I S V 0 Om w V 0 0 a. w 0 L. U CL 0 0 ~~~ ~~faIl 1956 L. berkeley, cailifornia LE I I THE KEROEBER ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY PAPERS Numbter 15 Fall, 1956 Published by the Kroeber Anthropological Society Octavio Romano, President; James Rooney, Vice President; Dwight T. Wallace, Secretary3 Ann Norsworthy, Treasurer; Robert J. Squier, Program. Chairman; E. A. IIammel, Mlartin A. Bauimhoff, and Pertti J. Pelto, Co-editors. Address all correspondence to: The Kroeber Anthropological Society c/o The Department of Anthropology University of California Berkeley 4, California Con tents A SURVEY OF ITALIAN GODPARENTHOOD.....Gallatin Anderson 1 Preface.....George AM. Foster 2 Introduction 3 The Italian Setting 4 II Comparaggio 7 Appendix A: Organization of Data 21 Appendix B: Distribution of Da;ta 23 Appendix C: The Informants 24 Appendix D: Field Data 28 Piedmont 28 Liguria 37 Venezie Euganea 41 Venezie Giulie 47 Emilia 51 Tuscany 57 Lazio 65 Campania 69 Marche 71 Abruzzi 77 Puglie 85 Calabria 89 Basilicata 93 Sicily 94 Sardinia 103 Map 106 Bibliography 107 Endnotes 109 DISSERTATIONS IN ANTiRUFOLOGY: Titles of M.A. and Ph.D Theses Accepted in the United States in the Acade'mic Year 1955-1956 111 INDIVIDUAL MEM1BERS of the KROEBER ANTHIROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 117 INFORIATION REGARDING SUBSCRIPTIONS Contents of Past Issues 119 INI?ORMATION FOR AUTHORS The ICroeber Anthropolo,gical Society Papers publish articles in the general field of anthropology, incltuding those which 'it is difficult, for v-;arious reasons, to publish elsewhere. 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The Executive Comnittee A SURVEY OF ITALIAN GODPARENTHOOD by Gallatin Anderson Preface by George M. Foster Cf. Gallatin Anderson, I1 Comparaggio: the Italian Godparenthood Complex, Southwestern Journal of Anthropology (in press, 190i7). PREFACE One of the many fruitful lines of research set in motion by Redfield's pioneeringf study of Tepoztlan has been that of the godparent- hood complex knowm in Spanish America as the comadrnazo. In subsequent community studies, including those made in Brazil as well, it became ap- parent that we were dealing with an element of social structure the importance of which can hardly be overestimated. Subsequently we have come to see that tile compadrazgo is merely one of several institutions now subsumed under the generic terms of "fictivel" or "ritual" kinship. Fictive kinship may be loosely defined as an institutionalized or pub- licly recognized bond between individuals or groups which, although it is recognized that blood relationships are not necessarily present; kin- ship terms of address may be used and customary behavior patterns may be patterned after those of the family. Fictive kinship, in the form of godparent relationships, some types of sodalities, adoption, blood brotherhood, and formalized and unformalized friendship, appears especi- ally to characterize feudal and peasant societies. These are sociaI entities which have outgrowm the kinship- and territorially-based con- trols and forms of mutual security, but wshich are not yet fully marked by the impersonal social, legal and economic forms of the strong state with a dense population. The presence of some form of well developed fictive kinship system in such a society tends to promote the stability of group relations, provides social security through mutual aid, and brings spiritual strength to the p-articipants. Godparentliood relationships, although all having a common origin in Catholicism, are by no means an identical institution in all countries. Both form and function vary enormously. At the same time there are com- mon patterns wrhich override local differences and make the comparative study of the institution an essential step in the development of our understanding of fictive kinship structures. Our knowledge of Latin American patterns is fairly good; most major monographs of the past gen- eration devote attention to the institution and some, sucll as Spicer's study of Pascua, are milestones in the study of social organization. Some comparative data have been published for Spain and Portugal, so that relationships with Latin America can be established. Greek Orthodox forms have been described for Greece and the Balkans in a number of sour- ces. Italy, surprisingly, remains almost a blank, at least as far as sources readily available in the United States are concerned. Mrs. Anderson's study, therefore, is particularly welcome, both as a signal demonstration of the possibilities for the "study of culture at a dis- tance" in a metropolitan area such as San Francisco, and as valuable source material for comparative studies. In the latter sense her work is of particular value, because of the surprisingly different quality of the Italian comparagio as compared to Iberian and Latin American forms. George M. Foster Berkeley, Califfornia October, 1956 I. INTRODUCTION In recent years anthropologists have begun to consider the signifi- cance of a type of ceremonial kinship prevalent in the Catholic area of Southern Europe and Latin America--the phenomenon of godparenthood. In Spain and in Spanish America, where godparenthood has been most adequately documented, (1) the term compadrazgo has been used to designate the par- ticular complex of relationships set up between individuals through par- ticipation in certain rituals, of which baptism appears the most customary and important. Historically, the compadrazgo leans heavily on Catholic dogma and has its roots in the doctrine which prescribes godparents for the sacra- ment of baptism. Ritualized godparenthood has become the mechanism by which godparents, as sponsors, make the vicarious pledges necessary for a child's initiation into the faith and, as guardians, insure his reli- gious education and guidance. Functionally, its integrity is also reli- giously bound, since this same Catholic dogma stresses the permanency of the spiritual relationship contracted at baptism between the godparents and the child. (2) The ceremony of baptism is not the only way in which godparent rela- tionships may be established, however. In Latin America there are recorded various extensions of the compadrazgo with new sponsors at other life-crises ceremonies, including confirmation and marriage as well as at house warmings, ceremonies for the sick (Erasmus, 1950, p. 45) and even elaboration of the compadrazgo to accommodate sponsorship of things- houses, altars, carnivals, etc. (Mintz and Wolf, 1950, p. 354). The protective functions and reciprocal obligations of these ceremonies appear far less important than those of baptism; nevertheless, the impor- tance of religion in the formation and perpetuation of the compadrazgo can scarcely be challenged, and no account of godparenthood in Latin America neglects mention of it. It is just as clear, however, that the network of ritual kin which comes into existence through ceremonial sponsorship has- features which cannot be explained in terms of either religious origins or spiritual motivation. Mintz has observed for Puerto Rico that the secular utility of this sacred institution was of such priority that, once the native population could count on the fulfillment of the reciprocal obligations which godparenthood entailed, the Church might not even be consulted (Mintz and Wolf, 1950, p. 354). When we look beyond the recurrent life situations which the compadrazgo punctuates in ritual to the whole round 3 of local life in the community with its cultural values and its patterns of social organization, we find quite vigorous evidence of the non- r6ligious strength of ritual godparenthood. We have learned a good deal about the nature of that strength as it is embodied in the compadrazgo of Latin America (Foster, 1953). In non- urban societies, particularly, the compadrazgo is effective in meeting the challenge of such crises as famine, war, feuding, death and the unknown, as well as those of less heroic proportions-the need for loans, for bail and for dowries. Mutual aid is provided in times of sickness and of old-age and for the care of the dispossessed and of orphans. The security network of ceremonial kin provides for improved economic cooper- ation in community work projects, and in trade and commerce; even travel (and again trade) is faciiitated, when the house of one's compadre or comadre assures a haven in a neighboring village. In personal relation- ships, the compatibility which is so much a corollary of the system improves social harmony. Laws are more easily enforced. There is increased opportunity for social intercourse and entertainment, and there would also appear to be some psychological compensations. (3) It is unfortunate that further ethnographic recordings of this par- ticular form of ceremonial kinship are meager and scattered, for, in the light of the Latin American evidence, godparenthood must be regarded as fulfilling functions of some significance for the individual, the family and the community. The compadrazgo often permanently modifies the behav- ior of those who are ritually bound with consequences for entire villages, and a study of the social organization of many peoples of Spanish America would very likely prove inadequate unless multiplicity of forms and pur- poses of godparenthood was taken into account. More information on god- parenthood in other areas of the world would facilitate comparative studies of its cultural role and perhaps make possible broader conclu- sions regarding its nature and function. II. THE ITALIAN SETTING Europe unquestionably offers opportunity for further study, and I propose, in the following pages, to examine the nature and prevalence of godparenthood in Italy. I have selected Italy for a number of reasons. To begin with, it is axiomatic among anthropologists that more folk-like and peasant peoples tend to behave predominantly in terms of kinship relations. Italy is fundamentally a peasant country (Ollebros, 1955, p. 31), and the tendency in the small communities of her hills and mountains to extend quasi-kinship terms to persons genealogically unrelated and to link faMilies as well as individuals in marriage and baptismal rites has been reported (Lessa, 1949, p. 16), but little investigated. (4) Secondly, it has been observed that in Latin America, where god- parenthood is significant, Catholicism appears to be the apparatus which supports and perpetuates it. Italy is also Catholic, but its Catholicism 4 is of a character which allows an examination of the effect of religion on the forms and functions of godparenthood (Ital.,roM2aragglo) both in regard to formal theological tenets and the customary religious beliefs of a folk people. It has been asserted that "there are practically no sects in Italy, no differences in dogma. The Italian is of an essentially non- theological cast of mind; religious doubts, deviations from orthodoxy, differences in belief, have little interest for him. It may be said that every one is a Catholic in Italy" (Villari, 1922, p. 149). The suggestion is not one of steadfastness, in the sense of conscious devo- tion to rigidly defined rules of Catholic dogma. It is rather that little or no distinction, consciously supported, is made between formal religion and sacred values which may be recognized apart from it-with all their implications for social control and cohesion in such matters as familial life, folklore and ceremony. This tacit acceptance of the traditional is a point of view generally consistent with the folk char- acter of those societies in which godparenthood is influential, and Redfield has emphasized, as a criterion of folk culture, the emotionally supported reluctance to question the sacred, rationally or practically (Redfield, 1941, p. 353). There is, then, in Italy the occasion to observe broader correlations between religious attitudes and the ideas and practices which shape ritual kinship. As a third incentive, Italy affords the opportunity for a study of regional differences in godparenthood practices. With some justice, Italy has been compared to an island. It is surrounded on all sides by the sea except in the north, but even there the mountain bulwark of the Alps has fostered the cultural isolation of the bulk of its communities. The homogeneity of Italian society is, however, not of a national character, but is rather to be identified with hundreds of communes or regional communities, of which, prior to World War II, more than ninety per cent had less than 10,000 inhabitants and accounted for over half the population of the nation. (5) The most numerous of all the various classes of communes were those with 2,001 to 5,000 inhabitants, repre- senting over two-fifths of the total number of such places. The commune is actually an administrative unit, something like a town and yet more often like one of our counties, in that a commune may be further broken down into component villages which tend to remain apart and which are self-integrated in terms of behavior, values and social organization. In Italy, geographic conditions, the smallness of communities, poor transportation and communication, as well as local pride in the historic past, have accommodated kinship relations and social institutions along distinctly local lines (Lessa, 1949, p. 25). It may be expected that something of this regionalism should be reflected in the comparaggio, and it was the opportunity to investigate, through native informants, variations in the forms and functions of Italian godparenthood which provided the motivation for this paper. 5 III. COLLECTION AND ARRAGEIMENT OF DATA In San Francisco there is one of the largest concentrations of Italian-Americans in the United States. Italian-Americans of the Bay Area number 95,332. of the first and second generations, and, including several thousand Italian-speaking Swiss, over 100,000 have reported Italian as their native tongue (Austin, 1955, p. 48). The majority of the city's Italians come from northern Italy, especially Tuscany, Piedmont, Liguria, Venice and the region around Lucca. There are smaller but distinct groups from central Italy, Puglie, the Abruzzi area, Sicily and Sardinia. What I have done is to locate native-born informants from the major regions of Italy and to interview them regarding local godparenthood practices and related forms of ritual kinship as these existed at the time of their residence in Italy. An attempt was made to find, wherever possible, former villagers whose orientation had been consistent with the general peasant character of the country. Nevertheless, the testimony of many townspeople and city-dwellers is included, since for some areas, particularly the north, a valid picture of godparenthood must incorporate some of the more secularly organized communities. In general, it was considered best to allow the emphasis upon what is, and what is not, considered salient in the comparaggio system to come from the informants; but interviews were organized so as to record where- ever possible the nomenclature, the kinds of godparenthood and the cere- monies initiating each, the obligations and prerogatives of those ritually involved, and effects upon the social organization of the comu nity. An outline of the specific categories under which the data were organized appears in Appendix A. Where no information for a particular subject-heading could be provided by an informant, the-category was omitted or the notation was inserted that there was no evidence available. Altogether, thirty-two native informants were interviewed from fif- teen of Italy's seventeen compartments. Fifteen villages are represented, eight towns, and three cities. The information gathered is descriptive of some patterns for accommodating, through godparenthood, wider or intensified groupings of kin. A more comprehensive investigation of any single area would undoubtedly provide many others. Hovever, the immedi- ate focus of these interviews was not exhaustion of detail, but breadth of view. In the field material, expressions of sentiment and opinion regarding the purposes, values and satisfactions of the comparaggio are those of the informants. Where the data were of sufficient scope to per- mit more than cursory documentation some analysis has been incorporated in the paper. To clarify subsequent references, the following facts should be noted. The real political and administrative units of Italy are the ninety-one provinces and the seven thousand-odd communes. The country is also divided, however, into compartments--historical, climatic and 6 economic territorial regions, which have no government of their own, but which conform closely to many of the states existing prior to the unification of Italy. These compartments are: Piedmont Lombardy, Venezie Euganea, Venezie Giulia, EmTilia, Liguria, Tuscany, Marche, Umbria, Lazio, Abruzzi, Puglie, Campania, Basilicata, Calabria, Sicily and Sardinia; (6) and it is with these that information will be iden- tified. For greater convenience and value in making comparisons, Italy may also be regarded as divided into four general areas or major geo- graphic divisions: North Italy or the Po Valley, bounded by the Alps (Piedmont, Lombardy, Venezie Euganea, Venezie Giulia, Liguria and Emilia); Central Italy, where the great chain of the Apennines curves from the Italian Riviera to the Adriatic Sea (Tuscany, Marche, Umbria and Lazio); Southern Italy or the Abruzzi country where the Apennines extend into the heel of the Italian boot or the Puglie tableland-the biggest plain after the Po Valley- (Abruzzi, Puglie, Campania, Basilicata and Calabria); and Insular Italy--the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. IV. IL COMPARAGGIO Ii c2aragaio--as godparenthood is designated in much of Italy- functions through the activities of individuals. The prerogatives and obligations which mold the system and insure its continuance have very often wider implications, however; and the comparaggio has been exam- ined as it affects the social life and organization of communities, large and small, as well as the lives of individuals. In Italy the homogeneity of society is to be found not so much in its national aspect but within each of its many regional societies. The village, in particular, tends to live in terms of itself, and nomenclatures often differ as much from village to village as from compartment to compartment. There are almost as many dialectical var- iations as there are Italian communities, and it was thought that a better index of the comparaggio would be provided if differences in godparent terms were recorded at the same time that local modifications or innovations of godparenthood practices were compiled. The investigation of these linguistic differences brings to light some revealing patterns in the use of terms of address. In the village of Antrona (Piedmont), for example, where the godparent-godchild rela- tionship is considerably more meaningful than that which exists between godparents and parents-to the extent that a young man cannot marry without the permission of his pirin--the preeminence of the former relationship is made clear in the nomenclature. There are no special terms of address between godparents and parents; Christian names only are used. Between children and godparents, however, formality is scrupulously prescribed in comparaggio terms. The same emphasis in nomenclature is to be found for the village of Colognora di Compito 7 (Tuscany), where the godchild-godparent relationship, though less vigor- oust is also dominaut. In the town of Castiglione dei Pepoli (Emilia) and in Venice and Lucca, the limited use of godparent terms would seem to indicate quite another situation-the lack of concern for godparent- hood in general. In Venice, the godfather's relations with his godson are cordial but rarely intimate; he addresses his godson precisely as he would his nephew, and the two are not distinguished in terms of reference. The godparenthood nomenclature of the village of Piana degli Albanesi reflects etymologically the Albanian-Italian heritage which has shaped the comparaggio practices of this little community of Sicily. (7) With the exception of Lorsica (Liguria), where priest and altar boy act as sponsors for confirmation, there are godparents for at least two ceremonies, baptism and confirmation, in every commity of Italy for which there are informants. Batism. For baptism there are ordinarily two godparents, a god- father and a godmother. (8) In the village of Albona (Venezie Giulie), however, it sometimes occurs that there are two godfathers, in which case there is no godmother. This happens when both a paternal and maternal uncle of the infant volunteer, for neither can be refused. On the other hand, the selection of a godfather is optional in Colognora di Compito (Tuscany). In this village, the temporal as well as spiritual welfare of a child is insured by allowing the godmother complete control upon the death of the parents, so that father and mother often prefer the protection of two godmothers. In the Gheghje village of Piana degli Albanesi, where reception of the sacraments is according to Byzantine rite, (9) there is often only one godparent. The participation of women in publiC ceremonies is not encouraged (Sladen, 1905, p. 368), and the single godparent is usually a brother of the husband or wife. In Italy, as in Latin America, baptism appears the most customary and important of the rituals for which godparent participation is pre- scribed. The relationships inaugurated by baptism are easily the most permanent and may be vieved as operating in two ways to reinforce the kin group. The comparaggio may intensify established consanguineal or affinal ties (when relatives are selected as godparents), or it may extend the kin group, (when non-relatives are selected as godparents). Of the thirteen villages for which evidence was available on pref- erences in the selection of godparents, relatives were the first choice of ten. Of these ten villages, seven virtually prescribe either the god- parent for the first child or the order of succession of relatives as godparents for subsequent children. In Antrona (Piedmont), parents must first select the brother of the husband and the sister of the wife. In Trinita (Piedmont), the father of the husband and the mother of the wife are godparents to the first 8 child, the mother of the husband and the father of the wife to the second child. The chronological ordering for Lorsica (Liguria) is identical with that of Trinita for the first and second child and is further developed for subsequent children, so that brothers and sis- ters of husband and wife alternate as godparents, beginning with the eldest and ending with the youngest of the relatives. Paternal and maternal uncles volunteer quite often as dual god- fathers in Albona (Venezie Giulie); and conversely a child may have two godmothers, a paternal and maternal aunt, in Colognora di Compito (Tuscany). In Rocan Felice (Campania), Frontone (Marche) and Bedonia (Emilia), parents like to select from their brothers and sisters for the first child; in Piana degli Albanesi (Sicily), if there is only one godparent, whenever posSible it is a brother of the husband or wife. Of the three remaining villages--all located in southern or insular Italy--only Villanova Montelione (Sardinia) expresses a defi- nite preference for friends as godparents. The residents of the vil- lages of Riposto (Sicily) and Villa Sebastiano (Abruzzi) indicate no particular preferences. In the towns there is a great tempering of the choice of relatives as godparents. Of the eight two express some preference for cousins: Arsie-Rivai (Venezie Euganea5 and Castiglione dei Pepoli (Emilia). Otherwise, it seems to make little difference in the towns whether a godparent is friend or relative. The only area in which friends have a real priority is once again to the south: Casstel di Sangro (Abruzzi), and the town of Comiso on the island of Sicily. The urban informants show as consistent a preference to choose god- parents from outside the kin group as the villagers exhibit to select them from within it. Only in the city of Lucca is a relative chosen as often as a friend. The custom of parents exchanging their services as godparents, particularly for the first child, is less often found in the villages than in the towns and cities, where the avowed preference is for friends as godparents. It would appear that joint social activities are fos- tered by such an arrangement, and the obligations and privileges of god- parenthood, although more dissipated than in the villages, sometimes come to realize a rather appreciable emphasis. The baptismal ceremony takes place at the village church or at the parish church of town- and city-dwellers. Exceptions are the town of Vibo Valentia (Calabria), where the baptism is held in a specially pre- pared room of the parents' home, and the town of Marino (Lazio). In Marino, there is a preliminary baptism by the midwife, and a second or formal baptism takes place later at the parish church. 9 A survey of the godparenthood data shows a wide range in baptismal schedules. In Marino, baptism occurs at the moment of birth. In the village of Colognora di Compito (Tuscany), a church ceremony is arranged as promptly as twenty-four hours after birth, but in the town of Vibo Valentia (Calabria), baptism may be delayed for as long as one year. The sex of the child sometimes has an effect on the scheduling, and in the village of San Benedetto del Tronto (Marche), an unbaptized boy is thought to be a particular temptation to evil forces and is baptized within a few days of birth-much more promptly than a little girl, who is in no such danger. The number seven has sacred connotations for the residents of Antrona (Piedmont), so that a baby is baptized on the seventh day. To insure a healthy child, the Lazio mother of the town of Marino vows, during her pregnancy, a formal ceremony on the eighth day in commemora- tion of the circumcision of Christ. In Venice baptism is usually arranged for the nearest holiday. Quite generally in the villages, baptism occurs within a week or two of birth. In the town of Casstel di Sangro (Abruzzi), baptism is delayed for three months and must take place on a Sunday. In the cities there appears to be little superstition affecting baptismal arrangements, and the ceremony is often on a holiday or a week-end, when friends are better able to take part in daytime festivities. The godparents and the godchild are the principal participants at baptism. In the case of Colognora di Compito (Tuscany), they are, with the priest, the sole participants and no one else attends the ceremony. At Marino (Lazio), the only additional member of the group is the father of the child. There is much evidence of local purification requirements (10) for the mother of the child, so that in eight of the villages, three of the towns and in the city of Lucca, the mother does not attend the baptism. In the town of Marino (Lazio), she stays at home so that she may wait at the entrance to greet her "little Christian" and kneel for the godmother's blessing; in the town of Casstel di Sangro, she must prepare the baptismal feast and is too occupied to go to the ceremony. Only for the cities of Bari and Venice and the town of Vibo Valentia (Calabria) did informants expressly state that there were no purification requirements. In Antrona (Piedmont), the baptismal ceremony is made a kind of game, with the godfather inevitably the loser so that he must pay the forfeit of food and drink for everyone present. It is unusual that the godfather should be so central a figure in the ceremony; with the addi- tional exceptions of Albona (Venezie Giulie) and Piana degli Albanesi (Sicily), where there is often no godmother, no mention of the godfather in connection with the actual baptismal rites was made by any informant. In village, town and city, there are only two baptismal obligations with which the godfather is consistently associated-a gift for the 10 godchild (or a contribution toward a joint gift from him and the god- mother) and an offering for the officiating priest. In Vibo Valentia (Calabria), this donation may be no more than a chicken or a dozen of eggs, and in Lorsica (Liguria), the godfather disguises his poverty by wrapping the money in a fancy package. Even in cases where the god- parents are husband and wife, these offerings are, with negligible variations, the most widespread obligations of the godfather. No such conservatism marks the activities of the baptismal god- mother, however. Wherever she participates her role seems to be of considerable importance. Even in Antrona (Piedmont), where the god- father figures so prominently, it is she who initiates the rites, lifting the infant from its cradle and carrying it to the baptismal font. In Marino (Lazio), she is allied with the sacredness of the sacrament, so that the child's mother kneels for her blessing. In Albona (Venezie Giulie), a younger sister of the comare (godmother) places the baby in her arms at the entrance to the church, and this, the informant says, is meant to show that from that moment on the god- child is under her protection. Except for the village of Trinita (Piedmont), where the midwife is custodian, and Frontone (Marche) and Villanova Montelione (Sardinia), where a female relative or young girl of the village may be designated, the godmother carries the baby to the church, holds the child for the major portion of the ceremony, and returns the newly baptized infant to the arms of its mother. On the day of baptism tlle godmother is the chief giver of amulets. From the compartment of Marche south to the island of Sicily, seventy- five per cent of the communities sought this protection for the newly baptized infant, toward whom myriad occult forces are strangely and powerfully attracted at this period. The practice also exists in the compartments of Emilia and Piedmont, in the town of Castiglione dei Pepoli and the village of Antrona. There is little doubt that the analysis of baptismal gift practices reveals well-defined patterns in godparent-godchild relationships. A Trinita (Piedmont) godmother gives a medal of San Giorgio to her godchild, and annually throughout the life of the child the feast day of this patron saint is the occasion on which the bond of comparaggio is reaf- firmed between them by further gift-giving and special festivities. In Colognora di Compito (Tuscany), the godmother labors over her goddaughter's layette and wraps the infant in her own wedding veil for the baptismal ceremony. Years later, the bridal trousseau of her god- child is entirely her concern, and she will walk five miles transporting the bridal linens in a basket on her head and be the first welcomed at the new home of the bridal-couple. The Venetian godparent likes to open a savings account for the baby, and during the lifetime of the child he is regarded first of all, the informant says, as a likely provider of money. 