CHRE34OLOGY:  A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ORACLES1
Ann J. Gibson
Introduct i on
The word oracle refers primarily to a particular method of consulting
supernatural beings practiced in ancient Greece. The term is used by extension
to refer to similar arrangements which occur or have occurred elsewhere.
In the context of Greek religion, three essential criteria distinguish
the oracle from other methods of consulting supernatural beings:
1) the belief in a specific divinity who answers questions;
2) one or more priests who serve as intermediaries between the inquirer
and the divinity;                      2
3) a fixed place where the reply is given.
This paper will discuss only those arrangements in other religious systems,
which meet these criteria.
It should be noted that some modern writers have used the term "oracle"
to designate methods of consulting the supernatural world which do not fit the
criteria that define Greek oracles. Thus many references to "oracles" in the
anthropological literature are not oracles by the criteria proposed. For exam-
ple, Evans-Pritchard uses "oracle" to designate "techniques which are supposed
to reveal what cannot be discovered at all, or cannot be discovered for certain,
by experiment and logical inferences therefrom."3 Thus he recognizes the
Azande use of benge as an oracle. Upon investigation, however, it does not
meet the three Greek criteria.h
There are or were oracles in the Greek sense in ancient Rome, Egypt,
Mesopotamia, the Inca Empire and in modern Tibet. The oracles of Mesopotamia
will not be discussed in this paper because we lack sufficient information
about their operation. Oracles may have occurred in Polynesia, but further
investigation of the data is necessary, and the problem seems more appropriate
for a separate paper at this time.
Before discussing each individual oracle, I wish to make explicit the
questions being asked of the data:
1. Under what circumstances do oracles originate?
2. How similar are the oracles studied with regard to organization and
function? To answer this question we need to know the type of question
asked and who asked it.
3. What is the relationship between the consultation of oracles and the
nature and power of the supernaturals?
4. Under what circumstances do oracles end?
The following sections of the paper are devoted to a descriptive presen-
tation of each oracle studied. The data contained in these sections will be
used as a basis for answering the above questions in the concluding section of
the paper.
19
The Greek Oracles
Oracles occurred in ancient Greece both on the mainland and in Asia
Minor. Most of them were dedicated to Apollo, but other major deities and some
of the heros also hid oracles associated with their cults.6
This paper will discuss only those Greek oracles which are adequately
documented from ancient sources, supplemented by archaeological investigations.
Unfortunately, the sources upon which the operation of the oracles is reconstruc-
ted are of relatively late date and may not adequately reflect the operation of
the oracles during earlier periods.
The origin of Greek oracles is not known, and none of the authors con-
sulted discuss the general question of origin even hypothetically. The discus-
sion, therefore, has centered around the origin of specific oracles, particularly
the Apolline ones.
The Oracle of Apollo at Delphi
Archaeological investigations dating from the Mycenean period have shown
that Delphi was an old cult site. It is not known, however, if the ?arly cult
had an oracle associated with it. At the time of the installation of Apollo at
the site during the Archaic period, an oracle became part of the shrine's activi-
ties.7 Two methods of ascertaining Apollo's will seemc;tbohave been in use at
the oracle during the Classical period. Lots were used from the sixth to the
fourth centuries BoC. to choose a definite number of names from a list presented.
The lots were kept in a vial or in the bowl of the tripod and were shaken at the
time of consultation.9 The questions which could be asked were limited to a yes
or no answer. The exact nature of the lots themselves, the procedure of consul-
tation and the personnel who operated the oracle are not known.
The second method involved a female medium called the Pythia who gave
oral responses to specific questions.  The Pythias were not exceptional beings
gifted with supernatural insight. Each Pythia filled her term of office exactly
as her predecessor had and as her successor would. She was the servant of the
oracle and was viewed as the instrument through which the divine will was mani-
fested. Aside from this she had no other importance. Apollo simply entered her
body and used her vocal organs as if they were his own.
How the Pthia was chosen is not known, but she did hold her office for
life. During her service she had to lead a chaste and blameless life, in order
to maintain a state of ritual purity. This state of ritual purity was enhanced
by the performance of two ritual acts prior to the consultation. Before the
Pythia took her seat upon the tripod, which was the source of mantic power, she
drank of the water of the sacred spring and either chewed laurel leaves or
smoked them with barley.lO These rites placed the Pythia in the correct ritual
condition to receive the god Apollo and to act as his mouthpiece.
