SUGGESTIONS FOR THE RECORD)ING OF DATA ON SPINNING AND
WEAVING AND THE COLLECTING OF MATERIAL
Junius B. Bird
Anyone studying prehistoric and modern textiles produced on
primitive looms is bound to be impressed by the astonishing uniformity of
technical detail within specific areas0 In Peru, where it is possible to
make comparisons of material from distinct cultural horizons dating back
to'the middle of the third millennium B.C. one finds that adherence to
traditional practices was very rigid for long periods of time. So much
so in fact that there is reason to believe that in yarn and textile pro-
duction one ma find a greater degree of conservatism than in any other
activity of non-mechanized peoples.
If this is so, then an accurate knowledge of such features as
spinning, twist direction, warping procedure, and construction details
may well serve as significant clues in tracing cultural diffusion and
relationships. So far relatively little use has been made of the possi-
bilities in this field, partly because of the lack of recorded data and
partly through unawareness of what might be accomplished.
In the hope that those who have opportunity to observe yarn and
fabric production may be induced to record pertinent facts, the accompany-
ing list of questions w-as compiled. Some of these admittedly are what
any thorough ethnologist would record, but others will perhaps elicit
information which might not otherwise be gathered.
Naturally, it is difficult to standardize such questions to fit
all environments and situations. Obviously, they must be modified or
enlarged to take full advantage of distinctly different opportunities
and to clarify what has already been recorded.
In order that the purpose behind them be better understood, a
brief review of the basic data illustrated with specific examples is war-
ranted. For instance, in the matter of the fibers utilized, one will
normally encounter either the wools, basts, or cottons, but,, in the New
World, who would think of inquiries about native silk? There are areas
in Mexico, as in Africa, where on occasion silk is secured from communal
insect nests (those familiar with the ravages of the common tent cater-
pillar will know what a communal nest is). Likewise in Mexico some
people still gather wild cocoons for the silk in them.
While noting information on fibers, one should inquire whether
any of the are dyed before spinning. This is rarely encountered today,
but knowledge of raw stock dyeing of cotton with seeds attached has
persisted in Peru for centuries, though recorded for the first time in
1947. It undoubtedly explains the misstatement dating back to Colonial
times that naturally blue cotton was cultivated.
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As to spinning direction, there are obviously only two ways in
which this can be done, either clockwise (S) or counter-clockwise (Z).
The choice would seem to be optional and is for wools and silk, and for
these regional custom will be followed. The same appears to be true for
cotton, though the claim has been made that some cotton when spun one way
will wear slightly better than when spun in the opposite direction. Pre-
cise tests to settle the point have yet to be made.
With the bast fibers taken from the stems of some plants the
nature of the fibers will dictate the best direction of twist. W1iat
this is can be readily checked by moistening single fibers and noting
the direction in which they rotate as the moisture affects the cellular
structure. If maximum wearing quality is to be achieved in the yarn
this is the direction in which the fibers should be spun. In general
most of such basts utilized in northern Colombia, Middle and North America
are or were S spun, while in the rest of South America Z-spinning of basts
predominates Although no one has yet correlated the distribution of spin-
ning direction with the twist properties of the basts used this broad
regional difference seems definitely related to the tendency of some
southern hemisphere basts to twist oppositely to the northern hemisphere
products.
It would be of interest to know if any bast spinners can explain
why they use one direction or the other for bast spinning, and whether
relatively brief experience with a fiber will demonstrate which is best.
In the oldest fabrics from Peru some Z-spun bast (the correct direction
for this particular fiber), is used doubled with a cotton strand, which
is spun S in conformance with their traditional handling of cotton. This
is definitely an anomaly, for elements of two or more ply yarn should all
be spun in one direction and doubled or compounded in the opposite. Yet
in making yarn of cotton and bast fibers blended together, the same
people handled the mixtuie as if it were pure cotton. How would they
have explained these differences, which were rigidly followed for approxi-
mately thirteen hundred years?