11 In Piana degli Albanesi (Sicily), the parents must present a gift to the godparents. This is said to represent reciprocity and to indicate the termination of obligations between parents and godparents. Hence- forth no bond of comparaggio is considered to exist between them. Regionally, the whole question of obligations of baptismal godparents has a wide range in degree of emphasis. In two villages, when a child dies, the godparents have obligations in connection with the burial. In Lorsica (Liguria) a child cannot be buried until the baptismal godmother completes the making of garlands of paper flowers and encircles the body in the coffin with them. The god- father must provide a bouquet of flowers and place it in the hands of the child. If a child dies in infancy in Antrona (Piedmont), he must be buried in his cradle, and the cradle decorated by the godparents w'ith ribbons and flowers. It is the godfather who carries the cradle to the church and the godmother who carries it from the church to the cemetery if they are able. Most impressive is the general lack of stress on spiritual obliga- tions. Only in four counities was specific mention volunteered of religious duties. In Trinita (Piedmont) godparents are expected to see that their godchildren receive proper religious instructions: "There are no other obligations." In the village of San Benedetto del Tronto (Marche), the informant quoted from the Catholic catechism and said the spiritual obligations "to see to the religious training of the child in the event the parents neglect to do so" are followed solemnly and carefully. The religious implications of godparenthood were also soberly discussed by the informant from Comiso (Sicily), but at the same timed parents are reported to expect from their children's godparents "nothing beyond a warm relationship," and children look to their godparents for "gifts and special advice and . . . money." In the event of the death of the parents, godparents of Colognora di Compito (Tuscany) are obliged to assist in the religious training of their children, but "in practice do not actively concern themselves with the day to day religious activities of their godchildren." Apart from these four, evidence on the spiritual obligatioi,s of god- parents is essentially negative. The informant from Albona (Venezie Giulie) stresses that, despite their spiritual vows, baptismal godparents are actually under little obligation to do anything more than "show sym- pathy" for the child during his childhood, an attitude which the god- parents, in turn, expect will be reciprocated with "respect." In Casstel di Sangro (Abruzzi), godparents have "little if anything to do in prac- tice with the religious training of their godchildren."t In Venice, the social as well as religious corollaries of godparent- hood are tenuous, and the sentiment would appear to be that "godparents 12 should feel earnest and sincere about the bond between them and the child, but actually they are under no real obligations, either spiri- tually or socially." If any obligations can be assumed to be binding upon baptismal godparents, the evidence is rarely in the direction of prescribed duties. Contractually, the godparent is quite unencumbered, and formal obligations are few and broadly defined. He participates in the bap- tismal ceremony and vows to a secondary responsibility in the religious training of his godchild (Addis, 1951, p. 756). Generally speaking, however, sponsors have no anxiety about the discharge of their duties toward the children of Christian parents. The obligations of baptismal godparents are associated by informants more often with attitude than performance, and the responsible godparent, it is variously reported, should be kind affectionate and sincere, a faithful confidante and a solicitous advisor, less than a parent yet more than a friend. Confirmation. There is much less emphasis on the comparaggio relationships established by confirmation than on those inaugurated by baptism, and in Albona (Venezie Giulie) and 'in Rocan Felice (Campania), the obligations of the godparent do not extend beyond the day of the ceremony. But again, the preeminence of baptismal godparents cannot be assumed as universally characteristic, for in the town of Marino (Lazio), the godparents appointed at confirmation carry on the obligations of the baptismal godparents, whose duties end with confirmation. Baptismal godparents are then, for all practical purposes, out of the picture, although they are addressed for life as compare and comare. The obli- gations of the confirmation godparents are likewise of limited duration, however, and end with the marriage of the godchild, for which ceremony no godparents are appointed, so that the influence of the comparaggio is virtually terminated. For the sacrament of c-onfirmation, there must be at least one god- parent (Addis, 1951, p. 756), and except for the city of Bari, where the participation of both a godfather and a godmother is reported by two informants, the practice of having a single sponsor is adhered to throughout the Italian communities for which evidence is available. A wealthy woman of Trinita (Piedmont) is sponsor to all the girls of the village and her husband to all of the boys. The server to the priest acts as witness in Lorsica (Liguria); but elsewhere a godfather is named for a boy and a godmother for a girl. The basis of selection of godparents for confirmation is much the same as for baptism, although seldom as rigidly defined . Marri . There is no godparent activity reported for the sacrament of marriage except in the villages of Albona (Venezie Giulie), Bedonia (Emilia), Colognora di Compito (Tuscany), Frontone (Marche), in the Sicilian town of Comiso, and in the city of Bari. In no case do the 13 godparents have obligations which extend beyond the wedding day, and for the most part, theirs is the conventional participation of best man and maid- or matron-of-honor. The Council of Trent augmented Catholic canon law in 1545 and pre- scribed that for the validity of the sacrament of marriage "the presence of . . . witnesses is ordinarily necessary" (Attwater, 1931, p. 333); where there are godparents at marriage, they also fulfill this obligation. In Colognora di Compito (Tuscany), matrimonial godparents are ritu- ally important, and the bride walks up the aisle of the church not with her father--who often does not even attend the ceremony--but on the arm of her padrino, while behind her the groom walks at the side of the madrina. It is usual but not obligatory in Albona (Venezie Giulie) for matri- monial godparents to become baptismal godparents to the first child of the bride and groom. As matrimonial godparents, they are addressed, on the wedding day, by special terms, and these are used again on the day the child is baptized and for the following few days only. Then these compare-comare terms are abandoned between godparents and parents and a new form santolo-santola, substituted for use by the godchild. It is in Albona, too, as well as in the town of Viggiano (Basilicato) that bride and groom must be properly guided to and from the service by their matrimonial godparents, for it is bad luck to take the same route to and from the church. At marriage as at baptism, the godparents are conventionally a man and a woman, but on the island of Sicily at Comiso, two men or two women are not uncommon as matrimonial godparents. Other Ritual Aspects. There is considerable evidence that the com- paraggio functions quite actively in much of Italy in a variety of forms, sometimes only secondarily associated with Catholic ritual and often virtually outside of Christian tradition. Most closely allied with Catholic practices are two fictive rela- tionships of southern Italy. In the village of Riposto (Sicily) an additional godmother has come regularly to be associated with the sacra- ment of baptism. Two days after baptism, the bonnet worn by the baby during the baptismal ceremony is given to a woman, a relative or friend, who from then on is known as the comare da ceppola (godmother of the hat). Choice of a comare da coppola is often made at the time regular baptismal godparents are selected; sometimes it is not done until the day of baptism. The comare da coppola carefully washes the hat of the sacred oils which were absorbed during the baptismal ceremony, and the water from the washing and rinsing of the hat is thrown into a plant or a flower-bed. The oils have given the water a sacred quality and this is considered a fitting disposal. The comare da coppola is addressed, throughout her lifetime, by the child and his parents as comare, and she addresses the child as fighiozzu. 14 In Villa Sebastiano (Abruzzi), a bond exists between those who as infants were passed together by their mothers over the altar of the village church. The bond exists as well between the mothers themselves and between each woman and the child of her companion. All parties address one another as comare or compare, to the extent that one child would later call the mother of the other child comare. He would also address by comare or compare the girl or boy who participated with him in the ritual. The ceremony is associated with no particular feast. No obligations of consequence are involved, but the participants consider one another "more than friends"; if one asks a favor of his comare, he expects an extraordinary effort to be made in fulfilling it. On the borderline between godparent practices which are distinctly Christian and those of alien tradition are the rituals initiating god- mothers associated with ear-piercing. Throughout most of rural Italy and not infrequently in the urban areas, a little girl has her ears pierced for earrings at an early age. In the villages it is seldom de- layed beyond the age of three. In most areas there is no ritual involved and no godparent participation; but in Sardinia in the village of Villanova Montelione, there is an ear-piercing ceremony, and a woman-- either friend of relative-is named as comare to do the cutting. Some- times the baptismal comare takes on the additional role and title, but it is more desirable to have a special godmother for the occasion. She is referred to as the comare dell' orecchia (godmother of the ear) and is addressed throughout her lifetime as comare by the child and her parents. In the village of Lorsica (Liguria), the baptismal godmother buys the earrings and, in Genovese dialect, is referred to as the amuia a cata i pendi (godmother who buys earrings). Because she has `"no heart to make the cut," the actual operation is done by a specialist of the village. It has been observed in rural areas of the lower Apennines and insular Italy that there is no clear distinction between formal reli- gion and folklore (MacDonnell, 1932, p. 95), and it is in the south of Italy that the comparaggio assumes the broadest variety of forms. Here, the bond of comparaggio exists as truly between those who have been passed together by their mothers as infants over the altar (or sometimes, those who have done homage at a certain shrine together) as between those bound by the formal vows of baptism. In this area as well, there flourishes a form of godparenthood reminiscent of blood-brotherhood practices. For the villager of Abruzzi or Marche or Sicily, pagan and Christian rituals do not appear to be conceived as rival or even conflicting aspects of religious practice; nor is there, practically, any need for them to be regarded separately, since they are bound together in the everyday activities of the people--in magic, mallocchio (the evil-eye), and godparenthood. Where the division between Christian and non- Christian values does seem to occur in comparaggio practices, their separation does not involve the abandonment of either. 15 There are, for example, three godparent rituals in southern Italy by which the participants bind themselves in a relationship which is commun- ally acknowledged as a pact of love or friendship or brotherhood. All three are associated with the patronage of San Giovanni Batista (St. John the Baptist). The ceremonies initiating the pacts take place on the 24th of June, his feast day, or on the eve of that day. The individuals involved are distinguished from baptismal godparents only when specific reference is made to their being compari di San Giovanni. There is a compare-di-fiori (godfather-of-the-flover relationship in San Benedetto del Tronto (Marche) which may involve two girls, two boys, a boy and a girl, two women. two men or a man and a woman. Parties to the ritual address one another henceforth as compare or comare. They are distin- guished from regular baptismal compare and comare only when specific ref- erence is made to their being compari di San Giovanni, or compari di fiori. The relationship is acknowledged by the commity, but compare- comare terms are limited in use to the participants. There is no renewal of the relationship on subsequent feasts, and it lasts just as long as it is kept active by the participants. The informant says that, in the base of a young man and a young woman, it is often a kind of "puppy-love" association. Otherwise it is considered as a sign of strong affection between two people, often of the same sex and usually of approximately the same age. In Villa Sebastiano (Abruzzi), there is the compare-del-fiume (god- father-of-the-river) ceremony. The principals are a boy and a girl from ten to fourteen years of age. The bond is not a secret one. It is a village form of "going steady" but not an engagement. Sometimes the boy and girl eventually marry. The pact is considered broken when either the boy or the girl enters into a "steady" relationship with someone else. However, this new relationship does not necessarily become a compare-del- fiume pact. Lastly, in Villanova Montelione (Sardinia), there is a cMvsri-di- fogo (godfathers-of-the-fire) or compari-di-San Giovanni (godfathers-of- St. John) ritual. Two or four people participate. The group may be composed entirely of boys or of girls or may be a mixed group. Male participants are addressed as compare and female as comare. The ceremony is not a secret one and terms of address are used freely. The relation- ship may be reaffirmed by festivities on succeeding anniversaries, but the actual ceremony is not repeated. The association may persist through life, but more often fades away with the marriages of the participants. Suerstitions and Ritual Prohibitions. Like ritual, superstitions and folklore are subjects of general, often independent interest for anthropologists. Yet their incorporation in the data on comparaggio practices has been the result more of necessity than of design. Super- stition affects godparenthood and godparenthood affects superstition in much of Italy, particularly in the lower central and southern compart- ments where the fear of mallocchio (the evil eye) is widespread. 16 Godparents-the godmother in particular-are considered especially vulnerable to mallocchio because they assume, in their spiritual role, the position of a kind of shield between the godchild and the forces of evil. In the village of Rocan Felice (Campania), mallocchio cannot pre- vail against a child without a preliminary and successful attack against one of the godparents. In Casstel di Sangro (JAbruzzi), it is necessary that the godmother be capable of diagnosing ailments of the child. She need not herself be gifted in magic, and there is evidently some suspi- cion attached to the extraordinarily gifted. However, she must be alert and is frequently consulted for the occasions on which it is necessary to call in a woman versed in spells and practices which ward off and cure mallocchio. (11) Numerous superstitions permeate the rituals themselves. It is bad luck for a baby of Lorsica (Liguria) if the godmother makes a mistake in her recitation of the credo at baptism, and ill-fortune is just as likely to befall the Sicilian infant of Riposto if a godparent stumbles on the Pater Noster. A pregnant woman cannot baptize in the village of San Benedetto del Tronto (Marche); and if the first godchild of an Albonan (Venezie Giulie) comare is a girl all the godmother's luck goes into the child and there is none left for her. In Antrona (Piedmont), the godfather and godmother light candles after the baptismal ceremony to insure the good health of their godchild, but if a candle goes out before the baby is returned to his home he will soon die. In Arsie- Rivai (Venezie Euganea), the woman who serves as midwife may not be godmother to the child she delivers. As has been previously noted, in many of the towns as well as the villages, an amulet given by the godmother to her godchild on the day of baptism is considered to have extraordinary powers, and purification requirements abound so that the mother rarely participates at baptism. (12) . "The Story of the Evil Compare," related by the informant from the village of San Benedetto del Tronto (Marche), provides more graphic evidence of the preoccupation with mal'occhio and superstition which characterizes vast areas of Italy than does any attempt at tabulation of practices. Similarly, "The Story of the Stolen Host" (Casstel di Sangro, Abruzzi) reveals something of the stature of the godmother in a southern Italian town; and, from the same source, "The Story of the Strange Cmpare and the Pills" is an interesting corollary of the study of godparenthood nomenclature. (13). It is surprising, in view of the array of superstitions and taboos already reported for Italy, that so little is made of incest prohibi- tions between godparents. Investigation discloses no taboos to prohibit the marriage of compare and comare with anything approaching the force- fulness of the compadrazgo regulations in Latin America. In San Benedetto del Tronto (Marche), it is bad luck if godparents marry within 17 one year, but this is as close as any informant comes to a stand on the prohibition of marriage between persons linked by the bond of comparaggio. (14). It is more frequently the case that an attempt is made at a love- match between godparents. This custom exists in the city of Lucca (Tuscany) and the town of Casstel di Sangro (Abruzzi)J regarding baptismal godparents and is also associated with compari di San Giovanni. Socio-functional Aspects. There is a diversity of emphasis in Italy on the role of godparenthood and on values within the comparaggio, as the system affects both individuals and communities. Unlike the situa- tion in Latin America, the godparent-godchild ties would appear, for the most part, to be more important than those which bind parent to godparent, particularly the relationships established through baptism. In northern Italy this basically vertical structuring of the com- paraggio can be seen from an examination of the data on Antrona (Piedmont), where godparents are closely associated with the birth, adolescence, marriage and death of their godchildren. It is evident as well in cen- tral Italy, in the village of Bedonia, where parents look to godparents "as a kind of second father and mother to their children but expect nothing for themselves." In the town of Comiso (Sicily), the godparent- godchild relationship determines the permanency of ties between parents and godparents. So long as the child lives, the bond between parents and godparents is indissoluble, but it may be severed completely upon the death of the godchild. It should not be assumed, however, that there is any absolute hier-. archy in Italian godparenthood which stratifies and delimits the various ritual ties, or that within the comparaggio the parent-godparent rela- tionship is unimportant or everywhere subordinated to that between god- parent and godchild. In Arsie-Rivai (Venezie Euganea), the relationship between parents and godparents, who are most often cousins, is much like that which exists between brothers and sisters. The Tuscan parents of the village of Colognora di Compito look to the padrino and madrina of their children for "a very close association," particularly in times of crisis. "If a godparent is your sister or your brother," says the infor- mant, "he or she is closer to you and your thoughts and problems than any of your other brothers and sisters." In the Abruzzi and Marche sec- tions, as well as in much of insular Italy, no separation can effectively be made of relationships between parents, godparents and children within the comparaggio. In a great segment of these areas, notwithstanding for- mal adherence to the Catholic Church, people have retained a belief in old secret lore, magic and superstition, and these mixed traditions have come to permeate all elements of the comparaggio. Despite the closeness of ties, however, nowhere do the benefits of the comparaggio appear to be very strongly reflected in the socio-economic cooperation which characterizes much of the compadrazgo's functioning which Mintz and Foster describe in the villages and towns of Latin America (Mintz and Wolf, 1950, pp. 352-364; Foster, 1953, pp. 11-28). In times of illness, old age, death and disaster, mutual aid is provided within the 18 comparaggio, but the evidence indicates that it is operative only to the extent that godparents and parents are already consanguineally or affinally related, and depends a good deal on the preexisting affec- tion between all parties concerned. (15). As was noted in conjunction with the obligations of baptismal god- parents, there is great stress placed upon the psychological compen- sations of godparenthood. Particularly in the villages and towns, informants reiterate almost universally in the field data that affec- tion, intimacy and security are major rewards of comparaggio associa- tions, and there is a note of urgency that does not seem nearly as marked in the documentation for Latin America. In Christ Stopped At Eboli, a memorable account of life in the primitive village of Gagliano in the compartment of Basilicata, Carlo Levi writes of the comparaggio as follows: Hitherto they had thought of me as a sort of man from Mars, the only one of my species, and the discovery that I had blood connections here on earth seemed somehow to fill in their pic- ture of me in a manner that pleased them. The sight of me with my sister tapped one of their deepest feelings: that of blood relationship, what was all the more intense since they had so little attachment to either religion or the State. It was not that they venerated family relationship . . . but rather that they cherished an occult and sacred sense of communality. A unifying web, not only of family ties (a first cousin was often as close as a brother), but of the acquired and symbolic kinship called "comparaggio," ran throughout the village. Those who pledged friendship to each other on the midsummer night of June 23 and thus became "compari di San Giovanni" were even closer than brothers. . . . This fraternal tie, then, was the strongest there was among them. (Levi, 1947, pp. 88-89) If the field data incorporated in this paper are representative of the nature and significance of godparenthood in Italy, the strength of which Levi speaks must be regarded as characteristic of godparenthood in much of rural Italy. In its peasant communities the comparaggio flourishes, linking families as well as individuals in relationships as diverse as its influence. Beyond the tightly integrated villages, in the towns where otherwise folk-like communities have lost their isola- tion but not their identity, godparenthood is likewise strong if less pervasive. The great cities of the Po Valley and of Italy's western seaboard do not represent what is most characteristic of the country (Lessa, 1949, p. 1 );yet even in urban centers with their extreme orientation in terms of technological development and the material and secular aspects of culture, the comparaggio persists, although there is marked dissipation of its influence. Godparenthood is not an isolated cultural phenomenon. The religi- ous orientation, linguistic differences, social organization and 19 cultural values of many Italian communities are reflected in the compar- aggio, and it may be that in this lies the real significance of the study of godparenthood. Investigation of godparenthood not infrequently yields priorities of relevance in the factors which shape culture, and in the villages, towns and cities of Italy these may be explored as they are revealed by the functioning of the comparaggio. 20 APPENDIX A Organization of Data Name of village, town or city. (Appendix reference, by compartment, to biographical data on the informant.) A. Baptism. (16) 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: d. The godparent addresses the parents as: e. The terms of address between godparents are: 2. Number and sex of godparents. 3. How and when godparents are chosen. The relationship preferred in the selection of godparents. 4. The baptismal ceremony. When and where it takes place. The participants, and the role of the godparents. 5. Godparents and baptismal gifts. What is given and to whom. 6. The baptismal party. When and wfhere it is given. Who attends and what is served. 7. Obligations of baptismal godparents. a. In the event of the death of the parents. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. c. Other obligations. B. Ear-piercing Cere C. Conf irmation,. 1. Godparent ternms. Number of godparents. Use of baptismal god- parents for confirmation. Age of children. 2. Obligations of godparents. 3. Other information. D. Marriage. 1. Number of godparents and godparent terms. 21 2. Role and obligations of godparents. 3. Other information. E. Other evidence of ~oprenthood,o other forms of ritual kinhp F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual. 1. Godchildren look to godparents for: 2. Godparents look to godchildren for: 3. Parents look to godparents for: 4. Godparents look to parents for: G. The role of nthood in the commun 1. Godparenthood as a bond with other villages or provinces. