A SURVEY OF BALKAN HOUSES AND FARM BUILDINGS
uMajda Thurnher
INTRODUCTION
This study is an analysis of settlement patterns, the construc-
tion and form of houses, yards and farm buildings in peasant
communities in Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria and Rumania.  It might
appear more logical to cover the whole of the Balkan Peninsula in
which case Greece should have been added and Rumania excluded. How-
ever, my main interest is in the Southern Slays of which Greek
culture is not a part. Albania, on the other hand, has certain
affinities to the culture of Slavic Montenegro., such as in social
organization, and the large Albanian element in the population of
southwestern Serbia has probably influenced the material culture of
that region. In any case the political boundary between Yugoslavia
and Albania scarcely reflects the cultural affiliation. The deci-
sion to- include Ruania, which cannot be considered a purely Slavic
country, rests on historical factors, for Rumania also came under
the influence of Turkish rule, sharing the fate of other Balkan
countries. The inclusion of Rumania should therefore throw light on
the effect of Turkish culture on rural settlements in this region-.
It was deemed desirable to keep the time factor constant and to
choose a period after liberation from Turkish rule and before urban
influence had affected rural areas. The availability of data had to
be taken into consideration, and, since material on the first half
of the 19th century is scarce, most of the research being done with
the beginning of the 20th century, the period between 1875 and 1900
was selected. This plan could not always be strictly adhered to
when only works from the 1930's were available. A certain lack of
balance was unavoidable, as equally detailed information and the
same number of sources were not available for all areas included in
the study. Rather than follow a rigid outline, areas on which more
information was at hand were handled in greater detail, with full
awareness that this May slant comparisons.
This study deals only with village plans and locations, the
farm yards, houses and farm buildings. The location and shape of
fields might have been included, as they are part and parcel of the
village organization.  They were excluded because descriptions were
frequently lacking and also because of time limitations.  The
interior arrangement of the houses would make an interesting study
in itself. In this work only heating arrangements have been con-
sidered, as they frequently form an integral part of the house
construction.
19
The purpose of this study was to discover what effect certain
cultural and natural factors had on the patterns of peasant settle-
ments. The influences of environment and natural resources on
architectural construction are obvious and expected.  Climatic fac-
tors and fertility of the soil must be dealt with but the solutions
are many and the choices involved are cultural. Diffusion can gen-
erally be most readily traced in material culture and changes in
this aspect in turn reveal the relationship with and the attitude to
the introducing culture. Foreign domination is more easily estab-
lished in fertile valleys than in mountainous terrain. Foreign
control and planning are more feasible in the lowlands as manifest
in the greater uniformity and regularity of settlements. Political
insecurity also affects the location of settlements; they reveal
whether the choice of the local population was submission, assimila-
tion or flight.
The type of economy and the importance of any particular agri-
cultural product or livestock may be revealed in the construction
of farm buildings. However, influence of social organization is
often equally important and receives less attention.  Size and
interior division of the dwelling often reflect family organization;
a number of alternative methods provide the extended family with
housing.  Where patterns of feuding prevail buildings are modified
for greater security. Value systems are manifest in the attention
given to any particular unit of the farmstead, be it the granary,
the guest-house or the gateway. A functional approach is thus of
great value in the study of farmsteads and there are few aspects of
life that are not in some way revealed in a people's habitations.
SLOVENIA
Slovenia has suffered fewer political changes and less warfare
than has the rest of the Balkan Peninsula.  Turkish domination did
not reach this area (the frontier against the Turks, Vojna Krajinat
was erected east of this region); rebellions against the Itabsburgs
did not arise, and vast movements of population did not occur. The
Slovene villages are extremely old and have remained in the same
locations for centuries, the houses being rebuilt on the same spots
with very little change in the village form. Melik (1929) states
that an examination of the Urbars (old Slevene landowners' records)
reveals that the number of inhabitants has also remained relatively
unchanged.
Location and Types of Settlements.  CViji6 (1918, Map IV) dis-
tinguishes two types of settlements in Slovenia, the Stari Vlah
type in the northern section and the Karst type in the Istrian
Peninsula and the southeast. His Starn Vlah type is characterized
by widely separated hamlets, whose farmsteads are also widely
scattered. The Karst type hamlets differ from those of Stari Vlah
in that they are generally located in depressions and their houses
are somewhat closer together.  Occasionally the houses extend in an
20
almost uninterrupted row on the e de of a geographic depression
(Cviji6, 1918: 219). Vurnik (1929) states that on hilly terrain'
the farmsteads of a village are scattered in an irregular manner,
while on more favorable terrain they are arranged in a regular
manner on each side of the street,, forming a linear settlement.
Von Moro (1891) states that the hamlets average 6 - 12 houses.
However Melik (1929) gives an average of 50 houses per village.
Unfortunately one is not informed whether he subsumes a number of
hamlets under a village, or whether he is speaking of the same
units as Von Moro. If one accepts Melik's statement that there
has not been an increase in the village population, it would appear
that the authors are speaking of different units . The only excep-
tion to the small size of the villages is that of Prekmurje, the
region that belonged to Hungary before independence, in which one
meets villages with populations of over a thousand and more than
100 houses.
House Types.  Slovenia comprises a number of different geo-
graphical and climatic areas: Alpine in the northwest, Karst in
the southwest and south, and a flatter terrain in the central
areas and the northeast. Slovenia also borders on four different
ethnic groups:  alpine Germans in the northwest, Italians in the
southwest, Hungarians in the northeast and Croatians in the west.
Due to a- variety of geographical factors and different foreign
influences, it is not surprising to find a number of fairly dis-
tinct house types in Slovenia. Vuruik (1929) distinguishes four
areal types; Lolar (1944) gives five, with a number of subdivisions.
There is general agreement in their typology and both of them add
the smokehouse (dimnica, Rauchstubenhaus) as another variation.
This is considered by both as the earliest and now almost extinct
house form. While three types, the Alpine or northwest, the
Mediterranean or southwest, and the Prekmurje - Bela Krajina or
eastern, appear as distinct types, the central area shows a mixture
of these forms.
Alpine or Northwest Type. Generally the house and farm build-
ings,^ stable and barn, are placed in a straight line under a comon
roof (fig. 1). The house is a two story building, with ground
fl-oor walls of masonry and an upper story of wood. However houses
made entirely of wood are also present. The gabled roof is very
steep and covered with large shingles (about four rows), which are
occasionally weighted down with stones against the strong winds.
The gables are always covered with vertical boards which may have
S - shaped openings for ventilation. The second story, or merely
the attic under the gable, may protrude beyond the ground floor.
In this case there is generally a balcony with a railing of planks
decorated with sawed out designs. Occasionally this balcony may
also extend along the front of the house. The walls of masonry are
whitewashed and the large door and windows may have a frame of
greenish limestone. The white walls often are painted with frescoes
in bright colors.
21
On the ground floor is found the anteroom (Vega) which has a
kitchen partitioned off from it, and the hila or living-room. On
the other side of the anteroom may be added a smaller room, kmra,
for sleeping or storage (fig. 2). The anteroom is the center of the
house and from here doors lead to the other rooms and stairs to the
second story and to the underground cellar. The floor of the ante-
room is paved. The kitchen is generally partitioned off from the
anteroom by a wall, or else by a masonry arch. In it is the large,
fairly high, rectangular masonry hearth above which hangs the-
cauldron. In the kitchen are also found openings through which the
stove in the living-room is heated (fig. 2) .  The second story is
not subdivided and is used for the storage of grain, which is con-
tained in colored chests.
Next to the kitchen, if there is not another room added, is
the stable. Even when the house is of masonry, the stable may be of
wood; otherwise it is of masonry with an attic of wood, sometimes
even with a balcony.  In the attic may be found a small room
(Oumnata) which can be entered from the anteroom, and where the old
couple retires.  The barn may be next to the stable, also under the
same roof (Vurnik, 1929).
Towards the southwest, around Skofja Loka and Cerklje we find
a modification of the Alpine house. The rooms no longer follow a
linear arrangement and the kitchen is no longer part of the anteroom
(fig. 3). The houses are of masonry, generally two stories high.
Unlike the Alpine house, the second story contains a number of
.living quarters. Above it is the attic. Balconies are generally
lacking.  The gabled shingled roof may be extremely high, the ratio
of the roof to the two lower stories being sometimes 3 : 2 (Lolar,
1944 :40).
Prekaurje-Bela Krajina, or Eastern Tye. Logar distinguishes
two variants, that of Bela Krajina (Wetlika, Crnomelj) in the south-
east and Prekunurje in the northeast.
a) Bela Krajina.
Houses are generally constructed of wood; the jerkin-head roof
is of straw. The floor plan is symmetrical and the central anteroom
tends to be very large; the two rooms, one on either side of it are
called the p    hifa (first house) and zadnja hiia (last or back
house). The kitchen was formerly not separated from the anteroom,
which was the center of activities (fig. 4). Today the kitchen is
partitioned off and one of the side-rooms has become the living-
room. The second room is used for storage. The small rooms used
for sleeping quarters, kamre and Itibel      are generally lacking.
The anteroom has no ceiling; the attics above the side-rooms are
reached by means of a ladder from the anteroom. Chimneys are lack-
ing, the smoke escaping through the roof or through openings in it.
Newer houses have a vault of masonry above the fireplace, while in
older ones a frame of wickerwork, plastered with mud, is suspended
above it (Lolar, 1944: 70-72).
22
Many houses consist only of an anteroom and a living-room.
When houses are built on an incline, they have two stories, cellar
and stable being on the ground floor. Houses built on an incline
have a balcony running along two sides, at one end of which is
generally the toilet.
The farm buildings are characteristically arranged so that they
enclose the yard on three sides. When the stable is not on the ground
floor, it is located opposite and parallel to the house. The pigsties
are generally located at right angles to the house and close the yard
on one side. However they are frequently built onto the house. When
the pigsties are in the same line as the stable, the space between
them is roofed over by an extension of the roof of the stable, and
it becomes a shelter for carts etc. Where the yard is not bordered
by buildings, it is always enclosed by a fence of poles.
b) Prekmurje
Here houses may have a foundation of masonry, but most often
they rest on heavy logs that are about 30 - 40 cm. longer than the
walls. The walls are of logs, which, unlike the Alpine ones, are
flattened. They are held together by means of long wooden spikes.
Occasionally the logs may be arranged vertically.   Walls are first
plastered inside and out with mud and straw; they next receive a
thin layer of mud and chaff and finally a whitewash. On the outside
a two foot band of blue is painted at the base of the wall.   Windows
may also be bordered with blue bands, more rarely with a design.
Vurnik (1929) states that often only the space between the logs is
filled with mud and whitewashed, giving the houses a striped appear-
ance. The roof is of rye straw. The wall under the gables is of
vertical boards and may also be woven of willow twigs.   Chimneys are
lacking. The eaves protrude to cover the podstenj, a sheltered
corridor that may run all around the house and extends also to the
farm buildings (fig. 6). The podstenj is separated from the yard by
means of a wooden threshold and has a floor of tamped earth. Activi-
ties are carried out under the podstenj in rainy weather and in
winter.
The floor plan of the house is similar to that of Bela Krajina.
It is symmetrical with a central anteroom, which has doors at either
end, and two side-rooms (fig. 4). According to Vurnik (1929) the
separate kitchen is missing and cooking is done in the anteroom.
The stoves in the side-rooms are fired from the anteroom.
Generally a number of farm units are contained under one roof.
The pattern varies: Units may all be in one line, in which case the
stable is next to the living-room, followed by the threshing floor
and the barn (fig. 6).  An L-shape is common; this may consist of
one building (fig. 8)  or two separate buildings standing close to
one another with a po jata (cart shed) in between (fig. 7).  In this
case the cellar (      is next to the Pojat   followed by the stable,
threshing floor, a place for the storage of grain and finally the
23
woodshed. Sometimes the buildings are arranged in a U-shape; one arm
is formed by the house, the other by the wagon shed (kolarnica), and
the other units are arranged between them (Logar, 1944: 72-76).
Mediterranean or Southwest Type.   This type, also referred to
as the Coastal type, dominates in the extreme southwest; the eastern
boundary runs along Mt. Sneinik, through Postojna and Idrija to
Tolmin (Vurnik, 1929). The houses are built of stone; wood is used
only for the essentials of roof construction. The walls are
extremely massive with few windows. The latter are rarely found on
the gabled sides. Roofs are extremely low, sometimes almost flat,
covered with stone slabs or heavy cylindrical tiles set in mortar (I).
The tile roof may be weighted down with heavy stones. Stone chimneys
are extremely large, and have decorative tops. The fireplace is
located in a rectangular annex that is built onto the kitchen (fig.
5). This annex has a separate roof and from it rises the rectangu-
lar chimney.
The poorer house consists of a single story, in which is the
room writh the fireplace and the stable. In this case the inhabitants
sleep in the attic. Often, however, the kitchen and cellar are on
the ground floor; the sleeping quarters are in the attic; and the
stable is built on, in the form of an annex. Two-storied buildings
have the cellar and stable on the ground floor, the kitchen and liv-
ing quarters on the second floor, and the attic is used for the
storage of hay. The main unit of the house is the kitchen, with the
fireplace, which is also the largest room. In it is located the
huge rectangular fireplace of stone, shaped very much like a table,
which is about 40 cm. high. Above it hangs the cauldron. Other
types of heating devices are lacking. Farm buildings are arranged
around the paved courtyard and are linked with high massive walls
(Vurnik, 1929).
Houses of Central Slovenia. Lo?ar (1944: 76) states that a
number of different house forms may be found'in Central Slovenia,
which are transitional to those mentioned above. Though he admits
that a thorough typology has not yet been worked out, the author
presents five subtypes, which, however, do not appear very distinct.
The following is a brief sumiary.
East of the Alps, around Kranj and Cerklje, and in the Ljubljana
Basin, the floor plan is similar to that of the Alpine house. The
main room and sleeping quarters (kamre) are of wood, while the part
of the house containing the kitchen and stable is of masonry. There
may be rooms in the attic but this is not a frequent situation.   In
the more mountainous areas the gabled roof is covered with shingles,
in the valleys with straw. In Dolenjskat along the Krka valley,
two-storied houses prevail. The ground floor consists of the stable
and cellar; the second floor is used for living quarters, and in the
attic may be found a storeroom and a small living-room. Entrance to
the second story is by means of a wooden stairway that leads onto a
wooden balcony. The ground floor may be of stone and the upper story
24
of wood. The jerkin-head roof is covered with straw. This type of
house seems to be present in all regions of central Slovenia.
There are a number of different types of fireplaces throughout
Slovenia.  The fireplace is located in the anteroom or a separate
kitchen partitioned off from it.  The floor of the anteroom is
either of tamped earth, stone, brick or a mixture of lime, mud, and
straw.  In the Karst regions an open fireplace stands in the center,
but elsewhere it is generally pladed against a wall.  The hearth can
be high or low, and is made of clay, stone or brick, surrounded
tightly by a wooden frame along the top edge. The ceiling above is
often in the shape of a dome. A chimney is generally lacking.
Another form has the fireplace connected with a stove in the
living-room.  In front of the mouth of the stove, in the anteroom,
is added a structure of brick or stone. Cooking is done either on
this platform or in the mouth of thb stove. The stove in the living-
room has a foundation and one or two stories.  The foundation and
the middle part of the stove are square, while the upper part is
circular. The foundation has an opening which is used for the drying
of shoes. Above the foundation there are a few rows of hollow bricks,
followed by one to three rows of concave earthenware bricks. Some-
times the latter are convex instead of concave. This device serves
to increase the heating surface of the stove (similar to fig. 18).
Around the stove is generally a built-in bench; on either side,
where the stove meets the wall, is a small seat about one meter
above the ground and higher than the bench (Loiar, 1944: 91-92).
Lolar (1944: 95-96) states that two forms of roof construction
can be distinguished. Unfortunately he provides no illustration and
his description is quite inadequate.  The first type, as far as I
can make out, seems to be the collar roof, with horizontal beams
fastening the opposing rafters. 'When the roof is high, a queen post
construction is used. The second, and earlier, form is the streha
na ikarje, "roof on scissors." While this would certainly indicate
a scissors truss, it is not quite clear where it is applied. Fig. 9
shows two ways in which it could be used.
Farm Buildings* Among farm buildings a most unique device is
the kozole.c (Gr. Hlarfe)  used for the drying of grain, beans, clover
and hay (figs. 9 and 1OS.  It is found throughout Slovenia but is
lacking in Croatia. Outside Slovenia it is found in the region
around Isonzo, in the Pustertal of Tyrol, on the upper Rhine, and in
the Tessiner Canton of Switzerland (Dachler, 1906: 164-65). The
simple*rtypes consist of a number of heavy posts which are either
set in a straight line in the groand, and supported by transverse
beams, or rest on a foundation of stone.  They are about 5 - 6 m.
high and placed about 5 m. apart. The space between them is filled
with horizontal poles at intervals of 50 cm. A small straw roof may
be set over the kozolec. The space between any two vertical posts
is called a window, and a kozolec may consist of up to 20 windows
(Pirc, 1891: 478).