There are, of course, exceptions to any such standardization,
Yarn is sometimes intentionally made in the reverse of the normal product
so that the two may be used together in a single fabric to achieve a
subtle contrast, Or the traditional practice may be avoided for a less
obvious reason, such as that reported by Harry Tschopik for the Aymara,
who will reverse their normal spminnig direction when making yamn for a
fabric to be used in the rituals of magic.
Another aspect of fabric production too often neglected by obser-
vers is warping procedure. There is virtually nothing known about the
extent to which this is standardized by the weavers of any one group or
within closely related groupso Where warping is done over a frame or
supported loom bars, does everyone consistently follow the same movements?
What determines the shed to be attached to the heddle or controlled by a
shed rod? If there are rules for this, do they apply where warping is
done over stakes or pegs? For other than plain weaves, such as twills
or heddle-controlled warp patterns, the heddling order in some, if not
all9 cases is determined at the time of warpinig. If such products are to
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be perfect, far more skill and mental exercise are required than most of us
realize. In our own culture, paper and pencil and a standardized procedure
for drafting heddle arrangement and subsequent movements solve the problem
for any trained weaver and enable one to duplicate another's work. The lack
of such aids means that greater concentration is required and one might ex-
pect this to be a factor in keeping designs limited in number and in fixing
them or maintaining them as "traditional" types.
As an example of what the warping processes can involve consider
what we know and can reconstruct of the preparation of warjys for the ikated
Mexican rebozos.  In these the pattern is dyed in the warps before weaving
and, although we have excellent detailed data on the process compiled by
Mrs. Elsie McDougall, we do not know anything about the mental calculations
involved.
An analysis of a very fine rebozo shawl with an average of 305 two-
ply cotton warps per inch shows a combination of patterned rows repeated
thirty-one times across the full width of the garment. Each of these units
have 320 warps divided among thirty-two stripes, half of which are plain,
the rest with minute patterns created by resist dyeing. Four of the resist
pattern rows are composed of five separately dyed sets of four warps each.
No other rows similarly have four sets of four warps each, while the
remaining eight have a simple dot pattern which did not have to be subdivided
for dyeing.
The first step in warping for such a fabric is done about two paral-
lel bars, the weaver counting off the exact number of warps needed in each
element of each patterned stripe. In the specimen taken as an example,
there are 125 five element rows in which the same pattern is applied in
four different ways;- 124 four element stripes in which another pattern is
applied two ways, and 248 of the simple dotted stripes. A total of 5,952
warps have been used for these, all set up at the first stage as a continu-
ous yarn. We -do not know if, in counting off the number needed, the weaver
concentrates on the total required for'all like pattern stripes, or if he
works from a mental image of the final product counting in sequence the
different numbers needed in the successive stripes.
Once the undyed yarn is so set up, the weaver then selects and
groups together, without breaking the yarn at the bars, the warps to be
dyed for each element of each patterns  These are picked up from the posi-
tions they will have in the finished fabric, the four which will form one
part of the intended pattern in a single stripe combined with the corres-
ponding ones wherever that stripe is to be repeated. In our specime  this
stage of the process probably results in twenty-three groups of 240 to 248
warps each.
As this is not a description of the Mating process, -we can skip
the details of the treatment of the grouped warps: the stretching, starch-
ing, marking, the placing of the resist bindings, about 22,000 of which were
needed for the creation of the pattern in the rebozo mentioned, the dyeing
and subsequent steps.
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Before the result of all this labor can be put on the loon the
weavers must warp up the -solid color stripes for separating the patterned
rows. This is done the same way as for the patterned warp over parallel
bars set at the same distance. Again a continuous yarn is used, the turns
counted off to exactly the required number. In the example considered,
3,976 warps were required to form the 497 plain spacer stripes.