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid, old age protection, etc. 3. Godparenthood as a peace-making or maintaining device. How many times one can be godparent. Whether or not one can be godparent to children of same family. 4. Godparenthood as it relates to feast days and special celebrations, etc. 5. Other benefits. H. Whether or not gop t terms are extended, and to whom. I. Taboo-s.-suerstitions, stories, etc. regarding god arenthood or fictive kinshipL] ceremonies. 22 COMPARTMIENT Piedmont Liauria Venezie Euganea Venezie Giul'ie Emi lia Tuscany Lazio Campani a Marche Abruzzi Puglie Calabria Basilicata Sicilni Sardii APPENDIX B Distribution of Data (17) VIILAGE TOWN Antronal Trinita2 Lorsica3 .4 Arsi'e-Riva.i Albona6 Dedonia 7 Castiglione dei 8 Pepoli Colognora di 10 Compito Marino 11 Rocan Felice 12 San Benedetto 13 del Trqjito Frontone Villa SebastV;a0 Riposto21 Piana degli23 Albanesi Villanova Montelior Casstel di Sgro 15 Villafourina Vibo Valentia 19 Vigiano20 Comiso 22 24 CITY Venice5 Lucca 9 Bari 18 APFENDIX C The Informants (18) I. Comartment of PIEDMONT A. Piedmont #1 - The Village of ANTRONA Length of Residence: 40 years (1890-1930) Other information: Informant is 65 years of age. Her family owned and farmed its own land in the village. B. Piedmont #2 - TheVllaeofTRINITA Length of Re"idence: 25 years (1910-1935) eOther information: Informant is 45 years of age, married, and employed in a local factory. In Italy her father was a grocer. He was also a skilled butcher, and for a fee killed pigs for the villagers and made sausage. II. Compartment of LIGURIA A. Liguria #1 - The Village Of LORSICA Length of Residence: 22 years (1878-1900) Other information: Informant is 77 years of age. Her family owned a small farm in Lorsica. III. Compartment of VENEZIE EUGANEA A. Venezie Euganea #1 - The Citv of VEIICE Length of Residence: 25 years in Italy, four of which were spent in Venice. Other information: In Italy, informant was a student and teacher. In California he is a teacher of Italian. B. Venezie Euganea #2 - The Town of ARSIE-RIVAI Length of Residence: 22 years (1900-1922) Other information: Informant is 55 years of age. In Arsie-Rivai her family engaged in farming and resort activities. She is now a widow. IV. Compartment of VENEZIE GIULIE A. Venezie Giulie #1- The Village of ALBONA Length of Residence: 40 years. Informant, husbanid and wife, lived in Albona until 1947, when the territory was given over to Yugoslavia. V. Com artment of EMILIA A. Emiliaf #- TheTown of CASTIGLIONE DEI PEPOLI Length of Residence: Mother--about 40 years, son-about 20 years Other information: The informants are mother and son, about 43 and 23 years of age respectively. In Castiglione dei Pepoli the family had an inn and restaurant. B. Emilia #2 - The Village of BEDONIA Length of Residence: 26 years (1876-1902) Other information: The informant is 79 years of age. Her family owned a small farm in Bedonia. 24 VI. Compartment of TUSCANY A. Tuscany #1 - T Length of Residence: 20 years (1900-1920) Other information: The informant is about 55 years of age. Her family owrned a small farm in the village. B. Tuscany #2 - Length of Residence: 30 years (1910-1940) Other information: Informant is about 45 years of age. In Lucca she was an office worker. VII. Compartent of LAZIO A. Lazio i? - The Town of MARINO Length of Residence: Informant lived in Alarino until she was eleven years old, then returned there at seventeen and remained until she was nineteen years of age, and made sub- sequent visits in 1932, 1937 and 1948. Other information: Informant is about 50 years of age. Her family owned vineyards in Marino. VIII. Compartment of CAMPANIA A. Campania #1 Th- VllafROAN- ICE Length of Residence: 42 years ( 1887-1929) Other information: Informant is 68 years of age. Hler family were farmers in Rocan-Felice. IX. Compartment of IARCHE A. Marche #1 - The Vnlla o SAN BENEIIETTO TRONTO Length of Residence: 18 years (1890-1908) Other information: In Italy, informant was a gardener. B. Marche #2 - The VillZe__of FRONTONE Length of Residence: 17 years (1937-1955) Other information: The informant is 18 years of age. He has only recently arrived from Italy. In Frontone his family were laborers. I. Compartment of ABRUZZI A. Abruzzi #1 - The Town o.f CASSTEL DI SANGRO Length of Residence: 20 years (1900-1920) Other information: Informant was born in this country, but lived in Casstel di Sangro from the time he was two until he was twenty-two years of age. His parents were farmers, and other relatives were sheepherders. B. Abruzzi ^2 - The Town of VILLAFOURINA Length of Residence: 30 years (approx. 1910-1945) Other information: Informant is about 45 years of age. His family were farmers in Villafourina. C. Abruzzi #3 - The Towm of VILLA, SAN SEBASTIANO Length of Residence: 20 years (approx. 1900-1920) 25 Other information: Informant is about 55 years of age. His family had vineyards in Villa San Sebastiano. XI. Comp2artment of PUJGLIE A. Puglie #1 - Th iyo.BR Length of Residence: 16 years (approx. 1920-1936) Other information: Informant was a student during most of his residence in Bari, and is employed now as a teacher of Italian. B. Puglie #2 - The Ci f BARI Length of Residence: 17 years (1936-1954) Other information: Informant spent his childhood and early adolescence in Bari. His father was a fisherman in Italy. XII. Compartment of CALABRIA A. Calabria #1 - The Town of VIBO VALENTIA Length of Residence: Sister--14 years (approx. 1935-1950; from the time she was five until nineteen years of age). Brother 14 years (approx. 1935-1950); from the time he was ten until he was 25). Other information: The sister is about 22 years of age, a student. The brother is about 38. The family had a small business at Vibo Valentia. XIII. Compartment of BASILICATA A. Basilicata #1 - The Town of VIGGIANO Length of Residence: 20 years (1917-1937) Other information: Informant is about 38 years old. His family owned property in Viggiano. XIV. Compartment of SICILY A. Sicily #1 - The Tomn of COMISO Length of Residence: 19 years (1925-1944) Other information: Informant was a student in Italy. B. Sicily #2 - The Vila12ge of RIPOSTO Length of Residence: 25 years (1877-1900) Other information: Informant was born in Riposto, and lived there until she was twenty-five. Her father was a cobbler, and her husband, a fisherman. She is now 78, a widow. C. Sicily #3 - The Village of PIANA DEGLI Si Informant #1 Length of Residence: Informant was born in Piana degli Albanesi and lived there until he was ten, when he moved to Rome. He made frequent visits to Piana and remained for varying lengths of time until 1941, when he came to the United States. Other information: Informant is 27 years old. Informant #2 Length of Residence: 10 years 26 Informant #3 Length of Residence; Born in the United States of native Gheghje parento. Informant #4 Length of Residence: 'Born in Piana degli Albanesi, and has made many visits there, one as recently as 1953. IV. Compartment of SARDINIA A. The Village of VILLANOVA MONTELIONE Length of Residence: 20 years (approx. 1900-1920) Ot1rer information: Informant is about 60 years of age. His family was engaged in farming in Sardinia. 27 APPENDIX D Field Data (19) PIEDMONT The Village of ANTRONA (20) (Appendix C, Piedmont #1) A. Baptism t21) 1. Godant terms (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: pirin marina b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: fi:liol figliola C. The godparent is addressed by the parents as: by Christian name d. The godparent addresses parents as: by Christian name e. The terms of address between godparents are: pirin marina, 2. umber sad sex of c*ar 4ts. Two godparents are.chosen--a godfather and a godmother. 3. Ilow and wnen god nts are chosen. Relatives are preferred for godparents. For the first child, godparents are chosen from the extended families of the father and mother, and are very often the brother of the husband and the sister of the wife. Godparents for subsequent children are like- wise relatives, with young cousins of the parents especially favored. Godparents are not chosen until the seventh month of pregnancy. There is superstition associated witlh the number "7" and it is considered unlucky to take any action regarding the selection of godparents until seven mon1hs of pregnancy have elapsed. 4. The baptismal ceremony Baptism takes place within seven days of the birth of the child. The number "7" is again emphasized as related to the luck of the infant, and it is considered very unfortunate if the ceremony must be delayed for more than one week. The baptism takes place at the village church. The child is carried to the door of the church in its cradle by a sturdy young woman of the village, selected by the godmother. The godfather and godmother and all the relatives follow. The mother, however, does not accompany the group for she must first be purified by the priest, and the purification ceremony does not take place until two weeks to one month after the birth of the child. At the entrance to the church, the group is met by the priest. The godmother lifts the baby out of the cradle and carries it to the font, and she is followed by the rest of the group. While the baptismal service is going on, one woman looks after the cradle to prevent anyone from snatching anything from it, because if someone succeeds in doing so, the godfather has to pay the forfeit of food 28 and drink for everyone present. The godparents must also be careful, because if a member of the group succeeds in pulling anything off the child, or in grabbing the godfather's hat, or in taking the god- mother's shawl, etc., the penalty is the same. Someone always suc- ceeds in getting something, and after the ceremony they all go off f or f ood and drink at the tavern. The godparents accompany the group, first handing the infant to the young woraan rho carried it to the church. She puts a white veil around her neck, covers the child with the ends of it, and runs to the child's home as fast as she can, chased by the people of the village. It is said they do this in order to make the child's legs strong, and as the people run they all shout: "Santa Maria, bona gamba!" (Holy Mary, good legs!) The need for haste may be further explained by the belief that if the candle lit by the godfather or godmother goes out before the baby reaches home he will die very soon. 5. Goprnsadb2imlLfs The godfather and the godmother buy separate gifts for the child. Most frequently, the godfather gives a chain and medal, and the god- mother gives a ring or piece of jewelry. It is customary also for the godmother to provide the baby with an amulet to ward off illness. She takes wax from the church candles, shapes it into a little square, and then, having sewn it into a linen or silk bag, hangs it around the child's neck. The godfather also provides the donation for the priest. 6. The baptismal party-. As it has been noted in Section 4, above, the godfather, by custom, is the loser in a baptismal game to determine wlhether or not he will provide refreshments for the entire baptismal church group. The party takes place immediately after the ceremony, usually at the tavern, but sometimes prearranged at the home of the godfather. Wine is served together with cookies or cake. 7. .bligations of baptismal j.0dprents. a. In the event of the death of the parents. Baptismal godparents are committed by spiritual vows to carry on the religious education and guidance of the child. As an indica- tion of good faith, after the death of the parents of the godchild, one or both of the godparents will accompany the child and his remaining relatives to church for Sunday Mass. As is frequently the situation, the godparents are aunt or uncle of their godchild, in which case the child is taken to live in the home of one or the other. When not so closely related, the more immediate kin assume the responsibility for the spiritual and physical care of the child. b. In the event of the death of the odchild. If the child dies in infancy, it is the godfather wlho carries the 29 cradle to the church for the burial ceremony, and the godmother who carries it from the church to the cemetery. If the godfather and godmother are unable to carry the cradle, they arrange for it to be taken by four girls of the village wearing white veils, for a baby girl, or by four boys wearing capes, for a baby boy. The cradle is decorated by the godparents w'ith ribbons and flowers. c. Other obligations of baptismal re . In Antrona, marriage does not, as a rule, take place without the assistance and consent of the young man's pirin. Once a boy be- gins to consider a girl as a possible bride, he goes to ask advice from his godfather, and to get information from him about the financial position and reputation of the family of the girl. The pirin either advises his figliol to continue his courtship or to give it up. If the godfather thinks well of the match, he accompanies his godson to the home of the girl and, in his name, asks for the hand of the girl in marriage. A day is set on which the young man is to return for an answer. The girl and her family spend the interim checking with her relatives and her marina as to the fortune and character of the potential groom. As in the case of the young man, she is either encouraged in the match, or counseled to reject his proposal; however, the godmother does not appear to exert as much influ- ence in the decision as is the case with the godfather of the boy. On the appointed day, the young man goes alone to the home of the girl for her decision. If the answer is yes, he leaves the house and fires two shots with a gun as a sign to the community that he has been accepted. In any case, he goes immediately to the house of his godfather to inform him whether he has been accepted or rejected. The godfather of the groom supplies the gold ring for the marriage ceremony. The godfather of the bride gives her money and bed linens; the godmother, a nightgown, various articles of lingerie and more linens. B. Ear-piercin1 ceremony A baby girl has her ears pierced by her mother, or by a villager who is adept at the operation. The piercing takes place before the child is three years old. There is no ritual involved, and no god- parent participation. C. Conf irmation 1. Godparent terms. Terms of address are the same us for baptism. Only one godparent participates -a man for a boy, usually a paternal relative; a woman 30 for a girl, usually a maternal relative. Baptismal godparents may not serve as godparents at confirmation. The sacrament of confirmation is administered when the child is about eight years old, shortly after first communion. 2. Obligations of eodparents. The godparent of confirmation incurs no obligations beyond par- ticipation in the ceremony, although the godchild addresses his godparent for life as pirin or marina as a gesture of respect. D. Marri There are no godparents for the marriage ceremony. (See Section A, Paragraph c, for information on the role of baptismal godparents in arranging marriages.) E. Other evidence of godrenthood or other forms of ritual kin None. F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual. 1. Godchildren look to godparents for: presents on their feast days, at Easter and on the feast of the Epiphany. Godparents also remember their godchildren with small presents on the occasion of first communion, confirmation and on the celebration of the feast of the patron saint of the village, San Antonio. When they get married, godchildren anticipate guidance and financial assistance from their godparents; this is particularly true of the attitude of a young man toward his bap- tismal godfather. 2. Godparents look to godchild for: respect, principally. The informant described her attitude to her godson as very nearly the same as that to her son, except that in the case of the godchild she was more careful to do nothing that would jeopardize his great respect for her. 3. Parents look to godparents for: the spiritual protection of their children should the parents die, and for good counsel, particularly in adolescence. 4. Godparents look to parents for: affection and a feeling of closeness. Usually, godparents are close relatives of the parents, and the added bond is thought to make for harmonious association. G. The role of godparenthood in the commun 1. Godparenthood as a bond with other villages or p inces One rarely selects a godparent from another village. Godparents are almost always relatives who live in Antrona. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid, old age protection, etc.: Most of the aid is from the godparent to the godchild. God- parents who are fairly well off financially can sometimes make it 31 possible, by their gifts and loans, for a young couple to marry earlier than would otherwise be possible. 3.6 Godparenthood as p2eace-maIking .or maintaining d'evice. The number of children for whom one can be gd artent-. Whe'ther or not one can be godparent to children of same family. Godparenthood is not thought of strictly in this sense; however, informant suggests that being thought of as a godparent is pleasanter than being thought of solely as a relative, for godparents and god- children are always very considerate of one another. One can be godparent as many times as one is osked but not to children of the same f ily. Other relatives, or close friends, should have a turn. 4. Other benefits:-- No evidence. H. Whether or not godparent terms are extended and to whom. There is no extension of godparent terms. I. Taboos, sprtitions., stori-es, ec. reading godparents, orfctive .Rr et e.ar .or kinship ceremonies. It has been noted that the. number "7" is considered to have special powers associated with it, and affects the date of selection of god- parents and of the baptism. It has also been mentioned that it is customary for the baptismal godmother to provide the baby with an amulet to ward off illness. (See Section A, Paragraph 5). The mother is required to be purified, and does not take part in the baptism. The Villag:e of TRINITA (Appendix C, Piedmont #2) A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: parin marina b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: fi$tllol fi gliola c. The godparent is addressed by the paren'ts as: parin marina. d. The godparent addresses parents as: by Christian name e. The terms of address between godparents are: parin marina 32 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two baptismal godparents--a godfather and a godmother. 3. H chosen. Godparents for the first child are the father of the groom and the mother of the bride. Godparents of second child are the mother of the groom and the father of the bride. For subsequent children, relatives and sometimes friends are chosen. (The first boy receives the name of the groom's father; the second, the name of the wife's father. The first girl takes the name of the groom's mother; the second girl, the name of the wife's mother. After that there is free choice of names; howrever, names of brothers and sisters of groom and bride are often favored.) Godparents are selected somewrhere around the middle of the pregnancy period. 4. The baptismal ceremony. The godfather or the godmother notifies the priest upon the birth of the baby. The priest comes to the child's home, and gives his blessing. Baptism is arranged to take place within eight days of birth. The mother does not go to the village church for the baptism. She must first undergo purification (the "Churching of Women" ceremony). This she does on the first day out of the house after the birth of her baby, and she goes alone to the church on this occasion. The midwife, who contractually remains in the house for eight days after birth, carries the baby to the church. The godmother carries the newly baptized baby home. 5. The ents and tismal gifts. The godmother traditionally gives a gold chain (blessed at this time by the priest), hanging it around the- baby's neck at the conclusion of the baptismal ceremony. The chain has a medal, sometimes two, of the Blessed Mother or of the patron saint of the village, which is San Giorgio. The godfather gives a donation to the priest. 6. The baptismal party. After the baptism there is a party in the parents' home. It is attended by as many relatives and friends of the family as can come, and by the baptismal sponsors. Wine and sweets are served. 7. Obli os of batismal a. In the event of the death of the parent. 33 Godparents have only the obligation to see that their god- children receive the proper religious instruction. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. Godparents have no special obligation. They usually occupy a place of honor in the funeral procession. B. Ear-piercing ceremon No evidence. C. Conf irmation 1.Godparent terms. Number of godparnts. Use-of baptismal god- parents for confirmation. of children. Terms of address are the same as for baptismal godparents. Only one godparent is used; a man for a boy, a woman for a girl. The confirmation godparent is also referred to as mio testimonio or mia testimonia, meaning "y witness" in distinguishing between god- parents of baptism and confirmation. In the village of Trinita, a wealthy sigora, who owned a villa there, acted as godmother for all the girls of the village at con- firmation. Her husband was godfather to all the boys. The village was poor, and the informant says the lady seemed to take pride in the opportunity to act as sponsor and to make a gift of a religi- ous article to the child, together with a small gift of money. In the village of the informant's husband, Monforte d'Alba in the Province of Cuneo, the choice appears to have been a brother of a boy to be confirmed, or the sister of a girl. 2. Obligations of confirmation god ents. They were under no obligations other than the sponsorship required in the ceremony. D. Marriae No godparents were used for marriage. E. Other evidence of gOdrenthood. Other forms of ritual kinshi No evidence. F. The role of &odparenthood in the life of the individual. 1. Godchildren look to odpants for:, a confidante. The marina, particularly, is the traditional confi- dante of her figliola. The secrecy of their discussions is con- sidered inviolable. By custom, the godfather and godmother are approached for loans if one's own family cannot provide, or if one wishes to borrow money without his family's knowledge. Such a loan is considered a "sacred" debt, and is always repaid, except in instances of outright gifts on the part of the godparent. Children look forward to gifts on their feast days, and on the feast of San Giorgio, patron of the village. 34 2. G- respectful treatment and real affection. The informant says that if the godparent is thoughtful and considerate, he is usually repaid in kind. While the godchildren are under no real obliga- tion, the godparents often look to older and more secure god- children for assistance in times of old age or sickness. The figliol is expected to lighten the burdens of his parin whenever he can--in the fields, assisting him with heavy burdens, and sometimes aiding in the planting and harvesting of crops, some- times milking the cow, shearing his one or two sheep or watering his horse. 3. Parents look to goarents for: help if they run into difficulty with their youngsters or need to have someone speak to them about special problems. affection, and for assistance in shaping a respectful attitude in their godchildren. Godparents are offended if not included in family festivities. G. The role of-&odparenthood ite ommuni 1.Godparenthood as a bond with other villages or p2rovinces., If members of one's family have married out of the village, it is often considered worthwhile to choose the godfather or god- mother for at least one child from among these distant relatives. It is a gesture of great affection and good will. The baptism is delayed if necessary (and if the infant is in good health) until the godparent's arrival. On subsequent holidays and feast days, on the occasion of a marriage or a homecoming, the godparent- godchild relationship serves as a strong bond between the two households and special efforts are made to have the godparents present. The parin and marina likewise make an effort to keep in touch with their godchildren, and consequently with the household. When the child is old enough, he may make occasional visits to the village of his godparent, if the distance is not too great. A boy, particularly, finds it possible to get away from home from time to time. Even at an early age he may travel without a com- panion. In the event of serious dissension within the home, a boy or girl knows that refuge can be found, outside of the vil- lage, in the home of the godparent. If the parents pursue, says the informant, the godparent may be counted upon as a sympathetic intermediary, and tempers are cooled by the pattern of mutual respect to.which all parties are bound. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid, old age protection, etc. See Secti on F Paragraph 2) 3. Godp2arenthood as p2eace-making device. How many times one can be godparent. Whether or not one can be godparent to children of same fami_ly. 35 Baptismal godparents can be godparent to more than one, often several children of the same family, and in serious quarrels between the children, the godparent is the traditional mediator. (See also Section G, Paragraph 1, for a discussion of how the use of godparents from neighboring villages aids in keeping the peace.) 4. Godparenthood as it relates to spcal celebratios feast days, eC.s On the feast of San Giorgio a large cake is baked by the women of the village. The cake is bid for, at the village square, with wheat instead of with money. The winner, i.e. the highest bidder, traditionally cuts the first pieces of cake for his godchildren. (See also Section F, Paragraph 1 on the feast days of godchildren.) 5. Other benefits. At the end of World War II godfathers and godmothers were impor- tant in the care of war orphans. Granting of baptismal godparenthood is sometimes used in an attempt to arrange a marriage between young unmarried godparents. (See Section I) H. Whether or not godparent terms are extended and to whom. In the case of baptismal godparents, parin and marina are sometimes extended to the sisters and brothers of the godparents. It is more often the case with distant relatives than when godparents are father, mother, brother or sister of the parents. I. Superstitions, taboos,.stories, etc. In cases where an eligible young man and young woman are selected as godparents, it is believed that if they kiss after the baptismal ceremony they will marry. The mother of the child must be purified, and can not take part in the baptismal ceremony. 36 LIGURIA The Village of LORSICA (ALppendix C, Liguria #1) A. Batim 1. Godparent terms (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: mui amuia b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: figlioso figliosa c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: padrino madrina d. The godparent addresses the parents as: cumpa cumma e. The terms of address between godparents are: Christian names only 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents--a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when g odparents are chosen. Godparents are chosen exclusively from relatives. The follow- ing is the general pattern of selection; however, it is not rigidly adhered to. The first godparents are the father of the groom and the mother of the bride; then, the father of the bride and the mother of the groom; then, eldest brother of bride and eldest sister of groom, etc. After the list of in-laws is exhausted, cousins are chosen. Godparents are selected on the day before baptism. determined, but the actual services. and asked to take part in the ceremony The choice is for the most part pre- request is on the day preceding the 4. The baptismal ceremony. Baptism takes place at the village church within two or three days after birth. The mother does not go to the church. She must first he puril- fied, and this ceremony takes place on the eighth, ninth or tenth day after -childbirth. The godmother carries the baby to church, accompanied by the godfather, the father and relatives of the infant. For the bap- tismal ceremony, the godmother buys or makes scartatucio, paper cornucopias filled with tiny sugar candies. The cornucopia i1 as elaborately decorated as possible with ribbons and paper zuf- fles. On leaving the church, the candy is thrown or given to the children of the village. A white scartatucio with choice candies is given to the priest by the godmother. The godfather sometimes carries seartatucio also. 37 a.