25
W1hile the single row kozolec is most common, numerous variations
are to be fod.    The frame can be set up in two rows, one of them
lower than the other, and covered with a shed roof of straw (fig. 9).
The most elaborate type (fig. 10) may have a second story and an
attic.  The ground floor is used as a wagon shed; the second floor,
used for the storage of hay, has its gable ends covered with a
cross-work of poles to permit circulation of air.   The attic pro-
trudes over the second story and has gable walls closed with vertical
wooden slats.  Occasionally the roof may be shingled instead of
thatched (Lo?ar, 1944: 141-42).
These frames may also be made to lean against some other farm
building. In some areas they are erected only temporarily in the
fields and destroyed when no longer in use. The kozolci may be
located in the yard, but are usually out in the fields, forming a
separate group outside the village. One can tell by their length
and number of windows the size of the owner's field as well as the
number of fields belonging to the village (Franke, 1891). The kozolec
is not used for drying corn. Corn is generally hung up under the
eaves of the house, but in eastern Slovenia we find a special struc-
ture for it (fig. 11) .
The next most important building is the skedenj or threshing
house.  In contrast to other parts of the Balkans, threshing here is
done by means of the flail.- The skedenj is a well-constructed build-
ing made of horizontal logs, with a very large door, and only small
openings for windows.  It has a low upper story with walls of verti-
cal planks and is CoVered with a gabled roof of straw. Onto the
skedenj are built other units for the storage of hay, etc. Sometimes
the eaves are made to protrude and a wagon is stored in the shelter
underneath (Lo?ar, 1944: 143).
Agricultural products such as wheat, meat and eggs are sometimes
stored in separate buildings, called kafia. They are built in the
same style as the house, either of logs or masonry. When built on
an incline the ground floor is of stone and the upper of wood.   Often
these stractures are raised on poles to protect them against dampness
and mice. The jerkin-head roof is covered with straw and the
entrance is on the narrow side of the building (Logar, 1944: 143-44).
Stables have already been dealt with in connection with houses.
They generally do not form separate structures, but are built onto
the house, or located in its ground floor. revn in Prekmurje, where
they may not be connected with the house, they are always linked up
with other farm units. Horses and cattle are kept in the same
stable; sometimes goats, sheep and pigs may be kept there also.
When there are a large number of pigs the pigsty forms a sepa-
rate unit. It may be attached to the house or the stable. When it
stands alone, it is a long narrow structure made of boards; the roof
is covered with straw and is like a shed roof. The whole lower
26
front of the building is closed by- two low horizontal doors, which
are attached to the building at the top and are opened by being raised
upwards, either toward the inside or outside. These doors are used
for feeding. Through the back door the pigs enter a small fenced
enclosure. The space under the roof becomes the chicken coop (fig.
12) (Lolar, 1944: 142).
Buildings Outside the Village. In spring the cattle are driven
to Alpine pastures where they stay all summer.   The houses e rected
for the shepherds and for the making of cheese are log structures
with gabled roofs covered with large wooden boards (2 - 3 rows cover
the whole height of the roof). Commonly, the house consists of only
one room with a central fireplace.   However there are a number of
two-roomed houses consisting of a kitchen and a storeroom for dairy
products. Sometimes the eaves almost reach the ground and form a
shelter for the animals. The entrance is always on the gable end;
windows are lacking. Around the house is an enclosure of poles set
very widely apart and connected with heavy cross-beams (about sir
of them).
A number of these houses may stand together and form a settle-
ment. They may be grouped together in an irregular-circle, or may
form a line at the edge of some geographic depression (Lolar, 1944:
171-74).
CROATIA AND SLIAVOIA
Croatia and Slavonia include the hilly regions south of the
Sava River, extending from the Uskoki Mts. in the west to the Una
River in the east. North of the Save River, the boundary runs
approximately northward from Zagreb; it includes the broad Sava
valley and the hilly regions north of it, extending eastward to
Vinkovci. In the east Slavonia borders on Syrmia. The Croatian
Karst aid Littoral will be dealt with elsewhere; that area is not
large and the house types are very similar to those extending down
the Adriatic coast.
Location and Types of Settlement. According to Cviji6 (1918:
Map IV) a number of different village forms prevail in Croatia and
Slavonia. In the area south of the Sava River is found the Stari
Vlah type (Cvijic6, 1918: 217), which is characteristic of tbp
Dinaric regions.  It consists of small scattered hamlets with
extremely widely and irregularly spaced farmsteads. In the area
around Zagreb, along the Sava and north of it, is found the Sumadija
type, with larger and denser settlements which may also be located
along a road (Cviji6, 1918: 217). Eastward from the confluence of
the Sava and the Vrbas the Matva type is dominant, which is also
found in the plains around Beograd and in the Bafka and Banat. Here
the houses are always regularly aligned along a street (Cvijic, 1918:
218). Anton Dachler's (1906: 85) description agrees with that of
Cviji6. He too states that the regular planned villages of eastern
27
Slavonia become smaller and less regular as one proceeds westward
toward Zagreb, and he attributes the orderly eastern villages to
the influence of the Austrian military border authorities who were
in favor of planned villages. Popovi6 (1929) describes the villages
of eastern Slavonia and Syrmia as being extremely widespread, with
farusteads regularly distributed along a very broad road along which
runs a gutter, and he ascribes them to Austrian rule.
House Types. It is these regions of the Balkan Peninsula that
have been most exposed to Central European cultural influence
(Krebs, 1918: 311), and it is probably for this reason that Cviji6
summrizes the house types of this area as "le type de maisons
modernes" (Cviji6, 1918: Map V), and does not appear to be particu-
larly interested in their analysis. His description of the modern
type is brief and quite inadequate. In the more general works one
finds rather brief descriptions of the "Croatian house" and yet,
when one reads works on specific villages and studies photographs,
one finds a large variety of forms. The difficulty encountered here
is to determine just how widely spread or common a particular form
is. There is frequently a great difference between the houses of
the wealthy and the poor, and authors vary in their conception of
what is picturesque. I was therefore unable to form a very clear
picture of regional differences or of the distributions of various
forms. In the following I shall deal with settlements in the area
around the Kupa River (Ljerka Topali, 1936), those of the Sava plain
around Zagreb, Dago Selo and Sisak (Ivo Frani6, 1935; Kata Jajn6erova,
1898; Stjepan Dokulec, 1936), house tyes from the hill country
around Bjelovar (Dragan Zboziaek, 1938) and Slavonska Polega (Ivo
Franid, 1936), those from the vicinity of Vinkovci in the east of
Slavonia (Josip Lovreti6, 1897), and finally farmsteads from Lika in
the southeast of Croatia (Mate Pavi6i6-.unji6, 1937).
Kupa River Types. The older houses in this region are made of
roughly finished boards or planks and are set on a low foundation of
tamped earth or stone. Chimneys are lacking. The jerkin-head roof
is covered with straw and the eaves protrude gn one side to cover a
veranda which runs along the long side of the house. The eaves may
be supported by wooden posts. The flbor of the veranda is formed by
the foundation of the house and is further demarcated at the ground
line by heavy wooden logs. Sometimes part of the veranda may be
closed in, and often the toilet is located at one end of it. Just
under the oaves of the veranda is a horizontal beam (tenda) for the
drying of clothes, etc. This feature is also found in the extreme
east of Slavonia (Lovreti6, 1897). Generally there are three rooms
in the house; a central kitchen at the entrance,t the velika hila
("large house" or living-room) at one side, and the komora at the
other. Though not explicitly stated, the latter is probably a com-
bination storage and sleeping room. The entrance to the side rooms
is from the central kitchen and the threshold may be quite high,
about one foot from the ground. The houses tend to be quite broad
and the upper part of the wall-under the jerkin-head may be of boards
or wickerwork. The attic space, najina, serves for the storage of
28
potatoes and other products. It is reached by a ladder from the
outside.  When the terrain is not even the house may be built on an
incline, half of it resting on the ground, and the other on a stone
foundation that contains the cellar (pivca).     The passage or veranda
is made of logs, extends along the whole front of the house and has a
railing of slats. When built over an incline, part of the house has
a floor of tamped earth, while the other half has a floor of boards.
The exterior walls are generally whitewashed.
In the kitchen is a fireplace, 75 centimeters high, made of
stone and mortar, called kamin.   (The term kamin is prevalent on the
Littoral and is not used in the Sava valley where the term o    2jiite
is used instead). The fireplace consists of two separate parts: one
is used for boiling clothes in a cauldron that stands over the fire-
place on a tripod; the other, the prepec, (fore-stove) is connected
with the stove in the liv'ing-room corner. Cooking is done on the
prepec, -while bread is baked in the stove, which also furnishes the
heat for the room. The stove (petnik) has a built-in bench all
around it and two raised seats on either side of it, which are simi-
lar to-those found in Slovenia (fig. 18). The material from which
it is made is not stated, though it is probably earthen; the upper
part has a number of rows of hollow glazed tiles.
Topali (1936) also gives an exaple of a very well-made farm-
stead. The main house is a large two story structure made of bricks
and whitewashed. The veranda, on the second floor, has a railing of
carefully cut boards which runs along the front of the house and one
side of it. The jerkin-head roof is covered with flat tiles. The
double stairway in the center of the house ends in a small platform
over which extends a gabled canopy.   It is not clear how common or
recent this type of house is. It may be a later form than the type
previously described; on the other hand its difference may lie in
the wealth of its owner.   Lodge (1943: 73) describes the houses
around Karlovac as be'ing two story buildings with a ground floor
containing kitchen, storerooms, and stables, with the living quarters
in the story above it, and a wooden "balcony-veranda" running along
the first floor.  The balcony is supported by strong posts from
below and forms a shelter for carts and other equipment.
Farm Buildings. The various farm buildings are built very much
like the houses. Some of them have the walls on the narrow sides
made of wicker.  Occasionally one finds a ground floor of stone and
an upper story of boards. In this case the stable is on the ground
floor; above it is the storage room (ambar) for grain, and in the
loft, hay is stacked. The yard is enclosed with rather poorly made
fences of roughly shaped poles that have cross-beams attached above
and below. One also finds fences of extremely coarse Wicker. The
various farm buildings in Topali's (1936) example are made of wood
and are covered with flat tiles.   They are arranged around a regular
yard but do not touch one another. A number of different units may
be under one roof; the stable with a hay loft above it, the wagon
shed, and other storage units.
29
Sava Plain b        tlpe's,fr  Zaereb to Sisak.  One of the better
sources for this area is Jajnaerora's (1898) description of the
village Trebarjevo near Sisak.   In this village the various farm-
yards follow one an-other on either side of the village road.  The
yards are always fenced in with poles or wickerwork.   The orchard
behind the buildi'ngs may also be enclosed.  There is always a wooden
gate at the side of the road, and openings on either side to permit
visiting with neighbors.   The separate buildings are not arranged
in any definite order, though they tend to follow one another at
right angles to the road, sometimes forming two more or less paral-
lel rows. Sometimes the stable comes first, followed by the house,
the summer kitchen, and the pigSty. However the house may be closest
to the road, then the stable, followed by the other buildings.
The house is made of planks, or sometimes of brick.   Two story
houses with the ground floor of brick and the upper story of wood
are preferred, as the living quarters in such a house are drier.
(The Sava plain gets extremely muddy, and floods are frequent).
According to the author cited, low and long buildings are not con-
sidered aesthetic.  The upper story is reached by & roofed stairway
that ends in an enclosed porch at the top (fig. 13). There are a
number of variations: a gabled canopy might be built at the bottom
of the stairway over a door leading to the ground floor, or the
roofed stairway may lead into the upper right half of the house,
which projects forward from the left half; sometimes the stairway
terminates in an enclosed veranda. There appears to be much concern
for keeping the walls of the house dry. Where the eaves do not
extend far out over the walls, roofs, about three feet in width are
added to the wall above the first floor (fig. 13). The gabled side
is sometimes protected by three roofing units:   the wall of the attic
is sheltered by the main gabled roof; where the vertical boards of
the attic join the horizontal planks of the upper story, a narrow
roof running the full width of the wall is added, and an identical
one is constructed where the upper story and brick lower story meet.
This type appears to be fairly common in the area and Frani6 (1935)
presents the same form. The main roof is either jerkin-head or
gabled. One author (Jajnaerova, 1898) states that while wooden
shingles and straw were once in use, flat tiles were almost univer-
sal by 1898.
The upper story contains the hiia or main living-room, with a
stove in which cooking is done in winter, and which is also used for
sleeping. Also in the upper story are two komore (sleeping chambers)
and the kuina (literally kitchen), where pots and pans, corn for the
pigs and chickens, and also food is kept, but in which cooking is
done only rarely. Frequently the veranda is-enclosed to form a
komorek, or storeroom for cheese, milk, meat, and other food.
On the ground floor there are two lute, and a poluta in the
center. The lute serve for the storage of clothing and food, and
are the sleeping quarters of the younger couples or marriageable
daughters.  Since each married couple of the zadr     had to have its
30
own room, marriage often had to be delayed until a room was provided
(Jajncerova, 1898: 113). This was achieved by further subdivision
of the house or building an annex. When there were many sons in the
family a special house would be built for them, called the 6ardak;
it had two rooms above (6ardake) and two lute below,.
Dokugec (1936) describes the smaller houses in the vicinity of
Dugo Selo as follows: The house rests on a foundation of large
logs or brick.  The ends of the planks forming the wall are not
squared off in older houses, but in newer ones, notches are cut into
them so that they interlock with one another and form what are
called "German corners."  Above them is placed a heavy plate
on which are attached the rafters. On the rafters are placed tne
battens, and the frame is then covered with straw.   Hazel branches
are nailed onto the wooden walls which then receive a plaster of
mud and chaff and are whitewashed.   The kitchen and the smaller room
(komora) are generally not plastered or whitewashed.
The floor plan follows the familiar pattern of central ante-
room, from which the kitchen is partitioned off, and two side-rooms:
the living-room with the stove, and the komora, bedroom for the
younger people (similar to fig. 16). The living-room has three
windows about 45 by 45 centimeters in size, and the rest of the
rooms have only one window, 30 centimeters square.
While none of the Yugoslav authors discuss the decoration of
houses, Dachler (1906: 205) considers elaborate painting and wood
decoration a characteristic of Croatia. According to him the
Carpathian region of Rumania is the only other area where wood
ornamentation is so well developed, both Croatia and Rumania sharing
the Kerbschnitt (fig. 14) decoration of wooden lathes. The Kerb-
schnitt technique consists of cutting out designs in low relief, so
as to create planes at different angles to form patterns in light
and dark as the shadows fall on them. Jajn6erova's illustration
(1898: Plate II) shows a two-story building in which this technique
is used in a row of horizontal beams running between the attic and
the upper story. This building also has sawed-out designs on the
bargeboard (fig. 13).
Dachler (1906: 205) also mentions that different planes in the
Kerbschnitt may be painted in bright contrasting colors, blue, red
and white being predominant, and that designs of tendrils, flowers,
and buds may be painted on the attic wall under the gable. Lolar
(1944: 75), in his description of the Slovene house in Prekmurje,
which borders on Croatia, states that the application of bright
colors in the interstices of the horizontal house planks is a
Croatian trait. Recent accounts of travellers as well as this
writer's personal experience would tend to confirm the latter.
Farm Buildings. Data on the various farm units in this area
are deficient; the buildings are named but not described. The
stable, cart-shed and storage space for hay are generally under one
31
roof. They are made of boards; though occasionally the stable is
of masonry. The gable or jerkin-head roof is usually of straw,
but may also be of flat tiles. The pigsty has a chicken coop above
it. The stable and pigsty are frequently plastered with mud for
greater warmth. While no description of the pigsty is given, it i-s
probably similar to that from Slovenia (fig. 12), for Franic (1936:
fig. 9) presents an example from Slavonska Polega, much further east,
which is very similar to the Slovene type. Corn is dried in a spe-
cial structure called a ko"S. The sumer kitchen is located close to
the house and next to the well.  It contains the bread oven as well
as a fairly high masonry fireplace.
Types from Bjelovar and Vicinity.  Zbo?inek (1938) states that
the house form in this area has changed very little from that of
the last century, the only innovation being that newer houses are
built on a foundation of brick, more rarely stone, instead of tamped
earth. The floor plan is the familiar one with anteroom and kitchen
in the center, the main living-room and the storeroom, which serves
as the sleeping room for the younger family members, on either side
of it (fig. 16).
The jerkin-head roof is covered with rye straw, which is first
tied into sheaves and then attached to the battens.   On the lowest
batten the sheaves are tied with the grain upward, thus forming a
straighter edge. Above it they can be tied with the grain pointing
downwards or upwards, the former giving a smoother appearance, the
latter creating a clearer demarcation between the single rows of
sheaves.