During the consultation the Pythia was questioned by a priest of Delphi
called the prophet. It was also his responsibility to put the responses of the
Pythia in concise form and to deliver them to the consultants, either verbally
or in writing.
20
During the Imperial period a college of five laymen, presided over by
an elder and called the Hosioi, was associated with the oracle.  Their exact
function is not known, but it may have been to act in the name of the mass of
consultants with regard to sacrifices on the days of public consultation."1
Originally the oracle was open only once a year for public consultation,
but the frequency had been increased to once a month by Plutarch's time. During
the rest of the year the oracle was open only to persons or cities which had
been conceded the privilege of consulting the oracle at any time. Such cities
maintained an official at Delphi who was qualified to offer in his city's name
the preliminary sacrifice which was forbidden to be performed by strangers. On
the days of public consultation a sacrifice was offered in the name of all the
consultants, probably by the village of Delphi itself.'2
In Plutarch's time not only was a preliminary sacrifice necessary to
inquire of the oracle, but the sacrificial victim had to be tested in order to
determine if the god was willing to answer. A male goat was sprinkled with
water; if he trembled all over it indicated that Apollo was willing to speak.
Whether or not such a preliminary test was used during the Classical period is
not known. 13
Apparently any free male could consult the oracle, while a woman had to
send a male intermediary. In late times the order of consultation was deter-
mined by lot; the method used in earlier periods is not known.
The Pythia's responses were given verbally, sometimes in verse, but
often in clear and understandable prose. The prose responses were reserved
for a single consultant, while the verse ones were framed in a declaration of
a general order and were used for responses of a solemn or official nature.1
Many questions and responses of the Delphic oracle have been preserved.
They show that Apollo was consulted upon a vast number of human problems and
important undertakings. He was asked to offer advice and counsel as well as
to reveal the future and the hidden present.
In matters of religion Apollo was consulted upon sacrifices, features
of local worship, cult-foundation and re-organization, and purificatory ritual.
The religious importance of the Delphic oracle and the other Apolline oracles
is related to the fact that during the Clas ical period the major Greek deities
were only slightly connected with prophecy.    It was useless, therefore, to
approach each specific deity to ascertain his or her wishes with regard to a
particular problem. Thus it seems that Apollo was considered the general spokes-
man for the other gods, in view of his being the son of Zeus and of his having
knowledge of his father's will. Nevertheless, the basic worship of the chief
Olympian deities remained independent of the oracle.
The oracle also played a role in sending forth colonies from Greece,
for colonization involved a number of serious religious implications. The
prospective founder usually consulted the oracle and the response normally
authorized him personally to carry out the plan of colonization. What was
actually sought was divine authorization of an undertaking which was already
conceived% and a favorable response, of course, would serve to encourage
settlers. 6
21
The Delphic oracle was consulted upon political matters, particularly
with regard to the interests of the Greek city-states, but also by kings and
other political functionaries. 7 The oracle was asked to sanction political
authority and power, to give advice concerning military matters, particularly
with regard to how victory could be achieved and to outline a course of action
in times of political duress. The responses given to such important questions
were generally obscure. It was Apollo's practice to leave his consultants free
to refuse the choice of action which he recommended. The obscurity of his
responses left the final interpretation up to the consultants and thus protec-
ted the oracle from recrimination.
Unfortunately, no questions and responses concerning the affairs of
everyday life of private individuals have been preserved. Plutarch mentions
that people of his day consulted the oracle on such matters as marriage, trav-
eling, farming and lending money.  State 8were concerned with harvests, cattle-
breeding and public health at this time.
The height of the Delphic oracle in fame and influence was between the
seventh century and the middle of the fourth century B.C. It was never the
center of an organized religious sytem, and in fact, no known oracle has func-
tioned in this manner. Delphi was not supported by any religious dogma or
organization but by its reputation as a source of divine guidance, and by
accumulated prestige. Unfortunately, changes in the life of Greece during the
late fourth century B.C. were making for conditions which eventually brought
about the decline and end of the Delphic oracle and the other Greek oracles as
well. The greatest change came in the attitude toward the gods of earlier
times. The ideas of the Sophists and the natural philosophers as well as the
jests against the traditional gods by such men as Aristophanes undermined the
old religious beliefs. From the third century B.C. on the authority of oracles
was exercised almost exclusively in the religious domain, the political func-
tion having been lost through ineptness and incertitude in times of crisis
during the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars. The dissatisfaction with oracles
increased and the Roman Conquest killed any influence which they had previous-
ly held.lb
Other Greek Oracles
At the oracles of Apollo at Didyma and Claros, in Asia Minor, the clergy
was composed entirely of men, assuming roles comparable to the Pythia and the
prophet of Delphi. The association of a male medium with the Apolline oracles
seems to have been indigenous to Asia Minor for the practice occurred nowhere
on the mainland of Greece.20
The oracle of Zeus at Dodona differs the most from Delphi in its organi-
zation and procedure. In late times the clergy was composed of both priests
and priestesses who led a disciplined and austere life. The priestesses oper-
ated the oracle while the priests performed the sacrifices and transcribed the
questions and responses on lead tablets. The will of Zeus was revealed in
three main ways: through the rustling of the leaves of the sacred oak tree,
through the flight of doves and by the sounds made when striking a brass basin.
