rock
engravings among which they have worn tracks that have obliterated figures,
while the engrved part of the ridge near the Two Mile Camp is littered with
broken bottles and refuse.
Literature. Richardson (1886) lived in the district from 1865 to 1876 but
the only observation that he made on the rock art- as of the occurrence of
rude figures on stones.  Cleland & Giles (1909, 46, figs. 1-3) gave them one
paragraph and illustrated the large dugong (45) and design (VII).  Campbell
(1911) spent a day ashore from a ship, during which he recorded 34 fiures
along the main ridge beside the North West Coastal Highwy. Basedow (1918,
1925) and Davidson (1936) both illustrted about 50 of the outline and other
figures, merely mentioning the presence of the pecked ones. The Frobenius
Expedition in 1938-9 (Petri & Schulz, 1951) concerned itself mainly with the
outlines and linear designs of which they illustrated 20 figures. Like
Worms (1954) they discussed the techniques and cultural significance of the
engravings and compared them with Depuch Island and inland sites,  Worms
studied these engravings in 1931 and 1950, and thought there were no pecked
figures there (1954, 1085), and Tindale recorded figures in 1953. Rose (1950)
was interested in the significance of a six-toed human foot but illustrated
eight other outline and linear design figures. Elkin (19495 compared the
outlines to those of the Sydney-Hawkesbury district engravings, as did
McCarthy (1958, 20).
Informants. The time available in the field did not permit me to make ex-
haustive inquiries from the natives about the rock engravings. I met only
one Kariera man, Captain George, who claimed to be 69.  He worked on a man-
ganese mine some 150 miles inland, and ws mking a brief visit to Port Hed-
land. He gave me a sacred board bearing the Garadjeri interlocking key
design, and drew for me the clan design on his own board. He related an
interesting but short myth about the Minjiburu spirit people and the sting
ray, and is genulnely interested in the old mythology. He and Paddy Bolong,
an old Ngarla man, Major Mackay and several of the other Njangamada, readily
identified the obvious figures among the engravings, .such as fish, animal
tracks, veapons and artifacts, but they said they knew nothing about the de-
signs, concentric circles and other obscure figures.  It is probable that,
if a group comprising Captain George, Paddy Bolong and other old Ngarla men,
and also Hariera and Ngarla women, could be got together and taken along the
ridges, some interesting infortion could be obtained about the engravings,
but they are all old people and are the last of the natives from whom arny
data of this kind can be obtained at all. Such questioning would have to be
'done in the next few years because the old folk will not live much longer,
and the mythology of these two tribes is not being passed on to the younger
generation who are either immersed in the Njangamada mythology or just refer
to all of this side of their life as old men's business.
6
Method of Study.  It is estimated that in all, there is a carpet of engrav-
ings up to 100 feet wide and eight miles long in the five sites studied,
and it was both impossible and unnecessary for me to record the whole of
them to scale.  I decided to photograph every motif and its variants and
superimpositions, record to scale the densest and most interesting section
(that near the Two Mile Well), various other groupings, and all compositions.
One thousand 35 mm. photographs were taken, and from enlarged (4 x 3 in.)
prints the designs were traced and classified. A census was made of sites
I-and 2, but time made it impossible for me to complete this aspect of the
work in sites 3 to 5. An attempt was made to obtain as complete a record
as possible of the full range of motifs, but it is realized that, in this
vast assemblage of art and the varying conditions of light, some will have
been missed.
SITES
The engravings at Port Hedland are made in ridges (Ia) of Tertiary
limestoe, sandy in texture, light to dark brown in color. Deep holes (Ic)
eroded-out by weathering agencies occur in large numbers and limit markedly
the rock surface available for engraving. The ridges do not rise more than
15 ft. above the plain, but are up to 100 ft. wide. The sides slope gently
up to the rounded top in most places, but here and there a rough steep face
up to 10 ft. high is encountered. The following ridges bear engravings:
lo -A very low ridge three-fourths mile long, which extends from the
Road Board Depot along the front of, and a quarter mile beyond, the Native
Hospital.  It is the easternmost ridge and bears scattered engravings con-
taining a high proportion of weathered outlines. A number of axe-grinding
grooves (Id) and one seed-pounding hole (le) occur on this ridge.
2. This ridge begins a mile south of the jetty on the western side of
the town. It curves in close to the western side of the North West Coastal
Highway at the One Mile native camp, and runs beside this road to, and
crosses it at, the Four Mile point. The ridge divides into several wide and
flat topped parallel branches in this area. The figures are very scattered
up to the first quarry (la), but a very fine series extends from here for
half a mile towards the One Mile camp. There is then a blank area for about
hlafa mile, but from a point opposite the Road Board Depot to the Manganese
plant is another fine series in which the densest display extends from just
northl of the- Two Mile Well to the road leading into the above plant. Of
this display, 120 feet as recorded-to scale (2-4) as were many groupings
(6-10, 13, 15-21, 34-40, 96, 296) forming part of it. The remains of several
Tllulheaps of stones are to be seen in this area. The engravings become more
scattered-from the Manganese plant to the Four Mile, but many fine pecked
figures occur among them on this part of the ridge, which becomes rough and
potholed, -with a steeper face fronting the road in many places. At the end
of the westernmost sub-ridge, opposite the Four Mile, an elaborate Talu
arrangement of stones (lc, XVIId-e) is to be seen.
e. A broad tidal flat, covered in parts by mangroves, separates the
town from Xariera Island, on which two parallel ridges (46, Ia) from one-and-
one-half to two miles long, and a third one-half mile long, are separated by
7
spinifex grass and tidal flats.  This island can be visited by landing from
a boat along the northern or western sides, or by walking across the tidal
flat from the Four Mile end. The natives visit the area for fishing by walk-
ing across the mud and mangrove flat from the One and Two Mile camps. These
ridges all bear very well preserved displays of engravings which include the
pecked goannas (XIVa), bird and fish (XIIIb), a remarkable series of turtles
(76-81), the whale (IXg), elaborate design (VId), and a number of Min jiburu
figures. A series of Talu heaps of stone (lc-e, XVII) were located on the
furtherest west of these ridges.
4. At the Old Boodarie landing, several miles west of Port Hedland,
and marked by a Trig. tower, engravings in excellent condition cover an area
from 60 to 90 ft. wide and a quarter of a mile long, on a ridge which forms
the southern bank of a mangrove lined channel.
5. On the opposite bank of the above channel, and a quarter of a mile
west of the Landing, is another series of engravings in an outcrop of lime-
stone forming part of a long low island. This series is notable for the long
branching track-like grooves which run for 30 or more feet (XIIh) between
the numerous potholes in the rock.
One or two additional series of engravings may occur on some of the
other islands west of the Port Hedland estuary but I was not able to examine
them. A search revealed none in the southern half of Finucane island.
Cockle and whelk shell middens up to a foot or so thick are scattered
along and beside the limestone ridges in all sites. I made an extensive
search of the surface of these shell deposits but could find no stone imple-
ments nor animal bones. Patches of the middens have been dug out for road
filling near the town and native camps. Charcoal and shell for carbon 1)4
dating could be obtained from them, and the age of these middens would be
useful data about the site.
SUBJECTS
Examination of the superimpositions revealed that the subjects and
techniques are integrally associated. There are three techniques, comprising
abraded and punctured grooves, and pecked, and these will form the major
groups under which the styles of outline, outline with interior designs of
various kinds, linear, pecked band and intaglios will be described. The
motifs in the scale charts (2-10, 12-45, 88-93, 299-303) which are my origi-
nal field charts, are not included in the classified diagrams (11, 47-75, 82-
87, 94-295, 304-326). In referring to the illustrations, Fig. and P1., have
been eliminated throughout the text.
I. Abraded Grooves (lc)
Only one small series of about 20 of these grooves, less than a foot long
and in a parallel series, was recorded. It is in site 1 and near the Native
Hospital. This is the first record of these grooves in Western Australia, the
nearest known locality being at Delamere in the Northern Territory (Davidson,
1936, 59).
8
II. Punctured Line: Outlines
Outlines.
Human beings. The twelve figures include one male, two females and the
rest are sexless.  Five (55, 59-60, 62, 300b, IB) of them are normal in type
and up to 5 ft.- tall. One is a headless oval-bodied figure (57) with two
legs. A similar figure (4, right of middle) which has one leg and three
toes was identified by Captain George as a Minjiburu man who came over the
limestone ridge and whose head now wanders about near the Two Mile 'Well, and
jetty. Both are about 2 ft. long. Another small figure (43) 3 ft. long,
with upraised arms, has three fingers on each hand and three on each foot.
Beside it is the speared buttocks of a man with well defined genitals.
Other figures include a woman (38); a pair of men (26); a sexless figure
which is probably a man (58) of normal human size; a broad powerful bodied
man (56) with pointed head, large eyes, uneven arms and a pair of natural
holes in his crotch which probably represent his testicles; and (60a) a
small round head with eyes, mouth, two legs and no body. Fingers are shown
on two of the figures, none has toes and eight have pairs of eyes. Both
arms are upraised on two, and one on two others; they are either uneven in
size or lacking on the remainder. One (62) has radiate hair or headband.
The figures do not carry weapons or other objects nor wear ornaments.
The biggest figure (29) nearly 9 ft. long, has the pair of limbs on
one side (with five fingers and toes) longer than the other pair (which
lack digits). He has a pattern of seven parallel lines on his chest.
The human feet (4, 5, 63, a) ry from a few inches long-to those'
21 x 8-1/2 and 26 x 8 in. in size and from broad to elongate in shape.  Some
display a bunion-like projection. The big toe is often well defined. The
toes range from four to eight, with no preference for any number such as the
six discussed by Rose (1950).  Several of these feet have one or more bars
across them, one has a cross and a bar and several have a pair of eyes.
In the few human hands (65) depicted one has four and the other five
fingers, the wrist is rounded, and the fore-arm is not shown. They are
natural size. A human arm (2-A30B20) ias said by Captain George to be that
of a man that was killed, whose arm, leg and head were taken to camp.
Mammals. A curious long legged and short tailed animal (26, IVh) just
over 3 ft. long, may be a kangaroo or wallaby in profile with no fore-legs.
It has an opening in its stomach from which a line extends outwards, while
inside a circular object is enclosed by the body cavity.  It was thought by
Worms (1954, Fig. Eo5) to be a hatching seagull, the pothole being its nest.
A dugong-like creature (34) 5 ft. 9 in. long, and a sperm whale (91) 8 ft.
long, with the fibrous baleen crudely suggested, are the only other mammals
in this style.
Birds. The most notable example is a well poised heron-like bird (68).
Another figure (3-A24839, IVb) 6 ft. 6 in, long, lacking feet and wings, is
heavier in build than the emu whose shape it resembles and it may depict a
mythical bird. Fig. 66 is a similar but imperfect figure.
9
Birds' eggs are an interesting motif. Sets are shown with the birds'
tracks (3-A6 B25, A23 B 19, 5-A3 B48, 67, 69-74, IVe, g), and in one instance
the hunter's track, beside them. There is one track beside two clutches, six
tracks beside four eggs, and thirteen extend in a line from three eggs. The
legs of the sitting bird are shown beside several clutches. Most of the
clutches are emu eggs although no definite figures of this bird are portrayed,
but the number and size of the eggs indicate that other birds are represented.
Reptiles. A snake in an S-like coil (IVf), a coiled snake (IVi), and
two straight ones (32) are the only ones recorded. There are four lizards,
two of which (94 c, d) appear to be goanras, and two (94 b, e) geckos.
Turtles. The only example (75a) found is an unevenly balanced one in
a swiing posture. The oval figure with two appendages (3-A3OB46) may repre-
sent a turtle.
Fish. The fish constitute one of the biggest series among the outlines.
The full range of the species represented is shown in Figs. 2, 3, 5, 6, 8,
82-3, 88-9, 93, IX a-c. They include threadfins (salmon), mullet, bream,
groper, catfish, sunf ish, skipjacks, sole or flounder and other species, thus
including the common narrow and broad bodied food species obtainable by spear-
ing, throwing a boomerang or club, netting and stranding. All are posed as
though swimming, either in the profile or dorsal view. Most of them are
single figures scattered through the general mass of the engravings. Two
groupings of up to five species of fish occur (88-9) and one of two fish asso-
ciated with a Minjiburu spirit (39). While the two eyes are usually big in
some figures, no eyes are shown in many of the fish. One bas a pair of gill
slits- (82, top right). Among the best portrayals are those shown in IX a-c.
In this plate the fish engraved inside another one (IXd) and the turtle in-
side a fish (IXf), represent either aesthetic exercises on the part of the
artist or a combination of his totems. No complete swordfish was recorded
but several of their swords (86, VIIIe) 20 in. long form attractive motifs.
The skates (22, 83-bottom, 89) are rare, and to their simple outline may
be added eyes, mouth and gill slits. One (Xb) is outlined around a pothole
which may represent its anus or genital organ. Its liver is shown below
thi's hole.
The sting rays (3, 5, 10, 22, 33, 85, a, c-d) vary considerably in size,
from 6 in. to over 5 ft. long. They range from a simple oval or circle with
a thin tail to those showing the posterior lobes (of the flukes) which prob-
ably represent the claspers at the base of the tail of the male ray. The
eyes are unusually big on some figures and the breathing holes are infilled.
tWhile the majority represent the common rounded sting ray, the large diamond-
siaped ray and the crescentic eagle ray are also depicted. The depressions
made by the rays in the mud may be seen by the hundreds on the vast tidal
flats along the coast as rays occur in great abundance in these waters. One
ray (Xd) bas been struck with three double barbed spears.
The liver is shown inside the body of some of the rays (Xa & others),
and is a very common motif in itself (83, 84, Xi-j) varying widely in shape
from broad and short to long and narrow. It is from 3 to 42 inches long.
Campbell (1911, 103) identified it as a phallic symbol.
10
Invertebrates.  The few portrayed comprise two jellyfish (95 a, c) of
different species; carybdeid medusae or sea wasp (95b, 2-A23B18, as identi-
fied by Captain George who said it killed people in the water but could not
be seen; a mangrove crab (95 d); and a four-legged starfish (VIIIc)o
Plants. A broad stemmed plant 4 ft. long with pairs of leaves (VIlIg).
Weapons and other Implements.  By far the commonest weapon is the boom-
erang (9Ba) scattered throughout all of the sites. It ranges from tiny ex-
amples 3 in. long to large ones 3 ft. long. Most of them are curved in
shape, the curve varying from shallow to deep in relation to the length of
the weapon, with rounded ends. One (3-A18B21) has a bladed end. Some are
sharply angled with pointed ends. In width they vary from narrow to very
broad in relation to length and some are waisted.  The boomerangs are en-
graved singly; several together at odd angles among other figures; two
crossing- 'e another; and in parallel sets of from two to five (98a, VIa).
Three pairs are shown- in Fig. 5. An unusual type is a pair of short broad
boomerangs (106h). It is obvious that there was considerable variation in
the relative dimensions and shapes of the boomerangs in use in this period.
The club types include the sword club, distinguished by its narrow
grip (98a, Via); one with an oval head (Vd); the rounded-stick throwing
club (99a); a bird headed type (99c); a curved or hooked form (99b); one
with a conical head and a very short handle (99d); a straight, flat fish
killing club (99g).
Most of the hafted stone axes (100 b-d, g) are short handled, with the
head evenly balanced on the handle, but one (Vl, 12 in. long) shows the
blade attached to the side of the handle. One (lOOc) has the shape of the
Yodda (1) axe.
Other objects in the outline style comprise spearthrower-like weapons
(34, 108j); a somewhat similar figure (XI c-e) from the head of which one or
two short lines project; and bullroarers on a line (27, 106d, 294). The
line from one is connected with a pothole.
Indeterminate. These include a large figure with four toes (302);
elongate fringed figure (2-A31B36); a large figure (3-A24B39); rectangle
(4-A4B44); and a design (5-A3B32).
Ovals and circles. These (146-52) are scattered among the engravings
at all sites. They mray be pointed (151), tailed (168-9), in linked pairs
(178-9) and a pair like a tied bow (181, 193), on lines (170, 173-4),
fringed (187), have a dot in the middle (154, 157), or be in groups of up
to four together (2-A20B28). The circles are quite commonly engraved around
a pothole.
Remarks: The outlines comprise a narrow range of human and animal mo-
tifs, artifacts, circles and other figures. Among them the fish, sting ray,
liver, circles, ovals and boomerangs form the predominant subjects.
'The terminology of stone implements adopted in this paper is that of
McCarthy, Bramell & Noone, 1946.
11
Outlines with Barred Interior Designs
Marine Mammals. These include the biggest figures among the engravings
at Port Hedland.  The large marine creature (2a) beside the Two Mile Well is
11 ft. long, with grooves 1-1/2 in. wide and 1/2 in. deep smoothed by weath-
ering. As it has no tail, two sets of fins, and what appears to be an open
mouth, it is difficult to identify. It is regarded as a dugong by the natives,
several of whom had no hesitation in identifying it as such. A number of
linear figures, which include a double-barred spear, fringes, snake and paral-
lel lines, a barred figure and a pair of pecked kangaroo tracks, are engraved
within its outline. A pair of well proportioned bottle-nosed dolphins 10 ft.
long (2, 3) in line with one another, are prominent in the dense assemblage
of figures near the Two Mile Well. Captain George said that two linear
motifs inside one of these dolphins represent a weapon and charm against en-
emies in battle,  Further south, in the same section and halfway between the
Well and the Manganese plant, two large marine mammals (36, XVIe) are en-
graved at the base of the eastern side of the ridge. One is a poorly shaped
bottle-nosed dolphin 17 ft. 3 in, long, with two bars across its body. The
other one is a whale-like figure 11 ft. long, decorated with many bars, on
which one bar and the tail or mouth have been re-engraved as pecked snakes,
and a pecked fin has been added (or re-engraved) on one side. The two fig-
ures lie dia'gonally across one another and a pecked boomerang is engraved
over the outline of the dolphin.
Birds. The only figure is that of a wading bird (88, IXc) neatly shaped
and poTised as though feeding.
Reptiles. A snake nearly 14 ft. long (16) and another incomplete and
shorter one.
Turtles. Among the several figures that occur (75 S & W, 296a) one has
the flippers set straight forwards and backwards. One, 92 x 45 in. in size,
has a groove of conjoined and separated punctures 1/2 x 1/4 in. in size, and
one has a single median bar (4-AiB16).
Fish. One or two bars near the head are common on the fish (83, IXc)
of which a variety of species is shown. The sting ray livers (35., 84, 87)
are similarly marked,
Invertebrates. The bent and sinuous figures (135-9) resemble earthworms.
Weapons. Transverse lines, varying from widely spaced to close together,
form a common decorative design on many boomerangs (2-5, 98b, 106b, Va and
others), and this motif on boomerangs has been recorded at Pimba, Flinders
Range, South Australia (Hall, McGowan & Guleksen, 1951, pl. XXVI, fig. F).
At Port Hedland the design is also to be seen on a round headed club (99f),
sacred board (102, left), sword-like object (lOlb), shields (15, 26, 120-1),
and a club (3-A6B14, VIIIh). One barred boomerang (197) has a line linking
its ends, and attached to the line are two small club shaped pendants.
Indeterminate. These figures comprise various oval figures, with a
single median or number of bars, and some have a single bar at right or other
12
angles (2-5, 13, 113). Some are pointed and two, about 3 ft. long (112,
VIg) have oval appendages. One is a large elongate figure, like a body
and head in profile (XIk):, and one is triangular (281).
Remarks. The barred figures consist of a narrow range of marine mam-
mals, birds, snakes, fish, weapons and indeterminate designs. The most
notable are the large dugongs, dolphins and whale, while the unidentifiable
figures include some interesting forms.  Some of the Minjiburu spirit fig-
ures are decorated with bars across the chest. The predominant motifs are
the boomerangs, turtles, circles and ovals, and designs.
Outlines with Striped Interior Design
Human beings. These include an interesting series of striped men
(II, e, h) one of which has a striped body and single-line arms and legs
bearing five digits and a rayed head, and the other has a striped body and
broad limbs. A number of variations of this type was found (5-A19B15, 12--
across a gridded turtle, 24h, 32,s 47, 51-4h). The finest example, near the
Two Mile Well, is 12 ft. tall. He has long arms, with a spread of nearly
10 ft., and short legs, on which the digits are represented by the ends of
the stripes. He has a neatly rayed head, no facial features or genital
organ, and is holding a short handled bulbous headed club or axe in his
right hand.  On his right arm he is carrying an outline human figure, 5 ft.
6 in. tall, with two eyes, rayed head and no arms, whose body ends in a
ratural pothole, 3 in. dr., from which three thin legs extend. The line of
the head of this figure is the continuation of the top line of the larger
figure's arm. The latter hero was identified by Captain George as Murra-
murra, a big mn, who made all of the engravings but who ran away when the
Mungan brothers (McCarthy, 1961) appeared at Port Hedland. No comment was
nade by Captain or by Paddy Bolong on the smaller figure, which may repre-
sent Murra-murra's wife, as with the cave paintings of the Lightning broth-
ers (Davidson, 1936, frontispiece) and Jundurruna on Groote Eylandt (McCarthy,
19-60, Fig. 2-A8B16) or it nay represent a younger brother. It is probable
that Murra-murra not only belongs to an older mythology than the Mungan
brothers, because both informants were certain that this engraving is not of
the latter, but that he belongs to the original creator spirit time of the
Kariera tribe. It is difficult to decide which figures are associated with
Murra-murra in this dense assemblage of engravings, and many, including a
pecked human foot on his face, are superimposed on various parts of his body.
In all about a half dozen other examples of this hero, all very old, faded
and incomplete, were noted on this ridge and on Kariera island, including
an armless one (13).
An interesting old group (32) opposite the Road Board Depot depicts one
of these heroes, 9 ft. tall, on one of the flat rock surfaces in this area.
The hero is imperfect, his body and traces of one arm only being visible.
Associated with him are two outline snakes 10 ft. long, and fish, small
sting ray, large sting ray's liver, 3 bird tracks, knobbed object, small
oval (human foot?) vertical set of three boomerangs, and a shield-like fig-
ure. Some of these figures are either embodied in or superimposed on the
hero, but as they are all faded and in the one style it is difficult to de-
cide this point. The group offers further proof that Murra-murra belongs to
13
the old mythology. A file of four pairs and a single one of pecked oval
tracks, probably the hind ones of the kangaroo, are superimposed on this
old group.