The frame for the walls consists of rather widely separated
studs which are reenforced by transverse beams.  The space between
the studs is filled with wicker of hazelnut branches which are first
plastered with aud and cut straw, and when partly dry, smeared with
a layer of mud and chaff.
The floor remains of tamped earth; the ceiling is of boards
and covered with a thin layer of mud so that grain stored in the
attic does not fall through when the boards shrink.
Eastern Slavonian Types.  The farmsteads in this region of the
wide Sava plain are spread regularly along an extremely wide central
road which has a central gutter because of frequent flooding of the
river. In fact, near Slavonski Brod houses may be erected on poles
(Dachler, 1906: 87). The yards are enclosed with a fence of poles
or slats, never wicker, and have a gateway for animals and a smaller
door for humans. The houses are never located in the middle of the
yard, but always at the edge of the road so that their main windows
face on it (Lovreti.6, 1897: 116).
As there is no stone in the plain, most houses are of bricks set
in mud mortar, although a few are of wood; wicker and daub construc-
tion is lacking. The houses are one story structures with a veranda,
32
consisting of a raised platform under the extended eaves, running
along the front of the house. Occasionally part of the veranda may
be enclosed with a wall. The gabled roof is covered with tiles and
has a brick chimney. Walls are whitewashed.
In the main house are only two rooms, the ku6a and the soba.
In one half of the kuc6a is found a low hearth, a few inches in
height, and about one quarter of the width of the kuca. Over it
hangs the cauldron. The soba is entered from the ku6a and contains
a high square earthenware stove (furana), the upper two-thirds of
which are covered with square green glazed tiles. Around it is
attached a wooden bench, or else the base of the stove projects out
to form a bench. The living-room has two windows facing the front
and one or two at the sides of the house. The floor in the living-
room is never of boards or tiles, but of tamped earth; the floor in
the kitchen may be covered with bricks. In larger houses one may
find a small room (sobica), used by the masterr and a komorica, used
for storage of dry meat, wine, and other food.-
Before the universal usage of bricks, houses in this area were
of wood, with a gabled roof of shingles. The wall under the gable
had boards arranged in decorative patterns and sometimes had sawed-
out designs. Much attention was also given to the bargeboard.   The
fairly wide chimney was decorative too; the lower portion of it was
made or wicker and daub, or mud; above it, raised on four poles, was
a pyramid-like roof of shingles which was topped by a carved pole
with a bird form at its end. This type of chimney is very similar
to that found in older houses in the regions of Slavonaska Poega
(fig. 15). Dachler (1906: 141-42) considers it tyrpical for this area.
Since the houses are relatively small, additional buildings must
be made to shelter the members of the zad       The buildings erected
for this purpose are similar to the house, except that they are
longer and narrower (fig. 17). It consists of a row of small rooms
(ku6er) which are used by married couples and young girls. Each has
a door leading onto the veranda; heating devices and windows are
lacking. In each is found a bed, chests, and other furnishings,
and it is here that all one's more valuable possessions are kept.
Farm Buldings.  An outdoor bread oven is located just outside
the veranda of the house. It is made of bricks, whitewashed, and
cove!red by a tiled gabled roof, giving it the appearance of a small
house. The kaara is a small building for the storage of plums and
raki   (plum brandy) and next to it is a separate building, peaara,
in which rakija is distilled.
Greatest care is expended on the construction of the ambar,
the granary. It is erected on blocks of masonry, with a few masonry
or wooden steps leading to the door on the gabled side. The roof is
often covered with tiles. Where the eaves do not extend over the
wall on the gable side, a narrow roof is erected at the division of
the attic and the ground floor (similar to fig. 17). The walls are
33
made of carefully cut and planed boards and are left unplastered
to permit better ventilation. Grain is stored in the main chamber,
while in the loft peas and other seeds are kept. Under the ambar
are located the chicken coops.
The itagalj is the building in which grain is stored before
threshing.  This becomes a place for agricultural tools when the
threshing is over.  It is sometimes built of bricks and covered with
tiles, but often of wood and covered with straw. Hay may be stored
in the loft of the ntaglj, in the stable-loft, or in a separate
unit adjoining the itagalj.  Next to the stable is the wood shed and
a shed for the cart. Occasionally a separate building is put up for
the sheep. Every house has a pigsty, a long narrow structure
covered with straw, reed or shingles.
Buildinus outside the Village.  Lovreti6 (1897) writes that in
former times each zadruga had a house in its distant fields, close
to the meadows and forest. This was linked with the custom of
driving the pigs into the forest and the cattle into the fields
over the sumr.    Members of the zadrupa alternated in residing
there for a year. The house was built very much like the village
house and, together with the stables and pigsties, was enclosed by
a fence. Those who had pigs in the forest erected there smaller
houses of boards plastered with mud and covered with shingles or
straw. They were divided into a whitewashed living-room (soba) with
a stove, and a kitchen (ku6a) with a hearth.
Tya of Slavonska Polega and Vicinity.    The older houses in
this region appear to be similar to those found around Bjelovar.
The walls are made of wicker and plastered, but unfired brick is
also- used; sometimes a house was made of both materials (Frani6,
1936). Most houses have a ceil'ingless kitchen (ku6a) with a low
hearth, and a living-room (soba) that has a ceiling and contains a
tiled stove. While straw is used for roof covering, wooden shingles
are also popular.  Chimneys, when present, are covered with a small
roof (fig. 15).
The veranda on. some houses takes on a somewhat different form;g
the central portion of the front wall, where the front door is
located, is pulled back to form a set-in porch, about 4 meters long
and 1.5 meters wide (similar to fig. 56c). The roof above is sup-
ported by two carved pillars which form the entrance. On either
side of the pillars, extending to the protruding walls of the side-
rooms, is a fairly high railing of slats.
The newer buildings in this area that have displaced the older
form are a Slovak introduction (Frani6, 1936) and are similar to
those found in the plains of Hungary. They are one story construc-
tions of unfired bricks and are whitewashed. The gabled roof is
covered with tiles or shingles.  It, too, has a set-in porch or
veranda similar to the one jui-st described, except that here the
pillars are massive and made of brick, as is also the railing. The
34
windows face the front of the house, are rather large and are closed
with wooden shutters.  The floor of the house is of earth, plastered
with a layer of mud and chaff.
It would appear that a number of rather different house types
are present in this area and that it has been influenced both from
the east (e.g. chimneys) and from Hungary. Unfortunately, data on
this area are very scant and research in it began only in 1936
(Franic6 1936).
Types of Lika and the Vici it   of Lovinac.  According to
Pavi6i6-Sunjic (1936F the wattle and daub houses of this area were
replaced about 150 years ago by buildings of logs and masonry.   While
log houses occur in forested areas, stone houses predominate in the
treeless area.
The log houses are raised on a foundation-of stone 50 centimeters
high. The horizontal logs have their ends notched so that they inter-
lock. Some of them are erected over a basement made of dry masonry,
or of stones set in a mortar of lime and mud. In the basement are
the stables. Stone houses are generally built on an incline and
therefore have a cellar. The stone wall is plastered with sand and
lime.
.Windows are small and have wooden shutters that open on the
inside. The entrance is closed by a door on the inside and a lower
door on the outside. The latter keeps the animals from wandering
into the house and also keeps the draft off the hearth on the floor.
The gable roof has a collar truss. It is covered with rye
straw (the lowest row with the grain pointing upwards, the higher
rows with the grain downwards), or wooden shingles fixed to the
laths by means of home-made nails.   The first brick tiles introduced
into the area came from Udine in Italy; later they were replaced by   l
ones of Slavonian manufacture. Chimneys are lacking; the smoke
escapes from an opening near the ridge, which has a lid attached to
it that can be raised and lowered by a pole from the inside.
The house is divided into a ugljenica and a soba. The ugljenioa
has neither ceiling nor windows; light enters through the open door
and the opening in the roof. On the earthen floor is erected a low
rectangular fireplace of bricks, more rarely of stone or clay. The
living-room (soba) has no ceiling and is separated from the kitchen
by a partition of boards or stone, depending on the construction of
the house. At the most it has three windows. The stove (1-1 .5
meters high) in the living-room is made of earth and has inset hol-
low earthenware bowls. In the center it has a niche of earthenware
(trumba) on which one can cook (fig. 19). The stove is heated from
an opening in the kitchen and smoke escapes back into the kitchen
from a hole placed above the first opening. The older people and
children sleep in the living-room while all the other adults, even
if married, sleep outside the house in the stables and other farm
units.
35
Buildings.. The yard is generally small and enclosed with
& strong high wall on the wealthier farms, or a fence of branches on
the poorer ones. Occasionally thorns are placed on the masonry
walls and sometimes the fence may consist of thorns. In the yard
are found the pigsty made of boards, and the stables of stone or
wood, with the same roof as the house.   In their loft is stored the
fodder, and they have partitions of wicker to separate the large
cattle, the sheep and the goats. The wagon shed is under the same
roof as the stable and is completely open on one side. Ambars
(granaries) are rare in Lika. Corn is stored in a rectangular corn-
house of wicker which is 5-6 meters long, 70 centimeters wide and
1.8 meters high. It rests on a foundation of brick or stone and is
covered with a straw roof (more recently of tile or brick).
THE YUGOSLAV LITTORAL AND TIE KARST
Under this heading we shall deal with the Adriatic coast,
extending from Fiume to the Boka Kotorska, and the barren Karst
region of Dalmatia, Herzegovina and Montenegro behind the coast.
Italian and Venetian influence is found only along the narrow coastal
strip, for the high mountain ranges immediately behind the coast have
been a barrier to diffusion. Plateaus 800-1200 meters high must be
crossed to get into the interior, and movement has been somewhat
easier towards the coast than in the oppoeite direction.   Only the
Narenta valley in Hlerzegoyina provides easy papsage, and it is here
that one finds some penetration of Mediterranean elements as well
as Oriental influence from the east (Krebs, 1918: 299-3013.
Most authors deal with the Adriatic coast as if it were a uni-
form culture area. Similarly, and probably with less justification,
the houses on the coast are not treated separately from those of the
Karst hinterland.  One would like to know what changes occur in the
house form as one progresses -outhward from tiuiae to Boka Kotorska.
Since the stone house types characteristic of the Slovene Karst do
not appear to extend far southward (Vurnik, 1929), one may expect a
greater variation in the coastal region than is generally indicated.
The present study is handicapped by the fact that detailed data were
available only from the areas around Dubrovnik (Sindik, 1926) and
the Boka Kotoroka (Naki6enovri.6. 1913), both in the southern area.
The house types of the barren mountains and plateaus of the
Karst have also been treated as a unit.   This however, is a fairly
isolated and impoverished area; furthermore, the building material
is almost limited to stone, and one would expect great similarity
in the simple stone dwellings.
Por the abov4 reasons the writer is unable to bring out regional
differences and to present as clear a picture as would be desirable.
Location and Types of Settlements. Sindik (1926: 15) states
that in the area around Dubrovnik and in Central Dalmatia one can
36
distinguish three zones of settlement: the villages of the islands
and along the coast of the mainland; those located at the geological
zone of flyach where springs occur; and those of the Karat valley
between the second and third mountain ranges. While the villages of
the second zone are all provided with water, those of the first and
third are not.  Naki6enovic' (19137: 225),t in discussing the region
around Boka Kotorska, states that settlements occur at elevations
of from 100 to 1500 meters, and he distinguishes the villages of the
Primorje (coast) from those of the Zagorje (mountains), the former
located on the coast and the lower slopes of the foathillsa the
latter on high mountain terraces.   Cviji6 (1918: 214) writes that in
the Karst one finds deserted areas with no habitations, followed by
regions were villages are numerous and close together.   They tend to
be grouped on the borders of basins and depressions in which is found
arable land; they are never located in the basins themselves as the
s-oil there is reserved for agriculture. For this reason one builds
on mountain slopes, often on stone itself. - Both Sindik and
Nakiaenovi6 state that one strives for a leeward location on the
mountain slopes, as it is necessary to seek shelter from the
extremely fierce wind, the bura, that comes in from the sea and car-
ries away roofs, stones and wood.
Historical factors have also had their influence on the location
of villages; on the Dalmatian islands settlements are located away
from the coast because of the danger of piracy (Sindik, 1926: 15).
Naki6enovi6 (1913: 297) gives the same explanation for the fact that
the earlier settlements in the Boka Kotorska were never located
close to the sea, and adds that later on movement towards the sea
was brought about by the presence of hajduks (brigands) in the moun-
tains. It is interesting to note that in this area people prefer to
build houses away from the road, because they feel that the house
next to the road is "half foreign."
From the data on the form of settlements it would appear that
both widely scattered ones as well as hig hly agglomerated types are
found in this region.  Cviji6 (1918: 219) states that the closer one
gets to the littoral, the more congested the villages appear, and
that in the coastal regions they are all of the agglomerated type,
due to the influence of Mediterranean civilization.   Sindik (1926:
15-16) confirms this for villages in the vicinity of Dabrovnik, all
of which are of the agglomerated type, the houses being built close
to one another. Popovic (1929) however, contradicts Cviji6 in
stating that in the mountain regions of Dalmatia, Herzegovina and
Montenegro the houses are grouped closely together because of the
shortage of good earth. Naki6enovi6 (1913: 297) informs us that
settlements vary in size from those consisting of only a few houses
to those of a hundred and more. Often a village may be made up of
a number of hamlets formed by 5-10 houses, which are either grouped
together or widely scattered in no particular order. The latter is
characteristic of settlements in hilly regions, where parts of the
village may be far from one another and separated by depressions,
streams, hills, etc. Nakiaenovi6 attribntes this wide scatter of
37
houses to the desire to have the house surrounded by arable land
and to the preference for building away from the road. The author
states that on the coast the houses are located along the road and
may be close to one another. Some of the settlements here resemble
Dalmatian-Venetian towns, being built on the bottom of a hill, close
to the sea, and having a wide central street running parallel to the
coast, crossed by a number of crooked lanes. On the other hand,
many settlements along the coast consist of groaps of 4-5 houses,
some of them 400-500 meters apart.
Naki8enovi6 concludes his discussion by referring to Cviji6's
terminology and claiming that the latter's "Stari Vlah" and"lumadija"
types prevail in this region. Since these two types are character-
ized by the greatest scatter of the constituent parts of the villages
as well as the houses, one wonders whether the conclusion is justi-
fied. All one can say in summary of the types of settlement in the
Coastal and Karst regions is that both the agglomerated and widely
scattered types are represented, their exact distribution and fre-
quency, however, remaining undetermined.
Hlouse Ases. A stated above, most authors do not attempt to
distinguish the houses of the coast from those of the mountainous
Karst, and Cvi ji6 (1918: 239) sets up a co-on "Karso-Mdditerranean"
type for these areas. For lack of better data, the following des-
cription is largely drawn from Naki6enovi.6's (1913) work on the Boka
Kotorska, though other works will be drawn upon whenever possible.
The stone house is characteristic of all this area. The main
house is generally built of cut stone, set in lime mortar, and may
be one or two stories high. Cviji6 (1918: 239) states that the
latter are more frequent over the littoral and in Montenegro than
are one story houses. Patach (1922: 5) mentions only one story
houses for the Karst region of Herzegovina. Frequently houses are
also erected on an incline, so that only part of the upper story is
built over a ground floor, while the other rests on the ground
(Cviji6, 1918: 240).
The house is generally 10 meters long and 8 meters wide and 7
meters high; when -two-storied the height is about 12 meters. Windows
are so arranged that light enters from at least two sides. On the
ground floor there are generally two windows in front and one on
either side of the house; the second story may have four in front
and two on either side. The windows may be 1-1.10 meters wide and
those of the ground floor are fitted with iron bars.  Cviji6 (1918:
240) states that windows are fitted with glass panes and have wooden
shautters. The poorer one-story houses may have small square open-
ings that are closed only by shutters. The door opens on the inside
and is at least 1.15 meters wide and 2 meters high. The stairs
leading up to the second story are of wood when located on the
inside, or of stone if constructed on the outside; they are generally
wide and not steep. The inside walls are whitewashed. The windows
and doors are generally framed with stone.
38
In certain villages one finds one-unit houses measuring 6 by 9
meters and only 4 meters high. They may have two doors (one to
bring in products, the other for humans) facing one another, and
only two or three small windows, the interior always remaining
dark (fig. 20a) (Naki6enovic', 1913: 234)1.