It is not known how these signs were interpreted or which of the methods was
used for what kind of question.21
22
The Roman Oracle
The only known indigenous Italian oracle occurred in the city of
Praeneste, in Latium, at a shrine consecrated to the goddess Fortune. The
exact origin of the oracle, and even the goddess herself, is not known,
although it is believed that both came into existence at a remote period
and remained - rt of the general Italian worship until the last days of the
Roman Empire.
The oracle operated by lots or sortes, which was a distinctive
Italian method of divining.23 These lots were small rods or plates which
bore inscriptions. At the bidding of the goddess, a boy mixed the sortes in
an urn and drew one out. A child was employed for this part of the operation,
because it was believed that the mantic influence of children was in part due
to their lack of intentional bias and in part to their pure and virginal
simplicity. These two qualities made them fit mediums for the expressions of
divine will. To bring the inscription thus drawn into connection with the
question asked and to interpret it accordingly was the work of the sortilegi,
a college of priests associated with the temple. Originally the sortes were
inscribed with archaic letters, but later they were inscribed with appropri-
ately obscure verses from Virgil. The oracle was open for consultation only
on one of the two annual feast days of the goddess. The procedure of consul-
tation is not known, The functions of the oracle are practically impossible
to determine since few questions and responses have survived. It is probable,
however, that the oracle was consulted on a large number of questions similar
to those asked other oracles.
The Eayptian Oracles
There were two different occurrences of oracles in Egypt. Each em-
ployed a different method, and each was part of a particular political and
religious development in Egypt itself. The first oracles to be discussed are
those of the traditional gods--gods native to Egypt whose worship was of con-
siderable antiquity. They first appeared in the time of the native Egyptian
dynasties and formed an integral part of the worship of the gods. The second
occurrence is the % acle of Serapis, a syncretic god developed in Egypt during
Greco-Roman time s.
The practice of consulting a god on human affairs began in the New
Kingdom and continued into the post-Empire period. The reason for this late
occurrence is not precisely known. It may be that the idea of oracles dates
from the Hyksos invasion, when Mesopotamian influence was widespread in Egypt.
Testing of this hypothesis, however, would require further knowledge as to
the earliest occurrence of oracles in Mesopotamia, as to the exact nature of
their operation and as to the nature of diffusion between the two areas.
This paper proposes an alternative hypothesis based largely on Wilson's
interpretation of Egyptian culture. From his discussion it would seem that
the late occurrence of oracles in Egypt was a response to indigenous political
and religious developments.25 During the New Kingdom, it seems that a shift
from the divine direction of Egyptian society by a mortal deity--the Pharaoh--
to direction by the supernaturals themselves occurred. From this it would seem
23
that oracles developed as a response to the necessity for finding a means-by
which the gods could directly manifest their will and knowledge. This period
does show an increasing institutionalization of recognized machinery for receiv-
ing the divine command.
One factor which Wilson does not seem to consider directly and which can
probably be correlated with the increasingly god-centered direction of human and
state affairs, is that during the New Kingdom the priesthood for the first time
forme 2 a definite professional class, in which succession to office was heredi-
tary.e6  This partial independence of the priesthood from secular authority,
together with the wealth of the temples, may well have contributed to the devel-
opment of greater direct manifestation of the gods and of techniques by which to
receive this manifestation.
The oracular technique developed in Egypt relates directly to the manner
in which the gods were worshipped. The ritual necessary for the propitiation
of the gods was performed by a few priests in the innermost sanctuary of the
temple. The public were never admitted to this sanctuary. Their only opportun-
ity to come close to their gods and to consult them about personal affairs came
during the religious festivals when the statue of the god left its sanctuary and
was carried in procession, either to visit another local god or to be carried
around the temple and through the town.