-Godparents and bpsmal gifts. What is- ve-n and to whom. The godmother presents the baby with a new outfit which is worn for the baptism. The godfather may, if he wishes, contribute to the cost of the clothes. The goodfather provides the donation for the priest, and the money is usually wrapped in a fancy package so that the amount will be unknown. If the godfather wishes to show he is making a large dona- tion, he hands the money unwrapped to the priest. The parents sometimes buy a remembrance for the godmother. It is ordinarily a religious item or an article of clothing. 6. The baptismal party. The party is held on the afternoon of the baptism. The maternal grandmother prepares the meal at the home of the child. Pasta sciuta cun utucu (paste with gravy) and wine are served. The god- mother and the godfather are the only guests outside of the imme- diate household. 7. Obligations of ba smal Sodparents. a. In the event of the death of the parents. Grandparents have the final say as to the disposition of the child. Generally, godparents offer economic assistance. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. Godparents do not pay for the funeral, but they handle every- thing else. Godparents dress the body. The godmother makes garlands of paper flowers, strung on paper-wrapped wire, and encircles the body in the coffin with them. The godfather provides a bouquet of flowers and places them in the hands of the child. The godparents jointly contribute the burial clothes--white for a child under four, otherwise regular village dress. c. Other obl iga of baptismal 9odprents. Godparents regularly make a present of a piece of jewelry or an article of clothing, and perhaps a sweet to their godchildren on the day of their first communion and at confirmation. For the wedding of a godchild, the godparents give a gold wedding band. (See Section D.) In the case of a godson, it is given to him to present to his bride; in the case of a god- daughter, it is given to the prospective groom for presentation at the wedding ceremony. The godparents are also bound by their religious vows to see to the spiritual education of their godchildren, but these duties are generally fulfilled by the parents. 38 B. , y yin ceremon. The ceremony is performed when a girl is two to three years old. The baptismal godmother buys the earrings, and is referred to as the amuia a gacata i pendi (godmother who buys earrings). Because she has "no heart to make the cut," the actual operation is done by a specialist of the village. C. Confirmation. There are no godparents for confirmation, only the priest and a server who acts as witness. D. Marriag. 1. Number of g_odarents, and godparent terms. There are two godparents for the marriage ceremony--a god- father and a godmother. Terms of address are the same as for baptism. The godparents serve as witnesses, as does the father of the bride. 2. Role and obligations of godparents at marriage. The marriage takes place early in the morning at a Mass, usu- ally about 6:00 A.M. The only people present are the parents of the couple and the godparents. At the ceremony, the bride receives five or six or more rings. The ring from the groom is placed on her finger; the other rings, from her family and his family and from her baptismal godparents are blessed by the priest and handed to the amuia who keeps them until the bride reaches her new home. The bride has special rings for particular occasions: for weekdays, for Sundays, for festive occasions, etc. 3. Other information. In contrast with the mature baptismal godparents, the god- parents of marriage are always young-friends, rather than rela- tives, of the bride and groom. Hence, they never, or very rarely, become baptismal godparents to children of the pair. E. Other evidence of sodrenthood, or other forms of ritual kin . No evidence. F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual. 1. Godchildren look to godparents for: affection and counsel. On their feast days, on the feast of the patron saint--Santa Catarina, on Easter, their first communion, confirmation and on their wedding day, godchildren look forward to presents from, and the company of, their godparents. 2. Godparents look to godchildren for: respect always, and special consideration and tolerance when they are old. They like to hear their godchildren speak well of them, and it is a source of village scandal if there are ever harsh 39 words between them. A godparent does not expect to improve his lot through the efforts of a godchild, but he likes to feel, says the informant, that a devoted godchild makes many occasions a little pleasanter. 3. Parents look to godparents for: nothing, says the informant, except friendly relations between the families of the husband and wife. 4. Godparents look to parents for* friendship. G. The'role of godarenthood in the commuit. 1.Godarenthood as a bond with other villages or p nces Parents are strongly motivated to select godparents from other areas if it is possible to keep the relationship within the extended family group. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid. Godparents sometimes work jointly in the fields, or in the making of wine. It depends entirely on the extent of affection, and on the closeness of the bond. Nothing is obligatory. 3. Godparenthood as ec-makin eie Whether or not one can be godparent to children of the same famill. How many times one can be rent. One can be a godparent as many times as one is asked, but to one child of a family only. 4. Godarenthood as it relates to special celebrations,,feast das, etc. Godparents give presents to their godchildren on their feast days and on the celebration of Santa Catarina's feast. No other evidence. H. Whether or not godparent terms are extended, and to whom. Godparent terms are never extended. I. Taboos superstitions stories, etc. regarding yodparents, or fictive kinshi. If the godmother stumbles in the recitation of the credo at baptism, it is bad luck for the baby. 40 VENEZIE EUANEA The City_of VENICE -(Appendix C, Venezie Euganea #1) Al. Baptis. 1. God nt terms (male and female) a. b. d. e. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: santolo santola The godparent addresses the godchild as: nevodo nevoda The godparent is addressed by the parents as: by Christian name The godparent addresses the parents as: by Christian name The terms of address between godparents are: Christian names 2. b ex r There are two godparents, a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when _odparents are chosen. As a rule, parents seek godparents outside the family or blood-kin group. Preference is for a young married couple who are close friends of the parents. They sometimes act as god- parents for one another's children. The informant did not know when godparents were chosen. The baptism takes place if possible on the holiday nearest the birth of the child. The mother, father, godparents, rela- tives and friends attend. Informant knew nothing of the role of godparents. 5. Godprents and baptismal ifts. The godparents jointly give a present to the child. Very fre- quently they like to open a savings account for the baby. No knowledge of who gives donation to the priest. A large party is given at the parents' home, with godparents, relatives and many friends in attendance. There is a wide selection in choice of foods. 7. igtoso sa o rns a. In the event of the death of theparents. The informant felt that the godparents would have no obli- gations beyond sending flowers or a note of sympathy. b. In the event of the death of the child. No information. 41 c. Other obligtions of baptismal rents. According to the informant, the general sentiment is that godparents should feel earnest and sincere about the bond between them and the child, but actually they are under no real obligations, either spiritually or socially. The godparents would attempt to help, however, if the parents mentioned they needed something the godparents were able to provide or to help with. In practice, however, the situation does not often occur. Bo Ear-piercing ceremony. None. C. Confirmation. The informant was not sure whether or not there were godparents. He could not remember whether or not he, himself, had had any. He was of the opinion that there were only witnesses. D. Marriage. There are no godparents for marriage. There are, instead, two witnesses, called testimonio and testimonia, but these are never regarded as godparents. E. Other evidence of enth or other forms of rtual kins . None. F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual. Godparents are sometimes considered as likely providers of money if it is not obtainable from parents. No other evidence except that noted in Section A, Paragraph 7-c above. G. The role of oanthood in the communi 1. Go4parenthood as a bond with other cities or provinces. To the informantts knowledge, it is never taken into considera- tion. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid,-.old ae_protection, etc. There is no evidence of this function of godparenthood except as noted in Section A, Paragraph 7-c above. 3. Godp2arenthood as p2eace-making device. How many times one can be a godparent. Whether or not one can be goprent to children of same family. Godparenthood is never considered as a peace-maker's status. One can be a godparent several different times, but never to more than one child of a family. 4. Godparenthood as it relates to feast days and special celebrations, etc. In Venice, both birthdays and feast days are honored. Sometimes godparents are remembered with a small gift or a visit, sometimes not. Godparents often give a child a gift on his birthday, but not 42 always. It depends more on how close is the relationship between parents and godparents than on that between child and godparents . The patron saint of Venice is St. Mark, but neither god- parents nor godchildren are especially remembered in celebra- tions of the day. H. Whether or not_odparent terms are extended and to whom. The term commare is sometimes used, in a derogatory sense, to ref er to gossiping womien. The regular godparent terms of address are never extended. I. Taboos, suerstitions, etc. No evidence. The Town of ARSIE-RIVAI (Appendix C, Venezi, Euganea #2) A. Bapti sm. 1. Godparent terms (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: c. The godparent is addressed by the parents as: d. The godparent addresses the parents as: e. The terms of address between godparents are: 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents--the godfather and the santolo santola battesato battesata c.ompare commare compare commare compare g commare godmother. 3. How and when god0arents are chosen. The relationship preferred in the selection of godparents. Godparents are most often cousins of the hlusband and wife. Next in preference are close friends of the parents. Godparents are almost always husband and wife. Very often cousins or friends volunteer for the role. The parents cannot refuse them. Sometimes parents exchange promises to baptize one another's children. Godparents are chosen very late in the pregnancy. 4. The batismal ceremony Baptism takes place within eight days of birth. It is 43 considered very bad if more than eight days elapse before baptism, although informant did not know why. The mother must be purified at the parish church after every delivery. She does not attend the baptism. The father, the godparents and a few relatives and friends attend the services. The godmother carries the baby to and from the church. The godfather and godmother have no special duties other than those involved in the ritual. 5. Godparents and baptismal gifts Godfather and godmother always give separate gifts, even though they may be husband and wife. The godmother usually gives a dress; the godfather, a ring or medal. Both are treasured as mementos of the occasion. In addition to the dress, which the infant wears for the bap- tism, the godmother provides the other clothes worn by the baby: booties, a fascia (long strip of cloth, usually of cotton or light wool, which is wound about the infant from armpits to ankles), a petticoat, bonnet and blanket. The godfather takes care of the donation for the priest. 6. The blatismal arty. A party is given at the home of the parents after the ceremony. The godparents, friends and relatives are present. Wine, cake and candy are served. 7. Obligations of batismal Godparents. a. In the event of the death of the parents. The godparents jointly visit the relatives of the parents and volunteer their services. If no relatives survive, the god- parents take the child into their home. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. The godparents send flowers or have a Mass said, but have nothing to do with the funeral preparations unless the parents are ill or very poor. c. Other obligations of baptismal godparents. Godparents are expected to remember their godchildren With presents on birthdays, on Easter and at Christmas, as well as on the feast of San Giovanni, the patron saint of baptism, if the child has Giovanni as a first or middle name. Ea- n c o. There is no ceremony. The piercing is done by the local jeweler from whom the first pair of earrings is purchased by the parents. The godparents sometimes volunteer to buy the earrings. 44 C. Confirmation. 1. Godparent terms. Number of zgodarents. Use of baptismal_-od- arents for confirmation. e of children. Terms of address are the same as for baptismal godparents. There is only one godparent--a godfather for a boy, a god- mother for a girl. The informant did not think baptismal god- parents evrer served at confirmation. The children are about sev-en years old. They receive first communion and confirmation during the same year, with no godparents at first communion. 2. Obligations of confirmation &0dparents. A ring is traditionally given by the godparent at confirmation. It may be as modest or as lavish a gift as is within the means of the godparent. The godfather or godmother, as the case may be, also gives a party after the ceremony for the godchild, his parents, and a few close relat'ives and friends. D. Marriage. There are no godparents, but two witnesses who are known as testimonio and testimonia. E. Other evidence of renthood, or of other forms of ritual kinship. None. F. The role of the godparent inthe life, ofth.e individual. affection under all circumstances. 2.~ .opret lotoodh. .d f o'r a kind of foster mother-daughter, father-son relationship. The informant stated that godparents must be careful never to betray the trust of a godchild. 3. P n lodpaetfor: a relationship that is something like that between brothers and sisters. 4. Godparents look to parents for: a bond of affection that can be built up through their common affection for the child. G. The role of .odarenthood in the commun 1. Godparenthood as a bond with other vill_ges or nces. No evidence. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid,old a_ erotection_etc. In the opinion of the informant, the parents know that the godparents are there and can be called upon if needed. The 45 godparents, in turn, will volunteer in times of crises. The degree of closeness between all parties depends on the "heart" which exists between them. 3. Godp2arenthood as a peeace-making device, Hlow many times one can be a oqd arent. Whether or not one can be god arent to children of the same.family. Godparenthood is not used to promote or restore peace between godchildren. The informant had eight godchildren; however, one cannot be godparent to more than one child of the same family. 4. Godparenthood as it relates to feast and secial celebra- tions, etc. The birthdays of children are remembered more often than the feast days. (See Section A, Paragraph 7-c above) II. Whether or not godarent terms are extended and to whom. There is no extension of terms. I. Taboo-S, -superstition, stories_,_etc. regarding godparents or fictive kinship ceremonies. The woman who serves as midwife may never be godmother to the child she delivers. The mother must be purified after every delivery. 46 VENEZIE GIULIE The Village of ALBONA (Appendix C, Venezie Giulie #1) A. -jjm 1. G atters (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: santolo santola b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: fiozo fioza c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: comEare comare d. The godparent addresses parents as: compare comare e. The terms of address between godparents are: compare and comare on the day of the baptism and for the following few days only. Then, this form of address is permanently discarded and Christian names are always used between them. 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents, usually a godfather and godmother. However, it sometimes occurs that there are two godfathers, in which case there is no godmother. This happens if both the paternal and maternal uncle of the infant volunteer as godfather, for neither can be refused. The informant said that a child would never have two godmothers, however. 3. How and when godparents are chosen. Godparents are generally selected from relatives. It is usual, but not obligatory, for the godparents of marriage to become the godparents of the first child of the couple. Husband and wife are preferred, with brothers and sisters and their mates as first choice. Sometimes close friends are asked, in which case, parents either ask a husband and wife, or they may try to arrange a love match. Godparents are chosen shortly before the birth of the baby, usually in the last month of pregnancy. 4. The baptismal ceremony. Baptism takes place between the eighth and thirtieth day after delivery, and usually about the fifteenth day. The father, the godparents and a few close relatives are pre- sent at the ceremony. A younger sister of the comare (otherwise a young female relative of the parents) places the baby- in the godmother's arms at the entrance to the church. The informant said that this is meant to show that from that moment on the baby is under her protection. The mother does not attend. She must be purified after every delivery. 47 5. etsa ndbat ismaliftSo Presents are given by the godfather and godmother in the form either of a joint or a separate gift. Sometimes a large hope chest of baby clothes is given; sometimes the godmother gives a bracelet, and the godfather a medal and chain. The godparents jointly provide the donation for the priest which is handed to the sacristan at the end of the service. 6. ObligLations of baptismal godparents. The informant emphasized that despite their spiritual vows, baptismal godparents are actually under little obligation to do anything more than "show sympathy" for the child during his child- hood, an attitude which they expect will be reciprocated with "irespect. " B. Ear-piercing ceremony. A girl's grandmother does the ear-piercing when she is about three years old. There is no ceremony, and no godparent participation. Formerly the godmother gave earrings at baptism, but this custom is rapidly dying out. C. Confirmation. 1. Godparent terms. Number of godparents. Age of children. Godparent terms are the same as for baptism. There is one god- parent for confirmation-a godfather for a boy, and a godmother for a girl. Baptismal godparents may not be used. Confirmation takes place after first communion, wlhen the child is between the ages of eight and fifteen. (See Section C, Paragraph 2, below.) 2. Obligations of odparents The informant says that the obligations of confirmation god- parents last only for the day of the ceremony. The child, however, addresses his godparent for life by godparent terms, out of respect for his role. Reciprocal terms are used by the godparents, but are not used between godparent and parents. The godparent of confirmation always gives a watch. The gift is eagerly looked forward to by the child. "It is good,t the informant said, "to have a compare or comare who can give you a fine one, and a very sad thing if he is too poor to afford it." 3. Other inf ormation. On the day of confirmation, after the ceremony, the godfather or godmother puts around the neck of the child a buzzola. This is a sweet-bread dotted with confetti-candy, and is baked with a large hole in the center. Then the child walks through the village with the cake around his neck, and his hand in the hand of his godparent. They visit relatives and friends, and the cake is later eaten at the home of his parents. D. Marriage. 48 1. Number of. o ts and godparent terms. There are two godparents, a compare and a comare. They are the equivalent of our best man and matron of honor, and are usually relatives and very often husband and wife. 2. Role and obligations of rents. Godparents have no obligations beyond participation in the ceremony, which usually takes place at a morning Mass, except in the case of a widow or widower whose marriage traditionally is performed in the afternoon only. (The informant mentioned that first-cousin marriage is not infrequent in the village, but that it is considered bad luck.) It is usual, but not obligatory, for the godparents of mar- riage to become the godparents of the first child of the couple. E. Other evidence of renthood or other foms of ritual kins . None. F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual. (See'Section A, Paragraph 7 above)" 1. Godchildren look -to godarents for: "great sympathy," and for presents on both birthdays and feast days, on Easter and on New Year's. From his godparent of con- firmation, a godchild expects a watch. 2. Go:parents look to odchild for: "great respect only." 3. Parents look to rents for: little more than perhaps some strengthening of the affection which should already exist between them. 4. Godparents look to parents for: the same attitude expected, by the parents and for respect. G. The role of dparen I n 1.Godparenthood as a bond with other villag~es or prvnces. The informant felt that;to consider godparenthood from this point of view would imply that it was being used as a means of personal profit or advantage, and would be frowned upon. God- parents are chosen from the village. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid,.old age protection, etc There is nothing automatic about godparenthood and any of these. It depends entirely on the pre-existing affection between all parties concerned. 3. Godparenthood as pece-makiEG device. How man times can one be godparent. Whether or not one can be godpar:ent to children of the same faMily. 49 One can be godparent as many times as one. is asked, but never to more than one child of the same parents. No evidence of god- parenthood as a device to settle quarrels, etc. H. Whether or not od arent terms are exten and to rhom. Siblings of one's fiozo and fioza are addressed by the same terms. Santolo and santola terms are similarly extended by the godchild. I. Tabo titi stories, etc. regardin od rents cere- monies. If a comare for the first time, it is bad luck for the comare if the godchild is a baby girl. The idea seems to be that all the comare's luck goes into the female child so that there is none left for her. For subsequent godchildren, there is no superstition. The mother of the baby must be purified after every delivery. On her first day out of the house she goes to the church with a can- dle. Outside of the church she lights the candle, and waits there or in the vestibule until the priest calls her to enter. On the day of one's marriage, it is bad luck to take the same route to clhurch and back again. The marriage godparents must guide the couple properly to and from the service. 50 EMILIA The Town of CASTIGLIONE UDEI PEPOLI (Appendix C, Emnilia #1) A. Baptism. 1. odnt terms (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: santolo santola b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: filiocejo filioccia c. The godparent is addressed by the parents as: by Christian name except in reference, when santolo and santola would be used. d. The godparent addresses parents as: by Christian name e. The terms of address between godparents are. Christian names 2. Number and sex of godRarents. There are two godparents, one male and one female. 3. H a Cousins, distant relatives or friends are chosen. One never chooses anyone -in the immediate family. Godparents may or may not be married. 4. Thjbtsmal cer n Baptism is ten to fifteen days after birth. The mother does not attend because purification ceremonies are considered neces- sary after every delivery. Only the godparents must attend the baptismal ceremony. are sometimes accompanied by the father and a few friends, godmother carries the baby to the church and home again. They The The informant said that few of the people actually know the prayers prescribed for baptism, and they do not always make the effort to learn them for the ceremony. Sometimes the prayers are merely mouthed in a mumble to disguise lack of knowledge. 5. Godparents and batismal fts. What is Ziven and to whom. There is no special gift prescribed for the infant from the godparents. If godparents are married, one gift is made. It is frequently a piece of jewelry, such as a medal and chain. Whether or not the godparents dress the child for baptism depends entirely on their financial condition. They very often will if they are able to supply an impressive layette. 6. Obi o .al rns a. In the event of the death of the parents. There are no obligations on the part of godparents. 51 b. In the event of the death of the godchild. _ _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M- .0 M _ _ There are no obligations on the part of godparents. c. Other obligations of baptismal godrents. Godparents are expected to give a present to their godchildren annually on the feast of the Elpiphany, January 6. This obliga- tion continues after the godchild's marriage. Other than this, baptismal godparents have no real obligations. It is considered poor form for godparents to interfere in famil- ial supervision of the child, or in his spiritual guidance, unless specifically asked to do so. B. E e - Until about World War II ear-piercing was performed by the baptismal godmother, but there was no special ceremony. Ear-piercing is still done when the girl is about three, but not by the godmother. The mother either takes the child to someone who specializes in minor sur- gery of this kind, or to a doctor. C. Confirmation (Cresima). 1.God arent terms. Number of god 2arents. Use of bapt'ismal godl2arents for confirmation. A&e of children. Same terms of address are used as for baptismal godparents. There is only one godparent for confirmation: a man for a boy; a woman for a girl. It must be a new godparent. Baptismal ones cannot be used. 2. Obligations of Confirmation godparents. After the ceremony, they are under absolutely no obligation. Santolo-santola terms continue to be used in address by the god- child out of respect. D. Marri'. 1.Number of arents and odparent terms. For the marriage ceremony, two witnesses are required. They are sometimes referred to as godparents, but they are not really considered godparents in the sense that baptismal ones are. There are special terms of address. These witnesses are known as flippo and flippa. The terms are not used after the day of the wedding. 2. Role and obligations of rents. They have no obligations beyond acting as w'itnesses during the ceremony, and fulfilling the general role of best man and matron of honor. They are often husband and wife, and may eventually be the baptismal godparents of the first child of the bride and groom; however, their selection is not automatic. E. Other evidence of _odparenthood, or other forms of ritual kins No evidence. 52 J~. The role of o nthood in the lfe of the individual. The informant says there is little emphasis on godparenthood. If the godparents are good friends of the parents, they continue to see one another socially but feel no sense of obligation, nor do they use anything other than Christian names in addressing one another. The only concrete obligation in the godparent-godchild relationship is on the part of the godparents to remember the child with a present on the feast of the Epiphany. This obligation persists throughout the life of the child, even after marriage. (See also Section A, Paragraph 7-c) G. The role of godparenthood in the community. 