Once both this and the warps on which the patterns have been dyed
are ready, the tio sets are integrated, the pattern elements back. in the
positions they occupied prior to the grouping for dyeing, but separated so
that the plain warp stripes can settle in their final position. Again this
is done without breaking the yarn at the turns. Only then is the warp
ready to be bound on the loom bars.
If all this seems complex, we can agree that it is. The only point
in reviewing the procedure is to show that such warping requires more than
skill and patience, that intensive concentration, numerical calculations and
perfect memory are equally important. One should rmember that such work
was and is being done by seemingly poverty-stricken, simple, illiterate folk
who make no use of paper and pencil to plan their moves. If we are fully to
understand and appreciate the capabilities of such people, then technical
procedures like this should be fully investigated. Such data could provide
very specific points of reference for comparison. Would, for instance, the
marked similarity of certain traditional ikat designs in parts of Idonsia
and Medico have any significance if the technical procedures were markedly
different?
Where we do know that such a specialized technique has been trans-
ferred from one area to another for the production of a specific item, have
all details of the process continued in use? A good example of this which
merits study is the presence in Ecuador and northern Peru of the mexican-
type ikated rebozos, probably introduced there in Colonial timese  It should
be possible to determine the time of introduction, perhaps something of its
subsequent diffusion and possible modifications to conform with local prac-
tices.
Guide for questions on Spinning and Weaving,
and Noes-on ollect ing
Fibers used:
Cotton: If natural shades are available, are these handled identi-
cally with the white?
Basts  . From stems of plants
&      From leaves of plants
Hard:    From bark of trees
When are these collected? Is this time related to the
plant growth cycle?-
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Wool:   How collected or sheared?  Is there any relation between
the age of an animal or the part of the body from which
&     obtained and the ultimate use of the fabric? What about
natural color differences and whiteness? Preferences?
Hair:   Use?.'
Silks: Are wild cocoons used?
Communal nests? Spider silk?
Miscel- Sine
laneous:
Comment:
This listing simply points out fiber categories which should be
expanded in detail before developing questions. For example, if one were
gathering data on vicufna wool one might ask if the extremely limited mount
of white wool on each animal is kept apart from the rest. This should have
been the most highly prized of all wools in pre-Spanish Peru, because it
can be dyed with colors which will not register on the natural brown of the
rest of the pelt. The same is true for plant fibers; there are questions
for specific ones which need not apply to all.
In this list bast and hard fibers are lumped together as there is
no need in field recording to differentiate the two classes. Both are
structural fibers'differing primarily in their function within the plants.
Some "hard"f fibers can be softer than some basts and vice versa, and their
preparation and handling can be quite similar.
It is well to remember that the identification of a plant fiber
cannot always be done by the native name nor readily by microscopic examina-
tion. Exact results are best made with botanical specimens when these can
be collected, preferably in the flowering stage.
Preparation of fibers before spinning:
Fibers require, first, cleaning or freeing from seeds, or with
basts, freeing from the surrounding organic matter. With short length
fibers like cotton and wool the mass of fiber must be prepared so that the
fibers when drawn -out will lie roughly parallel to each other.
As there are various ways of preparing each of the different fibers,
are alternative methods ever used by the same person for some reason?
(Incidental intelligence: Are cotton seeds ever eaten or utilized?)
Spinming:
Direction of twist:
Record as S (clockwise), or Z (counter-clockwise). (The slant
of the midsections of these letters symbolize the direction of the slant of
the fibers after spinning.) Do all spinners of a single community or region
vhen working the same fibers spin in the same direction?
Left-handed spinners: do they conform to the group practice?
Are all fibers spun in the same direction?  If not, whIy?
Exceptions to the rule?