At some place along the processional route, an inquirer could present a
question to the god's image. Either he or a priest presented the question,
either verbally or written on sherds or small pieces of papyrus. Each question
had an affirmative and a negative form. The god chose between the alternatives
by causing the bearers of his statue to move either in the direction of the
affirmative or the negative.
Egyptian oracles were consulted on a wide range of problems, including
personal matters of tomb laborers, the appointments of religious officials, and
the sanctioning of political and religious authority and power.27 Not only did
they act as counselors and advisors, lie the Greek oracles, but they also
served as judges and courts of appeal.    From the form of the questions asked
the oracles, it would seem that their ability to intervene and to direct
affairs explicitly was limited. It is probable that many of the matters upon
which the oracles were consulted, particularly those of important political and
religious nature, had been decided upon prior to consultation and were merely
presented to the deity for final approval.
The Oracle of Serapis
The god Serapis was created some time before 291 B.C. by Ptolemy I.
He was a humanized and Hellenized form of the old local god of Memphis, called
Oserapis. By combining aspects of the worship and ritual of Egyptian and Greek
religion in the cult of Serapis, Ptolemy hoped to unite the two peoples under
his rule and to create a common meeting ground on which fusion could take place.
The choice of the Memphian god was no doubt a good one, for he was a local deity
actively worshipped only in a local area and his manipulation into a new cult
would not have seriously conflicted with the worship of the more firmly entrenched
traditional gods. Further, he was not unsuited for metropolitan status, as
2h4
Memphis was one of the great religious centers and was the capital of Egypt
during the Old Kingdom and after Alexander's Conquest.
It was apparently the exterior-manifestations of the cult which were
modified to suit Greek tastes. The statue of the god was not an animal, which
was a widespread Egyptian practice at this time, but a bearded man in the prime
of life. The liturgical language, for a reason which is not known, was Greek.
However, the daily ritual, the clergy and the festivals remained Egyptian.
The cult soon became popular with the Greeks, but aside from Memphis and Alex-
andria and the more Hellenized Egyptians of the nome capitals, it is doubtful
if the new god was very widely worshiftped by the native Egyptians. Unfortunate-
ly, very little is known about the operation of the oracle. The procedure seems
to have been for the inquirer to write his question on a piece of papyrus and
then to deposit it somewhere in the temple. He slept in some part of the tem-
ple, where is not known, and received his answer from Serapis in a dream. The
role played by the priests is not known. There were probably preliminary offer-
ings and purification rites by the inquirer but their nature is not known either.
Why the cult of Serapis was associated with an oracle cannot be deter-
mined. Incubation, the practice of sleeping in a temple or shrine in order to
receive direct revelation from a god, was not a feature of the cult of Oserapis
before his transformation, although it did occur in Greece as a curative tech-
nique at this time.30
Apparently Serapis was not consulted on administrative or political
matters. The questions which have been preserved show that he was consulted
mainly by individuals of various ranks about personal problems or situations
which refer to both the present and the future.31 Two factors may account for
the lack of political involvement of the oracle. One is the fact that the new
cult was created during the time when the older oracles of the ancient world
were in decline and had lost much of their former influence. More personal
forms of religion were taking the place of the traditional ones, and it is
possible that Serapis filled the new personal and individual needs. The other
factor concerns the nature of incubation, which is distinctive in being a pri-
vate affair. Since no one has intimate knowledge of the dream other than the
person who experienced it, the interpretation is individual and therefore open
to error and personal bias. This is hardly the kind of stable and Impersonal
method of consulting the supernatural which would be of service to politicians,
for whose purposes more public methods would seem necessary.
The Inca Oracles
All supernatural beings worshipped by the Incas, other than the Creator
and the sky gods, were either places or-objects of local importance only.
These were called huacas and any of them might function as an oracle.  There is
no general account of the operation of Inca oracles, but there is an account
by Arriaga describing the personnel of the shrines, of which a summary follows.
The chief minister of the oracle was called Waktap willa, "announcer of the
gods.' He spoke with the god, reported the response to the inquirer, took care
of the physical representation of the deity, bore the offerings, performed the
sacrifices, fasted, ordered maize beer for feasts, taught the legends and myths
surrounding the god, and reprimanded those who were careless in the worship and
veneration of the huaca.32  He had a subordinate called Yanapaq, or "servant,"
who assisted in the performance of sacrifices.33  The offices could be held by
either men or women, but men usually held the principal off ices.