1. Godparenthood as a bond with other villages or provinces. None. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid, old age protection, etc. There 'is very little of this, and only in the sense in which good friends would help one another. 3. Godparenthood as a peace-making device. How many times one can be godparent. Whether or not one can be- godparent to children of same family. There is no limit to the number of times one can be a godparent. While it is not forbidden, it is not the usual way, however, for one to become godparent to more than one child of a particular family. Godparenthood is not used to settle quarrels between god- children. 4. Godparenthood as it relates to feast das and special celebrations. Both birthdays and feast days are celebrated; however, in neither case of the godparents nor the godchildren is there often any visit- ing or exchange of gifts. The feast of the Epiphany, it has been noted, is the occasion on which a gift is virtually obligatory on the part of the godparents. 5. Other benefits. A prosperous godparent will often demonstrate his wealth by presenting his godchild with a sizeable gift on his wedding day, often a money-gift. The wealthier the godparent, the more obliga- tory the gift. H. Whether or not godparent terms are extended, and to whom. Godparent terms are extended to no one. Except between godparent and godchild, godparenthood nomenclature is rarely used except in reference. I. Taboos, superstitions, storiesetc. regardin goprents or-cere- monies. The mother must be purified after every delivery. The midwife can never be the godmother. A red ribbon is wrapped around the top of the cradle, sometimes by the godmother, to ward off mal occhio. A broom put upside down behind the front door is also effective against mal occhio and is usually placed there by the godmother. 53 EMILIA The Vill 1age of BEDONIA tAppendix C, Emilia #2) A. Ba 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: gShidasso hida b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: fiosso fiossa c. The godparent is addressed by the parents as: cumpa cuma d. The godparent addresses thle parents as: cumpa cuma e. The terms of address between godparents: Christian names 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents--a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when godparents are chosen. Relatives are preferred for godparents, with members of the immediate family favored. The godmother is often an older sister of the infant, or a sister of the father or mother; the godfather is often an older brother, or the father's or mother's brother. They are generally chosen before the infant is born. 4. The baptismal ceremony. The baptismal ceremony takes place just as soon as possible after birth, usually within the first week. The godparents and the father, and sometimes one or two rela- tives, go to the village church. The mother does not attend, as she must be purified after every birth. 5. Godparents and batismal gifts. The godmother dresses the child, and the godfather pays the priest. 6. The baptismal party. A party is given at the parents' home after the ceremony for the godparents and relatives and friends. 7. Obligations of baents. a. In the event of the death of the p]arents. The godparents are not obligated if there are other relatives; otherwise, they must take care of the child. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. No ev'idence. 54 c. Other obligations. Godparents are considered a kind of second father and mother to the godchild, and are supposed to be unselfish and devoted. If they don't give presents on a child's feast day, or on the feast of San Antonio, the patron saint of the village, it would be just as though the mother or father of the child forgot all about the day. B. Ear-piercing ceremony. None. A little girl's ears are pierced by anyone in the village who is especially good at it. C. Conf irmati on. 1.Godparent terms. Number of godp.arents. Ma atismal godp2arents be used. Ae of children. The godparents of confirmation are addressed differently from those for baptism. The godfather is padrin and the godmother madrina. One may have as many godparents as he likes for confirmation, and there is always at least one godfather and one godmother. Sometimes quite a few relatives are made godparents for the occa- sion, although only two are the real sponsors. Every godparent, whether honorary or not, is addressed by godparent terms. Children are anywhere from seven years of age on up to late adolescence at confirmation. 2. Obligations_of godrnts for confirmation. They have absolutely no obligations. However, the family goes right on addressing them as padrin or madrina,- and these terms distinguish them from the baptismal godparents, the really impor- tant ones, who are called ghidasso and ghidassa. D. Marriage. 1. Number of odparents and godpaent terms. There are two godparents: the padrin and the madrina. 2. Role and obligations of godparents at marr . They have no special role. They are not the best man and matron-of-honor. All they do is sit with the family, but being padrin or madrina means that you have been picked from all the relatives for a little closer relationship with the bride and groom. They have no special obligations, although very often they give an especially nice present. E. Other evidence of renthood, or other forms of ritual kinship. No evidence. 55 F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual. 1. Godchildren look to godparents for: advice. 2. Godparents look to godchildren for: love. 3. Parents look to godparents for: a kind of second father and mother to their children, but they expect nothing for themselves. 4. Godparents look to_parents for: nothing. G. The role of godparenthood in the community. No evidence. 56 CANY The Village of COLOGNORA. DI COMIPITO (Appendix C, Tuscany #l) A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: padrino madrina b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: figlioccjo figlioccia c. The godparent is addressed by the parents as: by Christian name only. In reference, the terms padrino and madrina are used. d. The godparent addresses the parents as: by Christian names e. The terms of address between godparents are: Christian names 2. Number and sex of &od ts. Two godparents are necessary, but the selection of a godfather is optional. The parents may, and often do, prefer to have two godmothers. 3. Row ard when godparents are chosen. If two godmothers are chosen, preference is of the following order: two sisters of the mother, a sister of the mother and one of the father, a sister and a friend, and finally, two friends. If one godmother and one godfather are decided upon, he is preferably a brother of the wife or husband, a cousin, or, last in choice, a friend. Selection is made early in the pregnancy. 4. The baptismal ceremony. Immediately upon the birth of the child, if the madrina-to-be is not present, she will be sent for. In most cases, selection of the madrina is made quite early in the mother's pregnancy, and it is likely that she will be present in the mother's home during the time of delivery to assist the midwife or, if there are other children, to help in their care. Sometimes she is the midwife. If the child arrives before she can be sent for, she will be the first advised of the birth. A member of the family will go to her home, and accompany her to the home of her prospective godchild, where she will be greeted with great respect, and in which she is at once referred to as madrina. If there is a padrino, he is also advised of the birth, but his presence at the parents' home is optional. Baptism is arranged to take place within twenty-four hours after birth of the child if it is at all possible. Almost never is it put off more than forty-eight hours. The baby must receive the sacrament of baptism quickly to insure his spiritual salvation. In the event there is any cause for alarm regarding the baby's health, it is the madrina who baptizes him. 57 For the baptismal ceremony, the two godmothers, or the godfather and the godmother normally go unaccompanied, with the infant to the village church. Sometimes, one or two young relatives of the baby are permitted to go along. The mother does not attend, and her first outing is for the purification ceremony. After the baptism, the little group returns to the parents' house. 5. God_arents and baptismal gifts. The clothes that the infant wears for his baptism are the gift of his godmother (or godmothers). The layette consists of a foot- and a head-covering, a fascia, a shirt, sometimes a dress if the madrina can afford so extensive a wardrobe, and an outer blanket or shawl. The fascia is a long strip of cloth, about six inches in width, usually of cotton or light wool, which is wound about the baby from armpits to ankles. It is used in warm as well as cold weather, twenty-four hours a day until the baby is able to sit up, and sometimes continues in use during sleep periods until the child walks. It insures straight bones, particularly in the legs, and the informant assured me "there are no bow-legged babies in Tuscany." I was showm a fascia over six-feet in length, made of fine cotton- brocade, and embroidered in a dainty blue with the words, "Tesoro Mio" (my treasure). A godmother will sometimes wrap the child in a treasured swatch of lace, a mantilla, a length of fabric from a fancy dress, or a portion of or the entire length of her own bridal veil. The infor- mant said it shows the extent of the godmother's love and dedication, and it sometimes takes the place of a dress if the godmother cannot provide one. The godfather may or may not contribute to the cost of the ward- robe. He sometimes makes a small gift to the child of a religious article--a medal, rosary, etc., but he in under no obligation to do so, nor is it in practice expected of him. He does give a small donation to the priest. If there is no godfather, the donation is made by the godmother. On the day after the ceremony, the godmother brings a gift of food to the mother--perhaps a pot of chicken broth. Hers is the first gift to the mother, and it is followed by similar gifts from relatives and neighbors who bring eggs, oranges, pasta, cookies, Marsala and Port wine- "the sweet and the good and the old." 6. .eLtsmalarty After the church ceremony, the godparents return with the infant to the parents' home. There is no party, although wine is served in a toast to the new godparents. No celebration takes place until the mother is completely recovered--and purified--and able to par- ticipate in the festiVities. The date is normally set for a family reunion to take place in a month to forty days from the baptismal date. But even this gathering is modest, and great parties are reserved for weddings. 58 Tiiring the interval between the baptism and the reunion, the godmother, together with relatives and neighbors, takes over the care of the infant and the preparation of meals for the family, as well as many of the household chores. 7. Obligations of baptismal godparents. a. In the event of the death of the parents. In the event of the death of both parents, the godmother has first claim to the godchild. Her claim takes priority, and may supercede the wishes of any and all blood kin of the deceased. In the event of two godmothers, decision rests with the one related by the closer degree of kinship, and, if they are equal kin, to the elder of the two. In practice, the child is not forcibly separated from what remains of the family group; however, within the memory of the informant there were two cases in which the godmother figured very prominently. In one case, a child of about five went to live with her godmother, a paternal qunt, despite the objections of her maternal grand- mother who wished to keep the little girl. In another case, the pivotal issue, as reported by the informant, was one of economics, and the burden of the child's support was automatic- ally assumed by the godmother since all of the relatives were in severe f inancial straits. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. The godparents have no special obligations. c. Other obliSations of ba ial arents. Godparents are expected to take an interest in the religious instruction of the godchild, and it is from his godfather or godmother that a child receives, ordinarily, his first medal and chain, and the rosary beads he will carry on the day of his first communion. In practice, godparents do not actively con- cern themselves with the day-to-day religious activities of their godchildren, but in the event of the death of the parents, they are obligated to assist, if necessary, in the religious training. (See Section A, Paragraph 7-c). On her goddaugher's wedding day, the baptismal godmother is in charge of the moving of the trousseau to the bride's new home. B. Ear-piercing cerem There is no ceremony. The piercing is done by a woman of the vil- lage who is particularly adept. Sometimes a little girl's first ear- rings are a gift of her baptismal godmother; sometimes, of the maternal or paternal grandmother. C. Confiirmation. 1. Godparent terms. Number of godparents. Use of baptismal god- _arents for confirmation. e_of children 59 Only one godparent takes part in confirmation. The godparent for a boy must be male, and is addressed as padrino by the child, but not by the child's parents, who use the Christian name in address. For a girl, a woman is chosen as godparent, and she is addressed by the child as madrina. The padrino or madrina cannot have been the baptismal godparent of the child. The godparent for confirmation is usually selected from the extended family with a preference for the paternal grandfather and grandmother. A child receives confirmation between the ages of six and ten, sometimes before, sometimes after first communion. The date set for confirmation depends on the bishop's infrequent visits, for he alone can administer the sacrament. 2. Role and obligations of_godparents for confirmation. The family accompanies the child and the madrina or padrino to the village church, on foot, or, if they can afford one for the occasion, in a carriage. A girl is dressed in white, her dress a present either of her parents or of her madrina. If a new dress cannot be provided, she must at least have a white veil. A buccelato or sweet bread, sometimes weighing as much as thirty pounds is baked for the occasion by the madrina or by the family of the padrino. It is carried to the church, held by one of the family during the ceremonies, and then carried to the home of the parents or of the godparent, depending on where the party is held. The obligations of the godparent do not extend beyond the day of confirmation; however, he or she is addressed for life as padrino or madrina by the child, his siblings, parents and relatives. D. Marriage. 1. Number of godparents and godparent terms. An older brother of the bridegroom is first choice as padrino for the marriage; an older sister as madrina for the bride. Otherwise, some relative within the same age-group is selected. Padrino and madrina are terms of reference only; christian names are used in address. 2. Role and obligations of godparents at marriage. Relatives walk two by two to the church. First go the padrino and the bride, then the groom and the madrina, then, in couples, sisters and sisters-in-law with husbands, and lastly parents, old folks and the children. The trip to the church is uphill, and if the walk is too difficult for the parents or grandparents, they wait at home, unless a carriage can-be provided. There is a single witness or testimonio for the services, but it is the padrino who gives the bride away, and on whose arm she walks to the altar. 60 After the ceremony, godparents and relatives shower the couple with "confetti"--tiny pastel-colored candies. Then, all go to two parties, a first at the home of the bride's parents, and a second at the new home of the bride and groom. The bride's trousseau, which is supposed to provide her with clothes and linens for at least five years, is moved in baskets from the old to the new home. The baptismal godmother is in charge. She and several female relatives selected by her carry the baskets on their heads when the party moves from one house to the other. Godparents have no obligations beyond the wedding day. E. Other evidence of godparenthood, or other forms of ritual kinsh No evidence. F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual., 1. Godchildren look to: drents for: affection, special consideration and occasional gifts. 2. Godparents look to godchildren for: respect always, and little indications from time to time that the godparents are thought of as "special" in the child's circle of relatives. 3. Prnslotoodaetfr: a very close association, particularly in times of crises, such as birth, death and marriage. If a godparent is your sister or your brother, says the informant, he or she is closer to you and your thoughts and problems than any of your other siblings. 4. Godparents look to rents for: respect and warm ties between them. A godparent knows he will be listened to with special consideration. He knows he will occupy a place of honor whenever the family gets together for special occasions. G. The role of godparenthood in the community. 1. Godparenthood as a bond with other villages-or provinces. Many of the villagers have relatives in the neighboring villa- ges of Capannori and Paganico. These relatives are often selected as godparents, and there is much visiting back and forth for feast days, holidays, births, weddings and funerals. If a relative is old, or infirm, or unable to travel between the villages, however, he would not be chosen from outside the village. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid,_ old ae_protection, etc. There is much mutual aid between families, in home repairs, in harvesting, in cooking, in times of sickness and economic distress. Consequently, when godparents are relatives, as is most often the 61 cases there is much joint work and mutual assistance. Even where godparents are unrelated to the parents, each offers his assistance to the other if it appears to be needed. It would be thought very shameful to allow one's elderly godparent to do without if there were a way to help him. 3. Godprenthood as a peace-making deviLce. How man times one can be od 04arent. 'Whether or not one can be go-darent, to children of same family. Siblings never have the same godparent. It is thought desirable to include as baptismal godparents as many relatives as possible. If relatives are exhausted as potential godparents, friends are selected. Godparents are rarely called upon to settle quarrels between children, although they are sometimes asked to speak to a child when the child and his parents have had a serious misunder- standing. Except for the above restrictions, one may be a godparent any number of times. H. Whether or not godparent tems are extended, and to Godparent terms are used in mutual address by the child and the god- parent only. There is no extension of terms. Godparents would be quite insulted over use of titles for others. I. Taboos_, superstitions, stories, etc. regarding godparents or other forms of fi-ctive kinship. No evidence. TUSCANY The City Cof Lucca (Appendix C, Tuscany #2) A. Baptisem. 1. godparent terms (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: compare commare b. The godparent addressed the godchild as: figlioccio f_occia c. The godparent is addressed by the parents as: by Christian name only; compare-commare terms are used only in reference. d. The godparent addresses parents as: by Christian name e. The terms of address between godparents are: Christian names 2. Number andf sex of godparents. One godfather and one godmother are required for baptism. 3. How chosen and when. Godparents may be friends or relatives. It does not matter which. They may or may not be husband and wife. There is some- times an attempt at a love match between godparents. 62 4. The baptismal ceremony. Baptism takes place eight to fifteen days after birth. God- parents and the father, and perhaps a few friends and relatives, go to the parish church. The mother does not attend the ser- vices. Ter first outing is for purification, and this is nor- mally within the first month after delivery. The purification service is called entrare in santo. The mother goes to the door of the parish church and waits to be called in by the priest for his blessing. 5. Obligations of baptismal godparents. There is not much emphasis on obligations beyond those of the actual-ceremony. Informant could not remember the names of her godparents. Children are urged by their parents, however, to call their godparents compare and commare and if they see one another very often there may be some gift-giving by the godparents. B. Ear-piercing ceremony. The ears of little girls are not usually pierced until after they have received confirmation. The piercing is customarily done by the godmother who was the child's sponsor at confirmation, and takes place a day or two after confirmation. C. Confirmation. 1. Godarent tems. Number of godparents. Use of baptismal god- paeosfrS confirmation There is only one godparent for confirmation--a man serving as sponsor-for a boy; a woman, for a girl. Godparents are selected from friends or relatives of the parents, and the child often has some say in the choice. Terms of address are different from those used at baptism with reference to the godparent. The godfather is called padrino. The godmother is called madrina. These terms are used by the parents as well as by the child. Godparents address the children for whom they act as sponsors as figlioccio or figlioccia. A dis- tinction is thus made between godparents of baptism, and godparents of confirmation. The terms of address for godparents of confirmation, unlike those applying to baptismal godparents, are not used for life, but fall into disuse within a month or two after confirmation. 2. Obligins of o nts of confirmation. A godfather has no obligations other than those involved on the day of confirmation. A godmother is expected to pierce the ears of her goddaughter a day or two after confirmation, or else to arrange for someone else to do the job. The godparent takes the child and the parents to lunch or to dinner after the ceremony. Sometimes the parents give a separate party in the evening. 63 D. Marriage. There are no godparents. There are, instead, witnesses. A couple may have two witnesses, but four are considered better. These are testimoni, and may be all men, all women, or a mixture of the two. In any case, the groom has also a best man, and the bride a maid or matron of honor. They may or may not be considered also as witnesses. E. Other evidence of godparenthood, etc. No evidence. F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual. -Obligations for the most part hold for ceremonial duties. There is not so much emphasis on respect. G. The role of godarenthood in the communi No evidence. H. Whether or not godparent terms are extended,-and to whom. There is no extension at all of godparent terms. I. Taboos,superstitionsetc. No evidence. 64 LAZIO The Town of Marino (Appendix C, Lazio #1) A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: compare conmare b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: comparello comparella c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: compare commare d. The godparent addresses parents as: compare commare e. The terms of address between godparents are: compare commare 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents--a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when ,odparents are chosen. The midwife is the "first" commare. She baptizes the child immediately after delivery. A second, or formal baptism takes place later at the parish church, and this second or "real" commare chosen as godmother for the ceremony is the godparent upon whom all obligations rest. The most important thing in the selection of a commare is find- ing the person you think best suited for the role. There should be "heart" between parents and godparents. Godfather and god- mother may be chosen from friends or relatives with no particular preferences. Godparents are selected within a month or two of the birth of the child. 4. The bap2tismal ceremon.. Baptism takes place usually on the eighth day after birth. The tradition is that the pregnant woman promises that, if all goes well in her pregnancy and delivery and she has a healthy baby, the baby will be baptized on the eighth day, just as Jesus Christ was circumcised on the eighth day. This pledge is made t"in one's own heart" alone or jointly with one's husband. Father and godparents go alone to the parish church. The mother stays at home. There are no purification requirements, however. The godmother carries the baby to and from the church. Wfhen the baptismal group returns, the godmother gives the child to the mother and says: "Commare, ecco Mario me lai dato pa0ano e te lo do cristiano." (Commare, here is Mario. You gave him to 65 me a pagan, and I give him to you a Christian.) The mother kisses the baby, and then, taking the godmother's hand, kneels and asks for her blessing. 5. Go rents and btismalifts. The godmother gives the baby a dress and a cape. If the infant is a girl and she is to pierce her ears, she may also give earrings. The godfather gives a gold chain and a medal, of a male saint if it is a boy, or of the Blessed Mother, if it is a girl. The god- father contributes the donation to the priest. 6. The tismal par A small party is given at the home of the parents. The godpar- ents and a few relatives and friends attend. There is usually a buffet or rinfresco. 7. Obiain fbtsml_&d2rns a. In the event of the death of the parents. The godparents are under solemn obligation to take the god- child into their homes. They must make the offer to do so, regardless of the number of surviving relatives. However, the relatives decide who is to take the child. The informant empha- sizes that the possibility that a godparent--either of baptism or of confirmation, depending on the age of the child--may raise the child, is important in determining choice of godparents. The godparent, therefore, should be someone for whom the child can or does have real affection, with real likelihood of reci- procal affection. Godparents traditionally send a wreath of flowrers. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. There are no special obligations. Godparents jointly send a wreath of flowers. B. Ear-piercing cerem Sometimes ear-piercing is done whien the little girl is very young, about two years of age. It may be done by the baptismal commare but only upon the specific request of the mother. If it is done at a later time, and this is more often the case, the baptismal commare gives the earrings, but does not usually do the cutting. C. Confirmation. 1.Godl arent terms. Number of Zodparents. Use of ba tismalgodparents for confirmation_.Age of children. The terms are the same as for baptismal godparents. There is only one godparent for confirmation--a commare for a girl, a compare for a boy. The parents choose someone whom the child is fond of, whether friend or relative. Baptismal godparents are not used. It would be considered an imposition inasmuch as their term of obliga- tion ends with confirmation. 66 2. Obligations of godparents. The godparents appointed at confirmation carry on the obligation of the baptismal godparents, and the obligations of the latter end with confirmation. The baptismal godparents are now for all prac- tical purposes out of the picture, although they are addressed for life as compare and commare. The obligations of the confirmation godparents end with the marriage of the godchild. 3. Other information. The mother does not usually attend the confirmation ceremony. After the services, the godparent brings the child to the mother who kisses him and also the godparent who has led him to "knowl- edge." At this time, the godparent presents a gift to the child- usually a bracelet for a girl, and a chain and medal for a boy. D. Marri There are no godparents. E. Other evidence of sodrenthood or other forms of ritual kins No evidence. F. The role ofZo-d arenthood in the'life of the individual. 