One of the human feet, with five toes, is striped (64).
Fish. A sting ray (33) only.
Weapons and other objects. Boomerangs are again the commonest motif
(3-A2B23 , 98c, f) and there are sword clubs (Vi; 4-A2Bl0; 5-Al2B41), spear-
throwe-rs (108 a, c, V, k), shields (5-A25B8  12 28, 107 a-e, 303) and sac-
red boards (102). One of the finest figures (VIf) is like a cornucopia in
shape, and the stripes become long loops at the bottom. The long sets of
three parallel sinuous lines, one of ihich is 18 ft. long (VIIg) may repre-
sent the human and/or opossum hair belt worn by initiated men. There is
also an indeterminate striped figure (h-A5Bl6), and one (123) 12 in. long
may be a coolamono
Remarks. The striped figures consist of a narrow range of human fig-
ures and weapons among which the boomerang, shield and designs are the com-
monest. The only animal represented in this style is a sting ray. The most
notable figures are the cult heroes and the large cornucopia-shaped one.
Outlines wi th Barred and Striped Interior Designs
This design occurs on boomerangs (3-A24B40, A27B10; 39; IVb, Vc, VIc)
most commonly, spearthrowers (106b, 108b), shield (107k), hafted stone axe
or club (lOOa), sacred boards (102, 299) and an indeterminate object
(3-A12B2). The bars and stripes may be placed in even-sized panels, or
from 1 to 3 bars may divide panels of stripeso Most of these figures are
ratural size.
Outlines with Gridded Interior Designs
Although this design is restricted to very few motifs, it is character-
istic of the turtles from 10 in. to 6 ft. 6 ino long (6, 9, 13, 21, 75 c-n,
p, v, 76-81, VIIIa, b, d, IXf) on which it represents and is derived from
the plates of the carapace. From 1 to 4 stripes sub-divide the bars in the
grid, but a single median bar is common. The latter is well demonstrated
on a dugong (90) and a whale (IXg, 92) which has wide deep grooves, on
Kariera island.  Several sting rays (85) bear this design. Among other ob-
jects are boomerangs (98b, 296a) shields (2-A21B29), hafted axe (lOOf)
sacred boards (102), and ovals (5-A21B13, 191, 297) several indeterminate
f i gures (3-A8B7, 43, 130., 127a, XIj) and a large leaf-shaped f i gure (5-A25B2).
The grid is a common separate motif in the linear series.
Outlines with Curvilinear-Interior Designs
Some of the finest and most carefully executed figures at Port Hedland
are decorated with this attractive design, which always remains curvilinear
and does not become the angular zigzag motif of the modem shields, spear
14
throwers and sacred boards. It is shown on two sting rays (5-A21B40, 85-top),
the only animal so decorated; and partlcularly well on the boomerangs (3, 29,
98e), sword club (10, 108e, Vg), spear-throwers (3-A9B3, AlB15, 108, Ve),
shields (2-5, Vg, from 8 to 36 in. long, the biggest being 42 x 14 in.), and
sacred boards (5-A21Bl, Vf).  The design varies from a single curvilinear
line (which may-double back to form a second line) to three, four and ulti-
mately an all-over pattern.  Usually the lines are si nuous but in some in-
stances the loops are exaggerated. As the illustrations demonstrate, the
fine line work in the all-over patterns is very skilfully done and indicates
a complete mastery of the technique and medium by the artists.
A comparable motif in the linear series is the looped track leading from
a pothole (96 u-v, XIIe, i-j) which represents a snake or other creature.
The curvilinear line pattern is combined with diagonal lines on a
boomerang (18); herringbone on a boomerang (98e); stripes on handle of club
(99e); bars on a sacred board (102); bars across curvilinear pattern to form
five panels (102, right); and sets of bars at the ends of a spearthrower
bearing a curvilinear pattern (108g).
Outlines with Crescentic Interior Designs
This is an uncomuon design, and  as recorded on a bird (43) associated
with three pairs of arcs, a fish (83) with the arcs and short crescentic
lines in panels; several boomerangs (Va, 98c); bullroarer (33) with an all-
over pattern of arcs and herringbone; half-axe 8 in. long, and in a line
pattern on a boomerang (299).
Outlines with Various Interior Designs
On some figures many of the above design elements have been combined,
as an elaborate pattern of arcs, irregular and curvilinear lines on the
body and base on the apices of a sacred object (VId); triple bars, fringe,
chevrons and curvrilinear lines on a large boomerang; looped pattern, seg-
mented margin, curvrilinear, barred, striped and irregular line pattern on
short, broad boomerangs (106c); barred, diagonal, crescentic and short
curvilinear line design on a boomerang (106e); bars, grid, and irregular
line pattern on a boomerang (98e); herringbone and irregular pattern of
short lines (98e); crossed line pattern on hafted axe blades (100e-f);
pairs of eyes at each end, a set of parallel lines in the middle, and
barred oval figure, on a sacred board (10la); oval on sacred board (102,
left); barred at one end, oval in middle and pairs of lines at other end
of sacred board (102); herringbone at one end and looped line pattern at
other end of sacred board (106a); cross on shield (107p); parallel diagonal
lines divided by transverse angled lines, with an irregular line pattern at
one end, on a spearthrower (108k); coiled snakes on a sacred board (Vh);
barred and short irregular line pattern on a sacred object (VIIIf); irregu-
lar line pattern representing shapes of carapace plates on turtles (75 q, t);
fish with pattern of body ridges (3-A16Bl, A29B1, IXc) identified by Captain
George as sharks but which resemble the threadfin or salmon; pair of trans-
verse sinuous lines on shield (3-A29B23); snake or sinuous line on hafted
axe blade (3-A5Bl9); barred lines and oval on boomerangs (3-A13B16, A3B36).
Remarks. This group of varied motifs indicates that the artists exper-
imented with the design elements, either for personal aesthetic reasons or
to represent specific clan or ritual patterns.
Outlines with Dotted Interior Designs
The sting rays (3-A6B44; 5-A17Bl; 35, 85, III g, Xe-f) form the majority
of the figures bearing a dotted surface. As the crescentic eagle-ray has a
natural coloration of white spots on a brown surface it appears probable that
this design had a naturalistic origin in this art. The eagle-ray figured by
Campbell (1911) is alnost worn away by people -walking on it as it is now on
a track. The dots vary from small well separated pits to larger ones close
together.
Other figures bearing a dotted pattern are a turtle (75r), and the head
of a dugong (90); a fish (83); right-angled figure (5-A22B36); oval 14 in.
long (5-A20B18) and a shield (106g).
The eight dotted areas, without outline (293) are unidentifiable.
Dots are combined with stripes on a fish (IXe); a design 2 ft. long of
a dotted and striped ovals on a line (XIc) and a rectangle (184).
The lizard track (2-5, 42, 91, 96s, IXi) consists of a sinuous line,
from a few inches to over 20 ft. long, bordered by a row of dots (pits) on
each side, often leading from a pothole and sometimes ending in a second one.
As the tracks in the bush lead from one clump of spinifex grass to another it
is probable that the potholes represent these clumps. The blue tongue
(junguma), and other short tailed lizards (muju, etc.) make such tracks, and
ratives identified the engraved track by these two names.
There is one line of 5 circles 1-1/2 in. dr. (154) each with a dot in
the middle, and a few odd ones were also recorded.
Des igns in Circ les and Ova ls
A median line across a circle or oval (158-65, 297 and others) is com-
mon, and other designs include parallel bars, cross (10, 107p, 142); crosses
in a pair of conJoined ovals (180, 297); fringe (2-A16B10); bow-like (200);
grid (191); grid in a double circle (183); and various line designs (185,
192, 216).
The most elaborate rock engraving design (VIIe) yet recorded in Australia
is enclosed by an irregular oval 2 ft. 6 in. long and 1 ft. 6 in. wide. It
resembles a map -with its short straight lines branching off longer ones, con-
nected with curved lines and with the dots, ovals, barred oval and bird tracks
embodied in the design which is well preserved.  It ws photographed in 1908
by Burton & Cleland (1909, Fig. 3). There are no designs in the portable art
of this area as elaborate and complex as this one. A variant of the use of
ovals in designs is the chain motif of which there is a fine example (XId) 3
ft. long consisting of a series of ovals divided by a median line. The clus-
ters (3-A24B17, 4-A3B24, XIi, 207-8, 210-14, 216-27) consist of conjoined
16
ovals and rounded figures in a great variety of arrangements, no two being
the same. Their significance is unknown but they are common in the Flinders
Ranges and western New South Wales sites. The grouping together of foot-
like f igures and ovals (196) is a variant of the cluster motif.
lIb. Punctured Line: Linear Figures
These figures are those in which the punctured line does not enclose a
body or space, and include stickmen, lizards, parallel and sinuous lines,
arc, animal tracks, fringe, plume, spearhead and spear, grid, radiate and
other miscellaneous figures, or designs such as the concentric circle and
spiral and meandering patterns.
Human beings. A small number of stick figures less than a foot long
occur u16, 4r"9), that are difficult to distinguish between a man and a
lizard. One (16) shows a man holding a boomerang.
Sinuous Lines and Snakes. These lines represent both snakes and tracks.
The majority of them start at the edge of a pothole. They range from a few
inches to over 30 ft. (XIIf-j) long.
Snakes (2-5, 96c, f, m, q, XII i, j) are scattered among the engravings
on all of the ridges. Many are connected with a pothole (4-A2B37). In some
instances part of their body forms a circle around the pothole (96c, g); the
snake extends from one pothole to another (96c); several snakes are connec-
ted to one or more potholes (96r, p. t) or one leads from a pothole into a
coiled spiral (5-A5B47); some have a bird track on the distal end (30); and
in one figure the snakes are engraved as a balanced sinuous pair (285).
Snakes also occur as motifs in the lobes of the sting ray liver (17, 45).
They are up to 8 ft. in length but are not as long as the pecked snakes.
The looped line or groove (96u, v, XIIk) represents the track of an
animal either from a hole or from a clump of spinifex. It is a variant of
the meandering track (15, XIIg, where it is 40 ft. long) which may become a
zigzag (303) or iander over the rock surface for 27 ft. or more; one XIIh
is engraved for over 30 ft. between the many potholes in site 5, branching
in several directions. This line may represent either the track of an ani-
mal or mythical hero. The track of the lizard (ixi) differs from the mean-
dering line only in the addition of the row of dots along each side.
Another variant (105, 296 a-b, VIIh) is seen where the line (up to 15 ft.
long) ends in a plume, or in two branches at each end (3-A19B8).
One of the most elaborate examples of sinuous lines consists of 5 par-
allel lines in a pattern 3 ft. long (271) and there are others from 10 to
18 in. long (260). Another set of 4 parallel lines 15 ft. long (VIIg)
probably represents a possum-fur or human hair twine belt.
Animal Tracks. The hind foot tracks of the kangaroo and wallaby, and
the track of the emu, are to be seen everywhere, either singly, in pairs,
in lines of from 2 to 12,, and in groups around a pothole. The latter groups
may be of mixed species. The tracks of the emu and other birds occur beside
clutches of outline eggs (69, 719 74, IVg). The bird tracks include those
17
of the native companion, seagull, duck, curlew and galah, as identified by
my native informants. They readily distinguished between the kangaroo fore-
paw and dingo tracks, stating that the latter usually has shorter digits
than the five of the former, and between the turkey with three short toes
and the mative companion with three long toes.
Spears. The types portrayed include a small number of plain spears,
those with a single barb or pair of barbs (one on each side of point), and
a single row of barbs. The great majority are armed with a double row of
up to 16 pairs of barbs, mostly closely but sometimes widely spaced. Another
common type has double rows in reversed groups, in which a triangle, cross or
oval my be incorporated (97, 196-7). A rare type bears a diamond between
two crosses (97). In the engravings the complete spears are from 4 to 9 ft.
long, and two, three (3-A21B24) and four (2, middle) occur together. They
are typical of the range of spears from this area figured by Clement (1903,
p ls . II-III),.
The spearheads, particularly the heavily barbed ones, are scattered
throughout the sites, singly, in pairs and triples, and in groups of up to
eight (31). Attractive arrangements include a neatly barbed spear across
(Nc) or beside (106a) a decorated boomerang; several spearheads in a paral-
lel set; one across a pair of outline boomerangs (106j); one beside a barred
boomerang and bird track (106i); and five spearheads against a boomerang
(33). An unusual arrangement is that of two barbed spears projecting from a
pothole (5-A23B43). Captain George said that a lot of spearheads together
represent a fight.
Apart from their importance in fishing, hunting and fighting, Harper
(1886, 289) said that in the Ngarla tribe persons absent when a relative
died were not allowed to speak until they underwent a naman ordeal in wh'ich
spears were thrown at them from a distance of 20 yards.
The association of the barbed heads with the spear shaft among these
engravings makes it quite certain that the barbed motif represents a spear-
head and not a plant. It has diffused over a vast area of the continent as
an engraving, and appears as a painting in the lower Murray rivero
Pubic Frin  . The fringe is ubiquitous and of great variety of shape
and size (2-5, 103, 245, 252-6, XIa-b, d), from 3 to 22 in. long. The small
ones worn by men and the larger ones worn by women are shown. It is usually
engraved singly, but series of as mny as five together are not uncommon.
Some are shown attached to the girdle. The Minjiburu heroes are shown wear-
ing a fringe (lle, i, j, 1, u, IIIf), or one is shown beside the hero (llg,
Iii & III, d-e). Some unusual figures include a fringe attached to a girdle
around a pothole (2-A28B8), and a fringe engraved on the inside face of (Vo)
or from the edge of a pothole (252-3). One figure (114) looks like a gigan-
tic fringe about 4 ft. long but it may represent a bush with long stems like
a grasstree. Two unusual fringes (2-A20B19, A18B34) occur, and there is an
indeterminate fringed figure (4-AlB5).
Davidson (1926, 1952) referred to this figure as a "rake" with the
reservation that it may be a pubic fringe; the fact that one is worn by the
Minjiburu heroes is conclusive proof of its purpose.
18
Grid,  (3-A9B6, 109 23, 104b, 109, VIh, VIIa, XVIg). The grid usually
consists of parallel bars of more or less even length with a stripe down the
middle, but in some figures the bars shorten toward the top to form a cone-
shaped grid. Variants of the design are attached to one or two circles
(109, bottom left). They are from 8 to 12 in. long.
The grid is either derived from the pattern on the turtle (75-81, VIII
a-b, d) or forms a separate motif derived from a design (pointed or cicatrized)
on the chests of the men.
The most e Laborate example (VIh) is at the Boodarie Landing, and another
unusual one (VlJa) has a striped triangle as a base. Several grid designs
have scrolls and circles attached to the bottom (2-A27B11).
Plume.  (2-A35B9, 4-A1B419 23, 45, 104a, 300a-b, VIIg, XIh). The plume
is often engraved in fine narrow grooves. Its shape is characteristic of the
head or arm ornament in which cockatoo or other feathers are inserted into a
gum mount (Clement, 1903, pl V, fig. 3), triangular in shape, with a stick
as a pin to hold the ornament in place.
In the engravings the plume may be attached to a long straight stick
(IIIh) or arm (2-A6B24), and to meandering lines (105, 296a-b, VIM) up to
-15 ft. long. One line with a plume at each end may be a worm of the coral
'reef which lives in a long case and has a brilliantly colored fringe at each
end.
Radiate. (2-A13B12, Al9BlO, 80, 228-48, VIIa, c, XIb). This multi-
rayed figure is shown in a variety of forms. The lines nay radiate from a
common center (243-4), a semi-circular line (245), a circle (238-42), or a
pothole (3-A26B7, 5-A1B38, A15B22, A3B29, 228-31). In the two latter vari-
-eties the design probably represents the tracks of ants or crabs from their
holes, the circle where used representing the holeo In some figures (232-6)
the lines radiate from a circular space and Captain George said the figure
illustrated people sitting or lying around a fire. One (247) is not unlike
a spider, and another (241) resembles a starfish. In one figure the radiate
motif, combined with a diagonal cross of two lines, is attached to a stick,
and there is a second figure of the radiate lines on a stick (3-A28B41), A
most unusual and unique design is that (XIb) of a large six armed cross,
each arm of which has from 2 to 5 rays on the end, One radiate figure
(2-A36B27) was identified by Captain George as something that cannot be seen
but which kills people in the salt water (the Carybdeid medusa or sea wasp).
Parallel Lines. Occasional sets of straight parallel lines (5-A13B28,
26, 250 from 2 to 12 in. long, occur, and Captain George said they represent
cicatrices. They are similar to the bars engraved on the chests of the
Minjiburu spirit figures. A variant (248) consists of a set of lines in the
middle of two other sets at right angles to it.
Arcs.  (3A3B3, A7B37, A29B48v 258-60, 262-4). Sets of from 3 to 6
parallel llnes varying from a crescent to a semi-circle (or half concentric
circle), occur as single motifso  One set of three arcs is engraved beside
a pothole.  Opposed sets of arcs occur (5-AlkB23) and one set (VIIf) consists
19
of two pairs of crescents 5 and 6 ft. long. They vary in length from 4 in.
to 2 ft. Their significance is unknown. Davidson (1936, 60) was told by
natives at Delamere that sets of parallel lines and arcs represented markings
placed upon the bodies of men during ceremonies.
Cross. Small crosses occur occasionally and were identified as starfish
by native informants.
Concentric Circles and Spirals. (2-A21B12, A27B39, 5-Al9B4, A20B29, 26,
145, 209, IVh). Both motifs from a few inches to 18 in. in diameter, are well
represented and vary from weathered and faded examples to those in a perfect
state of preservation. They are commonly drawn (5-AllB32, Vm-n, IXh, XVIg)
around a pothole. In the concentric circles there are from two to a dozen
circles in the one figure. In one instance (2-Al5B9) a pair of concentric
circles is attached to a line. Several sting rays are decorated with a con-
centric circle on their bodies (85).
Whether the concentric circle and spiral are different ways of engraving
the same figure is not known, although it is probable. The spiral centered
on a pothole may represent a coiled snake as the figure in IVi suggests.
Miscellaneous.  (2-5, 87, 115-6, 131-2, 183, 267-79, 287, 289-92, 297,
VIIe, XIc). Mary of the linear motifs cannot be classified or identified in
any way, and most of them are unique. The simplest kind is a short straight
groove said in one instance by Captain George to represent the sacred stick
in small bullroarers) worn through the hair at the back of the neck by the
initiated men. One (290) is a slender loop around two shallow potholes, and
it may represent an outline boomerang. They include open-ended ovals and
rectangles, the V, a cross (265), branching figures (2-A36B28) with a solid
circle at the end of one arm.  One (132) is a branching design like a river
delta, one (VIIb) resembles a dancing wand of a special and unique type, and
one (295, beside the road leading into the northern end of the Manganese plant)
is a symmetrical design done in a very fine pitting technique.
Remarks. It will be seen that some of the linear figures represent
naturalistic subjects comprising men, snakes, li2ards and animal tracks,
others represent objects like spears, fringes, pubic aprons, plume ornaments
and hair belts, and some like the grid, parallel lines, radiate, arc, concen-
tric circles and spirals, and the numerous miscellaneous figures are uniden-
tifiable. Just where they belong in the. chronology will be discussed in a
later section of this paper.
Minjiburu Spirit, Figures and Compositions (11, II-III)
The outstanding anthropomorph at Port Hedland is an intriguing spirit
figure, portrayed like a ballet dancer, actor or puppet, of which examples
were found scattered along all of the ridge sites. Only one was recorded on
site 1, near the Native Hospital. Their outline style combined with pecked
feet and hands makes them difficult to place in the classification adopted
here as they embody features of two different phases of engraving. They are
not crude as Davidson claimed (1952, 93) but are stylized and to some degree
elegant in poise. Worms (1954, 1085) commented upon the admirable economy of
line in these figures.
20
The Mirijiburu are characterized by a single outline mostly straight but
in a minority slightly convex on both sides, or the whole body may form a
crescent-like curve. The head is formed by the body lines with a rounded
top. A-neck is present on only a few figures. The legs are formed by the
end of the body lines, the arms are two similar single lines on all -but a
few examples, On two figures there are double lines, with hands, for the
arms.  The feet and hands, which vary greatly in size, are pecked triangles
or ovals, on wihich there are from 2 to 6 toes or fingerso The number of
digits may vary on the limits of the one figure. The arms project either
horizontally, or just above or below this level,  in most figures, but on
some (llr) they are dropped well down or (llt) one is held up beside the
face. In other figures the arms are joined in a line across the body (7,
llh, 299, IIIb), and in one (90) this line is a crescent joining the hands
on top of the headO The legs are usually spread out, but (lle) they may be
set very widely apart as though the figure is dancing, or (llj, IIIc) both
may point in the same direction. The pose of the legs and feet suggest run-
ning or dancing.
The head varies remarkably. In some figures (llj, q, u, y, IIIa)
there is no head and a straight line forms the top of the body at the shoul-
der level. One of these (llq) has a face on the breast under the point
where the arms are attached to the body. The simplest form usually has a
pair of eyes, but the latter may be lacking. The hair is rayed on twenty
figures and apart from one (23) with a conical projection from its head no
other form of headdress is worn. The mouth is either a single or double bar,
or an oval, and is shown on a quarter of the figureso  In one (1lf') the
mouth resembles an outline hafted axe. The nose, included in five, is shown
as a vertical line (IIld), a bird track (45i, IIIe) oval on a line (11, a, e)
and a snake-like line (llc). Unusual features are the ring on each cheek
(IIId), doiuble mouth (lle), four eyes and mouth (14, 30, IHIf), three eyes
(25), and the eyes on the side of the face (22, 25)o
Breast decoration includes a large oval (lle, aa), a set of from 2 to
1ih, and 23, parllel horizontal or diagonal lines (3, 7, llr, W, lh4, 27, 29,
42, IIIf); a barred oval like a pearl shell (28), and loop from the side
(301). A girdle is commonly-vorn, and-a fr   e   s worn by 15 figures (111
& others). The genitals are clearly those of a male in 7 figures (llq, z,
aa, 19, 22-23), and of a female (lla, b, e, f, h, J, k, m, s, t, v, w, x, y,
Z, ac, 15, 28, 39, h5, 299, 301, IIId) in 23 in which the vagina is repre-
sented by a pothole in the majority. The sex is indeterminate where a fringe
is worn, and is not shown in some figures. In only one case are a man and
woman shown together (15,, IIIa-b).  It is surprising to note, therefore, if
the interpretation of the pothole as the female vagina is correct, that the
majority of these figures represent a spirit woman.