In the area around Dubrovnik and also in the Boka Kotorska
(Sindik, 1926; Nakikenovic, 1913) the houses are roofed with tiles,
more rarely with stone slabs. However, it would appear that in the
interior tiles are less widespread. Patsch (1922: 6) mentions stone
slabs as characteristic of the Herzegovinan Karst; Naki6enoviC (1926:
229) also mentions straw roofs, while Cvi jiC (1918: 238) states that
rye straw predominates in the poorer houses. The roofs are gener-
ally gabled, with very narrow eaves (fig. 24). While the roofs may
sometimes be fairly high, in Boka Kotorska this does not seem to be
the case, and would be undesirable because of the strong winds in
this area. The hipped roof occurs only in rare instances and is
generally considered to be of Italian origin, as are occasional
dormer windows (Nakiaenovi6, 1913: 230). The ceiling and floors in
two-story houses are made of narrow boards, the cracks between them
being filled with dirt and dung (NakiSenovi6, 1913: 229). One may
add that with the absence of balconies and woodwork these rectangu-
lar structures, with their central doors and sametrical windows,
do not give a prepossessing appearance.   The extremely narrow eaves
accentuate their box-like character (fig. 24).
Cviji6 writes of the one-story houses that chimneys are lacking
and that when the roof is of stone slabs, two or three may be lifted
to permit the smoke to escape. Even in two-story buildings only
smoke holes may be provided (Cvijic, 1918: 238, 240).   The fact
that Sindik and NakiaenoviE do not discuss chimneys when describing
the better-built houses of this region would confirm the fact that
they are not common. Their absence may be accounted for by the fact
that stoves are generally lacking in the rooms and cooking takes
place in an outside kitchen (Naki6enovic', 1913: 233). Dachler (1906:
29), on the other hand, characterizes southern regions of Austria
and Herzegovina as "Kamin" countries, their hearths being distin-
guished by a wide umbrella-like structure which catches the fire of
the open fireplace and leads it off through a flue.
Lodge (1942: 80) describes a room which is shaped above the
eaves like a huge extinguisher and is used as a kitchen. Its sloping
aides are two times the height of the upright walls, ending above
the roof in a small square chimney with a pointed cap, and are slit
by one or two vents. The description is not too clear but she may
be describing a structure that is similar to the kitchens found in
the stone houses of northwest Slovenia (fig. 5). On the other hand
the separate kitchens are built in a similar manner and Sindik (1926:
46) mentions that they may be built on to the house.
The simplest type of house, the prizemljuga (literally, "by
the earth"), consists of only one unit,-in which the fireplace is
39
found next to the wall.  The floor is of tamped earth, while the
fireplace is of clay and rises only a few inches above the ground
(CviJi6, 1918: 238). Patsch (1922: 5) describes similar dwellings
from the Karst region of Herzegovina. Nakilenovic (1913: 234)
gives examples of one-story houses consisting of two or three
units, the partitions being formed by wickerwork and having doors
of boards or twigs that are arranged vertically and horizontally.
One of the rooms is the kitchen and contains the hearth, while the
other serves for the storage of grain and other products. A third
may be partitioned off from the kitchen, and is used for sleeping
quarters (fig. 20b). If the house has an attic, the attic may
remain undivided, serving as kitchen and living-room combined,
while the ground floor may be divided into compartments for the
shelter of livestock. Houses built on an incline have the stable
on the ground floor (called kono    magaza, isba)  while the family
resides in the upper story, which is div'ided into two or three
rooms (Cvijic, 1918: 239-40).
Sindik and NakiAenovic agree in their description of the
arrangements of rooms in the two-story house. Almost all of these
houses have five units on the ground floor and the same divisions
on the second floor. The entrance is a large room with a staircase
at the back, on either side of which are two smaller rooms (figs.
21a, 21b). The large central room on the ground floor may be fur-
nished with a large table where the daily meals are taken. One of
the side rooms (dispeusa) is used for the storage of foodstuffs,
and may have a number of pits, 1.5 meters deep and 1.2 meters wide,
for the preservation of food. Another may serve as sleeping quar-
ters for the family members. All the rooms on the ground level
have floors nicely paved with stone slabs. It is unfortunate that
the author does not explicitly state what material is used for the
partitioning walls.  Since the partitioning walls of the upper story
are set over those of the lower, they may well be of stone.   The
central room on the second floor (ala) is the best room of the
house, where guests are received, while the other rooms serve as
bedrooms.
In the soutbheast of Montenegro, on either side of the Mora6a
River, one finds slightly different house types. The one-storied
stone houses have gabled roofs covered with tiles weighted down with
stones. They are dug into the ground so that the floor level is
below the ground level, the houses being considered warmer the
deeper they are set in the earth.  The longer houses may have two
doors next to one another in the center, facilitating the division
of the house which may occur with the expansion of the zadruga.
The windows may be small or absent for the sake of greater safety,
since this is a feuding area.  The walls may have numerous niches
for the placement of objects; the floor is of tamped earth. The
poorer people inhabit small windowless houses (poLata) of wickerwork
plastered with mud, with a roof of the reeds which grow in the
swampy areas of the Mora&aUIiver (Jovi6evic, 1926: 451-53). Refer-
ence should also be made to the cave dwellings found in the vicinity
40
of Dubrovnik (Dachler, 1906: 83). I am unable to find further
information on them.
Farm Buildings.   Drobnjakovic6 (1929) considers small yards,
enclosed by a low wall of dry masonry or of stone and lime mortar,
characteristic for this area. Naki6enovil and Sindik both describe
small enclosed yards in front of the main building, the entire area
often paved with stone slabs or perhaps only the portion next to
the house entrance (fig. 20a). In the Zeta area of southeast
Montenegro the fence is made of wooden poles, only Turkish houses
possessing stone walls about 3 meters high (Joviaevic, 1926: 452).
In Herzegovina enclosures are occasionally made of thorn (Patsch,
1922: 6). The massive stone walls that link adjoining buildings,
prevalent in northwest Slovenia and Albania, appear to be lacking
here. No attempt is made to enclose the whole farmstead; farm build-
ings are located around or near the walled yard, only a few being
inside. It is very likely that the yard is connected with the
presence of animals in the basement of the house, for when animals
are kept in a separate stable the latter also has a low walled
enclosure in front of it (Sindik, 1926: 47).
The kitchen (kahinja or 'kjmi) is located in the yard, next to
the main house. It is built of stone (6 x 4 x 3-5 meters), has one
to two windows and is covered with tiles or stone slabs. The
better kitchens have a large rectangular chimney flue of masonry
which rises about 1 meter above the roof; it is covered with tiles
or stone slabs, and has vents on the side to permit the smoke to
escape. The kitchens of the less wealthy lack the chimney, and
smoke leaves through an opening created by raising a few slabs or
tiles in the roof. The hearth may be on the level of the floor or
raised 6-10 inches above it. Over the hearth hangs the cauldron on
an iron chain. The floor may be paved with stone. In some areas
the peopleveat in the kitchen; in others, in the main house. However,
in cold weather the warm kitchen is a gathering place for the family
members and some do not leave it all day. As noted earlier, among
the poor the kitchen is located on the ground floor of the main
house (Nakitenovi6, 1926: 232-33).   The kitchen may sometimes have
a storeroom attached to it (fig. 22).
All the additional farm buildings are of the same construction
as the house.  The magazinica is located in the yard and is of the
same size as the kitchen. Its floor is not tiled; it is furnished
with one or two windows, and it serves for the storage of wine, oil,
grain and tools. Oil is often kept in an oval container made of
oak trunks, or in a square one made of boards, located outside the
yard and surrounded with a high wall of dry masonry, topped by
pointed wooden poles and thorns (Naki6enovi6, 1913: 235).
The stable (kolara) is in the immediate vicinity of the house
and kitchen, and has an enclosure where animals stay in summer. It
may be partitioned for the different livestock, and the chicken coop
is generally located in its loft. The pigsty is always outside the
41
yard. A dry masonry structure (4 x 4 x 2 meters), it is paved with
stone and in front of it is a small area enclosed by a stone wall
1.5 meters high (fig. 23). In the enc4osure is a stone trough
(Nakiaenovi6, 1913: 236). Grass and hay for the livestock are
stored in a masonry building called the poyata.  The threshing floor
consists of a carefully paved area which is enclosed by a low wall
(Nakilenovi6, 1913: 235). In the upper villages one finds stone-
paved pits (trap) used for winter storage of potatoes. To close the
pit, thick wooden beams are first placed over it, followed by a
layer of stone slabs, the whole covered with earth. A pole is
erected over it to mark the spot during snowfall (Naki8enovi6, 1913:
236).
Buildings Outside the Village. Summbr shelters for the live-
stock are erected in the high mountain pastures. They are stone
houses (5 x 4 x 2 meters) covered by a high roof of rye straw.
Partitions are made to separate the cattle, sheep and goats; and
also to separate the young animals from the old. Next to this
structure is found a small hut for the storage of milk (Naki6enovic',
1913: 235-36).
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
(excluding the Karat Region)
Cviji6's maps (1918: Maps IV and V) on the distribution of vil-
lage and house types in the Balkan Peninsula depict a parallel dis-
tribution of the "stari Vlah" village type and the "Dinaric" house
in the area between 160 and 200 longitude, bordering on the Sava
plain in the north and the Karat region in the south. Geographically
and geologically the area is very uniform; it is mountainous country
that slopes gradually from the high ranges and plateaus of the
Adriatic coast to the Sava plain. While this area includes part of
Serbia in the west, it roughly coincides with the regions of Bosnia
and Herzegovina. It is mainly for this reason that the two areas
are here treated as a unit. Furthermore, Bosnia and Herzegovina have
been historically and politically separate from Serbia and are gen-
erally dealt with as separate units in the literature. While one
could include western and southwestern Serbia in the following sec-
tion, I believe it is not entirely arbitrary to deal with them under
the heading of Serbia. The following data have been derived from a
number of general works on Bosnia and Uerzegovina as well as two
detailed accounts; one on the region along the Una River in north-
west Bosnia (Karanovic, 1925),. the other on the area around Sarajevo
(Stjepa and Trifkovic', 1908).
Location and Types of Settlements. When located in the plains,
the villages are close to rivers, and streams may run through them.
When located on the slopes and ridges of hills, they are generally
on the sunny side and the houses so arranged that they face into the
valley (Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 13). Mulabdi6 (1929: 75)
42
mentions that the Moslem villages in Bosnia and Herzegovina are
generally built on an elevation; in relatively flat country a
slight rise of the terrain is sought, while in mountainous regions
villages are located on or near the top of a ridge. Here, too,
the houses are generally turned towards the valley. Radenovic
(1925: 151) states that in northwest Bosnia one can distinguish
the settlements of the 'outcast"   (bezpravni) population fruom those
of the free population. The former are more numerous and tend to
be located in hidden areas away from the main roads, while the lat-
ter have a more open position and are often in plains along the
roads.  The "off-the-road" settlements were formed by the fleeing
raya (Christians ) during the harshest periods of Turkish rule. One
wonders in how far this explanation holds good for the rest of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and for that matter, Serbia.   One must also
not overlook the fact that in mountainous areas access to a village
is always more difficult than in flat territory, which is compara-
tively rare in these regions.
In this area villages tend to be of the widely scattered type,
especially at higher altitudes. They often consist of hamlets num-
bering 3-10 houses. On the mountain slopes the houses lie 100-500
meters apart. In the valley villages the houses are less scattered,
and the village may spread out for about 1 kilometer in length.   The
houses are on both sides of the street, separated by a distance of
30-80 meters. Moslem settlements, on the other hand, are 'of the
agglomerated type, due to the necessity of being close to the mosque
(Stjepa and Trifkovic, 1908: 27; Karanovi'6, 1925: 297).
House Types. In this fairly forested region the houses are
generally constructed of boards, unfired bricks and of wicker and
daub. Two-story buildings are infrequent, although cellars are
found under houses on an incline. Enlargement of the house takes
place in the horizontal rather than vertical direction, and the
architecture tends to be rather simple.
The houses are built on a foundation of stone about 50 centi-
meters high, or on a foundation of l ogs. If the walls are made of
wooden boards, the cracks between planks are filled with pieces of
wood, covered with a mixture of mud and chaff, and then whitewashed
(Vuleti6-Vukasovi6, 1896: 33). When unfired bricks are used, the
walls are erected in the following manner: over the stone founda-
tion one first raises a wall two bricks in width, up to the height
of one meter; upon this is placed a horizontal beam followed by
another meter of bricks, topped off with another beam on which lies
the plate.           The boards forming the ceiling of the living
room are placed between the upper beam and the plate (Stjepa and
Trifkovi6, 1908: 32).  In Herzegovina the house walls are often of
wicker and daub. Houses of unfired brick are often.not whitewashed,
while in wooden houses it is frequently only the living room that
is whitewashed (Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 320).
43
Two doors, located opposite to one another, generally lead to
the kitchen; the larger one faces the road while the smaller one
leads into the yard.  The windows on older houses are small (20 x
25 centimeters). While glass panes were already common in 1908,
they were fastened on in such a manner that they could not be taken
off.  The newer houses have windows measuring 50 by 80 centimeters,
but the panes in these can be removed and the windows often have
double c-asements so that they can be opened (Stjepa and Trifkovic6,
1908: 36).
The roof construction was simple in that the rafters supported
the roof unaided.  When dealing with roof construction, most authors
are satisfied to state that horizontal laths are placed on the raf-
ters.  Distinction is never made between the purlins and the battens,
and one wonders whether this is an oversimplification, or whether
these horizontal laths are indeed uniform. Should the latter be the
case, it would be important to know just how strong they are.
The roof is either gabled or hipped, and tends to be high.
Since tiles are not used in peasant houses, the roofs are generally
covered with wooden shingles, or less frequently with straw.   The
roof may be covered with 8-12 rows of shingles, sometimes as many as
16. Vuletic-Vukasovi6 (1896: 35) states that the shingles may be
5-6 centimeters thick.  He mentions that often long planks are used
that reach from the eaves to the ridgepole, and that occasionally
boards and shingles are combined, the shingles covering the boards.
Three types of smoke escapes are known. The better houses have
a rectangular opening in the roof which is provided with a cover
that can be opened and closed. The second type consists of raising
two or three shingles in one of the lower rows of the roof 20-25
centimeters and fastening them so that they are immovable. A less
frequent device is the sawar (saddle).   This opening is located at
the ridgepole, and is covered with a small gable roof, one shingle
in width and 50-75 centimeters in length, which is raised 20-25
centimeters over the ridgepole.
The two-unit house, consisting of a kitchen and a living room,
is the commonest form (Cvijic, 1918: 231). Dwellings with two
living rooms (soba) are rare; however, a storeroom is frequently
added to the house (figs. 25, 26). The,entrance is into the kitchen,
which has a floor of tamped earth (often plastered with a layer of
mud and chaff) and a fireplace either in the center or next to the
wall dividing it; from the l'iving room.  The fireplace is raised 20-
30 centimeters from the groand, made of tamped earth and encircled
with stones that rise slightly above its surface.   If it is built
next to a wall partition, the portion of the wall next to it is
either of unfired brick or of stone. Sometimes a bad is locatqd in
the kitchen for sleeping in sumer.    The living room is separated
from the kitchen by a wall -of wicker and daub or of unfired bricks.
The l'ivi'ng room often has a floor and a ceiling of boards. The
stove is next to the wall and is heated either from the kitchen or
44
from the outside (Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 36).   In Bosnia one
finds beautiful stoves of glazed green or brown earthenware tiles
that have little hollows to increase the heating surface; these
stoves are often about four feet high, but sometimes extend to the
ceiling (Lodge, 1942: 72).   However, in poorer dwellings, the stove
may be of unglazed earthenware or lud (Vuletic-VukasoviC, 1896: 36).
Ia winter the family members sleep in the living room, but in summer
it is only used by women and small children (Stjepa and Trifkovic,
1908: 36). The attic above the living room is used for the storage
of grain, dry meat and other supplies.
Houses built on an incline have a windowless storeroom in the
stone basement. People often sleep there in summer. In poorer
houses the basement is used as a stable. Very frequently a store-
room is added to the building (fig. 25) (Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908:
37-38).
When more rooms are desired, the living room may be divided
into two (fig. 26), or a room is added onto the other side of the
kitchen, creating the familiar tripartite division (fig. 27). The
new unit may be divided into a storeroom and a room for guests or
offspring. Depending on the size of the zadruga, the rooms may be
further subdivided; when the zadruga is especially large or when there
are two zadrugas in the house, the kitchen, too, may be divided,
creating two complete and separate dwelling units under a common
roof (figs. 28, 29) (Stjepa and Trifkovic, 1908: 40-41).
It is unfortunate that the author does not explain the manner
in which annexes to the main buildings are roofed over; that is,
whether the main roof extends over them or a separate roof is added.
In this connection it may be added that the long verandas under
extended eaves appear to be uncharacteristic in this area.
Houses with living rooms above the main floor are comparatively
rare. Such living rooms, called Uardak, are-generally reserved for
guests. The aardak are reached by a staircase from the kitchen and
may be located above the living room on the ground floor, as the
kitchen does not have a ceiling (Stjepa and Trifkovic, 1908: 42).