Ministers and the other personnel were recruited in four ways. by des-
cent, by nomination by other ministers, by divine election which might result
from being struck with lightning and surviving, or by being subject to epilepsy,
and by the person taking office on his own initiative.34 The latter was most
common in the case of lesser religious functionaries. A man preparing for one
of the more important offices had to fast, refrain from eating salt or chili,
from sleeping with his wife, and in some cases from washing or combing his hair.
The Oracle of Pachakamag
This oracle was located at the town of Pachakamaq on the central coast.
Pachakamaq is a local title which means "creator of the world." The god, also
called Pachakuyuchi or "Earth shaker," promised crops to those who were faith-
ful, while those who were reluctant to believe in him would be destroyed by
earthquakes. He was believed to hold all the affairs of the world in his hands,
and was so sacred and venerated that only those he had designated to serve him
could enter the part of the temple where his image was kept.
The origin of the oracle is not known, but it is probable that the wor-
ship of Pachakamaq was of some antiquity.3 The god was very definitely a
local deity, figuring in two local creation myths and exacting tribute from the
surrounding wealthy districts. After the unification of the Andean area by the
Incas in the second half of the fifteenth century A.D., the sphere of Pacha-
kamaq's influence spread until it reached northward as far as the furthest point
of Inca cultural influence in Ecuador. The Incas neither encouraged or sup-
pressed this spread.36 In order to enter the courtyard of the oracular shrine
one had to fast for two days. To enter the upper courtyard one had to fast for
a year. The messages were received by assistant priests, verbally for the Incas
had no writing system, then they spoke with the god. A chief priest directed
the operation and maintenance of the oracle, and may have spoken with the god
upon occasion.37 The lesser clergy at this oracle seem to have performed the
duties of the W  'ap willag, with the chief priest being the ultimate authority
and director. Before any member of the priesthood could speak with the god,
however, he had to fast for many days.
The kind and range of questions asked Pachakamaq is not known. He was
apparently consulted by the Inca rulers from the time his shrine was incorpor-
ated into the Empire. 'Atawallpa consulted the oracle, sometime in the fif-
teenth century A.D., as to whether or not he should fight the Christians. The
oracle advised him to do so  saying that he would kill them all.  The predic-
tion proved false, however,8
The Oracle of Qatikilla
An account by Augustinian missionaries describes the general nature of
oracles in the northern Sierra, but it apparently does not directly refer to
Qatikilla, which was the most important oracle in the area.39 The huacas of
the Sierra, like others, were idols or objects, such as stones, conceived of as
26
extraordinary. The objects were kept in reliquaries which were dressed like
human beings. When the priest spoke with the huaca a mantle was hung in front
of it so that the people present could not see the minister speaking with the
god, although they heard the god's voiceo  After the responses were given, the
people held feasts at which guinea pigs and llamas were sacrificed and the
blood presented to the huaca. The priest who performed the sacrifices had to
fast for three days, during which time he could eat no salt or chili or sleep
with his wife. Aside from the chief priest, who corresponds to the Wak'ap
willaq, there were male and female servants whose duties were to prepare beer,
corn meal mush, and to guard and clothe the huaca.
There is no detailed descriptive account of the oracle of Qatikilla,
which was located in the town of Porcon. Apparently the whole town was dedi-
cated to the service of the oracle, and there were many buildings and estates,
as well as a large number of personnel, dedicated to the worship of Qatikilla.
It is unfortunate that the Incas had no native writing system, for otherwise
more questions and responses might have been preserved. As it is, only the
political function of the oracles can be clearly seen. No questions of the
common people exist and no questions and responses of a religious nature do
either.
The Tibetan Oracles
These oracles are the only ones discussed in this paper which are
still in existence. Adequate historical and ethnological studies of Tibet are
lacking, so it was impossible to ascertain the exact circumstances under which
oracles originated in Tibet. However, because all those which exist are asso-
ciated with Buddhist monasteries, it might be inferred that the practice
originated sometime after the introduction of Buddhism into Tibet in the
seventh century A.D.