A very important feature is the fact that seven  Xinjiburu have been
speared either with a plain or barbed spear (7, 27, 30) and some of them
with several spears (lh). In two the head only of a barbed spear is shown,
in the others the complete spear. This indicates a mythology in which com-
bats were common and the Minjiburu were sometimes killed. One (llt) ap-
pears to have been struck with a boomerang.
21
Exceptional Minjiburu include one (IIa) that consists of a long rayed
triangle ending in a smll pothole from which three legs bearing pecked feet
extend; one in profile (IIc) with no legs, a single arm with a curious line
across the neck, two eyes, and a rayed head; and one (IId), lacking the head,
is carrying a barred boomerang.
The combination of an outline style with pecked hands and feet indicates
that (1) the idea of infilling the hands and feet was in existence prior to
the intaglio period, or (2) that they were pecked in during the intaglio
period when all of the other pecked feet were made, or (3) the Minjiburu fig-
ures were all made during the intaglio period.
I recorded all of the Minjiburu and associated figures in groupings to
see if they would throw any light on the above problem of chronology and on
the function of these interesting spirit depictions. They comprise the fol-
lowing groups:
1. Speared Minjiburu (7) with bird leg and track, pubic fringe, lizard track,
two barbed spears, snakes from potholes, outline sting ray and tailed
oval, and a pecked oval track. Between his legs is an unidentifiable
- pecked figure of hourglass shape.
2. Minjiburu (llr) with a clutch of outline emu eggs.
3. Minjiburu (12) with shield bearing curvilinear line design, two small
circles, curvilinear line figure, two large barred oval figures, outline
boomerang, large oval, hooked line, and five pecked human feet leading
to the spirit figure.
4.  Small incomplete Minjiburu (13) with roughly shaped outline boomerang
beside a superimposed group of a gridded turtle, striped man, large out-
line figure, shield bearing curvilinear line design, outline boomerang,
double oval, pubic fringe, set of 4 parallel lines, fish and ellipse.
Six pecked human feet are scattered about the group.
5. On eLaborately decorated Minjiburu (L14) struck with plain spears on both
sides of his body.  The only nearby figure is an oval.
6.  One of the most distinctive groups (15) recorded is an important one be-
cause it is separated from and not inter-mixed with other engravings.
It consists of a male and smaller female Minjiburu, in which circles
represent the breasts of the female, and a natural pothole her vagina.
Associated with them are a striped and barred shield, 2 barred boomer-
angs, pubic fringe "hanging" from a pothole, elongate V, 2 pubic fringes,
snake from a pothole beside which is a bent outline figure. On one side
is a meandering line over 40 ft. long, which leads from the edge of a
large pothole in which spinifex grass is growing. Nineteen pecked human
feet form a pattern of one line leading across the male figure to the
female, between whose legs is a pair of these feet, and a second line
leading eastward along the side of the male figure who is facing toward
them.
7. A male MinJiburu (19, lIIc) with a line of 4 pecked human feet crossing
his body from head to feet.
22
8. A simple Minjiburu (20) beside a series of pecked intaglios comprising
a pair of lizards in coitus, large emu track, pair of hind kangaroo
tracks, pair of human feet pointing toward one another, pubic fringe
and vert.ical pair of boomerangs. An outline fish and several lines
are also present.
9. A male Minjiburu (22) with an outline skate. Between his legs are 3
tadpole-like pecked figures and 15 pecked human feet which either
point to or lead in to the Minjiburu.
10. A male MinJiburu (23) with a pointed head.   There are an ornment and
a pothole on his breast, He is associated with an outline human arm,
two pubic fringes, grid, radiate figure, feather plume ornament, and
sets of 2 and 3 shiort straight lines. Leading in to the Minjiburu are
5 pecked human feet, and another one points downwards between his legs.
11. A Minjiburu (25) with a pothole that may represent the female vagina.
It has 3 legs. Associated with it are a short broad boomerang-like
figure, 2 sets of parallel curved to straight lines, circle, and lines
of an old incomplete figure. A pecked human foot points downiards be-
tween the Minjiburu's legs, one on each side of him point in different
directions and there is also a pecked mammal track with a long big toe.
12. An elaborately decorated Minjiburu (27), seared on both sides, associ-
ated with an outline bullroarer on a line from a pothole, flathead (?)
fish, oval, set of 4 arcs, pair of open-ended cones, two-legged but
headless figure w?hich may be human, and a large barred boomerang. The
only pecked figure is a pair of kangaroo hind foot tracks.
13. A femle Minjiburu (28) wit:h a pothole as the vagina and a barred oval
ornament (pearl-shell?) between her two small oval breasts.  She is
holding a barred club (or hooked boomerang?) in the left hand. In a
line leading toiards the figure are three pecked and one outline human
feet, and a set of one hind and one fore feet tracks on either side of
the ta i 1 of a kangaroov
14. A smal1 Minjiburu (30), wearing fringe, struck with a plain spear.
Associated with it are a set of arcs, 2 pubic fringes, outline human
and fish figure, long broken curved line, ellipse with pair of eye-like
dots, large boomerang with curvilinear line design and odd lines; below
the Minjiburu is another series of figures compri'sing a barred boomer-
ang, large curvilinear line boomerang (imperfect), 2 barbed spearheads,
pubic fringe, snake with bird track on one end, and two other figures.
15. This elaborate group (33) includes two Minjiburu of radically different
kinds. One is a square-headed male figure (IIId) within whose outline
several bird tracks and a pair of arcs are engraved. Beside it a
fringe, 2 rounded line figures and a barbed spearhead. A human and 3
pairs of kanproo hind tracks are pecked.   There is a sinuous line and
a pecked boomerang beside his head. A large striped sting ray, dotted
eagle-ray, barred boomerang and lines form a. set in one corner. In the
middle of the group are 2 barred boomerangs, a line between 6 pecked
human feet, 6 more of which lead past the side of the second Minjiburu,
and there are also 2 spearheads, plume ornament, cross and odd linesO
The second Minjiburu has an unusual double fringed decoration on. its
head and breast and within its outline are a pair of small circles and
23
an outline boomerang. A large pecked human foot is engraved over its
genital organ from which a sinuous line leads to one side of the figure.
Beside the latter are a pubic fringe, tailed circle, 4 small bird
tracks, 2 small pecked human feet, long pointed oval, shield with curvi-
li-near design, 2 sacred boards with line designs, set of pecked eggs
among which are four tracks (probably representing a goanna robbing the
nest), long barbed spears, pubic fringe, parallel lines, barred boomer-
ang into which 6 barbed spearheads are pointing, outline boomerang and
set of straight parallel lines. On the other side is a long snake from
a pothole and a pair of pecked kangaroo hind and one fore paw tracks.
16. A small Minjiburu (34) wearing a fringe and high girdle with rayed head.
It has a third but detached leg and foot. There is a large outline
dugong and a linear figure beside its head, an oval across its body, a
linear snake (from a small pothole) and an arc at the other end. On the
body of the dugong are pecked figures of a human foot, 3 eggs, and be-
side it a snake from a pothole.
17. An incomplete Minjiburu (36 left) among a number of pecked and linear
figures, and barred boomerangs.
18. A fenale Minjiburu (39) with a rayed head, a pothole surrounded by an
oval line as the vagina, wearing a girdle and holding a linear bird-
track like object in her left hand. Associated with her are two large
outline fish and boomerang, small circle barred and striped boomerang,
pubic fringe, oval, and barred shield (?S.
19. A Minjiburu (o0) wearing girdle and pubi'c fringe, with a double outline
on its head, the upper one with a pair of eyes. In one arm-pit is an
outline conical object and 2 of short parallel lines. Associated with
it is an outline boomerang and a gridded shield. On the other side of
the Minjiburuls body are two half oval fringed figures. There are 6
smll ovals, like eggs, around the above set of figures, and a shield
with curvilinear design. Below is a circle with a pair of lines inside.
On the other side of the Minjiburu are 3 pecked human feet in a line.
20. A small female MinJiburu (5-A14B36) with 2 sets of eyes, rayed head, and
6 and 7 fingers on well defined hands. A long sinuous snake from a pot-
hole runs across its legs. Above one arm is a small oval. The pecked
figures-comprise 4 human feet, and on elaborate barred circle with a
cross attached to it.
21. An armless Minjiburu (42) with one foot, 3 bars on its chest, and one
eye. A line runs across its shoulders to form the left side of its
body, turns inwards to form an oval with a pubic fringe on its stomach,
and then extends out to one side. Associated with it is a barred club-
like object, and a long lizard track on the left.  On the right is a
line running into a pair of pecked ovals and a human foot, with a pecked
boomerang and 4 straight parallel lines, a barbed spearhead, barred
oval pubic fringe, grid on a stick, and a linear figure.
22. A small female Minjiburu (45, Ile) with a bird-track as a nose and 3
legs. An intaglio of a long tailed rodent or phalanger has been pecked
between its legs. Associated with it is an outline sting ray liver
(with a snake within its outline), 5 elaborately barbed spearheads, a
24
plume ornament, bird track and a pubic fringe on a girdle. The pecked
f i gur e s compr i se 5 human feet (4 of wh i ch po i nt to the M i nj iburu), a
pair of kangaroo hind foot tracks beside a Mangrove crab, and a sword
club.
23. This elaborate group (77) is one of the few in which the Minjjiburu is
so integrally associated with the other figures as to leave no room
for doubt that they all belong to the same composition and to the one
engraving period. Two Minjiburu are shown, both sexless. One has an
oval armless body, with 3 oval ornaments on its head, 3 parallel bars
on its chest and two outline legs. The other Minjiburu has a rectangu-
lar shaped body, 3 eyes, 2 bars for the mouth,, one foot and one hand,
3 bars on the chest, and a girdle. This one has been speared twice in
the chest with a barbed spear and in the body with a plain spear. The
other Minjiburu has been speared in the leg with a plain spear, and
appears to have been hit on the other leg with an outline boomerang.
They have either been fighting a duel or have been attacked by enemies
not shown. In the group also are an oval and gridded turtle on the
left, and 3 bird tracks, snake, outline figure, striped oval, a large
bifurcated line figure and a barred snake on the right.
24. Another remarkable group (81) in which a Minjiburu is so integrally
incorporated with the turtles and other figures that there is no doubt
that all of them, excepting the pecked tracks, belong to the original
series engraved at the one time to illustrate one event. The sexless
Minjiburu has 2 small circles for eyes, one of its legs is embodied in
an ill-shaped gridded turtle, a third or middle leg ends also on the
side of the turtle. Below and above the Minjiburu are 3 more turtles,
all gridded, two of them being over 8 ft. long. The four figures form
one line. From the bottom upwards are a shield with curvilinear line
desiggn, barred boomerang, outline club, outline animal, catfish (?),
and 8 pubic fringes. There is a pattern of lines beside and to the
right of the head of the Minjiburu outline and line of 4 more on the
large turtle, outline club, 2 snakes, pair of outline boomerangs and a
barred boomerang (over front fin of large turtle). The pecked figures
comprise 3 emu and 5 human tracks, a pronged line and 2 circles.
25. This interesting composition (90) consists of 2 Minjiburu with a large
gridded dugong 10 ft. 6 in. long, in a swimming motion, and with many
pits around its eyes. Although in a dorsal view, another fin is includ-
ed on the side. The figure is too long and slender to be a turtle.
Other figures include outlines of sting ray's liver, fish, catfish (?),
oval, barred boomerang, bent figure, circle and sting ray (latter two
over dugong's outline and another outline figure over its tail), and a
pecked snake. The bigger Minjiburu is a simple straight-sided figure
with its joint arm, to which foot-like hands are attached, passing
through the top of the head. The smaller Minjiburu resembles a child
wearing a girdle.
26. A tall simple style of Minjiburu (299a) with rayed and eyeless head,
across which the joint arm passes. One hand has four straight fingers
and the other has seven opened fingers.  It has a pothole for a vagina
from which a snake extends to another hole outside the body. In the
group are an open grid at the top, a pair of parallel lines at the
bottom and an elaborately decorated boomerang. The pecked figures com-
prise a line of human tracks leading from tvo directions to end between
the Minjiburu's legs. An oval and circle also are present. A second
line of emu and human tracks runs across the head of the Minjiburu. It
is to be noted that some of the tracks in each line point forward and
others backward.
27. A small female Minjiburu (301, IIIf) with rayed head, 4 eyes and a
mouth, loop and bar on chest, a pubic fringe and a pothole for the
vagina. There is a pecked human track between its feet. The figure is
on a long rock surface bearing a remarkable pecked hunting composition
of a goanna, almost 7 ft. long, struck on the chest by a boomerang; be-
side one of its hind legs is an arc, bird track, and either a human
track or the leg of another goanna. Six very big human tracks, from
21 x 8 to 32 x 9 in. in size, and 8 small ones, lead towards and away
from the goanna. The large tracks may represent the hunter and the
small ones his wife.
28. A- leg-less Minjiburu (IIIg) with rayed head, eyes, mouth and girdle, be-
side a large dotted sting ray whose tail is across his body. The
Minjiburu has two outlines on its head, and a double outline for arms.
Two pecked egg-like disks are included.
29. A small MinJiburu (3-AlB21) 10 ft. away from a large and impressive pair
(3--A12B22-37). The bigger one of this pair, 8 ft. tall, has a rayed
head, large round smoothed eyes, a vertical stroke for the nose, paral-
lel bars for the mouth, grid design on the body, girdle and pubic fringe.
It has one arm and a lopsided head, and has been struck on the body with
a bifurcated and a barbed spears, and a third spear, barbed, with the
head broken off, extends under the arm and my be his own weapon. The
smaller outline Minjiburu has a girdle, and judging by its pose, could
be throwing the barbed spear above it.  I could obtain no infortion
from any of the ratives about this important and outstanding pair of
spirit figures excepting the statement by Captain George that they are
Minj iburu.
Discussion. The brief accounts obtained from the ratives indicate that
Minji     legends were important in earlier days. A Ngarla man told me that
the Minjiburu were a water people a long time ago. Padingana was one of them.
His wife, Ngabunbunna, stayed in the hill country of good water, and left two
women in one place, and two women in another place. Two men found these
women and made the -first people. Two brothers named Clarke, mixed bloods,
after inquiries ascertained that the Minjiburu were all women who danced in
the Warrawagine and Nullagine districts where their feet marks may be seen
in the rocks. They walked and camped all over the country. Captain George
said that the long slender human tracks engraved as intaglios on the lime-
stone ridges are those of the Minjiburu.
Njerburg (or Snowball, over 60 years of age) said that the Minjiburu
belong to the sting ray clan, and this opinion was confirmed by the following
legend related by Captain George, who was the first informant to mention
these spirit people to me: The sting ray (3-A7B44 is the one about which the
myth is associated) was a Minjiburu "mob" of blackfellows who came from the
26
other side of Willewa. They camped near the Two Mile Well on a night of the
full moon when the sea came up all over the flats.and surrounded the lime-
stone ridge. They asked the Kariera people how. to get away, and the Kariera
showed them the way.when the tide went out. Some of the Minjiburu returned
to their own country and brought their women back to Port Hedland. There was
a big quarrel over the women, and Widdagurri men from the Shaw river visiting
Port Hedland won a fight against the Minjiburu and drove them away. A Njaml
mnei then stole a Minjiburu girl. Upon his refusing to return her, the Minji-
buru threatened to either light their poison fire and let the smoke blow over
the Widdagurri and kill them all, or meet them in a fair fight.  The Njaml
nan and the girl he had stolen went out and brought in all their allies from
different parts of the country. The fight began and was being won by the
Minjiburu with their kaili boomerangs and spears, when two left handed kaili
throwers of the Widdagurri killed the headman, Wirrawundi, of the Minjibr~
by hitting him on the forehead with a kaili. This fight took place on the
flat ground near Peawah Hill (MuggalinT,7on the Mundabullagana side, from
where the Minjiburu were driven into the sea. Their two dogs were turned
into stones. A clever medicine-man of the Minjiburu then lifted the sea
bottom out of the water and saved them, and the Minjiburu still live near
the jetty at Port Hedland.
According to Withnell (1901, pp. 1-4) the Ngalum and neighboring tribes
believed in a common creator spirit being named Ghurker, whose wife gave
birth to the first couple sent to populate the earth. He created the Talu
totem centers and the increase rites. Another spirit was called Mulgarra
who lived in both heaven and on earth, and there was an evil spirit called
Juno (Richardson, 1886, 293). Whether the Minjiburu figures in the engrav-
ings represent any of these spirits I could not ascertain.
The twenty-nine groups described above, particularly 23-24, suggest
that the Minjiburu figures belong to the early outline naturalistic pbase
of eFigraving, and further that in the intaglio pbase the human tracks were
added, so that the mythology relating to them was preserved throughout the
period of engraving, or most of it, although the techniques employed changed.
Both Cptain George and the Clarke brothers story about them indicates that
they came from the inland and their efforts to settle in coastal country
were repulsed. The term Minjiburu was applied to both this kind of figure,
to several unusual outlines (57) and to pecked figures (3, 37, XIII, c, f).
Turtle Compositions
1. A gridded turtle (9) surrounded- by miscellaneous linear and outline
figures, among which are snakes, pubic fringes, outline and barred
boomerangs. The pecked boomerang, human track on the turtle, set of
4 eggs, one bird and 3 human tracks were added at a later date.
2. A large outline figure, a gridded turtle, a striped armless man, super-
imposed over one another in that order (13).
3. A pair of swimming turtles (21) 5-6 ft. long, probably mating, abraded
over their deeply punctured outline.
4. A gridded turtle (76) just over 8 ft. long, which has an outline boom-
erang and other small linear figures on its body, a barbed spear on one
27
fin, and an elongate fish-like figure, which has been speared, project-
ing from its rump. The other figures comprise several barbed spearheads,
snake, pubic fringe, and a barred boomerang. Added later to the series
are 4 pecked human tracks outside the turtle and one inside one of its
rear flippers. The barred boomerang has had its groove pecked.
5. A turtle (78) over 6 ft. long, with a median and transverse lines on its
body, that has been struck with two barbed spears. There is an outline
boomerang beside the turtle, and the pecked emu track on its body is the
most recently engraved figure.
6. A gridded turtle (79) 8 ft. 6 in. long, struck with a barbed spear.
There are 3 small sting ray's livers beside it. Three pairs of kangaroo
hind foot tracks and 2 emu tracks are pecked on Its body, and a snake
from a pothole is pecked across it.
7. A poorly shaped, incomplete, gridded turtle (80) 6 ft. long, struck with
a plain spear. On its body are a grid, 4 pubic fringes, radiate or
fringed circle, shield with curvilinear design, shield with zigzag line
design and a large ill-shaped outline-figure. A barbed spear is also
present. The pecked figures comprise 4 human tracks, a kangaroo hind
track and an indeterminate figure all of which have been added at a
later date than the other figures.
8. A barred turtle (296a) at the end of long meandering lines, some of which
end in plumes.
9. Gridded turtle (6) engraved over an indeterminate outline figure, with
a broad outline fish, barbed spearheads, pubic fringe, plume ornament,
and pecked human track.
10. Two other sets (77, 81) are described as nos. 23-24 of the Minjiburu
compositions.
Remrks. These compositions illustrate the spearing of turtles (as the
detachable harpoon was unknown in this area) in three groups (78-80), a pair
of swimming turtles (21), two turtles associated with Minjiburu spirit fig-
ures (77, 81), and turtles associated with miscellaneous figures. Most of
the turtle figures are isolated engravings as are the majority of the fish
and other animlas in the Outline naturalistic phase-. The numerical abundance
of turtle engravings, especially on Kariera island, Indicates that they were
both an important source of food and a ritual totem.
IIc. Punctured Line: -Outline and Pecked Combined
The only motifs in which the two techniques are combined are clutches
of outline eggs bordered by the pecked legs of a sitting emu (3, 10, XIIId)
and the line of pecked-human tracks along both sides of the barred snake
(16, IVc). They indicate that the transition from the old outline to the
later intaglio technique was a gradual process and not an abrupt one, a con-
clusion supported by the addition of a pecked fin to the whale (36), and the
lines and groups of pecked feet associated with the Minjiburu spirit figures.
28
IIIa. Pecked Band
It is difficult to decide with many of the bird and kangaroo tracks,
and some of the other figures in this category, where the line of demarca-
tion lies between the linear and the pecked band. It is an arbitrary dis-
tinction with borderline figures that cannot be placed in either category,
but numerous figures exist to establish the two major series.
Animals. These include a man hunting a snake (304a) numerous snakes
(34, 79, 90, 96b, 304b-g), some from holes (3-Al9B40, 5, 96h, one 19 ft.
long (XIVc), and others 12 and 30 ft. long (300a-b). One is in a curved
fold (XVIf), one is sinuous with well defined head pecked along the tail of
a whale (36). One fish has three fins on a straight ended body (83). The
sting rays include two with a barred cross on the body (304h); gridded body
and pecked tail (304k); median band (304g) with dots on body and pecked tail
(3-A24B21, 85); double circle on body (30, 41) and engraved around a pothole
(305a, XIVf). There is one sting ray's liver (316).
De igns. The other banded figures are all designs of various kinds,
including circles and ovals (152, 305a-b, 306-7); tailed oval (2-AlB46, 96k,
173); scrolls merging into a simple spiral (VIId); loop on line (173);
barred ovals (128, 309, XIVf); tailed and barred oval with cross attached
(5-A16B37); rayed oval (lo0f); y shape (5-Al8B21); unidentifiable figures
(310-3, 318-9, XIVg-h) and designs (196, 200).
Rare figures in this technique include a striped and bladed club 16 in.
long (3-A6B13) similar to one from Ashburton in the Western Australian Muse-
um; a hafted axe with a cross on the blade (lOa); pubic fringe (20); radi-
ates (16, 237, 241); grid of plant-like shape (104b); and grids (109).
Figures of the Outline phase with unusually wide grooves are similar to the
pecked band figures and some of the figures mentioned in this paragraph,
may belong to the former category.