It is not clear whether they form a second story or are merely
located in the loft.
Cvi jic (1918: 234) considers separate dwellings for married
members of the zadrua typical for this area. Karanovi6 (1929: 303)
describes buildings consisting of a row of rooms (zgrada), lacking
any heating device, each furnished with a separate entrance from the
outside.  They appear to be very similar to those found in Slavonia
(see above). Vuleti`-Vukasovi6 (1896: 37) states that each peasant
Uas a form of storage house (hudiara) built close to the main house,
made of boards over a foundation of stone. Only the more valuable
possessions are stored here, and young girls or young men sleep in
them. The author adds that peasants may prefer a good hudiara to a
good house. However, it is not clear whether these are to be
45
equated with the separate quarters for the zadr     members.
Trifkovi'c, who has described the multi-divisioned houses, fails to
mention them for the Sarajevo area, and one wonders whether they
are universal or not.
The wealthier people often erect two-story houses. Often the
lower rooms are inhabited by the members of the zadrupa while the
upper ones are reserved for guests (Drobnjakovic, 1929: Karanovic,
1925: 302).
The section above has dealt with the houses of the Christian
population of this area. Moslems often inhabit dwellings that
differ very little from those of the Christians, the main difference
being the greater wealth of the Moslem owners. The Moslems, however,
prefer to place the staircase leading to the rooms in the upper story
on the outside of the building instead of locating it in the kitchen
(Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 49). On the other hand, Moslems have
special types of houses that are not used by the rest of the popula-
tion, called dardak and kula.   The latter is a two-story fortress-
like structure of heavy masonry with a square base, and has a hipped
or pyramidal roof. The same type is found in Albania and in south-
western Rmania. Its occurrence in Bosnia and lHerzegovina, however,
does not appear to be cotmmon.
While the kula are rather rare in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the
6ardak is fairly co-mon (Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 50-53). The
latter is a large two-story building, often square in floor plan,
containing numerous living quarters. The lower story is made of
stone or unfired brick, while the upper may be of wood or wicker and
daub. Often the entire building is of wood (Karanovic, 1925: 305).
The shingled or tiled roof is always hipped and low. Sometimes a
belt of roofing just above the ground floor extends all around the
house creating a pagoda-like effect. This serves to protect the
lower wall from rain, which the main roof is unable to do (Mulabdi6,
1929: 75).  Often the upper story is made to protrude over the
lower one, sometimes on all sides or, in other cases, only in front
of the house. The extra roof is, of course, not added in this
instance (Stjepa ond TrifkoviC, 1908: 51).
The ground floor may be used for storage space or as a stable,
but more frequently the kitchen and main living room are located
there. The stairlway leading to the upper story is always roofed,
and leads to the divanahana, an anteroom, on each side of which are
rooms. One of the rooms is especially large, extending over the
whole front of the house; it may have 6 or 7 windows overlooking the
best view. This room is reserved for guests, for special festivities,
and for the use of male members of the household. At night the win-
dows are closed with wooden shutters.   The women's quarters have
windows of lattice work. The upper story may also contain a kitchen,
which has no ceiling, and a fireplace that is raised 70 to 80 centi-
meters above the ground. Is rare cases the fireplace is directly on
the floor (Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 51). The kitchen in the
46
lower story has a floor of tamped earth; all other rooms hare
floors of wood,- for in all rooms except the kitchen one walks
without shoes and sits on the floor (Mulabdi6, 1929: 75).
Occasionally separate houses are provided for the men and women,
the selamluk or konak for men and the haremluk for women.
e Farm Buildings. *Moslem houses generally have a small yard
surrounded by a high feuce of boards. Sometimes the fence is only
on the street side or on the side of a ulighbor of different faith
(Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 5s).  The tardaks described above
often have a high enclosure of unfired brick or stone with an
imposing gateway. A garden is next to the house, or sometimes the
latter stands in the middle of a garden (Mulabdi6, 1929: 76).
Stjepa and Trifkovi6 (1908: 30-31) write that when the property
of the owner is a single unit the house tends to be located in the
middle of this property. However if the various fields and build-
ings are scattered widely the house tends to be located along a
road. They prefer to place the yard and garden on one side of the
house and all the farm buildings on the other aide.   Care is taken
that the house is not surrounded on all sides by buildings. The
various farm buildings are not arranged in any particular order,
but may be separated from the fields and the road by a fence of
poles. However, fences may be lacking altogether.
The sumer kitchen prevalent on the coast is not known in this
area.  Each zadruga, however, has a bread oven covered with a roof
of boards near the house (Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 46). The
wealthy have a special storehouse for grain, the hambar.   It rests
on a stone foundation 20-40 centimeters high; the building has
walls of planks and a shingled roof. In it are 6-8 compartments
for the various kinds of grain.
The mlekar is similar in shape to the house but smaller. A
fireplace with a cauldron is located near the door. This mlekar
is used only for the storage of meat and milk products and for the
churning of butter. Often a bed is found-in it for the use of
mother and children (Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 44). Corn is
stored in a wickerwork structure called the ialos which is raised
on posts 30-50 centimeters high; it is 3-5 meters high and 50 centi-
meters wide, and is covered with ferns (Stjepa and Trifkovic, 1908:
46).
The most important building is the stable, or klanica, which
only the poorest farms are without. It is as big as the house,
sometimes larger and better built.  Occasionally it is divided into
two units, in which case it is provided with two doors, both on the
same side of the building.  Horses and cattle are kept there and a
special compartment is made for calves. Sometimes calves are shel-
tered in an annex built onto the l          The ceiling is of boards
or wicker; the hay that is stored    this loft is thrown into it
through an opening in the roof. One side of the roof is generally
47
extended to form a shelter for agricultural tools. Sometimes the
klanica is erected in the fields, where the threshing floor is
located, so that the straw can be placed directly into it.   In this
case the cattle are sheltered away from the house during winter
(Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 45-46). The Pa&ta is a hut of planks
or wicker possessing a roof of rye straw, which is used exclusively
for the storage of straw and hay. Unlike the klanica it in never
plastered with mud, thus permitting greater ventilation (Stjepa and
Trifkovi6, 1908: 46).
Goats and sheep are kept in a smaller building very similar to
the stable, called the ahar. However, a simpler shelter may be pro-
vided for them consisting of two parallel walls of wicker roofed
over with ferns. In front is generally a small enclosure with a
crude fence of poles. Near the house there is often an enclosure
which is divided into two parts, one for the sheep and the other for
the goats. When they are to be milked, the animals are first driven
into one of these two areas; they are milked at the partition, and
then pass on to the second area. The sheep of the poor people often
pass the winter in this enclosure, but the goats cannot, for they
are more delicate (Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 46-47).
The pigsties (of the non-Moslems) are made of bark or boards,
sometimes of wicker with mad plaster. The shape is variable. They
are generally located at the side of the yard, not too close to the
house or the road (for there are many Moslems in this area) but may
also be built onto the stable (Stjepa and Trifkovi6, 1908: 47)..
Chickens are kept in a circular structure of wicker covered with
ferns that is placed next to the house or the stable (Stjepa and
Trifkovi6, 1908: 46).
Buildings Outside the Ville.     The mountain pastures are fre-
quently only two hours walking distance from the settlements.
Though the cattle are generally kept in the mountains over the sum-
mer, they may also remain there during the winter months.   One
finds there shepherd huts, measuring   -4 by 5-6 meters, as well as
larger houses. The latter are made of logs with roofs of boards,
shingles or bark.  Frequently they have two rooms.   The fireplace
and sleeping quarters are in one room, while the other is used for
the storage and preparation of milk products. Around the houses or
huts are enclosures for animals; and, if the latter winter there,
stables (klanica) are erected for their use (Stjepa and Trifkovic,
1908: 54-5)7
SERBIA
In Serbia one finds greater regional variation of village and
house types than in any of the areas heretofore discussed. ,Serbia
lies on a number of important comun ication lines and it is generally
regarded as the area wherr Occident and Orient meet.   Northern
Serbia was open to Central European influences that extended as far
48
East as the Iron Gate (Krebs, 1918: 11). The Morava and Vardar
valleys connect the Aegean with Beograd, and were the channels
through which Greek, Byzantine and Turkish cultures penetrated
inward from the Aegean coast (Krebs, 1918: 303). Skoplje and Nil
were centers of important routes that linked the various parts of
the Balkan Peninsula.  From Nil a major route led eastward to
Kystendil and from there to the Marica River, which provided a
connection with the southeastern part of the Peninsula, and
Constantinople (Cvijic, 1908: 28). From the Albanian coast,
communications extended up the Drin valley and into Metohija, and
from there into the interior regions of Serbia, while another route
led from the cgast to Macedonia (Cviji6, 1908: 23). The mountain-
ous region of Sumadija, on the other hand, received less foreign
influence and was the starting point of all Serbian movements for
independence (Krebs, 1918: 312). With this number of cross cul-
tural influences it is not surprising that Cviji6 can distinguish
seven types of villages and six different house-types in Serbia
(Cvijji6, 1918: Maps IV and V).
Cvijic's La Peninsule Balkaniue (1918) is one of the first
and most comprehensive books on the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula.
The author describes the geographical environment and deals with
migrations, political and social histories, economics, modes of
settlement, as well as the physical characteristics of the Balkan
peoples.  The writer is not equally familiar with all areas of the
peninsula, as most of his "anthropogeographical" research centered
on Yugoslavia, particularly Serbia, of which he was a native son.
His distribution maps of settlements and house types of this area
would therefore appear to be most dependable, and for this reason
they have been used as an outline for the following study.
.Location and Types of Settlements.  Cvijic (1918: Map IV)
distinguishes the following seven regional variants in the form of
settlements in Serbia. The first occurs along the Lower Morava,
where the villages are always aligned regularly on both sides of
the road. Sometimes two roads meet at right angles to one another
giving the village the shape of a cross.  Cvijic (1918: 218)
believes that this type of settlement, the Ma6va type, arose through
an iicrease in population density in the lower fertile valleys, by
itation of the villages of Syrmia and Banat, and also under pres-
sure of authorities who prefer orderly and compact villages, as they
are easier to supervise and control.
West of the Kolubara River and extending southward to the Tara
Riverare found villages consisting of widely dispersed hamlets,
having farmsteads that are likewise spaced at large distances from
one another. This is the previously discussed Stari Vlah type. The
hamlets forming the villages are located on the slopes of hil-ls on
the sides of valleys, or in depressions. Milojevi6, (1913: 652S,
describing the region between the Jadar and Drina rivers, states
that t lower altitudes the settlements tend to occur on ridges and
hill-tops, while at higher altitudes they are in depressions. The
49
higher the altitude, the more dispersed the hamlets and farmsteads
become. In the mountainous areas, the sunnier and warmer slopes are
preferred, and one finds villages most often located on slopes that
are turned southeast and northeast, while those facing southwest and
northwest remain unsettled (Milojeevic, 1913: 654).
Jovanovi6 (1908: 338) would attribute this wide scatter of
farmsteads and hamlets to the mountainous and forested terrain.
While this is no doubt an important factor, the fact should not be
overlooked that extremely congested villages with houses separated
only 5 to 20 paces from one another prevail in an equally mountainous
area in the vicinity of Kjagevac in eastern Serbia (Stanojevic, 1913:
20). The possibility of obtaining arable land is important. Where
forest has to be cleared to gain arable land, the farmsteads tend to
scatter; when arable land is limited and cannot be increased by
clearing forest, the settlements tend to be more densely settled
(e.g. Karst regions and the area between Knja1evac and Pirot).
Political factors may also be important in the location of
settlements; there are no permanent settlements in the plains of the
Jadar River. This area had always been an important line of commun-
ication and in times of war it provided easy passage to the enemy,
thus endangering the settlements. After the Austro-Turkish and the
wars of independence many fled from this region (Milojevic', 1913:
652).
South of Beograd and north of the Western Morava, extending from
the Kolubara to the border of the Morava plain, the settlements are
very similar to the type just discussed (Stari Vlh type) and differ
only in that the farmsteads are closer together and the hamlets less
distant from one another. This is the Sumadija type of settlement.
In southwestern Serbia, on both sides of the Kopaonik Mountains
and almost bordering on the Lim River in the west, the Ibar type
prevails. Like those of the Stari Vlah type, these villages cover
large surfaces and stretch over many hills and ridges. They are
almost never in the valleys. The villages are divided into a number
of hamlets (diejt). each of which occupies, more or less alone, a
site on a hill. The houses of the diemat stand close to one another.
Cviji6 (1918: 219-20) maintains that that form of settlement is
mainly determined by the terrain and that it occurs only where the
terrain is formed by granite, serpentine and crystalline schist cut
through by numerous valleys and ravines, which reach a depth of 300-
400 meters. Between these valleys rise hills which are often flat-
tened on top or have gentle slopes, on which the population is forced
to settle. These hills are more suitable for agriculture and herding
than are the valleys.
The Timok type, best represented in the Timok Basin, has a
continuous distribution from the Danube to Skoplje; its western
boundary would run approximafely in a straight line from Beograd to
Skoplje. One finds here large villages of an agglomerated type whose
50
origins sometimes point to the 6ifl ik (Turkish feudal village).
They are among the most crowded villages of the Balkans and can
only be compared with those of the Greco-Mediterranean. The houses
crowd one upon another in no particular order and the streets are
crooked.  The densest villages are found in Crna Gora near Skoplje,
in Sar Planina, and in the Homoljske Mountainx of northwestern
Serbia (Cvijic, 1918: 221)..
North of the Rtanj Mountains the villages tend to be smaller
than those further south. This is due to an increased interest in
agriculture. The little crowded villages in the bottoms of valleys
are surrounded with pasturage and prairies which suffice for the
pastoral population. With increased interest in agriculture, the
pasturage is transformed into arable land and the peasants must
drive their animals into mountain pastures. Here mountain dwellings
(poiate) are erected in which peasants spend most of the warm sea-
son. 'When the mountains are not very high, agri-culture is possible,
and more and more dwellings begin to collect areund the pojata,
forming a new village. Some peasants become permanently installed
there, while others migrate back and forth. The lower villages are
almost deserted, especially in sumer, and one comes down only to
cultivate the fields, to take part in a feast, or to make contact with
the authorities. The establishment of agriculture in the upper vil-
lages has again forced the herders to move to higher pastures and
construct new shelters there (Cviji6, 1918: 222).
In southern Serbia, Cviji6 distinguishes a number of different
settlement forms of which only the aiflik village type stands out
very distinctly. Ciflik villages are found mainly in the Kosovo and
Skoplje Basins, and in Metohija. They are always located at the
bottom of basins and fertile valleys. Two forms can generally be
dIistinguished.  In the first type the one-unit mud dwellings of the
lifi (serfs) may be arranged in a square, or form a number of
quares. Inside the enclosure one finds the dwellings of the master
bey), a selamlik for men, a haremlik for women, and an open pavilion
(ardak). In the second, the whole aifaik is surrounded by a high
wall of unfired brick (rarely of stone), which is roofed over with
tiles. It resembles a small fortress and can only be entered through
a gateway with a small door. The houses of both bey and 'if6i are in
the enclosure, the latter being grouped together to form a little
village of their own (Cviji6, 1918: 222-23) .
For the region south of Skoplje, Cviji6 sets up the Mixed type
and the Greco-Mediterranean type. While the Greco-Mediterranean
type is characterized by dense villages, the Mixed type hardly qual-
ifies as a separate form. It is largely composed of former aif6ik
villages that are undergoing transformation in all directions, some
approaching the orderly Ma6vo and dense Timok types, others resem-
bling the scattered ones of Sumadija and Ibar (Cviji6, 1918: 224).
One can therefore make the conclusion that there is a great range
of variation in this area, with dense villages predominating.
51
If we discount the modern houses that have infiltrated into
the area and the 'if6ik establishments introduced and operated by
the Turks, four regional house types are discernible in Serbia.
These can be more or less equated with Western Serbia (the eastern
boundary running in a straight line south from Beograd), Eastern
Serbia (east of Beograd and the Kopaonik Mountains, extending to
Vranje in the south), Southern Serbia (south of Vranje and bordering
on Albania in the east and Bulgaria in the west), and Metchija
(bordering onto northeast Albania, lying north of the Sar Planina
and south of the Ibar River, and reaching slightly beyond the
Kopaonik Mountains and the Kosovo Basin in the east) (Cviji6, 1918:
Map V). While in northern Serbia, the eastern house types coincide
Tith the Timok village type,- and the western type with that of
Sumadija, this correlation breaks down as one proceeds southward,
where a one-to-one relationship between any village type and any
house form is lacking. In general it can be stated, however, that
the eastern and southern house types are associated with dense
villages and those of western Serbia with widely scattered ones.