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Comment:
The spinning process involves three distinct steps: the drafting,
ioe., the drawing out and laying together of the requisite amount of fiber
with skill required if yarn diameter is to be uniforn; the imparting of twist;
the reeling, Leo, the storing of the yarn on the spindle shaft. The amount
of twist, the number of'turns per inch, will vary depending on the desired
nature of the final product. Where a very hard or crepe twist is desired, a
yarn may be spun a second time. If possible get data on the length of yarn
produced in a specific period of continuous spinning. Clocking for 15 minutes
might be adequate as longer time would probably involve stopping to prepare
f iber, etc,
Adding twist, doubling, tripling:
Many observers have confused spinning with subsequent steps in yarn
production* These may involve the use of special spindles which are not used
for spinning fibers together and are distinct procedures which should be
clearly distinguished.
When doubling or compounding, are two or more yarns reeled together
as an initial step, or are the yarns stretched parallel for some distance,
then lead over a support to a suspended spindle?
Are different doubling procedures used depending on the intended
function of the product?
Spindles:
How many will a good spinner have?
Do they prefer having them about the same weight or length, and
if there are differences is there any relationship between this and the size
of the yar produced?-
Are the same spindles used for different fibers?
Are the same spindles used in doubling or tripling yarns?
Use of    dles:
There are many spindle types--some resting in a gourd or cup
while rotating--others rotated against the thigh--others suspended in the
air while rotating.  Very fine, even, good quality cotton yarn cannot be
made with a suspended spindle, though coarser cotton yarn can be so produced.
The use of the suspended spindle with cotton can imply that the people doing
so are or were accustomed to handling some other fiber and are only applying
their traditional method to cotton.
Do the spinners use anything on their fingertips, like chalk or
clay, to increase friction?
Is any particular time of day preferred for spinning certain
fibers? For a fine product the moisture content of the air has definite
relationship to the way the fibers handle, so in dry regions some spinners
realize that early morning hours when more moisture is present are best.
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W arpi n:
Is the warp yarn stretched around pegs either driven into the ground
or fastened to a board?
If so ,-how many pegs are used and how are these related to ultimate
position of the heddle or heddles?
Are patterns planned at this stage?
Is warping done over the loom bars or loom frame, and if so, is the
yarn started at the left or right, top or bottom, and is it always done
this way?
Are the turns counted off, and if so, how is this counting done?
What is the relationship of counting to the final product?
How long does warping take?
Looms:
The many types and many variations fall into two broad categories,
depending upon whether they permit the-waver to control automatically the
tension of the warp or not. Where one of the loom bars is attached to the
weaver's body, as with the back strap, such control is achieved. Very
little-attention has been given this factor. The movements become automatic
and may be barely- perceptible, ,but are integrated with the successive steps
in weaving.- It might be worth inquiring if beginners find it difficult to
master this feature.
Settin      f looms:
Very littledataate available on the length of time involved.
The method of attachment of the warp -to the loom bars is important and
varies considerably0 The insertion of the heddle lacings or leash cord var-
ies a great deal and can be very time-consuming. With both these, there is
a possibility of traditional procedure and of individual preference. What
are these?
Where a single heddle is used, is the.fint loop of the lacing
about the outer or the second warp from the edge or selvage? Is this always
so? Do they consistently start this lacing from one side or the other?
What are the names of each loom part, the warp,' the weft, and
the various cords or yarns which function in some specific way?
Weaving:
Does the insertion of the weft follow any rule, i.e., is the first
passage of the weft made with the warp which are attached to the heddle
raised?
Is the first weft insertion consistently from either the right or
the left? If so, why?  By all weavers in the same comunity?
It is difficult to get any precise data on the rate of production.
One can clock the time required- for the insertion and beating in of a spec-
ific number of picks or passages of the weft. This might provide one basis
for judging the relative efficiency of various loom types, but individual
dexterity and skill will be a big variable.
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The production of fabrics where the ends of the warp are uncut and
the finished cloth has actually four selvages involves an area of term inal
weaving. At one stage it is no longer possible to use the shed rod, i.e.,
the stock which works in opposition to the heddle, and the weft insertion
becomes laborious, In very carefully finished pieces the final passages of
the weft must be done with a needle, yet there is very little known of this
phase of the work. Although this is essentially limited to Central and South
America, products of this type are still made in Luristan and mzay have other
rare occurrence in the Old World.