IlIb. Pecked Intaglios
Human figures. The three most important figures are all in the area
between the Two Mile 'Well and the Manganese plant. A woman (XIIIf) 3 ft.
tall, with 3 toes on each foot, 4 fingers on each hand, and a pair of eyes,
was identified by Paddy Bolong as a Minjiburu making oppossum fur twine of
which she possesses a considerable stock. Petri & Schulz (1951, fig. 3)
thought this figure represented a man swinging a bullroarer on a long cord.
Another one (37, XIIIc), sexless, 4 ft. tall, but probably a man, is 150
yards from the woman on the same level of the ridge; he has 3 toes on each
foot, 4 fingers on each hand, and two deeply pitted eyes. Beside him are
four pairs of kangaroo hind foot tracks. Although this figure is shallow
and difficult to discern, it can be seen that it is pecked over a spear
shaft. A third large figure (3-A28B17) 3 ft. tall, In profile, has a
rounded head and curved anm, and is also very shallow and difficult to dis-
tingui sh.
The other human figures recorded are small, poorly shaped ones in vari-
ous postures. They include a tiny man with long knobbed penis (2-AlB41,
29
which might be a lizard); two (298 a, c) with slits on the face, and several
others (2-A2B4, 298q),.
Human tracks. (323, IVa, c, Vb, XIIIb, XV) of great variety of shape
and size are scattered among the engravings (2-5, 324-5) along all of the
ridges. They represent all sizes from children to men and women, vary in
shape from slender to wide, rounded to almost rectangular and from straight
or convex sided, to those of rntural shape even to a bunion on the side of
the foot. Some of them are gracefully curved. The toes vary from 3 to 11
and the big toe may be clearly defined. These tracks are commonly associated
with the Minjiburu spirit figures and are shown in many of the sets of fig-
ures recorded. The tracks run in lines both up and down the ridges, along
the ridges, and towards Minjiburu figures and the Two Mile Well. They are
engraved in a series of steps in some places, contrary to Davidson's claim
(1952, 92) that they are all scattered about haphazardly. Many of them are
part of hunting groups, and some are associated with snakes. Many appear to
have no connection with other figures, and they do not form an over-all pat-
tern on the ridges, as a glance at figures 2-5 will demonstrate. Cptain
George identified one set of a large and some small human tracks as those of
a man chasing a woman; he dropped his spears, shown behind him, became in-
volved in a fight (indicated by the shields and spears in front of him). He
also said that the big and the broad tracks are those of Kariera men, and
the long slender ones are of the Minjiburu.
The human hand (321), as elsewhere, is a rare motif.
Mammls. The only figures found comprise one (XIIIe) a foot long with
a rounded face, humped back, uniformly long legs and straight tail (posed
like an ox with horns) which is probably a dingo at bay; a whiskered mammal
(2-A7Bl) that might be an echidna; a pair of flying phalangers (XIVh, top),
and another one associated with a Minjiburu; and other indeterminate kinds
(2-A7B36, 298p).
The kangaroo's tail is shown as a rod (324a-e).
Birds. One of the most beautiful figures in the whole site is a small
wadingSbird (XIIIb) in a group of fish and boomerangs fashioned in a deli-
cate pecking technique probably by the one man at about the same time. It
is the only bird intaglio recorded.
Egs. The clutches of eggs display an interesting progression in tech-
nique, from the pecked legs of the sitting bird beside outline eggs (XIIId)
and pecked band eggs and legs (326b-c), to the fully pecked eggs (XIIIh) and
legs (326d-g; XVIc). One set of eggs has a sin le leg beside it (32e) and
the bird's tracks lead towards one clutch (325d) . The clutches containing
from 2 to -6 eggs are probably those of wading birds, which are abundant in
this area, and of the plains turkey, and those with a dozen or so large eggs
belong to the emu.
Some very large sets of small eggs are probably turtles (326i, n) but
there are rows of eggs 1 to 1-1/2 in. in diameter (326j, 1, m, XIIIa, g)
that cannot be identified. The eggs (3) in a straight line of 3, set of 6,
30
and curved lines of from 3 to 9, were identified by Captain George as those
of the snake with wh'ich they are associated.
Animal Tracks. Bird tracks of mary sizes up to 10 in. long, shown
singly, in groups and lines are innumerable, and are scattered among the
engravings along all of the ridges. They are shown in a similar manner to
the tracks left by birds on the tidal flats and in many cases no doubt
represent them, The biggest and commonest are those of the emu (326p, s-x,
XIIIJ, XVf) and those of the native companion and plains turkey (300, in a
line of four, 326W) are also common. Three linked tracks (326T) look like
a leafy vine or plant. Kangaroo hind foot tracks (Vb) equally as big as
the emu tracks, are also scattered among the engravings at all sites.
Goanna tracks (324u) also occur.
Reptiles. The snakes vary from short ones a foot or so long to long
sinuous examples (300a-b, 304a-f, XIVc) up to 17 ft. long, 1 to 2 in. wide,
in some of which are several snakes head to tail. Snakes are often connec-
ted with a pothole, particularly in site 5, and in some cases join two pot-
holes together.  An interesting set (3) of snakes with their eggs, identi-
fied as the Red-tailed snake (idid3erri), Tiger snake (bai-a-mulla) or anoth-
er snake (dunikulara) by Captain George and Paddy Bolong, represents the
assistant totem or familiar of the sorcerer. He names the locality (usually
a pastoral station nowadays) of the victim, and sends the snake out at night
to either bite the person or glide by so that his body catches the tail of
the snake; it is believed that if the intended victim rubs his skin with a
gum leaf the snake will go away. The snakes are caught and trained when
young to go as far as Marble Bar. The informants stated that the death
adder was not employed.
The goannas are among the most elaborate of the pecked series. The
longest ones (299, 301, XIVa) are from 5 to 6 ft. in size, and one pair
appears to be rating. They are shown from above, with five digits on the
limbs. Other l izards include a gecko (298n), a hill lizard (XVId) also
shown copulating (20), usually posed with the limbs spread out, and identi-
fied by a group of Njangamada men, and indeterminate species (3-A26Bll,
4-A7B2, 298o, 318) up to a foot long.
Fish. There is one breamlike species (298j, XIIIb), two splendid
sting rays (XIVb, e) of which one has the tail curved and the sting ray's
liver (298k, 316).
Invertebrates. The only motif is the Mangrove crab. In one (45, XIVd)
the main arms do not bear the claws, the legs are shown as two sets of par-
allel lines, and the swimming legs are also present. In the other one
(298m) the swimming legs and two sets of four thick legs are shown and again
the claws are not included.
Weapons. The boomerang (4-5, 320b-f) is the commonest motif and it may
be-curved (XVIa-b) angled (XIVi), in a row (XIVi), hooked (XVIh), or in
pairs (3-A8B45, 205 . Sizes recorded include 12 x 1, 2-1/2 x 3-1/2, 6 x 3/4,
and 13 x 1 in. Clubs shown include the throwing stick (3-A21B33, A12B33,
5-A14B45 shown as a rod) from 7 to 15 in. long; sword (3-A19B23, 36, 45),
31
round headed (29, 320h, VIIId, XVId, thrown at lizard), and a hooked stick
(29) types.
Bars. Pairs of straight bars, 8 and 18 in. long (314).
Shapes. These include rounded, crescentic and other shaped intaglios
for       there is no explanation (2, 29, 36, 299, 314-5, with 11 examples,
3, with 8 examples). The rounded to oval ones vary from 2 to 5 in. long.
Hunting compositions. There are many groups of figures which denote a
hunt or the habits of an animal. They express perfectly and in a subtle way
the idea of the artist even where he has eliminated all but the tracks of
his subject--a simple kind of statement widespread in aboriginal rock art.
They include the following:
1. A hunter following a kangaroo shown by a human foot beside the animal's
hind feet (324j, XVa). Paddy Bolong said that such a composition repre-
sents the way of hunting in the Dreamtime that was explained to the
young men as the proper way to hunt.
2. A kangaroo sitting down, shown by the impressions of the tail, hind and
fore feet (324a-c, e, two sets, XVd, f).
3. Kangaroo moving along on hind legs and dragging its tail (XVi).
4. Kangaroo jumping along and stopping, shown by the tail between the hind
feet, in 3 sets of tracks in a line, and then by a further 4 pairs of
hind feet as the animal leaps away from danger (323h).
5. Kangaroo ambling on its four feet, as it feeds, shown by hind and fore
feet tracks (324g, 325g).
6. Three kangaroos standing together (324 1).
7. Man following a small wallaby's track shown by the hunter's and wallaby's
tracks (325p).
8. Man hunting a kangaroo, shown by the tracks of the sitting animal and of
the man, and also his shield (325o).
9. Kangaroo hunted with boomerangs (325d) the hunter's tracks not being
shown.
10. Man following a kangaroo whose 4 pairs of tracks are shown (37).
11. A pothole representing a waterhole frequented by kangaroos and emus, and
visited by a hunter, shown by tracks only (XVi).
12. Kangaroo hind feet and emu tracks, with a radiate and other figures in a
group (325j) of unknown significance.
13. Hunter beside an egg and a pothole with a circle engraved around it
(325c), of unknown significance.
14h  Emu speared on its nest, shown by the bird's tracks leading to the nest,
the clutch of eggs, and a barbed spear (325b) but the hunter and his
tracks are not shown. Kangaroo hind feet and tail are shown.
15. Hunter, shown by his track, at the nest of a sitting emu (326a).
32
16. Man hunting a lizard, shown by the lizard, hunter's tracks in a line
and boomerang (XVc).
17. Goanna walking (323o) and stationary (323t, u), shown by tracks,
18. People tracking and killing a goanna with a boomerang, shown by the
animal, weapon and human feet of various sizes which may represent a
family's tracks (301).
19. Man hunting flying phalangers, the latter being shown with the hun-
ter's tracks and throwing club (XIVh).
20. Nn shown by three tracks hunting a bird which is flying (VIIc).
21. Man hunting and probably killing a snake (NC).
22. Birds' tracks, spear, plume ornament and pubic fringe in a group
(325n) of unknown significance.
23. Tracks of animals including birds, shown by a long series of 20 pairs
of impressions (XVg), and lesser series (3-4, 11, 17-8, 32, 37, 239,
303, 324k, 326o, q-x, XVI ) and of lizard ? (324n) and echidna ? (324v).
24h  Man with dog shown by one human and 4 dog tracks (324p), and man with
dog shown by tracks and spear (325e).
25.  Man's track beside one end of a pecked snake, the other end of which
is near a hole from which a second pecked snake extends into a loop
(5-AlB35). This group may represent a sorcerer with his snake familiar
or assistant totem.
26. Hunters catching a crab, shown by the latter and by the hunters' tracks
(325a). Kngaroo, goanna and emu tracks are also present.
Remarks. The artists were obviously interested more with the tracks
than with the men and animals. They have shown consistently that the elimi-
nation of the main figures is a principle in their art, and by doing so were
able to make a simple direct interpretation of the hunts and save themselves
a lot of work. In the Sydney-Hawkesbury district of eastern New South Wales,
the artists engraved life sized and bigger outlines of animals, hunters,
weapons and tracks in their compositions, in contrast to the more simplified
approach of the pecked phase in the northwest. In the outline period at
Port Hedland a few examples of the spearing of fish (93, 302) are the only
naturalistic attempts to portray hunts, a fact which no doubt inspired
Davidson's claim (1952, 95) that compositions are rare in Western Australia.
The Minjiburu and pecked hunting series demonstrate that compositions are
not uncommon at Port Hedland.
IV. Compositions in Mixed Styles
1o Yin tracking a snake, shown by a line of pecked human tracks along
both sides of the barred snake (16, IVc). Captain George said the man fol-
lowed the snake for a long distance but could not catch it. This is probably
a ritual composition and is an example of the adding in the later pecked
period of intaglio human tracks to a barred figure of an earlier period.
33
2. Group of pecked feet, barbed spearheads and bird tracks, identified
by Captain George as a goanna and bird among trees (2-A33B23). The trees
are represented by the same motif as the double barbed spear head here
serving another purpose.
RANGE OF DESIGNS
I made an intensive study of sites with the aim of recording all pos-
sible motifs, but I either did not find the following figures published by,
or disagree with, the identification of previous writers: Figs. 1 and 3,
fishhooks on lines; 8, woman; 9, skate on fishing line (which is speared as
shown in my Fig. 93); 10, spear on spearthrower; 11, pod on stalk; 12, leaf
spray; 6, seal ( a striped nan in my Fig. 53); 32, design; 33, striped ovals
(Campbell, 1911). Davidson (1936, 61-2; 1952, 95) basing his opinion on the
description of the naterial culture and methods of fishing by Richardson
(1886), Harper (1886), Withnell (1901) and Clement (1903), and upon their
absence in museum co'l'lections, said that fishhooks did not occur at Port Hed-
land, and I support hi s view that ' Campbell' s drawings and identification of
fishhooks among the engravings incorrect, as are some of his other figures
when compared with the actual engravings. Basedow (1918), Fig. 1(12), lizard;
2 (5-6), design; (9), design; (9), woman; and in his additional third set
(1925); Fig. 12 (33), the idealized feather plume ornament; and (42, 44) two
human figures, are inaccurate drawings of Minjiburu spirit heroes. Worms
(1954), D6, man and'woman clinging together; D7, human figure; D8, man with
long penis; El, thread cross characteristic emblem of the Southwest culture;
E3, speared kangaroo; and E4, spear (right). One cannot be dogmatic about
the interpretation of rock engravings because the conditions of light at the
time of recording may give one visitor a different opinion about the nature
of a figure to that of another, and furthermore, in such an extensive display
of engrnvings it would be easy to miss figures.
The following tables reveal some most interesting facts about the art
of all three phases of engraving at Port Hedland.
Among the human figures the Minjiburu far outnumber the normal outline,
striped and linear stickmen. The outline tracks of man are not uncommon.
There are only two mammals shown in the outline style, one definite bird
and a dozen clutches of eggs, a few lizards, but an extraordinarily high num-
ber of snakes denoting a special ritual and magical interest.
Apart from the marine mammals like the dugong, dolphin and whale, each
represented by a few large figures only, the fish are of considerable vari-
ety and form the most numerous group in the outline animals as a whole. The
rays, which abound on the shallow tidal flats of the coast and estuaries and
their liver, form major motifs, as do the turtles and lizard track, thus
indicating clearly that the local groups responsible for the outline art
depended chiefly upon the sea for their sustenance.
The weapons and sacred boards far outnumber the animals as a whole.
Only 3 of the sacred boards are bullroarers attached to a cord. The outline
34
FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE AND RANZE CF SUBJECTS
rOn t |1 Mi le 2 Milteo Magn 'Road Boardt
Town to   io Well to    ese e 12  Io  oard
Subject         Il Mile 2 tol MagnIoks           Ntv
CapCamp        ese   to 4  i    Nativea
I~  ~   a    Plant   Point  I_Hsia
I. Abraded Grooves
II. Conjoined Punctured
Outline
Human beings
tracks
hands
Mamr ls
Birds
Clutch of birds eggs
Clutch of birds eggs &
tracks
Snake: coiled
Coana
Turtle
Fish--narrow types
--broad types
--catfish
--skate
--sting ray
--sting ray liver
--sawfish saw
Invertebrates: Sea wasp
Plants
Boomerang-single
--parallel pair
--end to end pair
--crossed pair
--parallel three
--parallel four
--parallel five
Club--sword
--pole
--elongate oval head
Spearthrower
Shield
Container
Hafted stone axe
Sacred board
Bullroarer on line
Lozenge & tailed lozenge
Circles & Ovals--single
--around hole
--tailed
--linked pair
20
20
7
11
1
4
1
3
8
2
1
12
31
123
6
1
2
1
2
14
39
3
1
1
1
1
3
25
2
1
7
2
3
1
12
2
1
2
1
1
4
7
1
25
2
1
2
29
20
17
45
1
3
152
10
1
1
20
7
10
13
28
1
2
1
1
1
1
8
1
1        1
1
2
1       10
2
17      117
3
1       11
1        4
8
7
2
5
12
55
3
2
1
1
2
20
20
11
50
8
2
1
12
2
1
2
5
65
36
3
1
48
108
1
3
1
383
22
2
2
3
1
1
16
3
1
1
5
1
2
31
3
2
221
6
14
9
3
1
3
2
3
1
13
1
1
2
FREQUENCY OCCUFRENCE AND RANGE OF SUBJECTS--continued
2.~ ~ ~ Mil  agn
Town t  mieile    le   ~      Road Board
Town    to  Well to    ese     DeotoTal
Subject          1 Mi le 2 Mi le Mangan- Works     Native   Ttl
Camp    Camp    ese   to h Min   Hospital
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _   _ _ _ _ _ _   _ _ _ _ _   P lan t  P o in t  . _ _ _ _ _ _
Circles & Ovals (cont.)
--double oval
--line of small circles
Rectangle
1
14
1
14
1
1
Outline with barred
interior design
Human track
Marine mamnals--dolphin
--dugong
Birds
Fish
Sting ray
Snake
Turtle
Invertebrates--beche-
de-mer
Boomerang--single
--parallel pair
Sword club
Shield
Hafted stone axe
Sacred board
Circles & ovals
--linked
Designs
Outline with striped
interior design
Human beings--man
--woman
Turtle
Fish
Boomerang--single
Sword club
Spearthrower
Shield
Container
Hafted stone axe
Sacred board
Designs
274
69      486
2
2
1
6
2
38
1
2
1
2
20
4
3
1
1
2
1       2
1
6      41
7      53
1
1
1
6
2       18
1
7
81       18      137
1
12
3
1
2
1
20
1
2
1
3
2       16
1
2
3
7
3
11
8              144
36
109
1,095
1
2
3
1
1
7
3
2
68
12
2
3
1
2
23
2
118
2
5
2
2
10
45
1
12
1
2
5
27
1
1
2
1
286
1
1
3
33
6
1.
114
3
3
9
13
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7
3
13
92
FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE AND RANGE OF SUBJECTS--continued
Iuh c   Ji Mm ile 2  i ile |tnga  Ra Board
Town to 1    i leell to  ese    Deotd toar
Subjet       1    i  2e Mil Mangan- Works    Deo    oTotals
Camp   2aMil    ese   to 4 mi.  Native
___________________     I____    Plant   Point   Hospital
Outline with barred and
striped interior design
Hafted axe
Outlines with gridded
interior design
Turtle
Sting ray
Boomerang
Parallel pair
Sword club
Designs
Outline with curvili near
interior design
Boomerang--single
--parallel pair
Sword club
Spearthrower
Shield
Sacred board
Outline with dotted
interior design
Fish
Sting ray
Boomerang
Circles & ovals
Circles with one dot in
middle
Outline with broken line
interior design
Sword club
Sacred board
2                               2
2                               2
2         1                   1          14
1                               1
1    17                2           1         12
1           1
1           1
13        1       24         5          5          48
14        4       33         7          9          67
4        1         8                   2          15
1                               1
2                                         2
1                 5                                6
19                32         6          7          64
9                  6                   2          17
33        3       52         6         11         105
1                               1
4                  6        3           1         14
1                               1
1                               1
4                  1                               5
8                10         3          1          22
1                                                  1
1                                                  1
2
2
37
FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE AND RANGE OF SUBJECTS--continued
IT   1 Mile2 Mile Mngan- Ra         or
Mwn to n    Mile to  Well to  ese  Road Boa d
o                         DTpota ts
Subject          1          Milee Mangan- Works      Native
I_____Camp      ee               Hospital
Outline with cross
interior desg
Himn tra ck
Circles & ovals
Outlines with composite
interior desns
Boomerang
Shield
Sacred board
1
1
1                1                              2
1                1        1                     3
2                              2
1          1
1          1
2
A!illsce llaneous
Chain pattern
Cluster pattern
allaby tracks in circle
Fish with gill & ridge lin
Snake in circle
B6r in circle
Dotted areas
figrees in two techniques
ENinjiburu spirits
Outline eggs and pecked
legs
IA.Conjoined punctured
linear fi gures
Hmn beings
angaroo-vallaby tracks--
hind foot
Bird tracks
Echidna tracks
Sake
--from hole
--from knob
--from hole to hole
--and egg
Lizard
handering track from hole
Plume or claw on line
2
6
Le s
1
1
4
1
1
2
2
.h
4
2
11
1
2
1
10
1       2        3        1                    7
2       15       7       10                   34
17        2      20                   1        40
4                8        2                    14
21
2      28
1
159
186
1
107
50
1
3
1
1
159
h      230
8
4      152
2       56
37
66
36
2h
2
33
24
6
2
1
1
357
519
9
323
138
1
6
1
2
23
11
3
4       10
5
14
1
5
1
38
-
5
FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE AND RANGE OF SUBJECTS--continued
1Town Jo          2 2  Mile Mangan-   Road Board
Town to 1 Ml     Well to     ese       Depot        C
Subject            Ii  Mile 2 tol   1Mna-Wrs                Ntv       Totals
1am1           ese    to 4 Mi      Ntv
I_____  Ca~~   Plant    Point      Hsia
Line mazes
Lizard track
--from hole
--from hole to hole
Spear & spearhead--plain
--single barb
--single row of barbs
--double row of barbs
--double row & reversed
Pubic fringe
Feather plume orrament
Girdle
Arc
Set of arcs
Set of straight parallel
lines
--from hole
Set of sinuous parallel
lines
Radiate
--around hole
--around circle
--on stick
Grid
Zigzag line
Designs
--around hole
Open ended oval & rectangle
Branching or plant-like
Cross
Opposed arcs
Circle in arc
Concentric U
Concentric circle & spiral
Double circle around hole
Double circle
Sting ray--double outline
--triple outline
IV. Pecked band and
intaglio figures
..I.. .