Western Serbia
House Inpes. As has been previously stated, the farmsteads of
western Serbia are very similar to those of Bosnia and Herzegovinat
with which they form what has been designated the Dinaric type
(Cvijic, 1918: 231), which is considered one of the basic forms in
the Balkans.  These houses are built mainly of wood, wicker and daub
or timber-framing and daub (Lehmfachwerk); stone is used only for
foundations, or for the ground floor when the house is erected on an
incline.
The walls generally rest on a rectangular foundation of stone.
On this is placed a heavy sill, followed by rows of thinner and
narrower boards that make up the wall of the house, and which in turn
are topped by a heavier plate.   The joists forming the ceiling fit
into channels in the plate. Above them is placed the somuer. on
which the rafters rest (Jovanovic, 1908: 348). The yalls may also
be of wicker and daub, and in the area of Ivanjica, CaUak and Grula
half board, half tiuiber-framing and daub houses predominate
(Jovani6, 1908: 34&; Dragi6, 1921: 180). In these the kitchen is
always of wood and the living room of timber-framing and daub, which
is whitewashed inside and out.
The house generally has two doors on opposite sides, facing
one another, both leading into the kitchen.   Only the living room
has windows; two on the side facing downhill and one on each of the
other two walls. In wooden houses the windows are quite small and
have no shutters, but when the walls are of timber-framing and daub,
they may be large and provided with wooden shutters.   While glass
may be used in the richer houses, the windows of the majority of
houses are only covered with paper (Jovanovi6, 1908: 346).
52
The roofs are generally hipped and may be covered with boards
(taraba), shingles, tiles, or straw. The boards are placed next to
one another and underneath them are placed thinner boards so that
the rain does not seep through the cracks. The shingles are thicker
than the boards and are thinned out at the sides so that the thinner
part of one comes into the channel of the next (Dragi6, 1921: 179).-
They may be arranged in 6-12 rows. When straw is used for covering,
long poles extend downward from the ridge over the straw to prevent
it from flying off.  The straw may be piled on in bundles but is
often merely laid on in a continuous layer (Lodge, 1942: 73). Tiles
are frequently used in this area, and many of the half wood, half
timber-framing and daub buildings are roofed in this manner. While
the characteristic wooden house with its high shingled roof was
introduced from Osat in eastern Bosnia. (Cvijic states that the
houses in eastern Bosnia and western Serbia were constructed by
builders from Osat), the half wood, half timber-framing and daub
houses, as well as the tiled roofs were brought into the area by the
people from Nil, Pirot and Vranje in eastern Serbia (Dragi6, 1921:
J180).
Kanitz, writing in 1869, reports extremely high shingled or
straw roofs (sometimes twice the height of the wall) in the region
of the Drina River in the north and in Novi Pasar in the south
(Kanitz, 1869: 80, 239). Kilojevi6 (1913), Jovanovi6 (1908) and
Dragi6 (1921) fail to mention extremely high roofs. Jovanovic
(1908: 347) states that straw roofs are highest and that tiled roofs
are noticeably lower than the shingled ones, while Dragi6 (1921: 181)
reports that many shingled roofs in the mountain areas are as low as
those made of tiles. It would thus appear that the high roofs dis-
appeared wlith the introduction of tiles and lower roofs from eastern
Serbia toward the end of the century. The authors do not give
enough data on roof construction. From Jovanovil's (1908: 342)
account it would appear that rafters and ridgepole support the roof
unaided.
The smoke from the fireplace may be allowed to seep through
the straw, tiled or shingled roof, or may escape through a special
opening provided with a'lid (see Bosnia and Herzegovina), or through
a chimney. The so-called Sumadija chimney is associated with the
wood house; it is made of wood and is covered by a cylindrical
wooden cap (apa) surmounted by a spire with one or two wooden balls.
The wooden chimmey (k&ji6) is often decorated with designs (Cviji6,
1918: 228-29).
When the house is built on an incline it may have a cellar of
stone (podrun) der the main floor.    Sometimes the long sides of
the house may stand at right angles to the slope.. Jovanovi6 (1908:
345) reports that in the regions of Ivanjica and CaaUk a cellar is
generally not built under the house even when there is ample space
for it; the people prefer to use one of the numerous buildings in
the yard for this purpose. It would be interesting to know how
frequently the space under the house is used, for it may throw some
53
light on the tendency to erect separate structures to house each
activity.  In the Alpine regions of Slovenia it is desirable to have
all the farm unit under the roof of the main house; in Prekmurje and
Croatia a number of farm units adjoin one another to form a long row
and share a common roof; in western Serbia, on the other hand, each
unit stands apart from the others. The argument that greater build-
ing skill is demanded to erect multi-unit structures will not hold
here, for a string of rooms under a gabled roof may be of the
simplest construction, and require no more knowledge of architectural
priniciples than does the one-unit house.  However, it is true that
this simple "long-house" can most easily be erected on level ground,
and that uneven terrain may militate against it. While simple con-
struction combined wlith uneven terrain may be conducive to scattered
single units, the preference for the latter may be a purely cultural
one; people may like to equate each activity and product with a
separate building, or they may prefer moving about from one unit to
another instead of performing all activ'ities in one place. The fact
that the easily constructed basement is often not employed would
support the latter hypothesis.
If we discount the stone basement-and we have seen that this
is not an important structure-one can make the statement that two-
story houses are almost lacking in this area. The house is generally
7-9 meters long and 5-6 meters wide, and consists of two units, the
kitchen (ku6a) and the living room (soba) (Jovanovic, 1908: 345;
Milojevi6, 1913: 658). When a third unit is required, the living
room may be divided or another unit built on to the other side of
the kitchen. The kitchen, which has doors on opposing sides and
lacks windows, is frequently larger than the living room, from which
it is separated by a partition of boards or timber-framing and daub.
The floor is of tamped earth, and a ceiling is absent. The fire-
place is located either in the center, or more frequently, on the
partitioning wall. Above it is suspended a frame of boards or wicker
on which corn may be dried (Jovanovi6, 1908: 345-46). Most of the
daily activities take place in the kitchen, in which the people also
sleep in summer.  The soba is entered from the ka6a and generally
has three windows. Here the ceiling is of boards and the floor of
tamped earth, only the wealthier possessing a wooden floor. Next
to the partitioning wall is a stove made of earthenware or mud,
heated from the ka6a. One sleeps in the soba in winter and it is
empty in summer (Jovanovi6, 1908: 345-46). The veranda with its
low railing does not appear to be a characteristic of the house of
this area, for both Milojevic (1913) and Jovanovic (1908) fail to
mention it.
The two-unit house is supplemented by a number of additional
dwelling units.  Depending on the sime of the zadru  , one finds
one to three Vajats near the main house. They consist of one com-
partment which may be built on a foundation of stone, while the walls
are of boards and the roof is covered with shingles or tile. 'The
floor may be of tamped earth-or covered with boards. These struc-
tures belong to married zadruga members who store their more valuable
54
possessions in them. Since they are not furnished with any heating
devices, they are used for sleeping only during the suiner (Dragi6,
1921: 182). Windows also appear to be lacking, for they are never
mentioned.
The best made dwelling is often the guest-house, whose construc-
tiozi is similar to that of the main house. The walls are of boards
or brick, and rest on a foundation of stone, in which is a cellar
where barrels of wine and food are kept (Dragi6, 1921: 181). It has
two or three rooms. At the entrance may be an anteroom from which
doors open into a larger and a smaller compartment (soba). The
earthenware stoves in the two rooms are heated from the anteroom
(Milojevi6, 1913: 660). A veranda with a lo'w railing is often pro-
vided. Frequently the eldest member of the zdrua sleeps in the
guest-house (Jovanovi6, 1908: 350).
Farm Buildings.  The yard is generally fairly large and is
enclosed by a simple fence of poles or slats. -The various buildings
in it are arranged in no definite order. Where agriculture pre-
dominates, most of the farm buildings surround the house; if herding
is more important there are fewer buildings in the yard, as many are
erected in the pastures where cattle are kept during the warm season
(Jovanovi6, 1908: 342, 349).
The bread oven is raised on four low posts and covered by a
roof of boards or brick. It is hemispherical in shape and made of
unfired brick outside (Milojevi6, 1913: 659).
Dairy products are stored in the mlekar, which is constructed
of boards and resembles the vajat, except that it is smaller. For
better ventilation one of the upper boards of the wall is removed
on one side of the building and replaced by wicker or lattice work
(Dragi6, 1921: 183). The podrum, which serves for the winter
storage of food, also resembles the vajat, but is lower (Jovanovic6,
1908: 350).
Two buildings serve for the preparation of plums; the pugnica
is open on one side, and has three walls of wicker, unfired brick
or brick, roofed with tiles or boards.   It generally has two stoves
above which can be placed 5-6 trays for the drying of plums. The
trays are woven of willow twigs and are 2 meters long and 1 meter
wide. The ka8ara is rectangular in form, made of boards and covered
with slats; the floor is of tamped earth. It has a fireplace and
it is there that rakia is distilled from the plums (Milojevic,
1913: 660).
A number of different buildings are provided for the storage of
grain. Maize is stored in a structure (ko) of wicker that rests
on posts 1 meter high and is covered with straw (Dragi6, 1921: 183).
The ambar is made entirely of wood with a wooden floor and a roof of
boards or shingles. It is 3 meters long and 2 meters wide, and its
interior is divided into 6 equal units (MilojevicS, 1913: 660). A
55
more unusual building is found along the Drina and Jadran rivers;
the long and narrow buildings (6 x 2 meters) rest on three pairs
of posts which raise it 1.5 meters above the ground; the floor is
of boards while the walls are made of laths or wicker. Entrance
is on one of the narrower sides, while the opposite side has
rounded corners (fig. 39) (Milojevi6, 1913: 660). This structure
is no doubt related to the Turkish barns found in southern Macedonia
and Bulgaria (see below) as its appelation Sardak would indicate.
Animals are kept in a stable (ar) that is generally made of
boards and covered with straw, though it may also be built of unfired
brick or stone and may sometimes be roofed with tiles. In order to
keep horses and cattle dry in summer a roof of straw or tiles may be
raised on four posts. The pigsty is of stone or boards and is
covered with straw. Sheep and goats are kept overnight in the
koiara made of wicker or boards, roofed with straw; during the day
they are in an enclosure ( o) in front of the kolara which consists
of a fence of poles or slats (Dragi6, 1921: 184). The chicken coop
is of wicker.
When the zadruga is very large the farmstead may consist of so
many separate buildings that it resembles an independent village.
Cviji6 (1918: 233-34) enumerates the following buildings in a
zadruga in the Jadar River region:
2 houses -an old and a new
4 vajats for the zadruga members
3 granaries for maize (koE)
1 granary (ambar)
2 units for distilling rakia
1 storehouse (ka6jr for brandy
2 storehouses ( iifica) for prunes
1 cart shed (SUoik
1 bread oven
However, not all farmsteads are equally large, and on the
average there are only 5-6 buildings in addition to the house. Only
the wealthier can afford a guesthouse, or require the ambar, ka6ar
and stable (Jovanovri'6  1908: 345).
Buildings Outside the Vill.     A number of buildings are
erected in the mountain pastures where animals are kept over summer.
In the Drina-Jadar region mountain houses have two compartments and
are almost identical with the wooden houses of the lower regions,
except that they are smaller (Milojevic, 1913: 662). In the area of
6atak and Ivanjica they resemble small vajats (Jovanovi6, 1908: 351).
A small wooden building covered with boards may be erected for the
storage of milk; sometimes one of the rooms of the house is reserved
for this purpose. In front of the house is an enclosed area in
which animals are kept over night (Jovanovi6, 1908: 351). Sheiherds
may have movable shelters of-wood (ku6er) which are just large enough
for a person to stretch out in (Cviji6, 1918: 237; Jovanori6, 1908:
351) (fig. 40).
56
Milojevi6 is the only author to mention stables in the mountain
pastures, unfortunately giving no further description. Jovanovic
(1908: 350) remarks that despite the fact that herding is well
dereloped and that animals are kept at a long distance from the farm,
there are not many shelters for livestock in the mountains. One
wonders if animals are kept in the house or whether the lack of data
is hkerely due to omission.
In winter the animals are often kept in the fields in order to
fertilize the land. Stables may be of wicker and covered with straw;
in Zlatibor they are dug into the earth and covered with straw, hay
or branches. Peasants may also build a separate house in the fields
(Milojevi6, 1913: 862; Jovanovi', 1908: 351). In the Jadar-Drin
region temporary huts may be built for winter use, when the pigs are
driven into the forest (Milojevi6, 1913: 351).
Eastern Serbia
House Types. Though the houses in eastern Serbia may differ
from one another, they form a sharp contrast to those of western
Serbia. The so-called Morava house is a squarish, thickset building
of wicker and daub or unfired bricks with a tile or straw roof, a
trait which is linked with dense and compact villages (Drobnjakovi6,
1929). The following description is largely taken from Stanojevic's
(1913) report on the area around Knja?evac.
Due to the hilly terrain, houses are often built on an incline.
The basement is dug out first and a foundation of masonry erected
(the author does not explicitly state what material is used for its
construction, but his illustration (fig. 37) indicates that it is some
form of brick.  Since fired bricks are not generally used in this
area, the foundation is most likely of unfired bricks). Over the
foundation is erected the wooden framework for the house, consisting
of the studs, floor and ceiling joists, and heavier beams at the
bottom and top of the wall. The hipped roof of medium height is
supported by two king posts, and the battens are placed on the raf-
ters. The interstices between the studs are then filled with wattle
and daub, wicker, or unfired bricks. All houses are plastered with
mud and chaff; in the lower altitudes they are whitewashed but not
in the mountains. The roof is generally covered with cylindrical
tiles, rye straw or hay. The straw or hay is kept from falling off
by poles.
The chimney stack is about 1-1.5 meters wide and pyramidal in
shape. It protrudes about 1 meter above the house, but is lower in
regions where the wind is strong (fig. 34). The body is made of
wattle or wicker smeared writh mud inside and out. Where rains are
heavy it may be plastered only on the inside. Occasionally wooden
boards are placed over the plaster on the outside (sometimes only
on the side where the rains come) to protect the plaster. These
boards may be very beautifully joined to one another and have
interesting excised designs. A lid is raised on four poles 20-30
57
centimeters over the chimney. It is covered with flat round tiles
(even when the roof is of straw), wooden boards or stone slabs.
Occasionally the lid has a small hole in the middle to ensure better
draft.  The poorer houses have narrower chimneys which are unplas-
tered and lack a lid.
The pattern of two doors on opposite walls of the kitchen is
not present in this area. If a second door is provided, it serves
for carrying out rubbish, etc., and may be located on one of the
sidewalls of the kitchen.   (In former times, due to Turkish and
hajduk menace, two doors were the rule). Light enters the kitchen
through a small hole in one of the walls; the living room (soba)
may have two windows facing south or east, which are covered with
glass or paper and have shutters on the outside.
The floor plan, though variable, does not follow the western
pattern.  The basic division into two halves may run lengthwise or
crosswise through the house (figs. 30 and 31). The kitchen may take
up one full half of the house, the other side being composed of the
soba, storage room, and other rooms (fig. 31). 'When the kitchen
does not occupy the whole side, it is only the soba that is located
in the same section, all the other rooms being on the other side.
The kitchen is generally the largest room in the house. A
round fireplace of stone or brick is located in the center or at
the partition to the soba. The soba is entered from the kitchen;
its floor is always of tamped earth, but the ceiling may consist of
tastefully arranged boards and is only rarely of wicker and daub.
It is generally furnished with a stove and is used for sleeping in
the winter months; during the rest of the year one sleeps in the
kitchen. Sometimes there may be an additional small room which may
serve as a guest-room, storage room for food and drink, or as a
granary.
In front of the house is always a smaller or larger roofed
area, called the odvor (fig. 31), one section of which may have a
raised wooden floor and a railing, 50 centimeters high, the krevet.
People sleep there.'in summer, and much of the daily activity goes
on in it.  The kreret is not always in the front of the house, but
may also be at the back; it forms a sort of porch or veranda which
is enclosed on either side by rooms, and is entered from the inside
of the house (fig. 32). The basement, which is only lacking in the
house of the plains, serves for the storage of wine, sauerkraut,
and other supplies.
One often finds houses with two chimney stacks which are
actually two complete houses under one roof (fig. 33). Sometimes
there are three complete dwellings under a common roof. This
design arose from the custom of providing each married zadruga
member with a complete house at the zadruga's   expense, aid i's
linked with the desire to waste as little of the arable land as
possible (Stanojevi^6, 1913: 50-51).
58
Farm Buildings.  The granary (ambar.) (fig. 35) is rectangular
in form and raised over a basement of masonry which is used either
for the storage of wine and rakia or as a stable for horss and
cattle. It is carefully made of boards, which are never plastered,
and covered with cylindrical tiles, more rarely of straw or hay.
Inside, the six compartments are arranged around an open space
which facilitates access to them.  In front of the ambar is often a
covered porch which may be used for sleeping in summer. The poorer
people lack an ambar and use a basket-like structure (ko) instead.