1. Godchildren look to:god nts for: sympathy and affection. Parents try to pick godparents of whom the godchild can be genuinely fond. 2. Godparents look to godchildren for: respect and affection. 3. Parents look to godparents for: the spiritual guidance of their children in the event they or their relatives are unable to provide it. Godparents are con- sidered a kind of ultimate insurance for the care of their children should they die. 4. Godparents look to parents for: respect and consideration only. G. The role of god.arenthood in the commun I. Godparenthood as a bo'nd.with other villages or poinces. If one has relatives or friends one knows and respects in another village or town, they may become godparents of baptism or confirmation. However, it is not considered as desirable an arrangement as having godparents from writhin the town. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid age prot There is little of this, except perhaps in times of great crisis when godparents would be expected to rally to the aid of parents, or vice versa. 67 3. Godparenthood as peace-makinp dvc. How many times one can be godparent. Whether or not one can be godparent to children of same family One can be godparent as many times as one is asked. It is con- sidered a good idea to have the same godparent or godparents for children of a family because it makes all closer. Since godparents rarely enter into family affairs or disputes, they are not often peacemakers.- 4. Godaenthood as-it relates to feast day and spcal celebrations. On Palm Sunday, godchildren bring a piece of palm to the home of their baptismal godparents, or, if the child has received confirma- tion, to the home of his confirmation godparents. Palm renews the peace which exists between them. It is the emblem of good will and affection. 5. Other information. Godparents and parents are said to have "San Giovanni" between them. The term "mio San Giovanni," is sometimes used synonomously with compare or commare. Godparents are expected to break up gos- sip about the parents of their godchildren or about the children themselves. Parents have the same obligation regarding the good name of the godparents of their children. The power of San Giovanni Batista (St. John, the Baptist) is considered to be very strong and very real between parents and godparents. It is very bad for a parent to gossip idly or unkindly about a godparent, and vice versa. A third party might reprimand him by saying, "Have you no San Giovanni between you?" H. Whether or not godarent terms are extended and to whom. A godchild's sibling addresses his commare and compare by the same terms. Other than this, however, there is no extension of terms. Midwives are very often called commare because of the practice of preliminary baptism at delivery. I. Tabo titi stories, etc. Godparents sometimes present infants at baptism with amulets for protection against illness. Popular are tiny red sacks of salt, or images of hunchbacks and fish. 68 CAMPANIA The Village of ROCAN FELICE (Appendix C, Campania #I) A. Bapti sm. 1. G ent terms (male and female) a. The godparenb is addressea by the godchild as: cumpare cummare b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: culmpare cummare c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: cummpare cumare d. The godparent addresses parents as: cumpare cuimmare e. The terms of address between godparents are: cumpare cummare 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents for baptism--a godfather and a god- mother. 3. =ow and when godparents are chosen. Relatives are most often chosen, with sisters, brothers and cousins of the parents preferred. A friend is especially honored to be selected. Sometimes the best man and matron of honor of the bride and groom, who are generally their sisters and brothers, are pledged as godparents for the first child. 4. The btismal ceremony. The baptismal ceremony takes place usually within three days of birth. The mother cannot attend, for she must be purified. Very often it is only the godparents who participate, but sometimes the father and a few relatives will also attend. The godmother carries the baby to and from the church. On her return to the home of the parents, she gives the mother a blessing with the outstretched arm of the newly baptized infant. The father of the child then kneels for her kiss. 5. Obligations of batismal o earts. a. In tile event of the death of the paren. The oldest brother of the father, the oldest sister of the miother, and the godmnother jointly decide as to the disposition of the child; and the godmother and godfather must offer their services in the religious training of thle child, as well as in providing a wardrobe for first comunion and confirmation, if the child has not yet received both of these sacraments. b . In th'ie event of the deatlh of the godchild. The godparents follow the father and mother in the funeral pro- cession. They hiave, however, no special obligations. It is 69 customary to give a favorite toy of the deceased child to the godparents. B. E cere There is no special ceremony. The ear-piercing is usually done by the paternal or maternal grandmother. Earrings may or may not be pro- vided by the baptismal cummare. C. Confirmation. There is only one godparent-a godfather for a boy, or a godmother for a girl. Cumpare and cummare terms are used only for the day of the ceremony. Afterwards, these terms are used in address to the bap- tismal godparents only. D. Marriage. There are no godparents. E. Other evidence of renthood, etc. No evidence. H. Whether or not godparent terms are extended, and to whom. Godparent terms are not extended. I. Taboos titions stories etc. Godparents, and the godmother in particular, are considered particu- larl, vulnerableto mal occhio (the evil eye), because in their spiritual role they assume the position of a kind of shield between the godchild and the forces of evil. Mlal occhio cannot prevail against the child without a preliminary and successful attack against one of the godpar- ents. The informant spoke of a personal experience. She was godmother to her sister's little girl. After the baptism there was a party at her sister's home, and many people came from the village. After the visitors had left, she became sick to her stomach and fainted. It was mal occhio. Someone was trying to do harm to the child, and wanted to get her out of the house so that the infant would be unprotected. Her faith ras strong, however, and she recovered quickly. Candles were lit at each corner of the baby's bed, and a special novena of prayers was offered by the family. Nothing further developed. 70 MARCHEu The VillaZe of SAN BENEDIETTO DEL TRONTO (Appendix C, Marche 1 A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: compare commara b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: comparello comparella c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: compare commara d. The godparent addresses the parents as: compare commara e. The terms of address between godparents are: Christian names 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents -a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when _odparents are chosen. Relatives are first choice, with friends as second choice. No one can refuse if he is asked. For the first child, a couple's best man and maid of honor are often godfather and godmother. Sometimes the midwife may be made baptismal commara. Godparents are chosen toward the end of the pregnancy. 4. The tismal ceremony. Boys are baptized within a few days of birth; girls one month after birth. Boys are believed to be in greater danger of death, and an unbaptized baby boy is thought to be a particular tempta- tion to evil forces. For the baptism of the first child the mother does not attend. She must be purified. Purification is not necessary, however, for subsequent children. Godparents must receive communion a day or two before the cere- mony, and on the day of the baptism the godmother carries the infant to the church and home again. The godfather, the father of the child and perhaps a few relatives are the only ones in attendance. 5. God nts and baptismal ifts. The godparents each present the parents of the child with a gift for the baby. It is whatever they can afford, and nothing special is prescribed. The godmother gives an amulet, also, on wrhich is written or embroidered, "Good luck to the baby." It is usually a small packet of salt, or a pair of horns. 71 Parents sometimes exchange gifts, but it is not required nor expected. 6. b a. In the event of the death of the parents. Godparents must see to it that the -child is cared for, but would only take a godchild into their homes if there were no surviving relatives. Very often, of course, a godmother or god- father may be the relative w-ith whom the child wrould have lived in any case. b. In the event of the death of the &odchild.. A big funeral is important. Godparents generally contribute to the show of wealth if thley have money. c. Other obligations. Tlle informant quoted fromi Catholic catechism, and said the spiritual obligations "to see to the religious training of the child in the event the parents neglect to do so" are followed solemnly and carefully. B. E There is a ceremony when a little girl is five or six, but it is in no way associated with godparenthood. C. Confirmation. 1. Go ent terms. Number of- od tc. There is just one godparent for confirmation--a godfather for a boy, a godmother for a girl. Terms of address are the same as for baptismal godparents, although they may not be used for confirma- tion. Confirmation takes place long before first communion, whLen the child is about six years old. First communion occurs ilen the child is ten to fourteen. 2. Obli.ations ofa0dparents of confimation. They have absolutely no obligations beyond participation in the ceremony as sponsors. D. Marr :e There are no godparents. E. Other evidence of od arenthood or other forms of ritual kinshis There is a compare di fiori relationship, which may involve two girls, two boys, a boy and a girl, or two women, two men, a man and a woman. On the feast of San Giovanni Batista, June 24th, the one who wishes to enter into a compare di fiori relationship with another prepares two bouquets of flowers. These bouquets may be made up of any flowers or combination of them. The stem-ends of the bouquets are butted together so that the stems intertwine. A large ribbon or several 72 ribbons are tied around the center of the juncture of the two bou- quets, so that the bouquets are held firmly together, flower-ends facing away from one another. The combined bouquets are placed on a tray, and the tray is covered with a fancy shawl or a square of cloth. Confetti-candy is usually added to the tray in a fancy container. The covered tray is carried to the home of the person with whom one wishes to enter into a compare relationship, by a friend or relative. One does not take it himself. It is delivered into the hands of the individual. If the person receiving the tray wishes to become compare with the sender, then on June 29th, the feast of San Pietro, a similar tray is prepared by him and sent in return to the donor of the first bouquet. On acceptance of this tray, the two parties are considered to have entered into a compare relationship. There is no formal meeting or ceremony other than the exchange of bouquets to seal the agreement. Parties henceforth address one another as compare or commara. They are distinguished from regular baptismal compare and commara only wYhen specific reference is made to their being compari di San Giovanni, or compari di fiori. The relationship is acknowledged by the community, but compare- commara terms are limited in use to the participants. There is no renewal of the relationship on subsequent feasts, and it lasts just as long as it is kept active by the participants. The informant says that, in the case of a young man and woman, it is often a kind of "puppy-lovet" association. Otherwise, it is considered as a sign of strong affection between two people, often of the same sex and usually of approximately the same age. H. WYhether or not jod aet terms are extended, and to whom. Godparent terms are never extended. I. Taboos sprtitions, sori'es, etc. regardingT aodprenthood or fictive- kinship2 ceremonies. A pregnant woman cannot baptize. It would bring very bad luck upon the baby. It is bad luck for the baby if the godmother stum- bles in her recitation of the credo at baptism. An amulet given by the godmother to her godchild on the day of baptism is especially effective against the powers of the devil or of mal occhio. If the godmother irons her godchild's diapers, the baby will be afraid of thunder and lightning. It is bad luck if godparents marry within one year of the baptism. The Story of the Evil Comyare (This story was told to me by the informant whlio relates it as having happened to his father, who, in this story, is the child's father.) 73 After the birth of his first child, a son, the father was advised by the child's commara that the newly designated compare was, unknoirn to all of them, a very evil man who had sold his soul to the devil in exchange for special privileges and the power of mal occhio. The compare, a sup- posed friend of the parents, was at this very time seeking the soul, and perhaps the very life of his godchild. On the occasion of the next midnight Mass (the informant did not know the feast), the young father went to the village church. He stood at the back of the church, to the rear of the pews. At the precise moment the priest turned and spread out his hands to say: "Gloria in excelsis Deo, ' the father removed two black combs from his pocket, and linking the teeth of the combs together, raised them before him in the gesture of the priest and said, "As the teeth of these combs are bound together, bind up the power of those who wish evil to my family. So long as these combs are locked, so will their evil power be locked and useless." He held the combs in front of him until Mass was over and the people began to disperse. Those villagers who were good and free from guilt were able to leave the church; those who were evil and able to cast mal occhio were held, as though by an invisible force, to the confines of the church. The compare was among them. Three times the evil group filed past the father, spitting upon him and reviling him with ugly words. With each passing, they formed a pro- cession around the church. The power of the combs held them. At last the compare stepped forward as a spokesman to bargain for their release. The terms agreed upon were that, in exchange for the promise that the family of the father and his descendants would for seven generations be exempt from the power of those present and their descendants, the group would be released. All present reluctantly agreed. The combs were unlocked and the evil ones filed out of the church. The infant godson had been very ill, but from that moment his health improved, and he was soon well and strong. The informant stated that never again was the family troubled by the influence of mal occhio, although there was a good deal of it in the village. The Village of FRONTONE (Appendix C, Marche #2) A. BaDtisM. 1. Godpi1arent terms (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: compare commare b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: santolo santola 74 C. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: compare commare d. The godparent addresses the parents as: compare commare e. The terms of address between godparents are: compare commare or Chri stian names 2. Number and sex of goprts. There are two godparents -a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when moparents are chosen. Parents like to select their brothers and sisters as godparents for their first children. For subsequent children other relatives and sometimes friends are chosen. They are sometimes chosen dur- ing the pregnancy, and sometimes not until the birth of the child. 4. The baptismal ceremony. Baptism occurs from ten to fifteen days after birth at the vil- lage church. The mother of the child does not attend, because purification is necessary and this ceremony does not take place until about three weeks after childbirth. A woman, relative or friend, not the commare carries the baby to and from the church. The father of the child attends the ser- vices, and together with the godparents, this usually constitutes the church group. Godmother and godfather stand in front of the father during the services, the godmother taking the baby from the woman and holding the baby during the ritual only. The child is then returned to the arms of the woman who carries him home. 5. Godparents and batismal gifts. The godparents usually make a joint gift of a chain and medal for a boy, a bracelet for a girl. The godfather contributes the donation to the priest. 6. Obligations of bapsmal Podrents. a. In the event of the death of the parents. The godparents offer to take the godchild into their homes until the funeral services are completed. In this case, neither the godparents nor the ohild attend the funeral. Every attempt is made to keep the surviving children together in the home of the relative who can best provide for them. If there are many children and if a godparent is a close relative, he sometimes takes his godchild permanently into his home. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. Godparents are among the principal mourners, but they have no special obligations. 75 B. Ear-piercing ceremony. The baptismal commare pierces the ears of her goddaughter when the child is three or four years old. She also provides the earrings. After the operation, there is a small party. C. Confirmation. I. Godprent terms. Number of-Godarents, etc. There is only one godparent for confirmation--a man for a boy, a woman for a girl. Baptismal godparents may not be used. Terms are the same as for baptismal godparents. 2. Obligations of Zodparents. They have no obligations beyond the day of the ceremony. They are addressed for life, however, by godparent terms. D. Marriage. Compare-commare terms are used in addressing the best man and matron of honor on the wedding day only. They have no obligations other than those involved in the marriage ceremony. E. Other evidence of godparenthood, etc. No evidence. G. The role of godparenthood in the coiuni 1. Godparenthood as a bond with other villages or provinces. It is often looked upon as very desirable to ask a relative from a neighboring village to be godparent. It brings families closer. 2. Godrenthood as mutual aid, old ae rection, etc. Relatives often work together in the harvesting of crops. A god- parent would normally be included only on the basis that he is also a relative; however, if a godparent needed assistance and had no one else to help, the family of his godchild would be, in conscience, bound to help. An aged godparent is treated with great courtesy and respect. His godchild visits him and helps with small chores and home repairs, etc. 3. Godparenthood as eace-makin dow man times one can be godparent, etc. Godparents are never asked nor expected to interfere in petty squabbles. In the case of serious problems involving a godchild, they might be called upon. One can be a godparent as often as asked, but never to more than one child of a family. H. Whether or not godparent terms are extended and to whom. Godparent terms are never extended. I. Taboos, suerstitions,etc. A godmother often gives an amulet to the baby after the baptismal ceremonies. The most popular one is a small pair of horns in gold or coral. 76 ABRUZZI The Town of CASSTEL DI SANGRO (Appendix C, Abruzzi #1) A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: compare commara b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: il mio San Giovanni il mia San Giovanni c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: compare commara d. The godparent addresses the parents as: compare commara e. The terms of address between godparents are: compare commara 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents--a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when o rents ard chosen. Friends are preferred. One chooses his best friend for the role. Sometimes relatives are asked: brother, sisters or cousins, but only when there is a close association between them. Siblings have the same godparents (See Section G. Paragraph 3). 4. The baptismal ceremony. The baptism takes place three months after the child is born, on a Sunday. The mother does not participate, although there are no purification requirements'. She stays at home to do the cooking for the party. The godparents, the father and, a few relatives go to the vil- lage church. The godmother carries the baby to and from church. 5. Godparents and baptismal g:ifts. There are separate gifts from the godparents. The godmother gives earrings to a girl, a ring to a boy. The godfather also gives an article of jewelry. 6. The batismal party. A party is given by the parents Relatives and friends are invited. served, and there is also confetti immediately after the baptism. Mustacioli (a paste) is (a candy). 7. Obligis of smal rents. a. In the event of the death of the parents. Godparents volunteer to take the child only if there are no surviving relatives. 77 b. In the event of the death of the godchild. A good funeral is very important. If the family is poor, the godparents would contribute to the cost of the funeral. c. Other oblilations. (See also Section I.) Godchildren expect gifts from their godparents on birthdays and on Easter and the feast of the Epiphany. Godparents have little, if anything, to do in practice with the religious train- ing of their godchildren. B. Ear-piercing. ceremon. No evidence. C. Confirmation. 1. Go arent terms. Number of -od tc. The terms are the same as for baptismal godparents. However, there is only one godparent--a godfather for a boy, a godmother for a girl. Baptismal godparents are never used. The children are about nine or ten, and receive confirmation before first communion, which is at the age of fifteen or sixteen. 2. Obligations of _godparentsat confirmation. During the ceremony they sit in the pews. They are named as sponsors by the priest, but have no special obligations. They have no duties toward the child after the day of confirmation. They are addressed for life, however, as compare and commara. 3. Other information. After the services, the children must kiss the hands of the god- parent. Then, in the company of his godparent, the child goes from house to house of his relatives, kneeling and kissing their hands. A boy wears a white or a red band on his arm. D. Mari e. There are no godparents. E. Other evidence of o renthood or other forms of ritual kins No evidence. F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual. respect and presents on holidays. 2. Godparents look to godchild for: respect. Godchildren are expected to visit them on the feast of the Epiphany and on Easter. On the feast of the Epiphany, the godchild brings cookies; on Easter, he brings a bit of blessed palm, a symbol of the peace which exists between them, and a special cake, called pigna. 3. Parents look to godparents for: affection only. 78 4. Godparents look to parents for: friendship, and the training of children in respect for their god- parents. Godparents and parents traditionally exchange good wine. Godparents must be the first informed of a godchild's forthcoming marriage. G. The role of o nthood i the commni . 1. Godparent as a bond with other villages or provinces. Never. Godparents must be close to the home of the child. 2. Go Gent as mutual aid, etc. There is strong motivation. Godparents and parents build houses together, do the harvesting together, and often make wine together. 3. Godparenthood as p2eace-making, device. How many1 times one can be godparent. Whether or not one can be godparent to children of same family. One can be godparent to as many children as one wishes; as many times as one is asked. Some people are especially popular. It is very desirable to have the same godparents for children of a single family. This arrangement is virtually enforced in the village, so that, even if the godparents of the parents' first child have married and have mates eligible for the godparent role, the original godfather and godmother are called upon again and again to act the role. 4. Godp2arenthood as it relates to feast days and special celebra- tsetc- On the feast of Sap Vincenzo, after the procession in honor of the patron of the village, godchildren visit their godparents. On Palm Sunday, the godchild brings his godparents some blessed palm, a symbol of the peace which exists between them. On Easter, the godchild brings a pigna to each of his godparents. It is a cake of sweetbread, and a loop of the dough holds a hard-boiled egg to the top of it. H. Whether or not godp t tems are exten and to whom. Terms of address are extended to siblings of godparents only. I. Taboos superstitions, stories, etc. No pregnant woman can baptize. It is bad luck for the baby. Eligible godparents who kiss on the day of baptism will marry. Fre- quently at birth or after baptism, the godmother gives an amulet against mal occhio. It may be a red sack of salt, which she strings on a ribbon around her godchild's neck, or pins to his clothes. It may be two horns, of ivory or precious metal. These amulets may be purchased with a pin on the back or with a metal loop at the top for a ribbon. It is necessary that the godmother be capable of diagnosing 79 ailments of the child. She need not herself be gifted in magic, and there is evidently some suspicion attached to the extraordinarily gifted. However, she must be alert, and is frequently consulted, for -the occa- sions on which it is necessary to call in a woman versed in spells and practices which ward off and cure mal occhio. (One way of diagnosing mal occhio is to pour oil from a teaspoon into a basin of water. If the oil spreads, it is mal occhio. The woman continues the operation until the oil does not spread, and then the spell is broken. There is an incantation repeated in attempts to prevent spreading of oil. These magic words are carefully guarded, and cautiously mumbled so no one will learn them. They may be revealed to another person only on Christmas Eve at midnight. And then, they can be told to one person only.) If mal occhio is suspected, another method is to rub the infected, inflamed, or "sick" area with a piece of raw meat. The meat is then buried in the yard at night with special incantations. The sign of the cross is effective against mal occhio only when combined with special actions or incantations. The Sto of the Stolen Host. A woman of the village, whose husband had lost his faith, was advised by a wise woman how he might again be made a church-goer. The woman fol- lowed her instructions. Next morning after receiving holy communion, she removed the host from her mouth and wrapped it in a handkerchief. When she returned to her house and it was time to prepare the noonday meal, she chopped the host and mixed it with the vegetable which she served to her husband. After the meal he returned to the fields. In a little while, small pools of blood began to form on the floor of the kitchen, and soon the entire floor was slippery and running with blood. Long before it was time for her husband to return to the house, she heard him call to her, and running from the house saw him at some dis- tance with his oxen. The oxen were kneeling before the cart, and despite lashings from her husband's stick would not get up. Her husband explained that all day long the oxen, and the animals of the village had knelt at his passing, so that he had not been able to get any plowing done. He was very puzzled and unhappy, and had decided to pack up his tools and go home, but the animals stopped every few feet to kneel, and he had to beat them to make them move at all. Now, they would not even get up. Weeping, the woman told him of what she had done, and of the blood in the house. They were afraid to go to the priest, and so sought out her commara, who suggested that the husband donate a cross to the church. He did this, and at the very hour that the cross was put up, the blood dis- appeared from the floors, the animals' behavior became normal and the hus- band's faith was restored. 