Human beings--man
--woman
--hand
--track
10
16
1
3
2
8
11
129
5
187
14
3
9
7
4
31
5
1
1
1
13
2
2
4
2
2
6
27
11
1       6
3
12      186
2       23
10     267
1      41
1
5       10
14
1      21
6
1
1
1
1
1
17
12
3
3
27
2
1
2
3
42
1
69
7
2
3
2
1
1
1
214
1
32
2       1
14
14
1
1       3
2      20
1
6
1
3
1
1
1
1
990
185
62   1,1426
5       2
1
1
31     5114
39
352
1
2
1
1
1
15
1
48
6
2
i
2
1
2
1
5
6
1
1
1
6
1
177
19
75
5
2
22
22
3
384
32
581
69
1
22
27
33
11
54
19
6
2
4
48
3
61
1
36
6
18
14
1
6
34
2
1
1
I
3,007
8
1
1
939
FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE AND RANGE CF SUBJECTS--continued
M         leMileMangan- h oad Bcard
Subject        2~~~ Mi le  esRoo ativ        Totald
Subject  1 Mile     Mangan- Works  Dptt
__________________  _____  ~ Plant  Po int  H sia
Kangaroo-wallaby tracks
--hind
--forepaw
Nanm 1
Echidna
Bird (mostly emu) tracks
Emu legs
--& clutch of eggs
Kangaroo sitting down marks
--tail
Lizard
Lizards copulating
Snake
--from hole
--from hole to hole
Snake & eggs
Sting ray--banded & dotted
Sting ray
Sting ray--pecked band
Line of eggs
Line of deep pits
Crab
Boomerang--single
--parallel pair
--hooked
Club--bulbous head
--sword
Spear or spearhead--plain
--double barbed
Pubic fringe
Girdle
Feather plume ornament
Radiate
Pair of parallel bars
Banded designs
Arc
Circles--pecked band
Barred oval designs
Tailed circle or sting ray
Indeterminate shapes
Axe groove
Milling hole
Grand total
105
38
46
1
1
54
5
6
1
2
114
2
226
57
3
8      140
2
1
3
21
1       9
1
54
13
2
8
1
1
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
18
1
1
35
6
1
3
1
68
7
4
1
3
2
2
1
17
2
14
5
2
9
7
2
3
3
2
462
105
.3
1
220
7
2
14
27
12
1
79
24
1
2
1
3
1
23
1
1
51
9
1
3
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
3
11
1
31
10
3
52
4
2
2
1
1
1
3
8
30
9
3
1
1
1              50       1
425      98   1,226     122       252     2,
1       12       15
876
280   3,1466
657
101
1
772
123
134
1
7,051
40
boomerang far outnumbers all other kinds of weapons. Circles and ovals are a
major motif, the majority being single ones, but some are engraved around a
hole, others contain designs, and some are linked or tailed.
In the linear series the barbed spearheads, pubic fringes and animal
tracks outnumber the remainder.
It is noticeable that the smaller motifs in both outline and linear
series are engraved in the greatest numbers. This applies to the outline
boomerang, a simple double curve easy to portray, and to the sting ray liver.
In the linear series the animal tracks, snakes, lizard track, pubic fringe
and barbed spearhead form a set in which there is no apparent ritual or econ-
omic relationship, but apart from being easy to engrave there might be special
reasons in each case for their numerical abundance. The spearhead is an im-
portant weapon and an attractive motif, and the snakes are important in sor-
cery, but it is difficult to justify the huge number of pubic fringes and
lizard tracks on any grounds other than simplicity of execution. The animal
tracks have an obvious economic value, as they represent game commonly hunted,
and the larger fish formed a major portion of the people's diet-. It is pos-
sible, therefore, that the sting ray's liver had some magical virtue.
A few pecked band designs occur among which srakes and circles are com-
mon, but many of the linear motifs do not appear at all, or appear as unique
figu-ies, in this technique. Sting rays are the best represented of the ani-
mals.
In the pecked intaglio series only one fish, one bird, and a few sting
rays were engraved, and subjects like goannas, clutches of eggs, rows of egg-
like pits, and the tracks of people, kangaroos and emus became predominant.
Thus the emphasis upon the sea as a source of food and artistic inspiration
was supplanted by terrestrial motifs, as though the intaglio technique and
its subjects came from the inland, with beliefs and rituals, and replaced the
older existing practices of the Kariera. Otherwise, and there is no corro-
borative evidence to support this claim, the Kariera local groups were re-
placed by inland or eastern local groups. The diffusi.on of cults is well
established for the Northwestern region and the spread of the pecking technique
and its motifs are no doubt part of this cultural process.
ENGR/WED AND EISTING MATERIAL CULTURE
'In Clement (1903), Schmeltz described the mterial culture of the Port
Hedland area, and Hambly (1931)-has illustrated various objects from the
Pilbrra district.  It is obvi-ous from a perusal of their illustrations that
the range of artifacts was similar throughout the period of engraving to that
of the present day, probably with additions not recorded among the engravings.
It is further apparent-that the decorative art on various objects changed con-
siderably. The collection of specimens made by Clement does not include any
decorated boomerangs, and the designs on the spearthrowers and message sticks
are in the main parallel and opposed series of zigzags (some with rows of dots
between the lines), interlocking key motif, lines of solid squares and rec-
tangles, concentric diamonds, and a snake. In the Western Australian Museum,
41
and the Australian Museum, are additional designs on sacred boards of parallel
zigzags and panels of stripes broken by sets of transverse bars; concentric
circles and squares; and sets of sinuous parallel lines. Now most of these
patterns are lacking in the decorated figures among the engravings, where the
emphasis was on sinuous lines, curvilinear line (often in all-over patterns),
panels of lines, and mixtures of design elements, but the herringbone is rare
and the interlocking key does not appear at all, while the concentric circle
and spiral occur only as isolated single figures. The Y-shaped figure painted
on the chest and arms of men participating in ceremonies (?mpbell, 1911, pls.
12-15, Basedow, 1918, pi. XIX) throughout northwestern Australia is not repre-
sented among the engravings. Petri and Schulz (1951), and Davidson (1952) were
inclined to think that there was a closer comparison between the portable and
rock art.
The stone axe offers another problem of identification. A kod3  in the
Rijks Museum from Nickol Bay has always been regarded as a stray     the
Southwest as is another one in the Pitt Rivers Museum labelled Pidungu tribe,
60 miles from Derby (Davidson & McCarthy, 1957, 409). Massola (1960) has -
listed other kodja from the Northwestern Division, including Nickol Bay, and
there appears to be no doubt that the implement was used right up the west
coast and its hinterland for an unknown distance. It is stated by Clement
(1903) that the engravings were nade with the stone axe. His notes were fitted
to his collection by Schmeltz and there was no kodja in the collection. The
hafted axes among the engravings (100) could be e ither kodja or ground edge
implements but one (VI) is probably the latter. The presence of axe sharpening
grooves proves clearly that ground edge axes were used in this area but whether
they were known during the outline phase of engraving is an archaeological
problem yet to be solved.
Petri and Schulz (1951) said that the spiral and concentric circle are
derived from the bullroarers and churinga traded from the Central Australian
region across to the northwest, and thus had their origin in the former area.
Davidson (1952, 104) was of the opinion that the engravings of this motif at
Port Hedland and Yarri-Muccan, and the painting of it at Walga Rock, were not
inspired by these traded objects but may represent crudely executed coiled
snakes as part of the naturalistic art of the northwest. The former compare
the zigzag design shield of the pretent with the curvilinear line shield of
the engravings in their figs. 27-28, barred boomerangs in figs. 25-26 in both
techniques, and a single spiral in the rock engravings with a line of them on
a sacred board in figs. 21-22. In my chronology the spiral and concentric
circle belong to the Linear Design phase of engraving and are therefore of
archaic age. The fact that some of them are almost weathered away indicates
a considerable age for the motif, too long for it to have been derived from
the traded specimens. Davidson (1952, 104) said that these bullroarers and
churinga were seldom recognized west of the de Grey river in 1939 but were
widely distributed east of the above river late in the nineteenth century.
Their diffusion forms-part of a spreading of traits in every direction into~
New South 'ales, Queensland, Northern Territory, South Australia, and Western
Australia from the central Australian region, prominent among them being the
fluted and hooked boomerangs, leilira knife,, hafted tula adze, aning and the
above sacred objects.  It appears to me that the spiral-concentric circle motif
originally diffused from the northwest in prehistoric times, but during the
last century or so has been participating in a secondary reverse diffusion
back to the northwest. I have argued previously (1939, 1953) that these
motifs were originally introduced into Australia during the Bronze age whose
products spread into Indonesia and whose art designs spread much further
into Melanesia and eastern Polynes ia.
Davidson (1952, 105) remarked that the essential features of cave paint-
ings in lWestern Australia were derived from a north-easterly direction, that
is, from the Kimberleys, with the major exception of the geometrical motifs;
both pictographs and petroglyphs, he said, occupy a position peripheral to
the regions of intensive development of art, and it could not be determined
whether any widespread traits originated in the northwest or bad had a foreign
derivation. The chronology suggested in this paper demonstrates the possi-
bility of the Linear Design phase baving originated on the north-west coast,
from the spread of the Bronze age or some other inspiration, and diffused
into the interior and south of the continent.
The tables confirm Davidson's statement (1952, 90-1) that snakes are the
most common motif in Vestern Australia, and that kangaroos, emus and lizards
are rare in the rock art; reverses his claim that emu tracks are more commonly
portrayed than kangaroos; agrees with him that marine life is prominent near
the coast as we would expect it to be; supports his claim that certain animals,
like the dingo, echidna, opossum, wombat, koala and platypus are uncommon
motifs within their range of distribution. For the continent at large, if we
accept the tracks of kangaroos and emus as evidence of the relative frequency
of these animals as motifs, then we agree with his view that the snakes, kan-
garoos, lizards and emus are the most widely distributed subjects in rock art,
but to it we add man as an universally important and common motif.
TEaNIQUES
One of the outstanding features of the Port Hedland site is the presence
of four of the six previously defined techniques of rock engraving known in
Australia.
Withnell (1901, 29) and Clement (1904, 9) both stated that there are en-
gravings on every hill of suitably hard stone. The subjects they list are
typical of the inland sites and they do not refer to Port Hedland. They said
that the figure was drawn in chalk and then repeatedly hammered along the
lines or within the outline. Neither say that they actually witnessed the
operation, even though Withnell's description of it is generally considered to
be what takes place. Clement, also, had access to Withnell's pamphlet. It
should be emphasized that the outline and linear grooves consist of a series
of conjoined or overlapping pits which are somewbat different to the result
produced by 'irepeatedly hammering" along a line.
The implement used to produce the abraded grooves is not known.
The conjoined-puncture outline (If) is shown clearly in many of the
plates. The punctures and grooves are from 1/h to 3/4 in. wide, and in depth
from 1/16 to 3/8 in. In condition they vary from those that are almost
43
indiscernible to others in a perfect state of preservation, and it is apparent
that this technique was employed from a remote to a comparatively recent time
period. No stone implements were found on the limestone ridges or near them
and there are none among the shallow cockle and whelk shell deposits strewn all
over these ridges.
Experiments were conducted with whelk shells. Mainy of these in the midden
material on the ridge lack an inch or so of the pointed end. With such an im-
plement the rounded pits or punctures were made relatively quickly in the lime-
stone by striking the rock up to ten times in the one spot and then finally
twisting the head several times.  When a pointed or rounded piece of limestone,
the only local rock available, up to 6 in. long, was used in the same way it
broke up after a few blows and failed to produce more than a shallow bruising
on the rock surface. A large piece would be too unwieldy to control.
It is considered that an implement under complete control would have to
be used to nake the pits, particularly in the outline figures with dotted in-
terior (Xe-f) where the pits are spaced all over their surface. This applies
also to the lizard track (IXi), and in the figures in which the grooves are
very narrow like many of the highly decorated weapons and sacred boards. They
could not be mide with a ground-edge axe or with the kodja.
The whelk shell forms an ideal tool for this work. Thus with its point
intact, or a tiny part of it removed, the narrow conjoined puncture in a figure
like the starfish (VIIIc) could be made, and by removing various lengths from
the point of the turret-shaped whelk the diameter of the pits could be controlled.
Although the whelk shell could be the instrument used at Port Hedland,
Sydney-Hawkesbury and other coastal sites, it does not occur inland and does
not explain how conjoined-punctured outlines were made in these sites. A con-
siderable amount of work is involved in making the large figures and those with
complex line designs. A high degree of skill is displayed in the latter, as
II, V-VIII, XII and XVI demonstrate.
In several of the figures, such as the large turtle (VIIIb) the groove has
been rubbed or abraded over the pits, but this additional process is rare in
this site as a whole. These grooves are from 1 to 1-1/2 in. wide and 3/8 to
1/2 in. deep.
The intaglios vary considerably in technique (III, IXJ, XIII-XVI). The
earliest ones consist of- large rounded pits, particularly in the hands and feet
of the Minjiburu spirits, the general range of pecked figures, and in all of
the bigger figures, and is the same technique as that used in the outline sting
rays with dotted interior design.
In making the intaglios the artist began with scattered pits, not with an
outline, the area being covered with dense layers of peckings to produce the
final figure.  Mary pecked tracks are engraved on unused spaces of rock, in
some instances placed carefully inside an older outline or between various
other figures.
A finer technique was employed for what appears to be a later series of
intaglios, as in some of the boomerangs, bird and fish (XIIIb), clutches of
eggs (XIIIh), sitting emus (XVIc), and club (VIIId), all small figures.   It
consists of both tiny pits and cuts that may have been made with hafted stone
implements of the pointed adze type.
The battering technique characteristic of inland sites (Worms, 1954),
which is very crudely done in many figures (Stokoe, 1959, pl. II, b-c), was
not employed at Port Hedland.
The following superimpositions were noted: those for which no plate or
figure reference is given are recorded in unpublished photographs.
1. Outline with design over outline. Gridded boomerang meandering line
(VIb); barred boomerang over large bird (IVb); boomerang with elaborate line
design over oval (299); sawfish sword over oval (VIIIe); pecked human track
over Minjiburu over gridded turtle (IIa); striped figure over gridded turtle
over large outline figure (13); barred and gridded boomerang over dotted out-
line sting ray and ovals; elaborate crescentic and herringbone design over
oval; barred boomerang over ovals; striped boomerang over oval; curvilinear
design boomerang over snake; curvilinear line spearthrower over outline fig-
ure; gridded turtle over boomerang; striped shield over curved line; dotted
fish over boomerang large barred figure over boomerang; and a barred oval
over oval (5-A18B105.  Curvilinear design shield over lizard track (4-A2B26),
over snake from hole (photo), zigzag shield over line figure; striped sword
club over line figure (4-A2B9); sacred board with looped line des.ign over
outline sting ray.
2.  Linear over outline. Spiral over meandering line (yim); spiral over
a striped boomerang and outline fish (Vn); barred and striped boomerang over
dotted sting ray, outline sting ray and other outline figures; fringe over
outline fish and other figures; set of shallow arcs over boomerang; barbed
spearhead over pair of boomerangs, sinuous parallel line figure, oval and out-
line figure; radiate over barred oval; diagonally barred boomerang over outline
boomerang.
3. Pecked intaglio over outlines. Pecked human foot over sword club
(2-A9B7); fish (5-A20B43); human figure and boomerang (3-A31B17); boomerangs
(XVc); indeterminate figures (5-AlOB30); oval (2-A3OB41, 3-A3B22, A16B22,
XVIc); tailed oval (4-A6B37); Minjiburu spirit (lla, r, 33); and over fish,
sting ray's liver and indeterminate figures.
Human figure over human figure, conical and other outlines (3-A28B18);
snake over dolphin (36, XVIe); phalanger over oval (XIVh); lizard over fringed
outline (2-Al5B8) and over oval; lizards in coitus over Minjiburu spirit figure
(20); goanra over indeterminate figure; indeterminate figure over foot of large
man (29); emu eggs and legs over fish; turtle eggs over indeterminate figures;
boomerang over fish (5-A2OB44, XVIa); boomerang over other figures and fish;
club over indeterminate figures (VIIId); hooked boomerang over boomerang (XVIg);
kangaroo tracks over eggs (3-A22B2), boomerang (3-A18B21), indeterminate fig-
ures (VIIId), sting ray and other figures; kangaroo tracks and tail over dotted
sting ray (3-A22B2); emu tracks over old group of indeterminate figures (8,
XIIIJ), and eagle-ray; Minjiburu's foot over outline figure.
4. Pecked intaglios over outline with design . Human track over fringed
cluster            3B2), striped hero (3           barred dolphin (3-A18B40),
boomerang with crescentic line design (3-A13B15), gridded turtle (9); gridded
turtle over striped human figure which is over large outline figure (13 );
gridded turtle over striped human figure (24); Minjiburu spirit figure over
gridded turtle (IIa), barred boomerang, barred and striped boomerang, median
striped boomerang, shield, striped shield, oval with arcs and line design in
separate superimpositions.
Humn  figure over gridded turtle (2-AlB41); pair of boomerangs, eggs
and indeterminate figure over dotted sting ray (3-A7B45); emu legs and eggs
over barred sacred board and barbed spearhead (XVIc); emu eggs and legs over
gridded boomerang; snake over gridded turtle (79); barred whale (36, XVIe),
and ba-rred boomerang (XVIf); snake's eggs over Minjiburu spirit figure
(3-A16B32). Kangaroo tracks over curvilinear design shield (2-A20B30); dotted
sting ray (2-A17B2); barred hafted axe (3-A6B13 ); striped hero (3-A31B20);
striped human figure (32); gridded turtle (80); barred oval; and circle con-
taining crosses. Emu tracks over barred dolphin (3-A18B41) and dotted sting
ray.
Boomerang over curvilinear design shield (2-A14Bh2); dotted sting ray
(3-A7B45-); barred and striped design (4-A5B16); gridded turtle (9); barred
whale (36, XVIe); and barred swordclub (XVIb).
Pecked band design over dotted figure (10); pecked shapes over barred
boomerang (2-Al5B46); and dotted sting ray (3-A7B45). Pecked barred boomerang
over gridded turtle which is over two outline boomerangs and other figures (76).
5. -'Pecked over linear figures. Human foot over set of arcs (2-A6B18);
barbed spear of Minjiburu hero (3-Al27); line (3-A36B16); snake from hole
(4-A2Bl4); grid (4-A6B20, XVIg); fringe (5-A20B42); and over fringe, snake,
barbed spear (twice), and lizard track, Human figure over spear (XIIIc); bird
over snake from hole; flying bird over radiate (VIlc); crab over set of paral-
lel straight lines (XIVd); emu eggs and legs over barbed spearhead (XVIc); emu
leg over line (3-A4B14); rows of eggs over two sets of arcs (VIIf); eggs;
snake over lizard track (2-A9B44), and spear (5-AlOB6) and over fringe; kanga-
roo tracks over meandering lines (29) over set of arcs, fringe (twice), radiate
and barbed spear; emu tracks and shape over spear (36); boomerang over fringe,
bird track, barbed spear and shape; pecked shapes over barbed spearhead (Xd),
linear figure (3-A29B10), snake (3-A30B36), fringe (4-A3Bll) and grid (36);
pecked and barred boomerang over barbed spear and fringe.
The numerous and consistent superimposition of the pecked intaglios
over all other techniques as listed in groups 4 to 6 above, establishes with-
out doubt that they form a distinct and the latest phase of rock engraving in
this site.
It is apparent, also, from the superimpositions, that the outlines be-
long to the earliest phase.  (The abraded grooves (Ic) are not considered here
because they are not included in any of the superimpositions.)
The chronological position of the outline with design and the linear
figures is not yet clearly established. There are 14 superimpositions of
outline with design over outlines, listed in group 1, but there are other
groups (9, 13, 26, 32, 36, 77, 80, 81, 90) in which the outlines, and the
outlines with the simpler designs like the barred, gridded and striped, are
so intimately interwoven that we must accept them as.belonging to the- one
period.
The Minjiburu spirit figures are difficult to place. They are outline
figures with-pecked feet and hands, and associated with them are many pecked
human tracks. A number of them wear pubic fringes. In superimpositions they
are found over a gridded turtle and over an outline figure, but under pecked
intaglios. In certain groups (12, 34, 39, 40, 77, 81, 90) they are intimately
associated with outlines and the simpler line design figures, so that they
probably belong to the earliest phase.
There is, however, a series of outlines with line designs which include
the parallel curvilinear line pattern on boomerangs, shields, spearthrowers
and sacred boards, the many complex line designs on boomerangs (VIe), the.
elaborate design in the oval (VIId-e), and sacred object (VId) a nd line mazes
(XIIe) which appear to belong to an intermediate period as they are superim-
posed over the outlines. The outline with dotted interior style is an early
one as the following figures are superimposed over dotted sting rays: barred
and gridded boomerang; pecked boomerang, eggs and other figures.; pecked kanga-
roo and emu tracks (2-A17B2); pecked boomerang and shapes (3-A7B45); barred
figures but not on a sufficient number of occasions to indicate that they are
later than the latter series.
The problem is elucidated to a degree by a study of sites in other parts
of Australia. The outlines occur at Burra in South Australia as tortoises and
ovals (Biddle, 1925., Campbell, 1925), and in great profusion of rtualistic
motifs, together with barred figures, in the Sydney-Hawkesbury district of
e%stern New South Ilaes. No techniques other than the conjoined puncture and
abraded groove were employed in the latter area, where, remote from the north-
ern corridors of outside influence and cultural development, we are able to
define the early techniques, styles and subjects of engraving.  In both areas,
Port Hedland and Sydney-Hawkesbury, cult hero figures are associated with
animals and weapons in the earliest phase of rock engraving. They are of the
same period as the second series at Devon Downs in South Australia ..(Hale &
Tindale, 1930, fig. 246). The elaborate line designs do not occur in the
Sydney-Hawkesbury series, and would appear to be a local development in the
north-west.
By applying the comparative method on a distributional bas is to the sites
in the south and central parts of the continent it is possible to isolate
another and very important series of linear engravings. In Basedow's plates
(1914, IIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, IXB, XA-B, XIII, XIVA) are shown many interest-
ing superimpositions upon which he did not comment. His plates illustrate
pecked intaglios of owls, human feet, lizards and other animals, tailed radiate
figures, and an emu track, engraved over circles. In many of the Flinders
Range sites (Mountford, 1928, 1935) plain circles are associated with emu and
kangaroo tracks, barred, linked and tailed circles, arcs, banching and other
figures which appear to form one of the earliest groups of motifs among the
interior engravings generally.
k7
A study of the superimpositions at Sturts Meadows by Professor N. W. G.
Macintosh and the author in 1959 revealed that pecked intaglio lizard, emu and
kangaroo tracks, and the human foot are engraved over radiate, cluster (4 ex-
amples), spiral, circle, linear man, and linear designs (5 examples). Basedow
(l914, pl. XB) illustrated an intaglio emu track over a wheel design at Decep-
tion Creek East, South Australia.
My study of Depuch Island engravings (1961) revealed that the naturalistic
outlines, with or without interior designs, are consistently overlaid by the
spiral and allied motifs, and by the pecked intaglios, and that the latter are
superimposed on the second group.