The only oracle which i's known in detail is the one operating at the
Nechung Gompa monastery near Lhasa .4  It is an official oracle and functions
mainly for the use of the state.  Its medium, like the other oracle mediums,
is possessed by one of the Buddhist protector and guardian deities or dharma-
palas. These deities are thought still to be within the spheres inhabited by
animated beings and to take active part in the religious life of Tibet. Con-
sultation of the Nechung Gompa oracle takes place in a chapel within the
monastery, during the course of an elaborate ceremony.  The medium, after
having meditated and fasted for several days and dressed in heavy ceremonial
robes, enters the chapel and takes his place upon the throne. Various means
are employed to encourage the god to enter the medium's body. Incantations
are chanted, incense is burned, and trumpets are blown. The medium finally
falls into a heavy trance-llike state, during which he answers questions asked
of him by a monk. The medium's secretary takes down the answers and may be
the one who interprets the responses and communicates them to the inquirer.
The medium is able to answer questions as long as the god is in his body.
When the god departs, the medium collapses and the consultation is ended.
Normally it is not possible for common people to ask the medium to enter a
trance for their benefit. If, however, he has answered all the questions put
to him by the Tibetan officials on behalf of the state and Pe har remains in
his body, then private persons may ask questions, either verbally or in writ-
ing.
27
Examples of questions and responses of the oracle are very limited, and
those which exist have to do with state matters, with the exception of one
question asking for advice as to which god to propitiate in order to ensure
good fortune for the coming year.l1 The Nechung oracle is probably not repre-
sentative of the various functions of oracles in Tibet, and the others, about
which little is known, may be more concerned with the affairs of private indi-
viduals and religious matters.
Conclusion
This paper represents the results of research on every mention of the
word oracle this author was able to uncover. It is certainly possible, however,
that oracles may have occurred in areas where they have not been recognized or
may be reported in sources which were unavailable to me. As of this time there
is one area where the evidence suggests the possibility of oracles. This is
Polynesia, specifically the Hawaiian and Marquesan islands. If the occurrence
of oracles in these areas can be proven upon further examination of the data,
it will be of some theoretical interest, for otherwise all the known occurrences
appear in what can be called civilized societies.
No general statement can be made about the origin of oracles because
the evidence does not allow the determination of the antecedents and circunstan-
ces in each case. We do know that oracles appear quite early in all the cited
areas, except for Egypt. Thus the origin is portrayed in myth and legend which
may or may not reflect actual historical circumstances. As has been outlined
the late occurrence of oracles in Egypt may be due either to diffusion from
Mesopotamia or to local political and religious circumstances.
All the oracles presented in this paper are minimally similar in that
they meet the three Greek criteria of a belief in a specific deity who answers
questions, of one or more priests who act as intermediaries and of a fixed place
where the reply is given. These three criteria set the basic form of an oracle.
Any similarities between the oracles, besides the three found in the criteria,
seem to be due to the limited possibilities for variation set by this form.
The significant variation which does exist seems to be more directly related to
the individual religious system than to the particular organization of each
individual oracle. Because this paper has not presented data regarding the
individual religious systems, the variation will not be discussed in detail.
At this time, however, we can point out some important similarities with regard
to organization and functions. They are as follows.
Not only do oracles take place at a fixed spot, but when the time of
consultation can be determined, they can be consulted only at a specified time.
The specificity of place seems to stabilize the oracle's operation and to give
it a definite position within the religious system and the total society, while
the specificity of time protects the oracle in that it prevents frequent con-
sultation from undermining the influence of the oracle's prophecies. An oracle
can maintain its influence only if it is believed to give accurate and truthful
advice and counsel. It would seem that this image would be hard to preserve if
people had ready access to the oracles services.
None of the oracles discussed in this paper are operated by just one
priest, but by a corps of religious personnel which is differentiated as to
28
function and rank. The exception is the oracle of Serapis where no clergy
seem to have been involved in the functioning of the oracle. There is a gen-
eral tendency for the oracle to be presided over by a chief or high priest
whose main functions are to perform the sacrifices, to question the medium,
or the representation of the god, and to deliver the reply to the consultant.
Members of the lesser clergy, however, are not excluded from the performance
of any of these functions, although usually their functions are limited to
assisting in the ritual activities associated with the oracle's operation.
Because an oracle involves coming into close contact with the super-
natural, ritual prescriptions of purity are necessary. For the oracles where
information is available, all the clergy must perform some ritually purifying
act, such as fasting. In those cases where there is evidence, such as in
Greece and Peru, the consultants also had to perform purifying acts before
they could consult the god.