80 (This story was told to the informant by the informant's mother, and is related as having happened in the village.) The Story of the Strange Compare. and the Pills. A woman of the village, widowed with four children, married the brother of her dead husband, a widower with three children of his own. The single boy of the family, the woman's step-son, was suffering from body sores. Large, running sores covered every part of his body except his face. The step-mother ministered to him with love and patience, and tried all of the remedies known to her and to the wise practitioners of the village, but the boy did not improve at all. His condition, instead, gr"ew worse with each day, so that he was unable to work or play. The woman prayed many hours for her step-son's recovery. She was a woman of great faith. One day, as she walked along the road which lead from the house to the fields, head bent saying her beads (the rosary) for the recovery of the bo-y, she was startled to come upon a well-dressed stranger, who stood-before her in the middle of the path. The view from the road was unobstructed, and a large ditch banked either side. She wondered where he had come from. He greeted her as, "Commara!l" She was surprised, and said, "1How is it you call me 'Commara'? I do not know you." But the stranger did not answer. Reaching into his pocket, he took out two white pills. These he handed to her. "Tonight when the others are asleep, fill the tub with water and put in these tw'o pills, and bathe the boy." The woman looked dowrn into her hand at the pills he had placed there, and when she raised her eyes to question the stranger, he was gone. There were no trees, no bend in the road, only the wide fields and the ditches. She wondered where he had gone. That night after she had put her children to bed, she sat for a time in the kitchen with her husband, but she could not bring herself to tell him what had happened. She waited until he had gone to bed, and then filled the tub with water, and taking the pills from her apron dropped them into the water. The water turned a bright green. She went in and quietly woke her step-son, and lifting him from his bed, brought him into the kitchen and lowered his body into the green water. In a little 'while, she, brought some towels and told him to stand and climb out of the tub. When he ifted himself from the water, she sawY that the sores were still there, as bad as before. She dried the bo'y off and put him to bed, ayad then she went to bed and said her prayers, but she 'did not sleep. Before the sun rose, she got up and set to work preparing bread and coffee for the morning 81 meal. She heard the children begin to stir, and then a loud cry from one of the girls. Rushing into the bedroom, she saw the boy standing naked beside his bed. His entire body was clean and free from sores so that his skin was fresh and clear as a baby's. Then, the mother told the children and her husband what had hap- pened, and kneeling down they thanked God, and they knew who the compare of the road was. (The informant related the story as having happened to his grand- mother.) ABRUZZI The Town of VILLAFOURINA -(Appendix C, Abruzzi #2 A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: cpare cnmmare b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: c psr cummarella c. The godparent is addressed by the parents as: cumpare cummare d. The godparent addresses the parents as: e cummare e. The terms of address between godparents are: cmpare cummare 2. Number and sex of godparents. One godparent is enough for baptism. Sometimes two are used, because it is thought a good idea for a child to have both a god- father and a godmother. If there is only one godparent, a god- father is chosen for a boy, and a godmother for a girl. B. Ear-p3ercipZ ceremony There are no godparents. Ears are pierced by the village midwife or doctor. C. Confirmation. There is one godparent- a godfather for a boy, a godmother for a girl. Terms of address are the same as for baptism, but they have no real responsibilities beyond the ceremony. D. Marriage . The two witnesses for the marriage are addressed, for the day of the marriage only, by the same terms employed for baptismal god- parents. To distinguish these from the baptismal godparents, they are referred to as cumpare di matrimonio and cummare di matrimonio. 82 The Village of VILLA SEBASTIANO (Appendix C, Abruzzi #) A. sm 1. Godparent terms (male and female): a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: compare commara b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: comparucclo commarella c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: compare conmara d. The godparent addresses parents as: cpe commara e. The tenns of address between godparents are: compare commara 2. Number and sex of_godparents. There are two godparents--a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when godparents are chosen. Friends and relatives who are close to the fami ly ask if they may be godparents. The parents cannot properly refuse. Baptism usually takes place within the first week after the birth of the baby. 4. Godparents and baptismal gifts. One of the godparents, usually the godmother, gives an amulet against mal occhio. The most popular represents, in bone or solid gold, a hand with the little and index fingers extended like horns. They were formerly made with a metal loop at the top, through which a ribbon could be run, and the amulet was placed around the neck of the child. Now, these amulets are generally purchased with pins affixed or soldered to the back, and the amulet is pinned to the infant's clothing. These amulets may be given before or after baptism. If before, a new ribbon is attached to the amulet for the occasion of the baptism. Godparents sometimes provide animal-horns to attach to the posts of the baby's crib. These may be purchased with a screw base, and are fitted over the head of the baby's bed. B. Other evidence of godpenthood, or other forms of ritual kins . There is the compare-del-fiume ceremony. The principals are a boy and a girl, from ten to fourteen years of age. It is "puppy- love," says the informant. To seal their affection for one another, they go to the river, and on the banks pledge their devotion, and then join right hands in a tight handshake. Kneeling on the river bank, they submerge joined hands into the river, remove and re-dip them three times. They are then compare and commara to one another. They address one another by these terms, rather than by christian names, on the occasions when they are alone or when they are with 83 people to whom the relationship has been made known. The bond is not a secret one. The families of the youngsters are usually advised of the pact. It is a village form of "going steady," but not an engagement. Sometimes the boy and girl marry, sometimes not. The pact is considered broken when either the boy or the girl enters into a "steady" relationship with someone else. However, this new relationship does not necessarily become a compare-del-fiume pact. Commara of the Altar. A bond exists between those who have been passed by their mothers as infants over the altar of the village church together, as well as between the mothers themselves, and between each woman and the child of her com- panion. All parties address one another as commara or compare, to the extent that one child would later call the mother of the other child commara. He would also address by commara or compare the girl or boy who shared in the ritual. The ceremony is associated with no particular date. No obligations of consequence are involved, but the participants consider one another "more than friends," and if one asks a favor of his commara, he expects an extraordinary effort to be made in fulfilling it. 84 PUGLIE The City of BARI (Apendi C, Pglie #) A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female): a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: compa commare b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: compa conmare c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: com a commare d. The godparent addresses the parents as: compa commare e. The terms of address between godparents are: compa commare 2. Number and sex of- o nts. There are two godparents--a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when-godparents are chosen. Friends are almost always chosen, by the joint decision of the parents. The informant says they rarely select a relative because they wish to make new bonds. Godparents are never approached for the role until after the birth of the baby. It is considered bad luck if the request is made during the pregnancy. 4. The baptismal ceremoy The ceremony takes place within a week of birth. The godparents and the mother and father are the only ones who go to the church. There are no purification requirements for the mother. The god- mother carries the baby to the parish church and to the parents' home after the ceremony. 5. Godparents and baptismal gifts. Very often, the godparents jointly give money to provide for clothes for the infant. Sometimes, the clothes themselves are given. In addition, the godfather often gives a medal. Godparents jointly provide the donation to the priest, which is handed to the priest by the godfather. 6. Thebap.tismal p There is a party at the home of the parents after the ceremony for the baptismal group and a few friends and relatives. Gener- ally, sweets and liqueurs (rosolio, strega, or caffe sport) are served. Sometimes there is a dinner. 7. Obligations of bap.tismal odpaents. 85 a. In the event of the death of the parents. Godparents have no obligations. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. Godparents have no obligations. c. Other obligations of baptismal rents. Godparents are expected to encourage a relationship of friendship, intimacy, and confidence with their godchildren. "Spiritual guidance is not really their province." They are expected, however, to respond when called upon to make chas- tisements for misconduct. B. Ear-pierci cere . There is ear-piercing, but no ceremony and no godmother. It is usually performed by the little girl's mother, when the child is about five. C. Confirmation. 1.-Godparent terms. Number of arents. Use of baptismal godparents for confirmation. Age of children. Godparent terms are the same as for baptism. There are two godparents for confirmation--a godfather and a god- mother. Baptismal godparents may be used, but parents generally prefer to select new godparents for confirmation. The informant stressed that the use of baptismal godparents at confirmation might be interpreted as a lack of friends from among whom new sponsors should be chosen. Confirmation may take place before or after first communion, which is at the age of seven or eight. 2. Obliations of o.dparents of confimation. During the ceremony they are present as sponsors, but have no ritual duties. They are expected always to be on friendly terms with the child and his parents. While these godparents are addressed by the same terms as baptismal godparents, their relationship with the child and his family is not thought of as being as significant or as permanent as that of baptismal godparents. D. Marr . 1. umber of arents and godaent terms. There are two godparents at marriage--a godfather and a godmother. Terms of address are the same as for baptism. 2. Role and oblitions of godpants. The godparents serve as witnesses as well as best man and maid- of-honor. They have no obligations beyond the ceremony. E. Other evidence of godparenthood, or other forms of ritual kins No evidence. 86 F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual. 1.G'odchildren look togodparents for: friendship, intimacy and confidence. They hope for small presents on feast days, birthdays and holidays, as well as money gifts from time to time, and loans if needed. 2. Godparents look to :odchild for: "ta source of affection and respect." 3. Parents look to god:arentsfor: a pleasant, friendly relationship based on mutual respect "no matter what happens." 4. Godparents look to parents for: the same friendly, pleasant relationship based on mutual respect "no matter what happens." The godparents also feel that it is the province of the parents to help a child develop a respectful attitude toward his godparents. G. The.role of enthood in the commun 1. Godparnthood as a bond with other villages o provinces. It is considered very desirable to have a godparent in another city or village, in the same or in another province. It provides safe passage and convenience in traveling. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid, old-age protection etc. There is little of this. Godparenthood is thought of "mainly as a source of affection." 3. Godparenthood as a p2eace-makngdevi'ce. How-Many times.one can be ~oprent. Whether or not one cn be gdaent to the children 3. !a eca L-pr3 of the same f'amiL. It is considered very desirable to have the same godparents for siblings. It is often done and Strongly proper. Godparents are not often, called upon to settle minor differences, but such an arrangement is felt to make for closer relationships between all- godparents, parents and godchildren. One can be godparent as often as one is asked. 4. Goparenthood as itrelates to feast s and'special celebrations. On the feast of San Nicola, the patron saint of Bari, there is sometimes a small party at the home of the parents to which the god- parents are invited. On Palm Sunday, the godchild brings a piece of palm to each of his godparents. It is, a symbol of peace. 5. Other benefits. No evidence. H. Whether or not godparent terms are extended and to whom. Godparent terms are much extended. Terms of address, princi- pally for baptismal godparents, are extended to all within families 87 of godparents and parents. Terms are also extended to one's godchild's siblings. Also, one would call his father's compa by the same term of address. Terms of address, however, are never extended to strangers. I. Taboos, -serstitions stories etc. regardin odparenthood. No evidence. The Citz of Baxi (Append'x C, Puglie #2) A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: compar comar b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: sometimes by Christian name, sometimes formally as: compar comar c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: compar comar d. The godparent addresses the parents as: compar comar e. The terms of address between godparents are: compar comar 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents--one godfather and one godmother. 3. How and when godparents are chosen. Godparents are almost always chosen from friends. The parents wish "to add new people to the circle of the family." 4. The baptismal ceremony. Baptism takes place a week to two weeks after birth. The god- parents and perhaps the father and a few relatives go to the parish church. The mother cannot attend the baptism, because she must first be purified. B. Ear-piercing ceremony. No ear-piercing ceremony. C. Confirmation. The same godparent terms are used as for baptism. There are two god- parents, a godfather and a godmother, but there is much less emphasis on this relationship than on the baptismal one. D. Marriage. The same terms are used as for the baptismal godparents. There are two godparents, who also serve as witnesses for the wedding ceremony. 88 CALABRIA The Town of VIBO VALENTIA (Appendix C, Calabria #1) A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: cumpari cumare b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: cumparuzzu cumaruzza c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: cmparl cumare d. The godparent addresses the parents as: cuMpari cumare e. The terms of address between godparents are: cumpari Christian names, or: cumare The informant says that "in lower dialec.t" the terms, Compare San Giovanni or Mi San Giovanni may be used to refer to the bap- tismal godfather as well as to godfathers of confirmation or of marriage. The expressions are never used with reference to women. 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents--a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when godparents are chosen. The relationship preferred in the selection of godparents. The informant advises that patterns of choice vary with the social class. On the "higher level," godparents for one's first children are generally husband-and-wife combinations, on consan- guineal and affinal relatives. Later on, wherever possible a brother and sister of the child being baptized serve as godfather and godmother. The informant was godfather to his sister. In the latter case, godparent terms are not used in address except in occasional gestures of affection. The pattern for "the peasants," says the informant, is for the best man and matron-of-honor to be godparents for the first child. These, too, are normally husband and wife. Subsequent godparents are chosen from relatives, and are also, for the most part, hus- band and wife. In any case, friends are very rarely chosen as godparents. Godparents are chosen at any time during the pregnancy. 4. The baptism.l ceremon. Baptism takes place from eight days to one year after birth. Baptism in the home is popular. Arrangements are made for the priest to come from the parish church with the holy water and sacred oils, and the ceremony takes place in a specially prepared and decorated room in the parents' home. 89 Baptism may also take place at the baptismal font of the parish church. The godmother carries the baby to the church and home again. There are no purification requirements for the mother and she is usually in attendance. 5. Godparents and ba smal gifts. There is usually a joint gift to the infant from the godparents. It is generally something in silver. The godfather provides the donation for the priest. In the towns, money is given; however, the informant says that in the village, it is more likely to be eggs or chickens or bcthi. 6. Obligations of baptismal godparents. a. In the event of the death of the parents. As relatives they would naturally be involved in the ques- tion of the care of the child; but, as godparents, they would have no special obligations. b. In the event of tae death of the godchild. See Section A, Paragraph 6-a above. c. Other obliigations of bptismal godparents. The obligations of baptismal godparents as godparents are slight, since they are almost always already a part of the nuclear or extended family. B. Ear-piercin ceremon There is no ear-piercing ceremony. The ears of little girls are pierced at a very early age by her mother, a relative or whomever is considered most capable of the cutting. C. Confirmation. 1.Godparent ter-ms. Niumber of godparents. Use of baptismal godpar- ents for confirmation. Age of children. There is only one godparent: a godmother for a girl, a godfather for a boy. The godparent, generally a relative, must be different from the baptismal godparent. The terms of address are the same as for the baptismal godpar- ents, however, but are rarely used after the ceremony except in a particular gesture of affection, or in reference. Confirmation takes place after first cozmmin'ion, usually wrhen the child is about sixteen years of age. 2. Obligations of godparents of confirmation. They have absolutely no obligations beyond participation as sponsor at the ceremony. D. Mrriage. 1. Number of rodarents and &odarent terms. There are two godparents, and for the day of the ceremony only they are addressed by the same terms as those designated for bap- tismal godparents. 90 2. Rendobliationsofod ents. The godfather acts as witness and best man; and the godmother as witness and matron-of-honor. Their obligations hold only for the ceremony and would be those conventionally expected of a best man and matron-of-honor in the United States. E. Other evidence of odparenthood or other,forms of ritual kinsh No evidence. It is to be noted, however, that although there is no godparenthood specially associated ;rith the feast of San Giovanni, on June:24,: the expression cumpari San Giovanni or mi San Giovanni is used by some in reference to the baptismal godfat%er. The association, is that St. John the Baptist is the patron saint of baptism and the guardian of godparents and godchildren. F. The role of godparent'iood in the life of the Individual. The informant says that the role oA godparenthood in the life of the individual is not significant because the parties involved are already closely related, as a general rule. A mother or father may, however, sometimes remind a child that he is being, not only unkind to a brother or sister, aunt or uncle, etc., but also disrespectful to his cumpari or cunare. G. The role of godparenthood in the community. 1. Godparenthood as a bond with other villages or provinces. This rarely occurs with the townspeople; however, the villa- gers sometimes like to choose a relative from another village, particularly for confirmation. It is sometimes done for baptis- mal godparents, too, but rarely for a first child, even in the villages. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid, old-age.protection,etc. This exists only insofar as godparents are generally already related and are a part, at least, of the extended family. 3. Godparenthood as a p2eace-making device. How many times one can be godparent. Whether or not one can be godparent to children of same family See Section F, above. One may be godparent as many times as one wishes or as many times as one is asked. It is thought very desirable to act as godfather or godmother to one's sibling, although a brother or sister would not be godparent to more than one of his siblings. 4. Go.parenthood as it relates to feast and al celebrations. Both birthdays and feast days receive some attention, but mainly because godparents and godchildren are generally of the same kin group. There is a big procession in which all participate on the feast of the patron saint, San Leolucca. 91 H. Whether or not godparent terms are extended, and to whom. Godparent terms of address are much extended, "so long as you are good friends and of the same class." A woman "from the lower level would not call an aristocrat cumare." Extension of terms is on the age-level of parents and godparents. Terms are never extended to brothers and.;sisters Of.a godchild. The terms are never extended to strangers, nor used in casual greetings. I. Taboos, superstitions etc. There is considerable activity with caccia l'occhio (doing away with "the eye"), but is not particularly associated with godparent- hood. Amulets, however, are sometimes provided by relatives and godparents. 92 BASILICATA The Town of VIGGIANO (Appendix C, Basilicata #1) Except where otherwise indicated, the information set forth for Calabria #1 holds also for the town of Viggiano. A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: d. The godparent addresses the parents as: e. The terms of address be.tween godparents: cumpare cumare cRumarino cumarina cmpare cumare c3aps e cumare Christian names H. Whether or not godparent terms are extended and to whom. Terms are extended in the same way as for Calabria #1, with empha- sis again on the limitation of this activity within prescribed social levels. Cumpare-cumare terms are used very much as casual greetings within the given social class. I. Superstitions, taboos, stories, etc. regardin godparenthood. The bride and groom must be led by their matrimonial godparents to take different routes to and from the church. It would be bad luck and an omen of ill-fortune to retraverse, on one's return from the ceremony, a street taken on the way to the church for the cere- monyy. 93 SICILY The Torn of COMISO (Appendix C, Sicily #1) A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: parrino parrina b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: fia&hiozzu figghi ozza c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: cumpari cummare d. The godparent addresses the parents as: cumpari cum.are e. The terms of address between godparents are: Christian names if husband and wife; otherwise: C pr cmnmare 2. Number and sex of prents. There are two baptismal godparents -a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when godparents are chosen. Friends are preferred, "because with relatives you already have a tie or bond." One seeks a friend of good character and personal- ity. All else equal, parents select someone as well off financially as they, or better off. It is a very great honor to be asked as godparent. Godparents may be chosen at any time during pregnancy. and wives are the most popular godparent combination. Husbands 4. The baptismal ceremony. Baptism takes place as soon as possible, perhaps a week after birth or "as soon as the baby can stand water."' The ceremony takes place at the parish church, and the infant is immediately regis- tered as a parish member. He would be considered "a renegadet' if he later attended services at the church of another parish. No information on purification requirements for mother. 5. Godparents and baptismal_ ifts. The godparents, who are usually husband and wife, give a joint present. The husband is in charge of money expenditures, and the decision about a gift is often his. Sometimes a fancy toy is given for later use; sometimes a ring. 6. The bptismal party. The baptismal party is at the home of the parents on the after- noon or evening of the day of the ceremony. A dinner party is often held before the general festivities. The dinner is for the 94 parents and godparents only. Then, later in the evening, relatives and friends join them for wine and sweets. There is much confetti (candy). To decide who will give the first and following toasts a little game is played. Two people, at a given signal, hold out the fingers of one hand--one man perhaps showing three fingers, and his partner, just two fingers. The host counts off five people in the room, and the fifth is made patruni (boss). The patruni can make a toast, or he can order anyone in the room to do anything and his instructions must be obeyed. He may ask someone to "sit in that chair and drink nothing for twenty minutes," or to "pour wine for the cummare." Usually, the first toasts are to the parents and to the godparents. 7. Obligations of bapsmal godparents. a. In the event of the death of the parents. Relatives would care for the child--grandparents, an aunt or an uncle, and never the godparents, unless there were no relatives'. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. There are no obligations upon the godparents. In spite of the death of the child, however, the bond is considered to remain between parents and godparents. Nevertheless, the nature of the bond has changed. While the child lived, par- ents and godparents would always be cumpari, i.e. the rela- tionship was indissoluble; but, if after the death of the godchild there should be a quarrel or serious difference between them, the bond could be severed. There are idiom- atic expressions by which the association is ended: "Muriu lu figj3hiozzu nun simu cchiu c ari (Once the godchild has died, we are no more cumpari.") Also; "Mancato lllggetto per cui si era insieme si rompono, glio bbllhi."I "Once the object which held us together is lost, there are no more obligations."1) Conversely, if the relationship between godparents and parents remains friendly and active, another phrase is often used in a gesture of affection, and in farewells: "Starn cumpari . ("We remain--we are still--cumpari.") Or:s "Stiamo cupari" ("I am still your cumpari.*) c. Other obligations of baptismal 0odparents. The other obligations of baptismal godparents are mainly spiritual. 'Parents choose carefully, because they are interested in having godparents who will look after the god- child's spiritual welfare if anything happens to the parents. Godparents also concern themselves with the physical wel- fare of their godchildren. The informant tells of playing in 95 the war-ruins of the town with duds of hand-grenades. There had been occasional accidents from live grenades, and neighbors informed his parents of what he had been doing. His parents cautioned him, and also advised his godparents, who further chastized him so that he might realize the gravity of the situ- ation. B. Ear-piercing ceremony. The ears of little girls are pierced when the children are about two years old. The informant said it was not so much an event in town as in the village, but he had no information about it. C. Confirmation. 