There is thus widespread continental data available to support the conclu-
sion that the following sequence of rock engraving has been passed through in
Australia:
1. Abraded grooves, corresponding to the first period at Devon Downs (Hale and
Tindale, 1930, fig. 66).
2. Outline phase corresponding to the second period at Devon Downs (Hale and
Tindale, 1930, fig.o 246), represented by naturalistic figures in eastern
New South Wales and Burra in South Australia, and by circles and allied fig-
ures in the Flinders Ranges and central Australia. This phase developed
into a sub-phase with elaborate dotted and interior line designs. Whether
this sub-phase was linked with the Linear Design phase at Port Hedland can-
not at present be decided.
3. Linear Design phase which includes the spiral, concentric circle, grid,
fringe, cluster and other designs occurring throughout the region from
northwestern Australia to the Flinders Range, central Australia, western
New South Wales, and eastward to west of the Great Dividing Range at
Narrabri, north-eastern New South Wales, and Pigeon Hill, Queensland. It
has survived as the sacred art in the rituals of the central Australian
tribes.  It is considered that the crocodile figure (Hale and Tindale, 1929,
pl. i, fig. 1) of Panaramittee belongs to this intermediate phase as a
cult design.
h. Pecked phase in which there are the pecked band and intaglio phases or tech-
niques, and in which important sub-periods developed such as the Gurangara
art at Abydos and Woodstock (Worms, 1954).
It will be seen that after the initial simple haphazard or arranged sets
of abraded grooves, representative or naturalistic art appeared which developed
interior line designs, but which was supplanted by a symbolic linear design art.
The latter finally gave way to a return to realism allied with design in the
pecked period in which the latest development in no?thern Australia is of human
figures associated with the theme of reproduction (Worms, 1954). The latter
phase did not diffuse to south-eastern Australia or South Australia. Animal
tracks belong to both the Outline and Linear Design phases. Worms (1954, 1085-
8) was thus correct in defining an ""older stratum" at Port Hedland which he
distinguished also, but less developed, in the inland sites at Abydos and Wood-
stock.  The emphasis on sex, and the wide range of headdresses of both men and
women, in the upper stratum art of the inland sites is not found in the older
stratum. Worms placed the symbolic linear designs and motifs in the older
48
stratum, but in my view they form an intermediate phase of engraving. He said
that emus, kangaroos, birds, insects and plants occur in great numbers in the
older stratum at Port Hedland but as my table indicates, this is not so--there
are no figures of"emus (only their tracks, in abundance), a doubtful one of a
kangaroo (whose tracks are also numerous), several birds and plants but no
'insects.
The sequence revealed by the superimpositions has an important bearing on
our interpretation of rock engraving in Australia as a whole. It provides
criteria for distinguishing ancient portrayals from recent ones, until now
(Davidson, 1952, 100) not apparent.  Thus sites of engravings all over the
continent, if the suparim positions are studied and the range of styles, tech-
niques and motifs is considered, should conform in general to the above se-
quence or chronology, and the art history of each site will thus be revealed.
It- is obvious, further, that attempts to obtain interpretation of prehistoric
motifs are foredoomed to failure. It is only the figures engraved in the
latest technique in a site that we can hope to have interpreted by living
rtives. This is the reason why natives in the Flinders range told Basedow
(1925, 299) that the carvings belonged to the Dreamtimeo  The relatively late
spread of the pecking technique into the Flinders range sites explains the
scarcity (Mountford, 1928, 340) of human and animal intaglios in this region.
The occurrence of the linear design motifs in western and central New South
Wales (west of the Great Dividing Range) is explained by the fact that they
did not spread as far eastwrd as did the outlines but they spread further in
this direction than did the pecked intaglios.
Thus the various complexes of techniques and subjects, so intimately
linked in each phase and distinguishable generally from other phases, will
have to be studied in detail in many more sites on the continent before it
will be possible to demarcate the precise range of motifs and distribution of
eaqh complex, but their spread is a clear cut case of age and area diffusion
in time and space., and it nay be poss ible in the future for archaeologists to
plot the distribution of each phase and ascertain its antiquity. The emu
sitting on eggs motif is now recorded at Port Hedland (326f) and Mootwingee,
western New South Wales, among engravings, and in the Gill range, central
Australia (Spencer & Gillen, 1899, fig0 124-8, p. 616) among cave paintings,
and illustrates well the links between motifs in this vast region from the
northwest to the southeast of the continent as do most of the linear design
motifsO
It can be claimed that the outline art of the Sydney-Hawkesbury district
is one that survived as a living prehistoric complex in that area only because
of its great distance from northern Australia and because the later and more
advanced ideas did not diffuse over the Great Dividing Range. It seems clear,
also, that from western New South Wales through central to northwestern Aus-
tralia the Pecked Intaglio naturalistic art had supplanted the Linear Designs
in rock engraving but that in a considerable portion of this vast region,
especially the central area, the linear design art survived as the sacred art
in ritual on the bodies of participants, on the ground, in waninga and nurtinja,
and on the t3uringa and message sticks0  The significance o  the iunan and
aninal subjects in the pecked intaglios in this region is not known, though it
is probably expressive of the totemic and allied spirit beliefs, nor is the
49
reason why they replaced the symbolic linear designs that previously represented
them. Davidson (1952, 90) was of the opinion that the same narrow range of
naturalistic subjects and the widespread similarities in styles and techniques
of execution are among the most striking features of Australian art, for they
demonstrate that the continent shares a basic art tradition. The chronology
suggested in the present paper confirms this view, but before a full understand-
ing of the total situation becomes apparent an accurate knowledge of the distri-
butions of the various motifs will have to be ascertained.
The diffusion of the Linear Design and Pecked Intaglio phases of this rock
art complex from the north and northwest into western Queensland, central and
South Australia, and western New South -les, appears to me to be part of the
movement of culture revealed by the Tartangan, Pirrian-Mudukian, and Murundian
culture phases on the lower Murray river (Hale & Tindale, 1930; Mulvaney, 1960).
It is in contrast to the Bondaian and Eloueran culture periods of eastern New
South Wales, which are linked closely with the outline rock engravings, and the
concentric diamond and associated motifs on the weapons and carved trees of
this region. As the latter series of motifs also occurs on some of the sacred
boards and spearthrowers of northwestern Australia, together with a sky hero
cult as in eastern New South lhles, there appear to be grounds here to support
the idea that a band of ancient coastal and hinterland cultures extended from
the southwest round the north to the southeast of the continent, and a group of
inland cultures spread from the northwest. More recently, there has been an
important diffusion of culture from the coastal region outwards in all directions,
and this is still progressing.
One other point of interest is the carry over from one phase of rock engrav-
ing to another.  Thus, although the Minjiburu spirits apparently belong to the
outline phase, their ritual significance survived into the pecked intaglio period
when numerous human tracks, usually leading toward the Minjiburu, were engraved
near many of these cult figures. Some of the hill lizards (IXJ) are partly
pecked. A pecked fin was added to the whale (XVIe), and some of the pecked band
designs are derived from the linear design period (109, 237, 241, 304-1h, XIVf).
Thus the break between periods at Port Hedland was not as sharp between the
linear design and pecked intaglio periods as it was between the abraded groove
and outline, and between the outline and linear design periods.
One problem raised by this chronological history of rock engraving is its
relationship to the various bodies of mythology and ritual in different parts
of the continent. It has been shown that the Minjiburu and related figures be-
long to the old and basic mythology of the Kariera, together with the striped
hero Murra Murra. Both Captain George and Paddy Bolong identified the two large
human figures as Minjiburu, indicating that this mythology was carried on even
though the engraving techniques and methods changed from time to time. The
Mungan brothers is the dominant mythology of the existing Njamal, Ngarla and
southern Njangamada tribesmen now residing at Port Hedland, and is still impor-
tant among the northern Njangamada (Piddington, 1932). As no engravings of the
Mungan were indicated by my informants, to whom the main types of human figure
were shown, we cannot associate any series of the motifs with them.
It is important to note that the Ullagubbera or Little Hawk men (Spencer &
Gillen, 1927, I, 312-9) of the Aranda tribe in central Australia introduced the
four sections and circumcision with the Leilira-blade, thus equating their
period with that of the Mungan. It is probable that the Linear Design art
spread from the northwest into central Australia and further eastward and
southward, with circumcision, and that the advent of the latter in the
northwest was also accompanied by this art, the whole complex being intro-
duced at an unknown date. Davidson (1952) has pointed out that in Western
Australia the Linear Design art and pecked maturalistic art both spread west-
.ard and south-westward into the northern Murchison area, as Stokoe's paper
(1959) also demonstrateso
It is difficult to decide where the diffusion of the outline and pecked
techniques and motifs began in Australia. Neither has been recorded in Cape
York and only -a few pecked figures (McCarthy, 1960; Elkin, 1956, 232) are
known"in Arnhem Land. Much-more detailed fieldwork is necessary to ascertain
the distribution of the outline technique and motifs and their relationship
to early painting styles. At the present time it appears probable that the
outlines were either taken by migrating people or diffused through the tribes
of the east and northern coasts of the continent from north-eastern Australia,
Qr that they diffused from the Port Hedland area through the interior of the
continent. This diffusion may be linked with that of tooth-avulsion, as this
custom existed with outline engraving in the Sydney-Hawkesbury district.
The pecking technique did not originate on the north-west coast, as it
spread through that region as a technique of engraving, for shaping stone
axes and other implements (Davidson, 1952; McCarthy & Davidson, 1957). It
was spreading through south and central Australia, and western New South
lbles, as an engraving technique, but although it was employed throughout
eastern Australia, including central and eastern Victoria, for shaping stone
axes, it was applied to larger implements like millstones and mullers only in
western Queensland, western New South Wales, and further west on the continent,
a distribution that coincided more closely with that of pecked engravings.
This differential application of the technique for various purposes is an
interesting aspect of its total diffusion which appears to have been from
north-eastern Queensland and Cape York (McCarthy, 1953). Once the technique
was applied to rock engraving it became a medium to express ritual and belief
and thus we find (Worms, 1954I) the motifs of the modern religious cult of the
Gunabibi-Djana-Gurangara mythology depicted as crudely pecked but highly
imagimative human figures in which the genitals and sexual intercourse are
featured in the Abydos and other inland sites of the northwestern region.
Worms defined this art as the upper stratum of engraving in the interior of
the north-west but it did not penetrate to the coastal Port Hedland site.
ARTISTIC MERIT
The control of line, posture and anatomical details of the outline and
pecked human and animl figures at Port Hedland agrees in general with sites
of rock engravings and paintings elsewhere in Australia. The Minjiburu fig-
ures are the most interesting artistically, with their beautiful line and
poise of a dancer and actor and the series forms an interesting addition to
aboriginal art motifs as a whole. Other human figures are in the usual front-
wise position with the arms horizontal or upraised. The birds and fish are
51
shown in profile, and the rays and other flat fish, and the lizards, from above.
The fish and turtles are in swimming postures, portrayed as they were usually
seen in the water. The animals are thus drawn in the posture in which the
hunter sees them prior to throwing his spear or club. Some of the figures em-
body a nominal degree of animation and grace. The numbers of fingers and toes
on both human and animal figures varies considerably. The art of this phase
is similar in every way to that of the Sydney-Hawkesbury district and is the
most ancient kind of representative art on the continent. The widely spaced
bars on the dolphins and whale at Port Hedland are characteristic of the Sydney-
Hawkesbury art.
Potholes of all sizes, and in some instances slight bulges, are commonly
utilized in this art, as Vorms (1954, 1087) pointed out. The holes, which vary
from shallow depressions to many feet in depth, represent the eyes, mouth,
breasts, and genital organ of the Minjiburu spirit figures; spirals, concentric
circles, circles, radiate lines, and sting rays are engraved around them; they
are linked to one or both ends of a snake to represent the lair of the aninmal,
and one snake links three potholes; they form the middle of a starfish and rep-
resent its mouth; lizard and the long meandering tracks lead from one, some-
times to a second pothole from 6 to 20 ft. away, and stand for a lair, waterhole
or clump of spinifex grass; tracks of emus, kangaroos and other animals, and of
men and- women, are concentrated around a pothole, indicating a favored hunting
place at a waterhole frequented by game; a fringe is engraved either down the
inside of or from the top edge of the outside of a hole representing an apron
over a symbolic vulva; the curve of a boomerang is engraved around a pothole.
It is obvious that some of these potholes were totem centers for increase rites,
as Petri (1951) thought, and others were sacred places connected with the
Minjiburu spirits.
Although the Linear Design art includes figures (VId-g, VIIb, d-e, XIIe)
of a highly decorative and to some extent imaginative nature, they are not or-
ganized o'n the level of the patterns on the central Australian tjuringa. The
only comparable figure is one design (VIIe). The line work is typical of that
incised on the sacred boards and bullroarers of Western Australia although the
range of patterns differs considerably. Depuch Island is the only other known
site of engraving in Australia that contains the outline with dots and linear
designs (barred, striped, curvilinear, etc.) so lavishly displayed at Port
Hedland.
Among the pecked figures there is more variety of posture, as illustrated
by the goannas (299, XIVa); mammal (XIIIe); bird (XIIIb); sting rays (XIVb, e)
and the lizards in coitus (20), but the number of naturalistic figures is some-
what limited. In general they are stiff in style and lack the animation and
grace of similar subjects in this technique on Depuch island (McCarthy, 1961)
and inland sites (Worms, 1954). Technically, some of the above figures are
very neatly executed, the sting rays and bird being outstanding in workmanship.
STYLES
Those )present include (1) outlines; (2) outlines with barred, striped,
barred and striped, gridded, dotted, curvilinear and other line designs; (3)
linear and geometric figures, designs and tracks; (4) pecked band snakes and
designs; (5) pecked intaglio or silhouettes.
The relationships of these styles are to be found in the cave paintings
of Australia. They are predominant styles on Groote and Chasm islands, and in
the early prehistoric phase of painting, prior to the Mimi stick figures and
the X-ray phases, in western Arnhem Land (McCarthy, 1960), and they are common
throughout eastern Australia (Davidson, 1936; McCarthy, 1958). The evidence
available indicates that this corpus of art, together with silhouettes in the
paintings and outlines in the engravings, spread across the north and down
through eastern Queensland and New South Wales, mainly along the Great Dividing
Range and coastal area. There are thus definite relationships between the en-
gravings and paintings in these styles, just as there are in the Linear motifs
in the interior of the continent, and the relationships are of cultural sig-
nificance. There is no style in these early engravings that may be correlated
with the silhouettes in the pintings, because outlines occur in both forms of
art, just as the pecked intaglios, which belong to the latest phase of engrav-
ing, canmot be claimed to represent the early painting silhouettes.
FUNCTION
It is obvious that the concept that inspired the artists of the early
outline phase is a complex of weapons, ornaments, sacred boards and marine
animals associated with the Minjiburu spirit beings. The association of cairns
-of stones with the engravings, and the statements by Clement (1903) and Brown
(1913) that these cairns were totemic centers, at which increase rites for the
various totems were performed, indicates also that historical ceremonies were
carried out, associated with the engravings, which re-enacted the life of the
Minjiburu spirits who were probably of the creator kind and at least established
the totem centers in Kariera country.
Brown (1913 , 160-7) in h'is list of clan and local group totems, said there
were no prohibitions against killing and eating the totem by totemites, and
each clan had a number of totems. It is surprising, therefore, that he could
find no kangaroo, emu or rain totems, although this might account for the ab-
sence of outline figures of these animals. Fish totems predominated among the
coastal clans. He thought more plant totems existed than those he listed.
Other notable absentees in his list are the dolphin, dugong, turtle, whale and
echidna, all of which are represented, especially turtles and dolphins, in the
early outline and outline with design phase of engraving.
The symbolism of the formal art motifs apparently still represented the
same system of beliefs and rites in the Linear Design period, as the evidence
from central Australian art and its function demonstrates.
The acquisition of pecking brought with it a small range of human and
animal motifs, a reproduction of some of the Linear motifs, a reproduction of
some of the Linear Design motifs in the new technique, some new designs, and
a host of human and animal tracks. The old Minjiburu mythology apparently sur-
vived, as the engraving of the human tracks around the old Minjiburu figures
indicates. It disappeared with the virtual extinction of the Kariera, Njamal
53
and Ngarla several decades ago when they were replaced by the Njangamada from
east of the de Grey river who brought the Mungan-BagadJimbiri brothers myth
with them. As the Njangamada were not responsible for any of the engravings
the characters in this myth are not represented in the galleries.
It is well known that non-native interpretations of aboriginal art motifs
can differ markedly from that of the Aborigines. Davidson (1936, 59, fig. 2c)
gives interpretations of pecked intaglios which bear out this point, especially
the figure of the fish, bat's footprint, and the bird identified by natives.
Identifications by Aborigines of the indeterminate figures at Port Hedland would
no doubt surprise the student of this art in many of the interpretations.
ANTIQUITY
There is virtually no evidence at Port Hedland to indicate the antiquity
of the engravings, apart from the shallow layers of cockle shells which may
ultimately throw some light on the problem. Petri and Schulz (1951) believed
engraving to be an active cultural trait in the Pilbarra district. Basedow
(1918, 111) thought that, from weathered state, the engravings were very old
and the work of a defunct aboriginal generation. The natives told him they were
the work of an evil spirit (1925, 299). The fact that three phases of engraving
have been passed through suggests that a considerable period of time has elapsed
since engraving began on these limestone ridges. As there are both outline and
linear figures almost weathered away and others well preserved, the earliest
figures in each period have, as we would expect, disappeared entirely.  It must
be remembered, 'of course, that the whole surface of the rock, at least around
an engraving, has to be worn away to the depth of the grooves before a figure
will disappear, and it is for this reason that the deeply engraved ones in all
periods will withstand the natural elements for a considerable period of time.
The above,situation might also indicate that the outline phase survived until
a comparatively late time period, and that both the Linear Design and Pecked
phases were of a shorter duration0
Tindale (1957, 40) has linked the abraded grooves, the earliest known en-
gravings, with the Pirrian4Mudukian layers, 3,500 to 2,500 years ago; the out-
lines with the late Mudukian and early Murundian, 2,500 to 1,500 years ago; and
the Linear Design with the late Murundian, from 1,500 years ago to the present
time. The giant bird tracks belong to the Linear Design or Pecked Intaglio
phases, and cannot, as he claimed (1951) be linked with the Tartangan culture.
Thus the evidence and carbon l4 datings from Devon Downs indicate that rock
engraving at Port Hedland has been carried on for some 3,000 years and probably
much longer.
SIZES
The size of many figures has been given in the text and list of illustra-
tions. That of the figures illustrated in the plates is indicated by either a
match-box 2-1/4 in. long or by a camera lens cover 1-1/2 in, in diameter.
Generally speaking, most of the subjects are engraved in their natural size.
In the weapons the sword clubs are up to 29 in0 long, sacred boards up to 33
in., and the boomerangs include those 4 x 2-1/2, 9 x 2, 12 x 3, 15 x 3-1/2,
17 x 2-1/2, 20 x 2, 22 x 5, 24 x 3, 30 x 5, 32 x 3-1/2, 50 x 10. Ovals are
from 2 to 33 in., with one 72 in. long, and fish from a few inches to 4 ft.
long.
STONE HEAPS
Clement (1903) stated that heaps of stones, rarely a single one, formed
Tarlow centers where clan rites were carried out to increase foods. Brown
(1913) called them Talu. The rites, in which both men and women participated
where relevant, were led by the headman of the clans, and consisted of imitat-
ing the movements of the totem animals or the way in which the plant foods were
collected and prepared. The weapons and other artifacts used in these activi-
ties were displayed. The names of different parts of the country were called
out, and the heaps were struck with clubs or stones. As each clan bad a number
of totems it carried out these rites for each one of them at its respective
totem center. Brown did not visit any of these sites. I found the remains
of one heap between the Two Mile liell and the Manganese Plant, and believe
that others along this ridge have been removed by residents for various pur-
poses. I located a complete set consisting of round and long cairns, and a
circle, at the end of a ridge near the Four Mile point where the engravings
are very scattered, none being associated with the cairn. I also found a
series of cairns on the ridges on Karier island. All of them consist of
small and large boulders up to 2 ft. long roughly thrown together. I could
not, however, ascertain their totems because circumstances made it impossible
to get the informants to them. Those on Kariera island are all on the back or
western side of the ridges where there are few engravings. In one instance
pecked human and emu tracks appeared to lead toward a Talu heap.
Clement (1903, 6) said that the rainmaker also built a cairn of stones
or heap of sand as part of his rites, but as no one else was permitted to
approach it it is probable that he performed his rites at some distance from
the engraved ridges beside which the people appeared to camp.
CONSERVATION
Burton and Cleland (1909, 46), Campbell (1911), and Worms (1954) all
commented on the destruction of these engravings by weathering agencies, con-
struction of the railway to Marble Bar, people walking over ridges, and by
quarries, buildings and vandals. In more recent times, the manganese plant
and two mative camps have hastened this destruction. Portion of the main
ridge, site 2, was declared a Reserve some years ago. To prevent further dam-
age to the galleries it is recommended that the following action be taken:
(a) Fences constructed to form a pathway for the natives from the Two Mile
camp to the Well to stop them from walking and drtving vehicles over the im-
portant series of engravings at this spot; (b) The ntives and whites be
directed to use the available roads and not to wear tracks across and along
the engravings on the ridges in the vicinity of the One and Two Mile camps;
(c) No further quar ring be permitted, nor buildings or other works to be
constructed in areas along sites 1 and 2 (ridges along both sides of the
Great North Coastal Highway) where the engravings are well preserved, such
work to be permitted only in areas where there are none or few engravings;
(d) Kariera island be declared a sanctuary for the preservation of engravings
and stone heaps; (e) Notices be erected along sites 1 and 2 requesting visitors
not to damage the engravings; (f) A pamphlet be issued by the local Road Board
describing the engravings and their scientific and historic value, and appeal-
ing to residents and visitors not to damage them in any wy.
ACKNOWLEDKEDNITS
My sincere thanks are due to the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological
Research which fin anced my field work; Father E. A. Worms, of the Pallotine
Mission, Sydney, and to Mr. Adrian Day, Native Melfare Officer, and his wife,
Father F. F. O'Sullivan, Parish Priest, Mr. and Mrs. G. L. Spence, Mr. and Mrs.