With the exception of Serapis, each oracular deity reveals his will
indirectly to the consultant.  The medium is either a temporary repository
for the god or an object which is moved in some significant way by the god's
power. Because of the indirect method of consultation, a priest acts as an
intermediary between the inquirer and the god as manifest in the instrument.
The oracle of Serapis employs direct revelation without the intervening action
of the priests.  Because Serapis is such acconsistent exception, it would be
interesting to know the motives of the Ptolemies in creating the oracle. The
method of incubation may have been chosen in order to prevent the native
priesthood from assuming control over the new cult and from utilizing it for
their own interests, particularly if the clergy of the new cult was composed
of members of the Egyptian priesthood.
From the extant responses it can be seen that the reply was usually
clear and concise. This was dependent to some extent upon the method employed
of ascertaining the god's will and upon the kind of question asked. Thus
with those methods that involved an alternative question the responses are
explicit and direct. Where the question was not limited to a yes or no ans-
wer, a clear or an obscure response could be given depending upon the nature
of the question and who asked it. Delphi is our best example of this, and if
the evidence were more detailed this also might be said of Tibet and Peru.
What evidence is available seems to suggest that when the question was pre-
sented by a private individual with regard to a personal matter or by a per-
son requesting religious guidance, the answer tended to be direct. IThen
questions of a political nature were asked, the reply tended to be obscure.
It seems fairly clear that the obscure answer was given in order to protect
the oracle, not just from the consequences which would arise from angering an
important and powerful consultant, but from its clientele losing faith in its
ability to give truthful and accurate answers. No oracle will continue to be
consulted if it gives answers which consistently prove to be wrong.
The above discussion has centered on some general similarities in the
organization of the oracles presented in this paper. Oracles also have similar
functions, which can be seen in the kind of question that is asked and who asks
it. The most important similarity with regard to function is that foretelling
the future is a very small part of an oracle's business and is really an
29
incidental byproduct of its main concern, which is giving advice and counsel.
The commonest questions ask, in effect, "what should I do?" Next most common
are questions about the "hidden present." The questions about the future which
are asked generally refer to the immediate future that we would like to know
in order to make decisions.
The next important similarity in function is that the majority of
oracles are consulted about political matters, with the exception of Serapis
for which there are no extant questions and responses of a political nature.
Oracles do not have to have political functions, but they do. When there is
ready access to discovering the divine will and gaining divine sanction, there
is no reason why political functionaries and units should not take advantage
of the opportunity. The political functions of oracles may partially stem
from the fact that an oracle is a more stable and more impersonal body than an
individual seer or diviner. It is also more public.
It should be noted that the Egyptian oracles have a function which they
do not share with the other oracles. This is the judicial one. It is question-
able, however, just how much authority in:both  judicial and political spheres
the oracles had. The method seems to have limited the extent to which they
could influence such affairs, and no doubt many matters were presented to them
for final approval only.
Oracles also have religious functions. They guide men in their acts of
worship and propitiation of the gods by specifying to which deities acts of
veneration are necessary in order to obtain certain human results and by pre-
scribing necessary ritual for the worship of one particular deity, for the expi-
ation of sins and for specific religious activities, such as festivals. However,
an oracle is not a center of a religious system or a house of worship, but rather
exists as a part of the wider complex of religious beliefs and activities.
One last function which needs to be mentioned is the giving of advice
to private individuals. The questions and responses of a personal nature prob-
ably made up the bulk of the service rendered by the oracles, for they were no
doubt consulted by many individuals on a wide range of human problems. The
oracles flourished on the belief that much of what happens is a result of the
free will and controlling power of individual gods whose favor can be won if
they are properly approached. Apparently beliefs about fate and causation had
little to do with the consultation of oracles and in the areas where oracles
are present such beliefs are not well-developed.  The main business of the
oracle was not to reveal man's hidden destiny or fate, but to guide people to
the proper gods and tell them what they had to do in order to win the god's
favor.
No one set of circumstances can be postulated for the end of the oracles
discussed in this paper. The Inca ones came to an end with the Spanish Conquest.
Those of Dynastic Egypt died out under foreign rule which undermined the tradi-
tional worship. The Greco-Roman oracles and the oracle at Praeneste ended with
the spread of Christianity. The Greek oracles declined under radical political
and religious changes in Greece and finally ended their service during the period
of the Roman Empire. The Tibetan ones may still be in existence, but may end
under the pressure of the Chinese Communist invasion. From this cursory summary
30
of the end of each oracle, it seems evident that they die either from external
conquest or from the aging of the traditional gods who can no longer meet the
needs created by internal changes.