1.Godp2arent ter-ms. Number of odaents. Wfhether or not batismal 90dparents May be used. Age of children. The terms for confirmation are the same as the terms used for baptismal godparents. There are two godparents at confirmation- a godfather and a godmother. Baptismal godparents are never used. New godparents are chosen from very close friends, with a preference, once again, for hus- bands and wives. Children are usually about ten or eleven years old, and receive confirmation after they have received first communicn (at about seven years of age). Confirmation is administered by the Bishop of Syracusa. 2. Obligations of d nts of confirmation. They are the same, although not as strong, as those of baptismal godparents. (See Section A, Paragraph 7-c above.) The godparents give presents at graduation, and sometimes on birthdays "1if there is affinity." 3. Other information. A large party is given at the parents' home after confirmation, with festivities even more accentuated than at baptism. D. Marria < 1.Number of godparents and godparent terms. There are two godparents chosen for the wedding ceremony. These may be two men, two women or a man and a woman. The terms of address are the same as those for baptism. 2. Roeadolgton.fgdaet- Godparents are also the witnesses. They stand with, but behind the bride and groom during the ceremony. E. Other evidence of oarenthood, or other forms of ritual kins . There is no other godparent-participation. However, the informant mentions strong participation of young people in church clubs on age 96 graded basis. Clubs are organized by parish affiliations with a patruni or patron in charge of each. There are two groups of the Associazione Cattolica Italiana Maschile: one for boys eight to sixteen; one for boys from eighteen until married. The Associazione Cattolica Femminile is similarly organized for girls. A group of young women is represented by the Gioventu Femminile Cattolica. F. The role of-godparenthood in the life of the individual. 1. Godchildren look to godrents for: gifts and special advice. The secrecy of their conversations is inviolable. Godparents may be approached for money, and small loans generally need not be repaid. 2. Godparents look to godchildren for: respect. They are remembered on New Year's, on feast days and birthdays with visits and gifts. 3. Parents look to- odp2arents for:- 3~~~~- -. a : nothing beyond a warm relationship. They are usually close friends anyhow. (See Section A, Paragraph 7-c.) 4. Godparents look to.parents for: invitations to social functions of any note. They also expect parents to train their children to listen to advice respectfully. G. The role of god,rnthood in the community 1.Godparenthood as a bond with other villages or provinces. It is not considered a good idea for godparents to be located at any distance. They are then too far for any real bond to exist between them and the parents and the children. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid, etc. Godparenthood provides mutual aid and some old age protection for one would not let his cumpari meet very bad times alone, but it depends a great deal on "affinity" how much help is given. 3. Godparent as p2eace-making device. How many t'imes one can be god- parent. WYhether or not one can be godparent to children of the same family. Godparents are not peacemakers. One can never be godparent to more than one child of a family. It would mean that the parents had no more friends. 4. Godparenthood as it relates to feast days and special celebrations. Godparents and godchildren remember the rel4tionship-on. feast dqys and birthdays, and godparents receive',a special-viFit opJNew Year's Day. 5. Other benefits. The poor sometimes ask friends who are a little better off to be godparents to their children. It makes life a little pleasanter once in a while for the godchildren--on birthdays, feast days, at 97 graduation, etc., but the family always remains in its social class. There is an expression that the "poor and the ignorant go together, and veddani (peasant) is godparent to veddani only." H. Whether or not godaren't terms are extended, and to-whom. Terms are not extended to relatives of godparents, but they are very often used in affectionate greeting. This applies only to the feminine, diminutive form: commaruzza. Mother form, also feminine, is never used except in affectionate greeting, and that is: commaredda. These forms would be used for a little girl or an old lady, and some- times affectionately between parents and godmother. One case may be mentioned of extension in masculine form. Two men, each having baptized different children of the same family, sometimes call one another cumpari. The informant mentions that Saint Francis of Assisi addressed the ravenous wolf who was terrorizing the village as ri lupo and says that it was done to indicate affection and goodwill and a bond between them. The Village of Riposto. (Appendix C, Sicily #2) A. Baptism. 1. Godprent terms (male and female) a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: patrozzu patrozza b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: fighiozzu fighi ozza c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: compare comare d. The godparent addresses the parents as: cear comare Sometimes the Christian name is added in address, as: Comare Maria. e. The terms of address between godparents are: UMa ore comare Compare San Giovanni or Comare San Giovanni are also used in address by couples who have served, by agreement, as godparents for one another's children. The idea is that they are patrons in baptism, and wish to honor one another by referring to the patron saint of godparenthood. The terms have no reference what- soever to any association entered into on the feast of San Giovanni. 2. Number and sex of-godparents. There are always two godparents--a godfather and a godmother. 98 3. How and when godparents are chosen. There are no particular preferences. Anyone may be chosen, friend or relative. No one can refuse. It would be the same as refusing the request of St. John the Baptist and a great offense. Sometimes the midwAife is made the comare. B. _a0XerigcreO10 There is no-godmother. Ear-piercing is done by the midwife when the child is a few months old. Sometimes the midwife is also the comare, but normally the godmother is not involved. C. Confirmation. The same terms are used as for baptism. There is only one god- parent-a man for a boy, a woman for a girl. The godparent has no obligations beyond participation in the ceremony. D. Marria-e There are no godparents. E. Other evidence of od arenthood or other forms of ritual kinshi Comare da-Copola (Godmother of the Hat) Two days after baptism, the hat worn by the baby during the bap- tismal ceremony is given to a woman, a relative or friend, who--from that moment on--is known as the comare da copola. Choice of a comare da copola is often made at the time regular bap- tismal godparents are selected; sometimes it is not done until the day of the baptism. Very often a young girl is selected. The informant was a comare da copola when she was eight years old. The infant's hat is not given to the comare until two days after the ceremony. (The informant does not know why the two-day wait.) The comare da copola carefully washes the bonnet of the sacred oils which were absorbed during the baptismal ceremony. (The infantvs bonnet remains on his head througlhout the service.) The water from the washing and from the rinsing of the-hat is saved and thrown into a plant or a flower-bed. The oils have given the water a sacred quality, and this is considered a fitting disposal of the water. The comare da copola is addressed throughout her lifetime by the child and his parents as comare, and she addresses the child as fighiozzu. Couples sometimes agree to serve as godparents for one another's children. They are then Compare San Giovanni or Comare San Giovanni to one another, and use these, or the traditional shorter forms of address, to one another. The nomenclature has reference to the patronage of San Giovanni Batista, who is associated with godparenthood as the patron saint of baptism. F. 'Whether or not odparent terms are extended, and to whom. Godparent terms are freely extended within the families of 99 godparents, and to siblings of godchildren. The terms are used in affectionate address to persons in no way associated with godparenthood, particularly to little children and to old ladies. G. Taboos suerstitions storie s,etc. regarint godparenthood. If the 'godparent should make a mistake in the recitation of the "Our Father" during baptism, the child will become mentally defective. It is good for&al 12 chio (for protection against the evil eye) for the godparent to give his godchild a sack of salt wrapped in red cloth. It is strung about the child's neck on a ribbon, or pinned to his clothing. The Village. of PIANk ]DEG A --AN-I (PIANk 131 GRCI) (22) (Appendix C, Sicily #) A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: nun(j) nuna b. The godparent addresses the godchild as: fiLiioz fieioza c. The godparent is addressed by the parent as: com are comare d. The godparent addresses the parents as: compare comare e. The terms of address between godparents are: compare comare 2. Number and sex of g arets. There may be two godparents, or there may be only one godparent. If there are two, the godparents are normally a man and a woman, although having two godfathers is not unheard of. If there is only one godparent, quite frequently it is a man for a girl as well as for a boy. This is because of the practice, quite frequently, of having an older brother or the eldest brother of the husband or wife as first choice. Also, the participation of women in public cere- monies, while not frowned upon, is not encouraged. 3. How godarents are chosen. The first choice for godparent is a very close relative, usually male. As a rule, it is the older or eldest brother of husband or wife, with the husband's brother favored for a first child. If there are to be two godparents, and if the brother is married, his wife is godmother. If the brother is nmarried, then the godmother may be a close relative of either husband or wife. Sister and brother combinations are popular for godparents, too. After relatives, a priest is most favored as a godparent. An intimate friend would probably be a less likely choice for early 100 children, but for any child it is a distinct honor for the friend to be named as godparent. 4. The baptismal ceremony. The baptismal ceremony takes place as soon as possible, usually after one week. There is only one church in the village. The informant knew of no purification requirements, and the mother sometimes does, sometimes does not attend the ceremony. 5. Godparents and baptismal g-fts. The godfather and godmother (if there is one) jointly give a ring to their godchild. The parents must give a gift to the godparents, and the, infor- mant emphasizes that this represents reciprocity, and indicates termination of obligations between parents and godparents. Hence- forth, no obligations are considered to exist between them as co- parents. 6. The batismal:party. There is a party for all-the relatives at the home of the .parents after the baptismal ceremony. hjikjera and liqueurs are served. 7. Oblig&ations of baptismal godparents. See Section A, Paragraph 5 above. There are no real obligations for baptismal godparents. The informant.says the whole idea behind the godparenthood relationship is that the parents want to bind the child more closely to the pre-existing relationship between parents and godparents. The godparents have no obligations whatsoever upon the death, either of the parents or of the godchild. B. Ear-piercing ceremony. There is no ceremony, although the ears of a young girl are often pierced by a member of the family who is good at the job. C. Conf irmation. 1. Godp2ar,ent terms. Number of, gdarents. Mybpismal-godpaets ~~~~~~~go -Pae be used. Aeof children. Godparent terms are the same as for baptism. Only one godparent is used: a man for a boy, a woman for a girl. Baptismal godparents are not used. 2. Obligations of godparents of confirmation. Their obligations end with the completion of the ceremony. D. Marriage. There is no godparent participation. 101 E. Other evidence of o renthood or other forms of ritual kins No evidence. F. The role of godparenthood in the life of the individual. See Section A, Paragraphs 5 and 7 above. G. The role of .odparenthood in the commun 1. God arenthood"as a bond with other villages or roviLnces., No. The majority of people are born and die in the village, and because godparents are usually from the immediate kin group, they are of the same village. The informant cites the example that his grandmother had never been to Palermo, only fifteen miles distant from Piana degli Albanesi. 2. Godparenthood as mutual aid old age protection, etc. Godparents share in these benefits, but because they are also relatives, not because they are godparents. 3. Godparenthood as peace-making device. How many times one can be godparn. Whether or not one can be goprent to children of same famil. Godparents may help maintain peace, but only in the sense that it means still more respect for people already in authority. There is especially great respect for the elder brother. There is a special elder-brother respect term, lala, and it is used by all sib- lings, and supercedes the godparent term of address. One can be a godparent any number of times, but rarely for child- ren of the same family if other relatives are available. 4. Godparenthood as it relates to feast daTs and special celebrations. Feast days are usually honored, but the godchild is always on the receiving end from baptismal godparents. He receives nothing from confirmation godparents. H. 'Whether or not godp t terms are extended. They are never extended. I. Taboos, suerstitions stor etc. r dg godparenth etc. The informant emphasizes that, because of the constant dissension in Albanian communities over the role of Roman Catholic affiliations and liturgies as opposed to that of Byzantine rites, the villagers have made conscious attempts to remain free from superstitions that might be attacked by the hierarchy of either church. 102 SARDINIA The Village of VILLANOVA MONTELIONE (Appendix C, Sardinia #1) A. Baptism. 1. Godparent terms (male and female). a. The godparent is addressed by the godchild as: compare meu comare mia b. The godparent addresses the godchild as:- fizzolu meu fizzola mia c. The godparent is addressed by the parents as: eompare meu comare mia d. The godparent addresses the parents as: compare meu comare mia e. The terms of address between godparents are: compare meu comare mia 2. Number and sex of godparents. There are two godparents--a godfather and a godmother. 3. How and when godparents are chosen. Friends are preferred to relatives, although relatives are used when they express a real desire to be godparents. There is often an exchange of godparenthood, with friends serving as godparents to one another's children. This arrangement frequently applies to all the children of each family. Parents usually wait until the baby is about due before naming godparents, unless arrangements have previously been made for an exchange relationship. 4. The tismal ceremony. Baptism takes place two to three months after birth. The god- parents and the father, and perhaps a few relatives and friends, go to the church; and the baby is carried to the church and home again in the arms of a little girl of the village. The mother does not attend the baptism, although to the informant's knowledge there are no purification requirements. 5. Godparents and ba2tismal gifts. The comare buys the baptismal clothes, and the godfather gives the child a religious ornament, usually a scapular. The scapular is considered an-amulet, and wards off mal occhio and other evils, particularly the power of the devil. The compare also gives the donation for the priest. 6. The baptismal party. A big party is given on the day of baptism at the parents' home. It often lasts for a couple of days. 7. Obligations of batismal o ents. 103 a. In the event of the death of the parents. If there are-surviving relatives, the godparents have no obli- gations; if not, the godparents must take the child and raise it as their own. b. In the event of the death of the godchild. No information. B. Ear-piercing cerem There is an ear-piercing ceremony, and a woman, friend or relative, is named as comare to do the cutting. Sometimes the baptismal comare is used, but it is more desirable to have a special godmother for the occasion. She is referred to as the comare de l'orecia and is addressed for life as comare by the child and all of the family of the child. C. Confirmation. There is one godparent--a man for a boy, a woman for a girl. Terms of address are the same as for baptism. These godparents are of less consequence in social relations. D. Marriage. There is no association of godparenthood with marriage. E. Other evidence of godparenthood or other forms of ritual kinshi Compare di San Giovanni (Compare di Fogo)_ On the 24th of June, the feast of St. John the Baptist, two or four people may become Compare di San Giovanni to one another. The participants may be children, adolescents, or adults. The group may be composed entirely of boys, entirely of girls; or, it may be a mixed group. They will later refer to one another as compari di fogo, but it is not a term of address. Only the terms compare or Compare di San Giovanni are used in address. A bonfire is built from kindling contributed in equal quantity by each of the participants. Those who are to become compare to one another dance around the fire, holding hands. They sing, but the particular songs are not prescribed. The songs are gay, folk tunes. After a period of singing and dancing, the circle is broken, and one of them takes out a four- cornered cloth. It may be a tablecloth or a square of linen, or, if there are only two, a large handkerchief. If there are only two people, each makes a knot of the cloth diagonally across from the other person. Then, the knots are exchanged, so that the direction of the handkerchief changes. If there are four people, knots are made in each of the four corners of the cloth. Knots are then exchanged, once in a diagonal direction, and then by reversing or turning the cloth, so that everyone ends with another person's knot. This completes the ceremony, and it is considered effective only if the bonfire continues to burn in a lively fashion throughout the ex- change of knots. If there is a prescribed pledge or incantation, the informant did not know it. 104 Male participants are addressed as compare; female, as comare. The ceremony is not a secret one, and the terms of address are used freely socially as well as privately. The relationship may be reaffirmed by festivities on succeeding anniversaries of the date, but the actual ceremony is not repeated. The association may persist through life, but more often fades away with the marriages of the participants. A married person may still, however, address another as compare or even simply San Giovanni with reference to the compare di fogo ceremony. CompEare di San Pietro (Compare di fogo) The identical ritual exists for the feast of San Pietro on June 29th, but is less popular. 105 enezi Trent ino enezie 4 uganea Lombardy 8 lulieeft Piedmont 0 0 0 10 0 . . . 0 a 9 e Go. . 0 0 O 0 6 . 0, 0 0 4 0 0 . 6 *OS-0649966*60O0.00.000.0.000.0.0. 41 . 0 0 0 0 .0 11 lb 0 0 4. 41 0 . 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O.... ...0.... e.................. ................................... 0............. 0.................... ................. t.................. :... 0..........................0................................ 0 No . 19 Copyright 0........0........ ........ ......0....................................................... .. ....... ..: ................... 6 0 ....... .......................I I'll ........... ........................ .................................. ............. 937 by University of ............... 0.........0 .........................:...........0......... .......... .... loo: ... 1.11 ......................................... :..........................:.. .. .... 0o ............. :................. 4............................ 0....... 19 ........ ......0 icagroo Used by per- 0 - . . " . . . . 0.. . ............................................ 6........ 0... 0..............0 4*.o. ........0.. ............................ :....... ................... I..................... ........ *................................ ........................... 0................. 0. .................................................... :.?: ................................................ ISSIOn of the Univer' ...................... 0........................ .... P... a, .............................. ..................................... I....... ...... sity of Chicago Press. ..] :0 ..... * . .. . * , , .. . * 106 BIBLIOGBAPUY Addis, William E. 1941 A Catholic Dictionary. B.Herder Book Co., New York Arensberg, Conrad 1954 The Community Study Method. The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 60(2), pp. 109-124. Chicago Attwater, Donald 1931 The Catholic Encyclopedic Dictionary, New York. Austin, Leonard 1955 Around the World in San Francisco: A Guide Book to the Racial and Ethnic Minorities of the San Francisco-Oakland District. The Abbey Press, San Francisco. Canziani, Estella 1913 Piedmont. Chatto & Windus, London. Erasmus, Charles J. 1950 Current Theories on Incest Prohibition in the Light of Ceremonial Kinship. Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers, No. 2, pp. 42-50. Berkeley. Foster, George M. 1948 Empire's Children: The People of Tzintzuntzan. Institute of Social Anthropology Publication No. 6.- Smithsonian Institution ,1953 Cofradia and Compadrazgo in Spain and Spanish America. Southwest Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 9(1), pp. 1-28 Gillin, John 1947 Moche, ,A Peruvian Coastal Community. Institute of Social Anthropology Publication No. 3. Smithsonian Institution, Washington D. C. Lefebvre Dom Gaspar 1925 St. Andre Daily Missal. Desclee de Brouwer & Co., Belgium Lessa, William A. 1949 The Peasant Character of Italian Society. An unpublished' manuscript in the library of the University of California, Los Angeles. Levi Carlo 1947 Christ Stopped at Eboli. Farrar Straus & Co., New York MacDonnel 1 Anne 1932 In the Abruzzi. F. A. Stokes Co., New York. 107 Meester, P. Placido 1939 Liturgico Del Rito Bizantino. Collegio Greco, Rome. Mintz, Sidney W. and Eric R. Wolf 1950 An Analysis of Ritual Co-parenthood (Compadrazgo). Southwest Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 6(4), pp. 341-368 Ollebros, 1955 Hugo Primer on Italy. Publication of the Cultural Division of the Italian Embassy, New York. Redfield, Robert 1941 The Folk Culture of Yucatan. University of Chicago Sladen, Douglas 1905 Queer Things About Sicily. Treherne & Co., Ltd., London Spicer, Edward 1940 Pascua, A Yaqui Village in Arizona. Chicago Tappolet, 1895 Ernst Die Romanischen Verwandts-schaftsnamen. Mit besonderer Bertcksichtigung der franz3sischen und italienischen Mundarten. Strassburg Villa, Alfonso R. 1945 The Maya of East Central Quintana Roo. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 559 Villari, Luiggi 1922 Italian Life in Town and New York Wagley, Charles 1949 The Social and Religious American Anthropological Country. G. P. Putnam's Sons. Life of a Guatemalan Village. Association, Memoir No. 71, Menasha 108 ENDNOTES (1) E.g. Erasmus, 1950, p. 42; Foster, 1948, p. 264 and 1953, pp. 1-28; Gillin, 1947, pp. 104-112; Mintz and Wolf, -1950, pp. 341-368; Redfield, 1941, esp. p. 212; Spicer, 1940, pp. 51-116; Villa, 1945, p. 88; Wagley, 1949, pp. 17, 19, 37. (2) From an interview with Father J. Ryan, O.P., Old St. Mary's Paulist Fathers, San Francisco. See also: Addis, 1941, p. 756--"Sponsors."t (3) Material incorporated in this paragraph is also drawn from the sour- ces cited in Endnote i1. (4) Travel literature and diaries make little mention of godparent ritu- als, but some descriptions of ceremonies are to be found in two works on Italy: Anne MacDonnell, In the Abruzzi, esp. pp. 103-294; and Estella Canziani, Piedmont, esp. Chapter I. (5) All statistics are from: Instituto Centrale di Statistica del Regno d'Italia, VIII Censimento Generale della Poolazione, 21 aprile 1930 - xiv (5 vol Roma: Tipografia Ippolito Failli, 1937-1939). (6) See section on method of organization of godparenthood data. The various quotations to which reference will be made in the following pages are from the field data section and express the sentiments of the infor- mants. Compartment names are cited in parenthesis for every village, town and city of which mention is made. To locate quotations, and for further elaboration on all topics, consult the Table of Contents by com- partment and community. (7) See Tappolet, 1895, esp. p. 141 for the etymology of many Italian godparent terms. (8) Addis, 1941. "According to the decree of the Council of Trent, two sponsors at most are permitted." p. 756. According to Father Castanza of St. Peter and Paul's Italian Church, one godparent is permissible; and, in the case of two godparents, two godfathers or two godmothers may be substituted for the customary one godfather and one godmother. (9) The Byzantine rites of the village of Piana degli Albanesi are fully described by P. Placido de Meester in Catechismo Liturgico Del Rito Bizantino, esp. pp. 31, 35, and 44. (10) According to Father Castanza of St. Peter and Paul's Italian Church, San Francisco, the "Churching of Women" or purification ceremony is en- tirely optional. It is discussed in the St. Andre Daily Missal, Lefebvre, as follows: "It is customary for mothers to go to church with their babe as soon as they are able to go out again to be churched. The ceremony consists of a special blessing which recalls the visit of the Holy Family at the Temple of Jerusalem for the Presentation of our Lord and the Purification of the Blessed Virgin." p. 1929. 109 (11) See-field data on Abruzzi, the Town of Casstel di Sangro, Section I, on the diagnosis and cure of ailments caused by mal locchio. (12) For additional information on amulets, see field data an the compartments of Emilia, Marche, Abruzzi and Sicily, Sections A-5 and I. On purification requirements, see Section A-4 on the same com- partments. (13) These stories, as narrated by the informants, may be located in Section I of the field data on Marche, (San Benedetto del Tronto), and on Abruzzi, (Casstel di Sangro). (14) According to Catholic doctrine, "sponsors contract a spiritual relationship with the child baptized, which is a diriment impediment to marriaget" (Addis, 1941, p. 756). A diriment impediment is dis- tinguished canonically from a prohibitive impediment as being less grave, and is dispensable, so that the obstacle of spiritual relation- ship does not render a marriage necessarily unlawful nor invalid. (Attwater, 1931, p. 262). (15) See especially Godparenthood Data on Venezie Giulie, (Albona) and on Lazio (Marino), Section G, Paragraph 2. (16) Except where otherwise noted, the ceremonies for the Catholic sacraments of baptism, confirmation and marriage are substantially the same as those which could be observed at St. Peter and Paul's Church in the North Beach (Italian) section of San Francisco. (17) See map. (18) Names and identifying information have been omitted, but are on file with the author and publisher. (19) Informants' spellings of terms in local dialects have not been changed in this appendix. (20) Unless otherwige noted, the ceremonies fo1baptism,- confirmation and marriage are essentially those as may be observed in St. Peter and Paul's Church of San Francisco. (21) The ceremonies of baptism and marriage, as well as a funeral service for this area have been documented by Canziani, 1913, esp. pp. 6 and 134. (22) The people of this village are referred to by outsiders as "Gheghje." They are of Albanian ancestry, having come to Sicily in the 15th century when they sought refuge from Turkish domination in Albania. They follow Byzantine rites,-but acknowledge the Pope in Rome. Together with Piana degli Albanesi, the following villages form a diocese or bishopric: Mizzojuso, Pelazzo Adriano, Contessa Entelina, and Santa Cristina Gela. The inhabitants of these villages speak an Albanian dialect. 110