Sian, at the Native Hospital, and the Clarke brothers, all of Port Hedland and
the Port Hedland Road Board, for various kindnesses and valued assistance; and
to Miss -Janelle Bailey, Technical Assistant at the Australian Museum, for the
preparation of the line illustrations.
KARIERA VOCABULARY
Brown (1913) listed the Kariera names of the animal and other totems of
the various local groups, and the following is an additional list of the nmes
of animls and artifacts in this language:
Humane
Tracks
Hand
Anima ls
Hill kangroo
Plains kangaroo
Kangroo 's hind foot
Kangaroo's fore paw
Wallaby
Dingo
Echidra
Echidna tracks
Dolphin
Dugong
Wha le
Emu
Emu eggs
Native companion
Ga lah
Turt le
Salmon or threadtail
Sting ray
Death adder
Tiger snake
Brown snake
Goann
dj inna
murra
pudjarr i
munguru
dj inra
murra
djadumurra
jugoro, mudjara, julongoina
mungunja, djerribugga
dj ina
njieritji
njammnna
Kadarabugg
djanguma
djinba
jangirra
piljagu, ngkburra
iaia-di
ngurudjong, j iradjanang
kanu, moji
nyuna
walu
wa lu
perigulla
Animals (continued):
Blue tongue lizard
Skink
Gecko
Lizard track
Artifacts:
Boomerang
Sword club
Flat club
Spears
Spear with double row of
barbs
Spearthrower
Shield
Sacred board
Boys' tassel
Men's pubic apron
Girl's pubic apron
Feather plume ornament
Women's pubic apron
Hafted stone axe
Grid chest design
Stick or bullroarer worn
at back of neck
Throwing stick
Knobbed club
jungum
kulgarli
djugga-djuggara
muju
wira
panamurra
bi lling
kuljerra, pilara
margunna
wa lbarra
jandigiri
inm
dangi la
mindi lj irri
mundiljirri
muljamulja
djerdi
bulbu
murra
Dji llabureba
jurlogu
tugurambi
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES
1. A. Distribution of the engraved
Hedland area. No. 1 is near
along the Highway, 3 are the
IDoodarie Landing, and 5, the
ridges, mrked 1 to 5, studied in the Port
the Native Hospital, 2 is the min ridge
ridges on Rariera island, 4 is the Old
site on the island opposite the Landing.
B. Sites in various parts of Australia mentioned in this paper, including
1,Depuch Island; 2, Port Hedland; 3, Gallery Hill and 1Imerana; 4, Mt.
Edgar or Mentheena; 5!, Flinders Range; 6, Sturt's Meadows; 7, Mootwingee;
8, Sydcney-Hawkesbury district; 9, Delamere.
C.
D-E.
Tllu stone arrangement near the Four Mile, also shown in XVIId-e.
Talu stone arrangements on the western ridge on Kariera island also shown
in XVII b, h, io
2-4.  These diagrams form a complete scale chart of the densest section of en-
gravings on the Highway ridge. It extends from the Two Mile Well for
120 ft. southward to a road leading in to the Two Mile camp.   The figures
of outstanding interest in these charts are as follows:
2. (a) Outlines and outlines with designs: A pair of sting rays with con-
centric circle bodies, A15B9; humn arm, A30B20; bottle-nosed dolphin 10
ft. long with indeterminate figures across it, A33B32; snake and boomerang,
A17B17; barred figures, A15B10, A20B29, A26B23, A35B32, A23B20; shield
with unusual line design, A20B29; tailed circle, A7B15; four linked cir-
c-.es, A19B28-9.
(b) Linear: A variety of fringes (one with the loop of the girdle around
a pothole, A29B8), plume head ornaments, radiates, grids, animal tracks,
barbed spearheads and complete spears, a spiral and concentric circle are
scattered through this area. The lizard track at the top is over 20 ft.
long.
(c) Pecked: Whiskered mmnal, A7B1; mammal, A7B35; tiny man, AlB41, A2B4;
lizard, A15B8; and a looped design, AlB46.  There are mny small pecked
shapes, and innumerable human, kangaroo, emu and -other bird, goanra and
other animal, tracks in this area. The tracks occur in lines and groups
but do not form an over-all pattern.
Superimpositions: Pecked over outlines, A9B7, A15B8, A3OB41, A31B35;
pecked over outline with design, AIB41, A1UB46, A13B42, A19B31; pecked
over linear, A6B18, A lB46, A 13B44U, A8B43e
Axe grooves: A18-20, B25-270
2a. This large barred marine mammal is 14 ft. long, and within its outline
are a barred figure, snake, pecked emu and kangaroo tracks, barbed spear-
head, fringes, and a pair of parallel lines. There are several indeter-
minate figures outside its body. The grooves are from 1 to 2 in. wide,
1/h to 1/2 in. deep.
3. Adjoins Fig. 2 on left side, the Two Mile Well being situated near the
lower right hand corner of the chart.
(a) Outlines and outlines with designs: Bottle nosed dolphin, A2OB34;
pair'of Minjiburu spirits fighting with spears, A12B22-37; striped hero
Murra Murra with-another human figure on his arm in middle top of chart;
dotted sting ray, A7B43; clutches of eggs, A6B25, A23B19, with pecked
legs of sitting bird, A21B1, A4B15, A3OB44; shields, A29B23, A17B30,
A22B41; cluster design, A24B17; spearthrower or sacred board, A9B3;
spearthrower with curvilinear design, AlB16; hafted axe with striped
head, A2B18, and with line design, A5Bl9; barred and gridded ovals, A6B7,
A15B30- pair of circles on line, A16B34; barred club A6B13; indeterminate
figures, A12B2,: A24B39,9 A3OB40; and a number of fish, boomerangs and
sword clubs.
(b) Linear: A variety of fringes, grids, bifurcated lines, arcs, snakes,
barbed spearheads and other linear figures occur in this section, among
which are radiate lines around a pothole, A26B7, and radiate lines on a
stick, A28B41,
(c) Pecked: Human f igure in prof i le, A28B18; banded sting ray with- dotted
body, A24h21; snakes with their eggs, A7B28, A19B40, A18B34; lizard,
A26B11; sword club, A18B23; rods which may be throwing clubs or kangaroos'
tails, A21B33, A12B33, and various indeterminate shapes. The tracks vary
greatly in- shape and size., and a re arranged in many lines in this area.
The human tracks include those of children and adults. Four lines of hu-
man tracks lead outwards towards the edges of the ridge, but the others
are haphazardly placed as are many of the bird and kangaroo tracks.
There are lines of small bird tracks, A24B8, large emu tracks, represent-
ing a pair of birds, AhB17; two lines of wllaby tracks, A13B2, A31B44;
two sets of goanna tracks, A6B37, AlB36; and a set of kangaroo hind and
fore feet tracks, A17B38. Some of the sets, A25B21, men hunting an emu
at a waterhold, and A30B27, men hunting kangaroos, are compositions.
Serimpositions: There are many examples of pecked over other figures
in this area
Figs. 2-3a. The outline of the dugong (2a) is from 1 to 1-1/2 in. wide,
1/2 in. deep, and rubbed smooth by abrasion; dotted sting ray (near Well)
outline 1/2 in, wide, 1/8 in. deep; dolphins 3/4 to 1 in. wide, 1/8 to
3/8 in. deep; striped hero (faint) 1/h in. wide, 1/16 to 1/8 in. deep;
dolphins 3/h to 1 in. wide, 1/8 to 3/8 in. deep; striped hero (faint)
1/4 in. wide, 1 Minjiburu spirit figure (large one), 1/h to 1/2 in. wide,
and up to 1/4 in. deep; spear 1 in. wide, 1/8 in. deep; salmon, 3/h in.
wide, 3/8 in, deep; most of the grooves vary from 1/4 to 3/4 in. wide,
and up to 1/4 in. deep, and are of conjoined punctures.
4. This chart illustrates the figures at the top of the ridge above Fig. 3.
(a) Outlines and outlines with designs:  Turtle, AlB16; cluster design,
A3B24; shi-eld, A2B25; Minjiburu, A4B29; striped sword club, A2B10; human
tracks, A6B37, A4B43; barred oval, A2B2; tailed circles, boomerangs and
several indeterminate figures also occur.
(b) Linear: These include the plume ornament, AlB41, sets of arcs,
fringes, barbed spearheads, snakes and tracks.
(c) Pecked: Boomerangs, A6B16, A6B37; lizard, A7B24; eggs, A4B21; and
various irdeterminate shapes. The human tracks point in all directions,
one at A3Bll is unusually large, and they form several lines. Others
include a set of five and a pair of emu, two pairs and a few single
kangaroo, tracks.
wermpositions.     These include pecked over other figures at A4B24,
A6Bl6 A6B20, A7B370
5. This chart illustrates a section of engravings on top of the ridge between
the Two Mile Amp and the Manganese Plant. The interesting- figures include:.
(a-) Outlines and outlines with designs: Human feet, A18B14, A lB28; clutch
of eggs, A2B43; dotted figures, A20B183, A22B36; barred oval, A17B10; gridded
figure, A25B2; striped figure, A25B8; striped sword club, A12B41; striped
human figure, A19B14, A17B27; shield, A9B21; sting ray, A2OB40; sacred board
with curvilinear design, A21B1; gridded circle, A21B13; and a number of
fish, ovals, circles and boomerangs.
(b) Linear:  These include concentric circles, fringes, barbed spearheadss,
lizErdtrack, snakes, set of arcs, parallel lines, and radiate figures.
One set of the latter is centered around a pothole, A1B38; one of the snakes
is coiled in a spiral beside a pothole, A5B47; and there are several designs
and bird tracks.
(c) Pecked: Eggs, A17B6; boomerangs, A2OB44, AllB41; kangaroo's tail or
throwing club, AhBh45; banded designs, A18B21, A16B37; Minjiburu spirit in
middle of lines of pecked human tracks, AlOB31; indeterminate shapes, A7B35,
A17B41; human and emu tracks scattered throughout series.
Superimpositions: Pecked kngaroo tracks over a dotted sting rayo Most of
the out1line andlinear figures have weathered outlines, 1/2 to 1 in. wide
and 1/16 to 1/8 in0 deep0 The pits on the small dotted sting ray are sharp
edged ovals 1/2 x 1 in0 in size, and 1/h in* deep, some circular ones being
1/2 in0 in diameter; the conjoined punctured outline of the big sting ray is
from 3/h to 1 in. wide, 1/8 to 1/4 in, deep, one portion of the tail groove
being 1 to 1-1/2 in. wide. The pits on the body of this ray are both oval
and circular, 1/2 In0 long, and close together*
6-o10  Sets of figures in various techniques and styles.
6. A gridded turtle, with grooves from 1/h to 3/h in. wide, and large outline
fish with grooves 3/h in0 wide,
7. A speared Minjiburu spirit with a peculiar pecked figure between his legs,
and beside him a set of bird's leg, fringe, lizard track, lines from pot-
holes, and an outline sting ray, all well preserved, grooves of spears
and Minjiburu 1/4 to 1/2 in0, and others 1/2 to 3/h in. wide, and from
1/8 to 3/16 in0 deep;
8, An old set containing man  imperfect figures over which a line of 5 emu
and one human tracks have been pecked0  The grooves of the outline and
linear figures are from 1/4 to 1/2 in. wide, 1/8 to 1/4 in, deep, and
many are weathered, those of the small pecked emu tracks are 1 in. wide,
3/h in. deep, the large ones up to 2-1/2 in0 wide, and 1 in. deep; the
rubbed hole is 2.1/2 in. in diameter and 1 in. deep.
9. Another old set of a gridded turtle, barred boomerang and other figures
with grooves 3/h in0 wide and 1/4 in. deep, and of fringes 1/h to 1/2 in.
wide, all from 1/8 to 1/4 in. deep, over which human tracks and a boomer-
ang have been pecked. The latter is covered with fine pits 1/4 in. in
diameter, 1/16 in0 deepO
10, The interesting figures in this set comprise the set of wavy lines9 pecked
snake friom hole, pecked lines over dotted figure, outline sting ray, sets
of arcs, spearthrower,9 outline eggs with pecked legs of emu, and striped
oval. There is a canoe-shaped figure (top right) but canoes were unknown
on the northwest coast0 The conjoined punctured outlines vary from weath-
ered and faded to clear and sharp grooves 1/4 to 1/2 in. wide, 1/8 to 1/h
in, deep, the groove of the concentric circle being the best preserved,
1/2 in0 wide and 1/h ino deep; the pecked snake and emu trcks have large
punctures 1 in, in diameter and 1/4 ino deepo All from the area between
the Two Mile Well and the Manganese Plant.
11.   Series of Minjiburu spirit figures, showing range of variation.  One (k)
was figured by Basedow (1925, pl. xl, fig. 1) and another (h) by Petri
and Schulz (1951, Flgo 1)o
12-15. Minjiburu spirits and the figures associated with them.   In 13 most of
the outlines are weathered and faint, those of the fish, oval, fringe
and others are 1/h in0 wide and 1/16 in, deep, the parallel scrolls 3/8
in. wide and 1/8 ino deep, and the turtle 1 to 1-1/2 in. wide, 1/h to
3/8 in, deep with oval punctures 1/4 ino long. In 15 most of the grooves
are 1/2 in, wide and 1/8 in. deep., and the pecked human tracks are from
60
1/8 to 1/4 in. deep- Figs. 12-139 and 15, from the area between the
Two Mile Well and the Manganese Plant, 14 from Kariera island. Figs.
14-15 figured by Petri & Schulz (1951, figs. 2-4).
16-21.
16. Barred snake, along which pecked human tracks are arranged on alter-
nate sides; other figures include ovals, two fringes, gridded turtle,
little man holding a weapon, bird tracks, snakes, radiate and inde-
terminate lines. All of the outlines are faint, 1/4 to 3/8 in. wide,
and 1/16 in0 deep, with the small snake 1/2 in0 wide and 1/h in. deep,
the- long pecked snake and bird track 3/4 to 1 in. wide and 3/16 in.
deep, and the human tracks from 1/8 to 1/ in. deep.
17. Line of kangaroo's hind foot tracks extending for nearly h0 ft., with
hunters tmcks and sting ray liver.
180 Pecked intaglio woman, 3 ft. tall, with boomerangs, snakes, outline
huan figure (top right), kangaroo and human tracks; the two boomer-
angs and design are well preserved with sharp outlines 1/2 in. wide,
1/8 -to l/h in, deep, others are weathered grooves 3/h in, wide., the
pecked woman has coarse pits up to 3/8 in, deep, but is weathered on
the body, and the tracks have finer pittings 1/h in. in diameter.
19. MinJiburu spirit with grooves 1/2 in. wide and 1/8 in, deep, and line
of pecked human tracks, weathered and faint, 1/16 in. deep.
20. Minjiburu spirit with grooves 1/2 in. wide and 3/16 in, deep, with a
series of pecked figures of lizards in coitus, pair of boomerangs and
fringe with grooves 1 in. wide and 1/4 in. deep, a large emu track ad-
joining a pothole, and a line of human tracks.  The tracks and lizards
-are from 1/8 to 1/h in. deep.
21. Pair of - large gridded turtles, very well preserved, the grooves of the
one on the left are 3/h to 1 in. wide, 1/8 to 1/h in. deep, smoothed by
weathering, and of the one on the right 1 to 1-1/2 in. wide, 1/4 to 3/8
in, deep, smoothed by abrasion and by weathering. All from the area
between the Two Mile Well and the Manganese Plant,
22-to   Figso 22-23, 25 are described in the section on Minjiburu spirit fig-
ures.  In 23 the grooves of the striped figures, which are faded, are 1/4
in. wide, of the Minjiburu 1/2 to 3/h in, wide, 1/16 to 1/8 in. deep, and
the pecked feet are from 1/8 to 1/4 in, deep.. 24, an indeterminate striped
figure, probably humn, grooves 1/2 in. wide.9 1/8 to 3/16 in, deep.   25,
grooves mostly 1/2 in. wide, 1/h in. deep, and tracks 1/8 in. deep. 22,
grooves 1/2 ino wide, and from 1/8 to 3/16 ino deep. 22 is situated 150
yds. from the quarry north of the One Mile campo 23-25 between the Two
Mile Well and the Manganese Plant,
26-280
26. Thereare two outline men with an oval. 4 boomerangs in the same style,
lizard track, striped shield, large fringe, 2 ovals, concentric circle
around pothole, barbed spearhead9 a curious group of an outline kanga-
roo or bird with a spiral and a tailed concentric circle, and a line
61
of pecked kangaroo tracks. The grooves are old and weathered, 1/2 to
3/h in. wide, 1/8 to 3/16 in. deep.
27-28. These figures are described in the section on Minjiburu spirits.
Al l on Kar iera i s land.
27. The grooves are 1/2 in. wide, 1/8 to 3/16 in. deep, those of the set of
arcs being 3/h in. wide and 1/h in. deep; the pecked tracks have pits
3/8 in. wide and 1/4 in. deep.
28. The grooves are-1/2 in., with some up to 3/4 in., wide, and from 1/8 to
3/16 in. deep, the pits in the pecked feet are from 1/h to 3/8 in. wide
and from 1/4 to 1/2 in. deep.
29-30.
29. Consists of a large outline nn, 9 ft. tall, with a set of arcs, barbed
spearhead, barred boomerang, oval and another figure; pecked figures of
human and emu tracks, 3 clubs, barbed rod, and various shapes. The
grooves are 1/2 in, wide, 1/8 to 1/4 in. deep, and the pecked figures
are 1/8 in. deep.
30. Mbst of the grooves are from 3/8 to 1/2 in. wide, 1/16 to 3/8 in. deep,
but a fish's tail is 1/4 in., a fish 3/4 in., and a snake from 1/2 to
3/h in. wide, and the latter is 1/8 to 1/4 in. deep. This set is des-
cribed in the section on Minjiburu spirits.
31-33.
31. Set of barbed spearheads; on Kariera island.
32. Old set of striped figure (human spirit ?) with spears or snakes, boom-
erangs, fish, sting ray, bent figure, oval, and sets of parallel lines;
a line of 4 pairs of pecked tracks, probably kangaroo hind feet, cross
the group; the grooves are faded and indistinct, 1/2 in.wide and 1/16
to 1/8 in. deep, pecked tracks 1/8 to 1/4 in. deep; opposite the Road
Board Depot.
33. A Minjiburu set, in which the large hero and the striped figure are
weathered and indist-inct, grooves mostly 1/2 in.wide, 1/8 to 3/16 in.
deep, eggs from 3/16 to 1/4 in. wide and 1/8 in. deep, and pecked tracks
from 1/8 to 1/4 in. deep; between the quarry and the One Mile camp.
3h-ho
34. Described in the section on Minjiburu spirits. Grooves are 1/2 in. wide,
1/8 to 3/16 in. deep; on Kariera island.
35. A large sting ray's liver, fish and dotted sting ray with 2 lines of
pecked human tracks.  The sting ray is closely pecked all over its sur-
face; on Kariera islando
36. Unusually large figures of two marine mammals, a bottle nosed dolphin
and a whale, 17 and 11 ft. long; snakes have been pecked on one end and
portion of the outline and first bar across the body, a fin on the middle
of one side, and boomerang over the outline of the whale.   There is an
imperfect Minjiburu (top left) and a pecked and disarticulated bird track
62
(bottom right) in the set. The grooves are 1/2 in. wide, 1/8 in. to
3/16 in0 deep, and the pecked feet from 3/16 to 1/> in. deep.
370 The central figure is an intaglio man 5 ft. high, with a set of 8
pecked hind kangaroo tracks, and one human track, on one side; he is
engraved over a plain spear, and there are linear figures of 5 crosses,
pair of kangaroo tracks9 and indeterminate linear figure and striped
bat shaped figure between his legs; and a barbed spearhead, arc, bi-
furcated rod, dotted track, oval containing cross, and a fringe (left).
The grooves are mostly 1/2 in. wide, 1/8 to 1/h in. deep, the fringe
and sacred board are in a finer technique, with grooves 1/4 in. wide,
1/8 in. deep, and the pecked track is 1/A in. deepO
38. An outline woman 5 ft. 6 inO high with lines which either represent
several snakes beside small potholes or an indeterminate design. The
faded grooves are 1/2 in. wide and 1/8 to 3/16 in. deep.
39-400 These are described in the section on Minjiburu spirits. In 40
mrry of the grooves are weathered and faint, those of the man are 3/h
in. wide, 1/8 ino deep, shield 1/2 in. wide, 1/8 in, deep, and the
pecked hands and feet of the Minjiburu are 3/16 to 1/h in. deepo
36-37, 39-40 are between the Two Mile Well and the Manganese Plant.
h1-45. Figs. 41-429 45 are described in the section on Minjiburu spirits.
43. Contains outlines of a small human figure, probably female, bird, male
genitals on a set of speared human legs, sting ray's liver, oval, fish,
outline figure with herringbone design (like a shield), bird with curved
parallel line design, and pecked figures of a plume ornament, human
hands and feet,  On Karlera island.
44. Barred turtle and fish, portion of wbale or other large marine mamal.,
an outline figure and a native companion's track. The grooves are 1/2
to 3/4 ino wide9 1/8 to 3/16 in. deep, but the turtle, boomerang and
large fish are weathered and faint. Between the Two Mile Vell and the
Manganese Planto
45. The grooves of the sting ray liver and bird track are 1/4 in, wide, 1/4
in. deep, of the Minjiburu spirit 1/2 in, wide and 3/16 in, deep. Be-
tween the Two Mile Well and the Manganese Plant.
Figures hl-h2 on Kariera island.
46. A. Diagram of the two ridgess, sites 1 and 2s, near the township, showing the
present distribution of the engravings and the sections destroyed.
B. The three ridges on Kariera island. The triangles indicate Minjiburu
spirit figures, the circles are Talu stone heaps9 and the plate and fig-
ure numbers show the position of some of the interesting figures and
groups in this area.
47-7ho Figs. 47, 50-4 show the variety of striped, 48-9 the linear, and 55-62
the outline human figures; 63, human tracks; 65, human hands; 66, portion
of a large bird; 68, bird; 67, 69-74, clutches of birds' eggs with
tracks, and 64, striped human hand.