Does the fabric after removal from the loom undergo any specific
treatment before it is ready for use?
Most primitive loom products are apparently ready to be used on
completion of weaving, but we need more data on this.
Patterning:
In view of the number of techniques involved in achieving patterns
and structural differences it would be foolish to attempt to formulate ques-
tions to cover them allo What can be checked is how patterns and designs
are created and reproduced. Are traditional ones reproduced from just the
mental image or does the weaver copy a finished piece?
In prehistoric Peru some use was made of samplers on which designs
and details were worked out in embroidery, later to be copied in different
techniques. An unconfirmed report indicates that these are still in use--
and they may occur elsewhere
What is the attitude toward traditional designs, and is their use in
any way restricted? Examples involving rank are well known, ones related to
supernatural factors less so, and there may be a number of minor but equally
significant distinctions. Are these related in any way to the techniques
and materials employed?
Dyeing:
Where dyes are obtained from plants, unless the source is well known,
botanical flowering samples of the plant should be secured. The local name
is no guarantee of specific identification.
What mordants are employed?
Is dyeing of unspun fibers known?
Can colors be closely matched at 'Will, using different lots of the
source material for the dye?
Collecting of Specimens:
Too frequently looms are collected with no precaution taken to make
sure they will remain in the condition they were when acquired. The best
method is to lay the loom on a piece of muslin and fasten all of the movable
parts to it.  Lacking this, all movable parts should have a cord tied to each
end across the warp or fabric. If the weaver is asked to do this, ;iotation
should be made of what precisely is done for sometimes such retention cords
are a normal feature.
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If the price asked for a loom is not obviously excessive, do not bar-
gain too much over the amount. If the price is low, give more than asked for.
A loom Is not just a set of-simple sticks, but represents far more, the labor
of prepaing the yarn, the work of setting it up and perhaps more important to
a good weaver, the working parts have been broken in, acquiring a needed
polish through use. A weaver will become accustomed to the feel and weight of
the working parts of a loom and it requires some time to readjust to new ones.
It might be worth inquiring about this. If they claim it makes no difference
you can be sure you are deal ing with a poor or indifferent- -weaver.
In parts of Central America some people are reluctant to sell clothing
they are wearing for fear that the buyer will acquire magical power over the
former owner. Such people, however, ca be persuaded to duplicate the desired
specimen given sufficient time and inducemento
Never hesitate to take badly worn or old fabrics in poor condition,
if they look interesting from the point of view of technique, design., material,
or dyes.
hoto    g:h-l
One sti 11 photograph of a person working at a loom records only the
step in progress at that mometo  As the operation of any loom consists of a
succession of related movements, a whole series are needed to cover the proc-
ess. They should show at the least, for plain weave construction, all the
movements required to complete the passage of the weft yarn for two successive
picks or insertions to the left and to the right. The same naturally applies
to a motion picture record.
The foregoing is admittedly inadequateo  To investigate fully the
spinning and weaving processes, kiowledge of weaving technology is needed.
EVen-so there is much that can be recorded by anyone and these questions and
comments are offered in the hope that thy will -be of some guidance in getting
more than the most obvious information.
The places where traditional weaving practicgs still have importanc
and vitality are rapidly becoming fewer. With the passing of the older weav-
ers now living, ch will be lost--so the importance of observation and
recording at this time cannot be overstressed.
It is hoped that anyone who uses these notes will report back to the
author on how useful they may have been and in what way they might be im-
proved or -exaned. Dr Harold Conklin stated that with one group, among
whom weaving was important, an inquiry formulatd on tese suggestions
developed a rapport which might otherwise- have been difficult to achieve.
Nbst craftsmen and artists, like the rest of us, appreciate an intelligent
interest in what they are trying to do -and spinners and weavers are no
exception.
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