This container is woven of willow twigs and is plastered inside and
out with dung. It is provided with a movable lid of straw; the
grain is placed into it from the top and is taken out through a small
opening in the side (fig. 36). Many small koi may be kept inside the
house, while larger ones are located in the yard. A storeroom for
corn (corn is not kept in the ambar along with the other cereals)
may be built onto the ambar and the two may share a comnon roof
(fig. 35).  It is built in the same manner as the ambar although the
walls are sometimes wicker instead of boards. A door is Usually
lacking and to gain access one merely removes the boards on one of
the narrower sides.
Each house has a large barn for the storage of straw. It is
made of boards but may also be of wicker. Two doors are provided;
a larger one facing the threshing floor for putting the straw in
and a smaller one for taking it out. The roof may be of straw or
tiles.  Often it has a basement which serves as a stable (fig. 37).
It may be located either near the house or out in the fields. The
stable, kolara, is a rectangular or square shed of wattle and daub
covered with straw, rarely tile.  It is only used for horses and
cattle. Most often it is not located in the yard.
The pigsty is usually further away from the house. It consists
of a longish pit dug into the ground and covered with straw.   In
front of it is a small enclosure.
The chicken coop is a cylindrical structure of wicker, 1.5
meters in diameter and 1.5-2 meters high. It has a roof of straw
and is generally put in some hidden place behind the house (fig. 38).
Buildings Outside the Villa,e. When the fields are a long
distance from the house a permanent building may be erected near
them. This building usually has a soba and a kitchen, and resembles
that of the village except that it is smaller. A barn for straw
and a stable may be built around it.  In sumer the whole family may
stay there; in winter only those people that watch the cattle remain.
The house built in the mountains has only one room, generally
equipped with a fireplace. Most frequently one finds a crude tent-
like hut, elliptical in shape; the framework is of wood and the
whole structure is thatched over. The shelter for goats and sheep
is similar to the above, except that it is still cruder. In front
of it is a circular enclosure which also contains a windbreak (a
wooden frame covered with straw) for the animals.
59
Southern Serbia
House Types.  The data on this area have been largely derived
from Hladji-Vasiljevic's (1909) research in the region of Kumanovo,
which has a fairly central location and may serve as a representative
sample. Though the author enumerates the various buildings and indi-
cates their usages, he often fails to mention their specific con-
struction, especially the building materials used. The more general
works list the materials used but fail to provide much detail. For
this reason it is difficult to present a full picture.
The houses i'n this region are constructed of wattle and daub,
unfired brick and more rarely of stone. Their low hipped roofs are
generally covered with tiles or straw. One can distinguish three
types of houses, those consisting of only one story, the two-story
ones and the houses of the 6if6ik (Drobnjakovi6, 1929).
One-story houses are generally not built on a foundation; their
walls are of wattle and daub (sometimes of unfired brick), the roofs
of -straw or tiles. Chimneys are usually lacking, and smoke either
escapes through the door or through a narrow opening in the roof.
When chimneys are provided, they are of wicker and daub. Windows
are small openings that are closed with shutters. The floor is of
tamped earth (Hadji-Vasiljevi6, 1909: 106-07).
The rectangular house consists of two units, each of them fur-
nished with a door to the outside.   However these two compartments
do not represent kitchen and soba, as is so generally the rule in
other areast but kitchen and stable (Cviji6, 1918: 243). The live-
stock may enter through the smaller door of the stable, but more
frequently they are let in through the kitchen door, the smaller
one being used to bring in the hay and remove the dung. frequently
only the working animals are kept in the stable; when other live-
stock are sheltered there, the cattle occupy the place next to the
kitchen, followed by horses and the donkeys (Hadji-Vasiljevic, 1909:
107).  CvrijiC (1918: 243) states that the partitioning wall between
kitchen and stable may be only 1.50 meters in height.
The fireplace in the kitchen is circular and frequently con-
sists merely of a small area bordered with stones. The cauldron
hangs above it. While the 'kitchen lacks a ceiling, the stable has
a ceiling of wicker, plastered with mud on the upper side. The
resulting attic is open towards the kitchen and serves for the
storage of agricultural tools (Hadji-Vasiljevic, 1909: 109).
Frequently the house consists of only one unit, the kitchen
(the roof may be of straw or tile). An identical structure, the
guesthouse, is found next to it in about one-third of the farmsteads.
The oldest member of the z druga generally lives in the guesthouse.
When a patriarch is lacking, one house may be used for cooking and
the other for sleeping (Hadji-Vasiljevi6, 1909: 108).
60
Around 1880 a new type of house began to be built in the area.
It is raised over & foundation, the walls are of stone and mud mortar,
the roof of tiles or stone slabs. It consists of a kitchen, two
rooms for family members and a sheltered veranda along the front.
Sometimes a small room is added outside the kitchen for the storage
of clothes (fig. 41) (Hadji-Vasiljevi6, 1909: 109).
Two-story buildings are built of stone and are covered with
tiles. Sometimes two of the outside walls may be of stone, the other
two of wattle and daub.  The walls may or may not be whitewashed.
Sometimes glass windows are provided.   On the ground floor is the
stable, with compartments for the different animals, and the kitchen
with a fireplace.   In the upper story are a balcony (aardak) and two
room for the zadruwa members. The steps leading to the second
floor are always on the outside of the house (Hadji-Vasiljevi C,
1909: 110).
In KLmanovo these buildings are called kula, a term which is
frequently applied to better buildings in the Balkans.   They are
built very much like the Moslem houses (Oardak) of Bosnia and
Herzegovina (a characteristic of the latter being the placement of
the staircase on the outside of the house), and the houses of the
beys in the aifliks, and are no doubt derived from them. They are
to be distinguished from the fortress-like stone buildings that are
also found in this area.  The houses of the 6ifliks are very similar
to those described in the section on Southern Macedonia.
In southern Serbia, one also f'inds the vajats, small houses
for the zad!    members.  In the region of   anovo they are called
ko?ara, the same word which designates a stable in eastern Serbia.
Their-walls are of wattle and daub or stone and mud mortar, and the
roof is usually of straw.  The floor is of tamped earth; a ceiling
and windows are lacking.  In certain areas a room with a separate
door to the outside may be added to the vajat; one spends the day in
the room and sleeps in the vajat at night.
During the winter months when there is no work in the fields
and the kitchen may get overcrowded, young girls build themselves a
seznik in the yard, where they spend their time, knitting, sewing
and talking.  The zemnik is made by first digging a pit 1 meter deep,
which is then lined with straw and EukanLica, and is covered with
Eukanica about 1 meter above the ground. TI have been unable to
find the English equivalent for the term). Only a small opening is
left to permit light to enter. The structure is heated by burning
coals in an earthenware pot (Hadji-Vasiljevi6, 1909: 115).
Farm Buildings. Cviji6 (1918: 243) describes the yard of the
wealthier peasants as being surrounded by high stone walls w'ith
large gateways. Hadji-Vasiljevi6 (1909: 105) states that the yard
may be surrounded by a wall of dry masonry 1 meter high, on top of
which are put thorns, a hedge of thorns alone being less comon.
On the other hand, he mentions that in one of the richest areas
61
(Ov5e Polje) the yards are not fenced in at all. The buildings in
the yard do not appear to follow any particular order.
The cellar (izba) , used for the storage of food-products and
agricultural tools, is slightly sunk into the ground, and has a
foundation of stone and walls of wattle and daub; it is roofed with
straw, rarely tiled. Sometimes the cellar is combined with the
granary.
Grain is stored in the same manner as in eastern Serbia. One
finds here the same vase-like container (fig. 36) and also the ambar
of boards with its six divisions for the various cereals. Straw,
generally only rye and barley straw, is stored in a barn made of mud
and stone, roofed with straw; this building is located close to the
threshing floor. However, these barns often are lacking, and the
straw and hay is merely piled up around a tree. Sometimes straw may
be piled into heaps 10-20 meters long and 8-10 meters high, covered
with thorns and weighted down with poles. Against one of the shorter
sides is placed a woven framework which has a door. The straw is
taken out from the heap through the door and the framework is pushed -
further bock until the pile is exhausted (Hadji-Vasiljevi6, 1909:
114-15).
Milk is stored in a wooden box about 2 to 4 cubic meters in
size, which is raised on wooden posts about 1 meter from the ground
and is located in a drafty spot close to the house (Hadji-Vasiljevic6,
1909: 115).
While the animals are often kept on the ground floor of the
house, separate stables of wattle and daub roofed with straw are
also located in the yard. They are usually used oily to house cattle;
wealthier people may erect a separate stable for horses and donkeys.
Sheep are kept in a very flimsy structure of wicker, covered with
straw during winter; in sumer they are in enclosures in the fields.
Pigs are kept in pigsties, on which, however, no further information
is available (Hadji-Vasiljevi6, 1909: 110, 114, 115).
Mtohij
House Tyes    The data on this area are derived chiefly from
Joviaevi6's  1921) work on the Plav-Gusinje region close to the
Albanian border.
Three types of houses appear in this area: one-story houses
of boards or wattle and daub, two-story houses with a ground floor
of stone an'd an upper story of wood, and the stone kulas (Jovi6evic,
1921: 121).
Two-story buildings are almost square in ground plan. Their
hipped roofs are fairly high and are covered with about 10 rows of
narrow, short shingles. The-floor of the upper story is made of
boards. Chimneys are generally lacking, 'and the author does not
62
state in what manner the smoke escapes. Windows are small and have
wooden bars and wooden shutters on the inside. In winter a wooden
frame is attached to the window; in one of the bottom corners is a
small lid that may be opened and closed. The stone walls are gen-
erally plastered with mud on the inside and then whitewashed. The
mud is to absorb the dampness; were this not done the walls would
sweat in winter when fires are lit (Jovi6evic, 1921: 433).
Animals are kept on the ground floor while the upper story con-
tains the living quarters. The second story is reached by a wooden
staircase that leads into an anteroom, from which all other rooms
can be reached (fig. 42). The partitioning walls are whitewashed.
Each room may have a fireplace against one of the walls, which is
used only in sumer; in winter the rooms are heated with an earthen-
are stove. -Special guest-rooms are usually lacking (Jovi6evi6.,
1921: 433-436).
One-story buildings are of wattle and daub and have high hipped
roofs of shingles or straw. Poles extend from the ridge over the
roof to keep the straw from flying away.    Frequently the points of
two poles shoot straight upward from each end of the ridgepole. They
may be quite high and the straw that is attached to their lower parts
gives them the appearance of two horns (Vlahovi6, 1938: 147). The
interior division consists of a kitchen with a fireplace and a soba
for sleeping.
Large zadrugas often inhabit fortress-like kulas, which some-
times have three stories. Roofs with narrow eaves are generally
hipped but may also be gabled; usually they are covered with about
8 rows of narrow shingles. Chimneys are lacking but smoke may
escape through a small opening on either side of the ridgepole. The
lower floor serves as a stable. The wooden stairway to the upper
story may be located on the inside of the buildings. When on the
outside, it leads to a narrow and rather flimsy balcony which is
sheltered by an extension of the eaves on the front side of the
house. The upper story has a small anteroom, on one side of which
is the kitchen with the large circular hearth in the center; on the
ether side is a storeroom. Neither of these units have windows.
The rest of the space is taken up by two large rooms which have two
to three windows and a fireplace against the wall (fig. 42)
(Jovi6evic, 1921: 435-36).
Farm Buildings. The yard is enclosed by a fence of poles or
slats. In it is found the kofiara, a building of wattle and daub
roofed with straw, in which sheep are kept in winter. The stable
is also of wattle and daub, and has partitions for the -various ani-
mals. Corn is stored in a structure of wicker, which has a floor
of planks and is roofed with small boards. The store-room for dairy
products is also entirely of boards (Joviervi6, 1921: 435).
63
SOUTR    MACEDONIA
This area is one of high mountains between which lie a number
of large basins-the basins of Bitolj and Solun, and of Lakes
Preapan, Kostur and Ostrov. The population is of mixed ethnic ori-
gin and religion. The Vlahs, mainly Orthodox herders, occupy vil-
lages on the mountain ranges between these basins. On the shores
of Lakes Prespan, Kostur and Ostrov are the villages of the agri-
cultural Slavs. The Turks took up the fertile land around some of
the basins and are especially numerous in the southeast, in the
Ostrov and Solun Basins, near the towns of Pazar and Kukuh. Greeks
are found mainly in the towns, which have, however, a very mixed
population. Thus one finds Vlahs on the mountain heights, Slays
and Turks in the plains and Greeks in the cities (Milojevi6, 1921:
10-11).
Settlements can be distinguished on ethnic and religious grounds.
The Turks generally have large settlements, but may also live in
small hamlets (mahala).  If there are two religions represented in a
village each group may occupy a small hamlet (mahala) more or less
separate from the other. Religious differences are apparent in the
houses; the Moslem houses differ from those of Christians in exterior
and especially in interior furnishing.
Location and Types of Settlements. Settlements tend to be
located on the border of plains and on the sides of mountains. The
flat land can be cultivated, while the mountain land provides pas-
tures and forest. In the larger plains of the basins the villages
are mainly agricultural and have their pastures close to the rivers
and fields further away.  Settlements occur on top of old river
terraces but may sometimes occupy the bottom of a depression (dolina)
(Milojevri 6, 1921: 69-76).
Villages are generally compact, the houses standing close to
one another. Their shape varies; along a stream, the villages may
be linear, while in the plains they are circular. The liflik are
generally geometrical: linear, rectangular or square (Milojevic,
1921: 77-82).
House Types. The houses immediately below the mountains are
built of stone. In villages on the plains unfired brick is used.
In the Ostrov Basin, earthen walls predominate, while in Prahnanu
buildings are made of wicker plastered with mud. Around Solun and
Monopistu the house foundations are of large stones, and the walls
of unfired brick. While houses differ with regard to the material
used for walls, all have roofs of tiles. Roofs of stone slabs are
extremely rare.
Roofs tend to be flat and are generally hipped. The smaller
houses erected for the 6if6i may have gabled roofs. Often a whole
ro,w of aif6i houses is built under one roof (Milojevi6,, 1921: 84-
86). Milojevic gives almost no information on chimney structure,
but from his illustrations one would conclude that they are rare.
64
Milojevic (1921: 82) states that two types of houses predominate
in southern Macedonia; those erected by the beys for their 6ifai and
those built by independent peasants for themselves.   The 6iffi
houses may be built three or four in a row, a number of these rows
enclosing a large yard. The house of the bey may stand apart or be
attached to the 8if6i house (fig. 44).   Sometimes each 6if6i house
may have its own yard (fig. 45). Though not explicitly stated, one
may assume that in this case the house stands separate from the
others. The houses erected for the aifai are generally one-story
structures, small and low. Since they are located in the plains
their walls are of earth.  The verandas so widespread in the Balkans
are missing here.
The floor plan of a tifai house is as follows:   on entering
the house, one first finds the trem, a long narrow room where one
sleeps in summer.  Left of the trem is the keral where clothes are
stored, and to the right, the odaj, where one-sleeps in winter.
From the trem one enters into a corridor, on the left side of which
are stables for the larger animals (aur). The kitchen (ujaa) with
its fireplace is separated from the corridor by means of two ambars
made of boards in which grain is stored. All partitioning walls
are of wattle and daub; the floor is of earth; and the roof of tiles
(Milojevi6, 1921: 83).
Milojevi6 gives an example of the type of house erected by
independent peasants (fig. 46a).   One may wonder how typical this is
and whether the buildings are frequently that large. The house is
built on an incline, and only one-third of the ground floor is of
masonry or stone. It forms a long narrow windowless chamber (aier)
where work animals and pigs are kept. The second story is reached
by a stairway from the outside. One enters through a large door
into the Pulata; a long narrow anteroom at the far corner of which
stands an ambar of boards. On one side of the pulata are two odaja,
one of which has a fireplace.. At the other side is the 6iler, a
storage room.  The floor of all these rooms is earthen, earth being
laid over the wooden boards. The ceiling is of boards. The outside
wall of the building is of stone and is 60 centimeters thick. The
inside partitions, called bolme, are of an unusual composition; they
consist of a double wall of reeds plastered with mud; the space
between the walls is filled with stones.
From the pulata on the second floor, stairs lead to the pulata
of the top story. This has three holes in the floor above the
ambar on the story below, for pouring grain into the ambar. On
either side of the pilata are two odaja, usually with fireplaces;
they serve as sleeping quarters in winter,, while in sumer the
winter bedding is stored in them. The floor is of boards, and all
rooms except the pulta have a ceiling of boards.    The rooms on the
top floor have more windows than those on the lower.