63
76-81.  Sets of turtles and Minjiburu groupings on Kariera island. In 76 the
grooves are 1/2 in. wide, 1/8 to 3/16 in. deep, but in the boomerang
they are from 1 to 1-1/2 in, wide and 3/8 in. deep, and smoothed by
weathering; the curved foot is the most recent pecking. In 80 the
grooves are from 1/2 to 3/i in. wide and 1/8 to 1/h in. deep.
82.    Variety of outline fish, some of which have barred designs.
83-84. Fig. 83 shows the variety of outline fish, some with dotted line designs,
and 84, of sting ray livers.
85-87. Fig. 85, variety of outline, dotted and line design stingrays; 86, swords
of sawfish; 87, sting ray livers.
88-93.
88. Group of outline fish, bird and sting ray's liver, with "grooves from 1/2
to 1 in, wide, 1/8 to 1/4 in. deep; opposite theC"RoadoaBoard Depot.
89. Outline fish, sting ray's liver, boomeang and barbed spearhead; opposite
the Road Board Depot. Grooves are 1/2 in, wide, 1/8 to 3/16 in. deep.
90. Described in the section on Minjiburu spirits. The grooves are 1/2 in.
wide, 1/8 to 3/16 in. deep; on Kariera island.
91. Spem whale nearly 9 ft. long, with lizard track, sting ray's liver.,
sting ray, sword club, fish, fringe, bird track, arc, pecked kangroo
tracks and boomerango The grooves of the wha-le, tracks and club are
weathered and faded, 1/2 to 3/h in. wide, 1/16 to 1/8 in. deep, of other
figures are fresh and sharp, 1/2 in, wide, 1/8 to 3/16 in. deep, and the
pecked boomerang is 1/h in. deep; on Kariera island.
92. Large dugong or whale 9 ft. long, with snake, grooves 1 in. wide and 3/8
in. deep; on Karier island.
93. Fish struck with barbed spear, with very worn grooves due to being walked
over as it is now on a path to the One Mile camp; just south of the One
Mile Camp.
94-97o Figo 94, outline lizards; 95a, c, jellyfish, b, sea-wasp, d, ?kngrove
crab; 96, snakes, and tracks, many linked with potholes. The tail of
96s has been converted into a lizard track; 97, spearheads with double
rows of up to 18 pairs of barbs.
98.    Boomerangs, showing outlines and the variety of line designs.
99-105. Fig. 99, variety of clubs; 100, hafted axes; 101, indetermirnte sacred
objects; 102, sacred boards; 103, fringes; 104, feather ple and simi-
lar ornaments; 105, indeterminate rayed lines and lizard.
106-8. Groups showing the way in which weapons are grouped together, including
(aj spear and boomerang; (b) sacred board and 2 booaerangs; (c) 2 clubs
and boomerang; () bullroarer and boomerang; (e) boomerang and spear-
thrower; (f) sacred board and shield; (I) boomerang and shield; (h) 2-
boomerangs; (i) boomerang, barbed spearheads and bird track; (j) barbed
spears and pair of boomerangs; 107, variety of shields; 108, spearthrowers.
64
109-45. Fig. 109, variety of grid designs; 110-3, 117, 119-30, 133-429 lhh
barred figures; 114, 132, branching line designs like plants; 116,
striped and curvilinear design; 118, 131, striped figure; 1439 inde-
terminate design; 145, concentric circles and spimals0
146-227T Variety of ovals and circles and of cluster and indeterminate designs.
228-a5. Figs0 228-47, variety of radiate figures; 248, fringed design-; 249-64,
274, prallel line and arc designs; 265-70, 272-92, 295, linear designs;
293, groups of pits and dots,
296-97. Figs0 29&-b consist of long meandering lines with a grid or ple at
the ends, associated in one with a barred turtle, gridded boomerang,
fringe, barbed spearheads, pecked humn and kangaroo tracks. The grooves
are 1/2 in0, wide, 1/16 to 3/16 in0 deep0 Situated between the Two Mile
Vell and the Manganese Plant. 297. A series of oval and linear figures,
additional to those photographed, noted while naking a census of sites
1 and 2.
298.   Pecked figures of (a-e) human; (f4h) birds ; (i) indeterminate; (j) fish;
(i) sting rays' liver* (4) ray;   j mangrove crab; (n-o) lizards; (2)
lizard or phalanger; and (s) indeterminate, probably human.
299-300.
299a.Described in the section on Minjiburu spirit figures; on Kariera island.
299b.The most prominent figures are the pair of pecked goanras 5 to 6 ft.
long, at the top, and the pair, either sleeping or in coitus, at the
bottom0  Other pecked figures include human, emu and kangaroo tracks,
among which are linear barbed spearheads9 bifurcated line, snakes, set
of parallel lines, barred ovals., boomerangs, striped spearthrower or
sacred board and others0  The grooves are from 1/2 to 3/4 in. wide, and
from 1/8 to 1/4 in. deep, the pecked figures from 1/8 to 1/4 in. deep,
the goanrss being. the mximum depth; on Kariera island.
30a.A pecked snake nearly 30 ft. long, with a short one at the end, with
fringes,'' plume ornament, snake and lines; between the quarry and One
Mile -Camp.
300b.The outline man, 5 ft0 tall, is surrounded by fringes, boomerangs and
barbed spearheads, linear designs, barred spearheads, barred ovals and
trcks, and on one side a short and long pecked snakes and line of
native companion tracks0  The outline grooves are 1/2 in. wide and 1/8
in. deep, the large pecked bird track 1 in. wide and 3/8 in. deep, and
the snakes-are from 1-1/2 to 2 in0 wide and 1/4 to 3/8 in. deep; be-
tween the quarry and One Mile Camp.
301-30
301.An unusually fine pecked group of a goanna 6 ft. long at the end of a
line of human tracks some of which lead towards and others away from
the animal. The pecking consists of rounded punctures or pits (not
cuts) from 1/4 to 3/8 in. deep; on Kariera island.
302. Pair of large outline fish, one speared; on Kariera island.
303. Pecked-hand or foot on long right angled line, with fish, line of bird
tracks, striped shield, zigzag line and indeterminate figures.  The
grooves of the fish, shield and bird trackts are 3/4 in. wide, 3/16 in.
deep, and of the other figures 1/2 in0 wide and 1/8 ino deep; opposite
the Road Board Depoto
Other figures in this series not recorded comprise two sets of kangaroo
hind tracks, snake, sting ray liver, outline boomerang, barred boomerangs,
goanna, human tracks, and fringe in conjoined punctured technique with
grooves 1/4 in. deep. Some of the tracks are small and some big, and
Captain George said they represent a man and a woman hunting the goanr
which the man has hit with his boomerang. There is a smll Minjiburu
on the rock.
304-23. Range of pecked intaglios. Fig. 304, srakes and sting rays; 305-14,
designs, indeterminate shapes; 316, sting ray's liver; 317, 319, inde-
terminate- 318, lizard or man; 320, boomerangs and clubs; 321, human
hands, 322, eggs and design of linked circles like fruit on a vine;
323, human hands.
324.   Pecked animal tracks.  (a-e) kangaroo's hind and fore feet and tail;
(f) kangaroo hind foot tracks; Cg) line of kangaroo hind and fore foot
tracks; (h) line of kangaroo's hTnd foot and tail impressions; (i)
kangaroo lind foot tracks; (4) humn and kangaroo hind foot tracts;
(k) line of wallaby's hind foot tracks; (1-n) kangaroo tracks; (n)
-lizard track; (o) goanna track; (p) man and dog tracks; (q) indetermin-
ate bird track; (r) mn, bird, and animal tracks; (s) indeterminate
tracks.
325.   Hunting cotpositions.  (a) MIngrove crab with emu, kangaroo and human
trackso (b) Kangaroo tracks and tail impression, with clutch of eggs
and barbed spear; (c) human track and egg beside cupped circle; (49
boomerang with tracks of kangaroo; (e) tacks of a man with his dog and
spear; (f) mixed group of pecked tracks superimposed over barred ovals,
with fringe and bird tracks; (j) kangaroo hind and fore paw tracks, with
linear figure possibly a barbed spearhead; (3) bird tracks and grid
design; (j) humn, bird and kangaroo tracks; (,) bird and kangaroo
tracks, radiate and other figures; (k) bird, wallaby, kangaroo tracks
with ovals; (1) bird tracks arnd oval; (m) boomerang and pair of kangaroo
fore-paw tacks; (n) bird tracks with barbed spearhead, plume ornament
and fringe; (o) mn and kangaroo tracks, with striped shield; (2.) man
and wallaby.
3260   Eggs and bird tracks.  (ai) Clutches of eggs with legs of sitting bird,
all but one being pecked;   -n) turtle's eggs; (2) bird tracks; (1)
large emu and human tracks;7 ) emu and other bird tracks, among which
the linked set (t) is unusual,
66
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EXPANATION OF PLATES
I. (a) Viewr across spinifex grass flat from the middle to the western ridge
on Karieit -is1land.o (b) Portion of the rock surface shown in Fig 4U,
showing clumps- of the introduced Duffle grass which have supplanted the
native spinifex in the potholes on most of the ridges; (c) Abraded
grooves in site 1. (d) Axe grinding grooves in site 1. (e) Mortar or
pounding hole in site l.  (f) Minjiburu spirit figure which illustrates
perfectly the punctures, both seprated and conjoined, forming the
grooves of the Outline and Linear Design figures0
IU. (a) Pecked humn foot engraved over an unusual Minjiburu spirit figure
wihich is over an old gridded turtle figure, site 1o  (b) Sinall human
figure.       Unusual type of MinJiburu figure with one anm, no legs,
and rayed head;  (d) Minjiburu carrying barred boomerango  Ce) Small
striped humn figure. (f) Indeterminate figure, probably human. (,)
Figure of a woman 4 ft. high north of the Two Mile Well in site 2. The
grooves are narrower and sharper than normal at Port Hedland, and the
style is completely different to that of any other human figure recorded.
It is suggested that this figure was done by Afghan camel drivers who
camped at this site many years ago. (h) Striped Minjiburu spirit.
(i) Outline human figure,
III. (a-h). Minjiburu figures described in the section dealing with these
spirits.
IV. (a).Pecked human track engraved inside an outline one. They bear 3 and
8V7oes respectively.  (b) Large bird-like figure 6-1/2 ft. long, circle,
pair of barred and striwed boomerangs, and other figures, near Two Mile
WelZ1 (c) Portion of barred snake and pecked human tracks, between Two
Mi le WelT and Manganese Plant.  (d) Emu tracks beside potholes.  (e)
Clutch of outline eggs. (C) Snake (Cj) Line of bird tracks leading to
a nest of three out-line eggs on which the bird is sitting, near Two
Mile Well.  th) Kangaroo-like figure in Outline, with plain and concen-
tric circles, between Road Board Depot and Two Mile Well.  (i) Coiled
snake around pothole.
V. (a) Two sacred boards bearing a parallel line design, a smaller one with
parallel diagonal lines arranged in panels, and a barred boomerang en-
graved around a pothole. Portion of a pecked emu's leg and clutch of
eggs protrude into the bottom left hand corner* Kariera island. (b)
Pair of pecked human tracks, with 7 and 5 toes, showing how one has been
compressed into a narrow space beside potholes, also pecked impressions
of a kangaroo's hind foot, fore paw and tail, and a boomerang with a
single sinuous line pattern. At the bottom is a double fringe attached
to a small circle Cgirdle?).  (c) A beautifully arranged still-life of
a barbed spear lying across a striped and barred boomerang, site 2.
(d) CurVed club-like figure.  (e) Spearthrower with parallel curvilinear
lTne design.  (f) Sacred board with looped track-like design similar to
that shown in PT. XIIJ extending from a pothole.  (.) Shield with paral-
lel curvilinear line design. (h) Pair of spearheads with double row of
barbs. (i) Striped sword clubJ (C) Sacred board with simple scroll line
67
designs. (k) Spearthrower with parallel line designs. (1) Hafted ground
edge axe. Tm) Concentric circle, with weathered grooves, engraved around
a pothole.  Tn) Spiral engraved around a pothole and over a looped track-
like design. (o) Fringe engraved down the inside of a pothole.
VI. (a) Vertical set of five outline swords and boomerangs, with traces of a
sixth one in site 20 (b) Large gridded boomerang engraved over outline
figures, between Two MiTe Jell and Manganese Plant.   (c) Barred and striped
boo'merang, between Two Mile Well and Manganese Plant.  (d) Elaborately
decorated ceremonial object of unknown significance, at southern end of
last ridge on Kariera island.  (e) Outline sword club,, with large boomerang
decorated with a curvilinear and7barred line pattern. (f) Striped inde-
terminate figure, between Two Mile Well and Manganese Plant. (i) Barred
figure with loops, of unknown significance, near quarry north of One Mile
amp0   (h) Complex grid designs, Old Boodarie Landing.
VII. (a) Grid design with striped base beside a radiate figure, between Two
Mile Well and Manganese Plant. (b) Wand-like figure, Kariera island.
(c) Three pecked human tracks, and a large pecked bird track or flying
bird engraved over a radiate figure centered on a small pothole, and con-
nected to a second pothole. (d) Elaborate scroll design, between Road
Board Depot and Two Mile Well.  (e) Elaborate line design within an oval,
between Road Board Depot and Two Mile Wellc  (f) Rows of egg-like pits
engraved over a pair of opposed multi-line arcs., also a pecked oval shape,
Xariera island.  (a) A sinuous figure over 15 ft. long of four parallel
lines. It ends abruptly at both ends9 and no attempt is made to indicate
a snake's head or tail, and it may therefore represent a belt of humn or
opossum twine. Between quarry and One Mile Amp.    (h) Branching design
ending in fringes or plumes at the end of each arm9 between Two Mile Well
and Manganese Plant.
VIII. (a-b) Gridded turtles, one in a conjoined punctured technique, the other
one abraded over the punctures, both between the Two Mile Well and the
Manganese Plant.  (c) Starfish in a very fine punctured line technique.
(d) Portion of a very large turtle engraved as though the rock is intended
to represent its body. Prominent in the foreground is a pecked club with
a spheroidal head; Kariera island.   Ce) Sword of sawfish.  (f) Ceremonial
object bearing line design.  (g) Plant-like figure 4 ft. long, between
Road Board Depot and Two Mile Well. (h) Barred and striped bafted axe or
club, near Two Mile Well.
IX. (a-b) Outline fish near Two Mile Well.  (c) Outline fish and bird, oppo-
sTi7 Road Board Depot. (d) Pair of outline fish, one engraved inside the
other, site 5.  (e) Sunfish with dotted interior.  This figure is close
to the northern side of the Mnganese Plant and is in imminent danger of
destruction as the Plant's work area expandsO (f) Gridded turtle en-
graved inside a large outline fish; gridded whale 9 ft. long; Kariera
island. (h) Outline fish beside a concentric circle engraved around a
pothole. Ti) Lizard track leading to or from a pothole, SiteS5; smll
femle Minjiburu-like figure identif ied as a hill lizard good to eat by
young Njangamada men visiting the Two Mile camp.
68
X  (a) Outline sting ray showing liver in body.  (b) Outline sting ray or
skate whose posterior end is engraved around a pothole, and whose liver
is engraved below the tail and outside the body. A pair of pecked humn
tracks also shown.  (c) large outline sting ray, with liver engraved out-
side boddy, and a set of arcs engraved across its tailo  (d) Outline
sting ray struck with three barbed spears. A large outline boomerang is
engraved beside it, and a pecked hunan track in the middle is engraved
over one of the spear heads.  (e) Dotted eagleray and liver; Kariera
island. _(f) Dotted sting ray, between the Two Mile Well and the Mangan-
ese PlantJv (h-k) Barred and outline figures of the sting ray's liver.
XI. (a) Pair of fringes, Old Boodarie Landing.  (b) In this set of figures,
among which fringes are prominent, is an elaborate radiate figure (left
of middle), near the Two Mile "Well, (c) Striped and dotted ovals at-
tached to a line, of unknown significaEce. (d) Chain-like pattern,
with an outline boomerang, fringe, and snake ?rom a pothole, between
quarry and One Mile Camp also figured by Petri .& Schulz (1951, fig. 27).
(e) Oval-figure. (f) Cluster design. (,) Oval with median stripe, be-
tween-Two Mile Well7and Manganese Plant.  (h) Plume ornament.  (i) Clus-
ter design.  (J) Gridded figure.  (k) Barred figure, near quarry north
of One Mile Camp.
XII. (a) Portion of a series of tracks, including one of the lizard, linking
a number of potholes. An outline boomerang also shown, Site 5. (b)
Linear design, probably an animal's track or the track of a spirit being
between the Road Board Depot and the Two Mile Yell.   (c) Linear design,
possibly related to snakes. (d) Meandering tracks linking potholes in
Site 5; they run for over 30 feet,  (e) The chalked-in figure is an
elaborate linear design originating in a looped track, another example
of the latter is shown unchalked. (f) Long meandering track joining
potholes, between Two Mile Well and Manganese Plant.   (,) Long meander-
ing track runming for over 30 feet between and linking potholes, Site 5.
Ch) Snake Joined to a pothole. (i) Looped track joined to a pothole.
XIII. (a) The line of deep pits is the most important figure in this set, in
which a pecked emu track, linear native companion or turkey tracks, and
a bent rod are shown; Kariera island. (b) One of the finest sets of
pecked figures in the Port Hedland series comprises a pair of boomer-
angs, bird and fish engraved in a very fine pitting technique at the
northern end of Kariera island. (c) Pecked man 5 ft. high and other
figures, between Two Mile Well andInganese Plant,     (d) Clutch of out-
line emu's eggs with the pecked legs of the sitting bird, between Man-
ganese Plant and Four Mile point. (e) Pecked mammal of indeterminate
species, between Two Mile Well and Manganese Plant,  (f) Pecked woman,
3 ft. high, making.opossum fur twine, between Two Mile Well and Mangan-
ese Plant.  (q) Rows of pecked eggs, with a pair of animal' s tracks in
foreground; Hariera island. (h) Barred boomerang engraved around a pot-
hole, beside which are two clutches of pecked eggs and an emu's track;
Kariera island. (i) A pair in line of very big pecked emu tracks, be-
tween Two Mile Well and Manganese Plant. Note how they are engraved
over the outline figures.
69
XIV. (a) Pecked goana 5 ft. long; Kariera island. (b) Pecked sting ray,
between Manganese Plant and Four Mile point. (cT Pecked snake 19 ft.
long, between quarry and One Mile camp. (d) Pecked crab and pair of
kangaroo's hind foot tracks engraved over set of parallel lines. Barbed
spearhead also shown; Kariera island.  (e) Pecked sting ray, between
Mknganese Plant and Four Mile point. (1T Barred oval, and sting ray
around pothole, in pecked band technique, and pecked human track, Site
5. (j) Elaborate pecked band design; Kariera island. (h) 'Set of 3 pecked
lizards or flying phalangers, with pecked humn tracks, pecked bar, 2
pecked band designs, lizard track and open ended oval, between Two Mile
Well and Manganese Plant. (i) Set of 3 pecked boomerangs in coarse pit-
ted technique; Hariera island.
XV. (a) Portion of line of hunter's track beside the hind foot tracks of a
kingaroo, south of Four Mile point. (b) Converging lines of pecked
humn tracks, between quarry and One MTle Camp. (c) A hunting scene in
pecked intaglio technique comprising human tracks leading to a hill
lizard, and the boormerang of the hunter thrown at the lizard; Kariera
island. (d) Pecked impression of a kangaroo sitting down showing the
tail, hindand fore foot tracks, near Two Mile Well. (e) Large coarsely
pecked human track showing bunion on foot.  (f) Pecked impression of a
kangaroo sitting down, showing tail, hind and fore foot tracks. The
small track beside may represent that of a young animal with the mother.
A pecked emu track and snake also shown. (.) A long line of 20 pairs of
wallaby or kangaroo hind foot tracks beside a pecked snake, between
quarry and One Mile Camp. (h) Pothole, representing a waterhole fre-
quented by the emu and other birds and animals, and visited by a hunter
whose large pecked track is shown with a smaller one of his child or
wife. A groove is engraved around the pothole. (i) Another example of
the kangaroo track, showing the hind feet beside the tail dragged along
the ground, and also a line of bird tracks, between quarry and One Mile
Campo
XVI. Superimpositions (a) Pecked boomerang over outline fish. (b) Pecked
boomerang over barred figureo (c) Pecked set of sitt.ing emu on clutch
of eggs with pair of hunter's tracks, over barred sacred board or spear-
thrower, barbed spearhead and fringe; Kariera islando (d) Pecked hill
lizard and club thrown at it over outline fish9 near Two Mile Well.
(e) Dolphin 17 ft. long and wbale 11 ft. long, in barred style, with
pecked snakes, boomerang and fin engraved over them, between Two Mile
Well and Manganese Plant. (f) Pecked snake over barred boomerang. (a)
Pecked human tracks over griZ design, concentric circle around pothole,
fringe and pair of lines also shown, between Two Mile Well and Manganese
Plant.  (h) Pecked hooked boomerang, between Two Mile Well and Manganese
Plant.
XVII. (a) Set of pits 1/2 to 3/4 ino wide in group as though representing tur-
tle's nest; Kariera island. (b-c) Two heaps of stones, and line of
stones leading to a heap; Kariera island. (d-e) Talu site of circle of
boulders and stones on the ridges on Kariera islando
70
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Basedow, Herbert
1914   Abor"i.ginal Rock Carvings of Great Antiquity in South Australia.
Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. XLIV, pp.
105-211. London.
1918   Narrative of an Expedition of Exploration in North-west Australia.
Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society of South Austral-
asia, South Australian Branch, vol. XVIII, pp. 105-295. Adelaide.
1925   The Australian Aboriginal. F. W. Preece and Sons, Adelaide.
2. Biddle, J. P. H.
1925;  Aboriginal Markings on Rocks near Burra (Kooringa). Transactions
of the Royal Society of South Australia, vol. XLIX, pp. 121-122.
Adelaide.
3. Brown, A. R. Radcliffe
1913   Three Tribes of Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Anthro-
pological Institute, vol. XLIII, ppo 143-194. London.
4. Camrpbell, T. D.
1925   Detailed Notes on the Aboriginal Intaglios near Burra. Transac-
tions of the Royal Society of South Australia, vol. XLIX, pp.
123-127. Adelaide.
5;. Campbell, W. D.
1911   Description of Some Rock Carvings at Port Hedland. Journal of the
West Australian Natural History Society, vol. III, pp. 102-109.
Perth.
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