Oracles are primarily a religious institution. Their personnel is
dedicated to divine service, either professionally or as laymen. There is a
quality of sacredness and ritual purity which surrounds all of the oracles
which stems from the contact with the supernatural which is to be treated with
veneration and respect. Oracles operate within a framework of accepted ideas
and beliefs about the supernatural world and man' s relation to it. They are
peripheral to the wider religious system in that they do not form a part of
the wider, more general public and private worship. The gods associated with
the oracles, however, may be part of this wider system, either locally or
societally.
The purpose of the oracle is to give men access to the gods and to
their will and counsel. It is not the only religious technique which does
this. What may distinguish the oracle from other types of divination is that
it is to some degree institutionalized, This can be seen in its specificity
of time and place and in the formal organization of its operation and person-
nel. This distinction, however, is based upon the sample presented in this
paper, and further research may not bear out this final conclusion.
ENDNOTES
(1) The author gratefully acknowledges the guidance and generous help given
by Professor John Howland Rowe, under whose supervision this paper was
written as a directed research project in the fall of 1960. Professor
Rowe also very kindly translated for me the various Spanish accounts on
which the discussion of the Inca oracles is based.
(2) These criteria are based upon two definitions, one by Bouche-Leclercq
1897; Vol. II, p. 228 and the other by Fernique 1880:90.
(3) Evans-Pritchard 1937:100
(4) See Evans-Pritchard 1937 for a comparison of the benge "oracle" with the
proposed criteria and for a fuller discussion of other Azande "oracles."'
(5) The idea that oracles may have occurred in Polynesia is based upon data
presented by Handy 1926 and 1927, but a thorough check of his material
in the literature on Polynesia before 1900 is necessary before we can
state explicitly if oracles did occur.
(6) See Bouche-Leclercq 1897, Vol. II, Section 1, pp. 250-409 for a complete
discussion of the lesser Greek oracles.
(7) Amandry 1950, Chapter XX.
(8) Ibid., p. 35.
(9) Ibid., p. 36.
(10) Ibid., pp. 118, 126-129.
(11) Ibid., ppo 123-1240
31
(12) Ibid., pp. 81-84.
(13) Ibid., p. 105.
(14) Ibid., p. 167.
(15) Parke and Wormell 1956, Vol. I.
(16) Ibid.
(17) See Herodotus for various examples of questions asked the Delphic oracle
concerning political matters.
(18) Plutarch 1918, XXVIII C, p. 109.
(19) Amandry 1950.
(20) For a complete presentation of the material on the oracle of Apollo at
Didyma see Fontenrose ms 1933, and for the oracle of Apollo at Claros
see Picard 1922.
(21) See Carapanos 1878 for material relating to the oracle of Zeus at Dodona;
also Bouche-Leclercq 1897, Vol. II.
(22) Fernique 1880:75.
(23) Bailey 1935.
(24) Both 'Wiedemann 1897 and Yilkinson 1878 mention other oracles associated
with the traditional gods of Egypt, but the information concerning them
is insufficient to be included in this paper.
(25) Wilson 1951.
(26) Cernyo 1952:116.
(27) For examples of the kinds of questions asked the Egyptian oracles see
Cerny 1930, 1935 and 1942; Breasted 1906, Vol. 4; Nims 1948.
(28) For examples of the judicial function of the Egyptian oracles see Blackman
1925 and 1926; Gardiner 1933.
(29) Kiessling 19149.
(30) Witness the cult of Asclepius which involved incubation as a curing method.
(31) See Bell 1953 and Hunt 1911, 1912 and 1916 for examples of the questions
addressed to Serapis.
(32) Arriaga 1621:17-18.
(33) Ibid.
(34)  Ibid., pp. 20-21.
(35)  Jerez (1534) 1938 mentions that there were many ruined buildings in the
town of Pachakamaq.
(36) Rowe 1960, personal communication.
(37) Pizarro (1533) 1938:261-262.
(38) Jerez (1534) 1938:15-115; see Pizarro (1571) 1914:55-56 for examples of
other questions and responses of the oracle of Pachakamaq.
(39) Relacion . . . (1561) 1918.
32
(40) The following material on the Nechung Gompa oracle is taken from
Nebesky-Wojkowitz 1956, Chapters XXI and XXII which is the major
source on Tibetan oracles in general.
(41) Bleichsteiner 1950:30.
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