Houses of the Moslem beys (fig. 44) are two-story structures,
the second floor protruding over the first.   This is also character-
istic of the houses of the beys in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
65
Settlements of the Vlahs are located in steep hillsides far
away from the highways   The houses are large, have a number of
rooms, and are two-story structures. They are rectangular and of
stone; the higher the altitude the thicker the walls become. Windows
are not very large, but all two-story buildings have a balcony on the
second floor.  When they consist of only one story the veranda is
lacking (Capidan, 1941: 29-30). The floor plan of both stories con-
sists of a central hall with side rooms. In winter the ground
floor is used for habitation, in summer the upper story, although
in large families both floors are occupied in summer and wintere
Most daily activities take place in the hall of the ground floor.
The side rooms there are generally for storage, and most of the
sleeping rooms are on the top floor. One or two guest rooms may be
present. (Capidan, 1941: 29-30).
Farm Buildings.  In the yard one finds the kola    a long
rectangular building made of wicker with a straw roof, used for
sheep in winter. The circular chicken coop is likewise of wicker
(fig. 38).  The most important structure is the plemjaa which is
located close to the threshing floor and serves for the storage of
straw and fodder. Poorer ones are made of wattle and daub and
covered with straw; however, they are generally of the same construc-
tion as the house. They are one-story buildings and are found in all
villages of southern Macedonia. While they may be located in the
yard they usually form a group away from the houses (Milojevicp 1921:
87-88).
Buildings Outside the Ville.    In the mountains one finds
groups of up to twenty shepherds' huts that form a hamlet, looking
like beehives from afar. They have a diameter of 5-6 meters and are
not higher than 3 meterso. They are constructed of woven twigs or
straw and plastered with mud. The walls are about 10-15 centimeters
thick. The upper part of the "bee-hive" has a roof consisting of
about 5-7 rows of straw which merge with the walls. In the interior
one finds a fireplace with a cauldron hanging over it, and a loom
(Capidan, 1941: 31-32).
In addition to these huts the Vlah shepherds have portable
tents. The tent is made by spreading a cloth of woven goat hair,
4-5 meters long and 2-3 meters wide, over a wooden frame. One of
the triangular entrances remains open while the other is closed by
woven cloth (Capidan, 1941: 32-33).
ALBANIA
Albania consists largely of rugged, barren mountains, bordered
by a fairly wide coastal plain. Most of the available data deal
with the mountain regions of northern Albania.  This is an area of
intensive feuding, where, as among the Spa5i clan, up to 32% of
mortalities are the result _of feuds (Nopcsa, 1925: 52). This inte;r-
necine warfare is clearly reflected in the preference for stone
66
buildings, fortress-like structure and small windows. House types
thus serve as a clear index to the amount of feuding in any particu-
lar area.  Where veranda houses prevail, conditions are fairly
peaceful. This factor explains the almost mutually exclusive dis-
tribution of kulas and veranda houses in mountain areas, although
how far this is borne out in lowland areas, I am unable to say.
Location and Types of Settlements. In.the mountain regions
west of Lake Scutari to Lake Ohrid one finds single farmsteads
comprising one or two buildings. Only in the plains and at the foot
of the mountains does one find Cviji'X6's Ibar type of settlements
(Nopesa, 1925: 6). This type is characterized by widely spaced,
dense hamlets (Cviji6, 1918: 219).  In southern Albania the village
form is variable but agglomerated villages with crooked roads pre-
dominate (Cviji6c, 1925: 224, Map IV),.
Houase Types. Buildings of wickerwork and plaster are found
only in the coastal plains, and even there they are rare (fig. 47).
In the extreme north one finds houses of boards or logs. Most
buildings are of stone; one finds some use of dry masoury, but
generally mortar is used. Stone is preferred because it gives pro-
tection from fire and gunshot.  In south and central Albania bond
timbers are inserted into the stone walls; this pattern is lacking
in northern Albania. The combination of stone foundation and wooden
second story, found in Serbia, Bosnia, Rumania and Siebenburgen is
missing in Albania (Nopcaa, 1925: 30).
Roofing may be of straw, shingles, slate, stone slabs or tiles.
The simplesatbuildings in the mountains have roofs of corn stalks.
Tiles are common both in the coastal and mountain regions. Roofing
of stone slabs is widely distributed; most dairy houses in the high
mountains are covered in this manner (Nopcsa, 1925; 31-32). High
shingled roofs, coon in Bosnia and eastern Montenegro, are found
only in the extreme north of Albania. Gabled roofs predominate
north of the Drin River; south of it one finds hipped roofs. Widely
projecting eaves are absent. The kulas may have low pyramidal roofs
and occasionally desk roofs.  In general, roofs tend to be flat.
When the roof is hipped, the chimney tends to be in the center of
the short side (Nopcsa, 1925: 31-32 )  Chimneys are not typical.
The simplest type of house is the one-room log house with a low
roof of short thick shingles.  Cracks in the wall are stuffed with
moss; windows are lacking, and light enters through the open door
and openings in the roof. The open fireplace has hung over it a
deflector of boards plastered with mud; smoke escapes through the
roof (Xopcsa, 1925: 33).
In the coastal regions of northern Albania, reed is abundant
and walls are made of woven reeds. The roof is likewise of reeds.
These buildings are generally plastered on the outside. Occasionally
the roof is of unfired bricks (Nopcxa, 1925: 35).
67
The simplest stone buildings are made of dry masonry. Windows
are lacking. The roof may be made of two rows of boards, 30-40
centimeters wide and rather thick, which are weighted down with
stones or with a beam at the eaves. Occasionally they may have a
hipped roof covered with stone slabs (Nopcsa, 1925: 35). More
common are buildings of mortar and stone.  When the interior is
partitioned, interior walls are of lighter material, wickerwork or
wooden boards. Whereas in Rumania and most of the southern Slav
atea the entrance leads to the central kitchen, on each side of
which are symmetrical rooms, in Albania the hearths are located on
either side of the building and there is only a passage between the
two side rooms (figs. 50, 51) (Nopcsa, 1925: 39).
More often than one-story houses', one finds two-story, ones
(only the kalas may have more than two stories). The ground floor
has storage rooms and stables, while the second story has two rooms.
The stairway to the second story is located on the outside. Often
one finds a two-story house that has a veranda along the whole front
and a massive masonry stairway leading up to it (fig. 49). When the
veranda is encompassed by the side walls of the house it is called
a shashint when not enclosed, ardak (Nopcsa, 1925: 43).      In the
veranda house, the basement space under the veranda and the rooms
may be partitioned off with dry masonry or wooden boards into small
rooms for storage and animals (Nopcsa, 1925: 44).
The stairs leading up to the second story may have wooden
banisters.  The roof may project over the stairs, or a separate
canopy roof may be built over them. Sometimes a small stairway
house is built over it (fig. 53) which makes for greater security
when stepping out of the house. (The position of the door is always
an important factor in Albania). Nopcsa (1925: 53) believes that
this staircase is an independent development.   One part of the ver-
anda may be walled in to form a small room (fig. 50). The pattern
of building separate houses for family members when the family gets
too large is not known in Albania. However, in northern Albania
this is given consideration when building additions to the house or
making changes.  If one needs more room, the building is enlarged
or a room may be subdivided. Fig. 51 represents modification of a
building into two separate units each with its own stairway.
Kulas are high tower-like structures of massive masonry that
can be defended by a few men. Instead of windows they have loop-
holes and sometimes have a bastion-like defense structure on their
upper story (fig. 54). Special construction for defense is found
even in some of the simple one-room dairy houses. Thus, in one
inside corner may be erected a structure, 2.5 meters long and 1.5
meters high, of solid walls covered with a slab roof. It looks very
much like an oven, especially as the opening is only 75 centimeters
high and 75 centimeters wide (Nopcsa, 1925: 52).
The door of the kula is generally to one side. Stairs to the
second story are on the inside and may be merely ladders that lean
88
on the wall. When the stairway leads to the second floor on the
outside, the ground floor is generally used by women and also has
the stables (Nopcsa, 1925: 58). Since the space in the kula is
limited, women commonly reside in a one-story women's house, which
is not necessarily built like the kula.  If the kula gets too small
for the family a second one may be built; the new entrance facing
the old. They try to have the entrance protected by some other
building and not directly in view.
Interior partitioning walls are never of stone, as this is too
heavy and would have to be continued to the ground floor. Partitions
are generally of woven brushwood, boards or sometimes large objects
are placed so as to form a division. Windows are missing entirely
in simpler houses. In the mountains they are small, narrow, glass-
less and resemble loopholes. They are just large enough to look
through, and at night are shut with heavy boards. The fireplace is
always along the short wall of the house. It is square in form and
made of stone slabs bordered by wooden beams, or*of stones that are
half buried in the ground. When the floor is of wood an area 20
centimeters deep is cut out for the fireplace and filled with mud
for insulation from the fire.  This is necessary in two-story houses.
The fireplace generally rises only 10 centimeters above the floor.
A horizontal beam may extend from the wall over the fireplace. On
it is attached a metal chain on which hangs the cauldron. Sometimes
a grating of wood is suspended over it for drying meat and to attach
pots. The ceiling usually does not project over the fireplace.
Sometimes a baldachine-like structure is placed over it; this is a
wooden frame, filled with wickerwork and plastered with mud. Between
the wall and the fireplace there is often a built-in stone bench.
This is sometimes set into a niche. Occasidnally there is a smokehole
set over the niche (fig. 55) (Nopcsa, 1925: 81).
Farm Buildings.  The yard enclosure is generally a fence of
wicker. Occasionally the fields are also enclosed, but less completely.
The fence may consist of poles stuck into the ground at regular inter-
vals and bound in two or three places with twine. It may be of wick-
erwork or poles set close to one another and fastened with a hori-
zontal beam close to the top. Dry masonry is also used (Nopcsa, 1925:
15-16). The yard may be enclosed by stone walls, 7-8 feet high,
which are connected with the buildings, together with which they form
an enclosure (fig. 43) (Patsch, 1904: 26-27). Nopcsa maintains that
the high enclosures and large portals are lacking in Catholic settle-
ments. I was unable to find out just how prevalent high stone walls
are in Albania. While one might assume them to be an advantage in
defen-se, one finds that many of the fortress-like buildings are
surrounded by extremely weak fences (Nopcsa, 1925: figs. 9, 39, 41).
The kukor is a frame of horizontal boards set on poles 2 meters
high. It is not roofed over and is reached by a ladder, generally
a notched tree trunk. It is used for the safekeeping of meat, etc.
(Houses do not have an attic for storage.)  (Nopcsa, 1925: 19-20).
The koi for the storage of corn is the same as that used in Serbia,
i.e. a circular wickerwork structure.
69
When stables are not present, man and animals may live together
in the same one-room house; occasionally a breast-high fence serves
as a separation. Even in a one-room house there is a separate
entrance for the animals. Occasionally stables are made of wood.
I was unable to find more information on them, but it would appear
that horses are more frequently kept in a stable on the ground
floor than in a separate building. Sheds for storage are better
made than the stables and test on stone foundations to permit circu-
lation of air (Nopcsa, 1925: 22). In northern Albania there are no
separate houses for hay.
Buildins Outside the Vil1la e. Cone-like huts (kaaor) are
used as temporary buildings'by fishermen in the swampy regions of
the coast. They are made of rough branches that interlock at the
top. They are 2 meters in diameter and 2.5-3 meters high, covered
with reeds which make them waterproof (Nopcsa, 1925: 8).
In the plains near Scutari, one finds semi-subterranean build-
ings. A deep excavation, 8 by 3 by .30 meters is made; on the long
sides a wall 40 centimeters high of dry masonry is built up and on
the short sides a wall 2 meters high. The gabled roof is of straw,
and earth is built up until it touches the eaves. Grass soon begins
to grow over the roof and it is not easily recognizable. The door
is on the gabled side, the fireplace opposite it. This structure is
used by shepherds and their cattle in winter. Similar buildings are
found in Wallachia (fig. 63) (Nopcsa, 1925: 9).
In the barren mountains of northern Albania one finds storage
houses built against the slope of a hill. Only a side wall and a
front wall are erected.  Horizontal beams are laid over this, then
wooden boards, and lastly earth. Here one also finds dairy huts made
of masonry, rarely of wood, resembling the simple one-unit house.
They are meant for summer use and are erected on the sunny slopes.
Each one has an enclosure in which the sheep are kept at night. The
enclosure is irregular in shape and the fence is of wicker or of
stone.
BULGARIA
Data on the Bulgarian farm houses have been derived mainly from
the works of J. F. Gellert on Central Bulgaria (1937) and East
Bulgaria (1934).  Cviji6, in his work La Peninsule Balkanige, deals
but briefly with Bulgaria, commenting that his Mired type pre-
dominates and that one finds "une melange extraordinaire de formes
d'ancienne maisons" (Cv3i jic6, 1918: 251).
Central Bulgaria is the region extending from the Ihtimanska
Sredna Gora to the Tundia River in the east; the northern boundary
includes the southern slopes of the Balkan Mountains, and in the
south it terminates at the Rhodopes. It includes mountainous regions
iLn the north and the lowlands of the Marica River. East Bulgaria
70
extends from the Rumanian border south to the towns of Karnobat
and Burgas.
Location and Types of Settlement.  The presence of water is an
important factor in the location of the settlements. Villages tend
to be located along the Marica, Topolnica Strema and Tundia rivers.
In the Tundia Mountains settlements are on the slopes of hills.
Isolated hills in the Marica valley are preferred spots. Settle-
ments rarely descend into the fertile river plain, most of them
being located at its edge (Gellert, 1937: 142-43). In the Sub-
Balkan regions, settlements are rarely at the bottom of steep val-
leys or on steep slopes, a gentler terrain being preferred (Gellert,
1937: 143).
Due to the irregular terrain and deep valleys in the Topolnica
and Ihtimanska Sredna Gora regions, the settlements are in the form
of hamlets (mahala, kolibi) of 2-10 farmsteads, scattered over the
spurs overlooking-a valley in which is located the main village
(Gellert, 1937: 168). In eastern Bulgaria the villages show no
regular plan*. In the plains the villages are large and the buildings
less crowded, the roads being often exaggeratedly wlide.  In moun-
tainous terrain the roads are narrow and crooked, often unsuitable
for carts (Gellert, 1937: 164).
House Types. In eastern Bulgaria the building materials are
boards, wicker, mud and unfired brick. Usually a framework of wood
is filled with wicker, which may or may not be plastered.  Compact
walls are often made of mud, unfired brick or stones, strengthened
with horizontal bond timbers. These may form the foundation on
which the upper story of timber-framing is built. The hipped roof
is of straw, reeds or brushwood. On the longer side of the house
the eaves extend over a veranda that is raised about 10 centimeters
from the ground. The walls are generally whitewashed, and each
room has an exit to the veranda. Chimneys are of woven brushwood
or of fieldstones and are plastered with mud. Bulgarians often
build one half of the house first and plan to add more rooms later;
when one side of the roof is not hipped it means that the house is
not finished (Gellert, 1934: 8).
A two to three room house is common. Often the veranda is
between the protruding side rooms (fig. 56e). The central room is
generally windowless and serves as a winter kitchen. Frequently
many farm units are included in the main house. One of the side
rooms may. be transformed into a stable with a separate entrance from
the outside (fig. 56c) (Gellert, 1934: 8-9).
Two-story buildings are in the majority (fig. 56a, 56b). In
the ground floor are the stable and cellar. Often annexes are built
on the sides (fig. 56e) and the back, and the roof is extended over
them. Here, too, the veranda is enclosed by the two side rooms.
The stairway leading up to the veranda may be a simple one of wood
or a massive one of unfired brick (Gellert, 1934: 10-11). While
71
the entrance is generally in the center of the long side of the
house, there are a number of houses (some of them twa-story) where
the door is on one of the short sides. In this case, the veranda is
also found on the short side (Gellert, 1934: 6-7). Gellert (1934:
14) states that complicated houses such as appear in western
Bulgaria and Macedonia are missing in east Bulgaria. The Turkish-
Oriental style present in southwestern Bulgaria is likewise missing.
In central Bulgaria the same building materials are used as in
eastern Bulgaria.  In Ihtimanska Sredna Gora the ground floor may be
of stone and bond timbers. The upper story is of brushwood, with or
without plaster, or timber-framing filled with mud or unfired bricks.
Whitewashing is frequent. Straw is rarely,used for roofing and
tiles predominate. On the foothills near Cirpan thin chalk slabs
are used for roofing. Shingled roofs are absent (Gellert, 1937:
152-3).
One-story houses with a veranda enclosed at the sides are
common. The veranda rarely extends along the whole front of the
house. In general, these houses are larger in the plains than in
Sredna Gora and the Sub-Balkan Basins. In south central Bulgaria
(Talelmanli and Monastirski Vrh) the side rooms protrude to such an
extent that they are covered with separate hipped roofs the ridge-
poles of which are connected with the main roof (Gellert, 1937: 154).
Two-story houses are numerous in the mountain regions. They
are usually built on an incline. Very frequently, the veranda is
changed into an anteroom and a balcony is added (fig. 56a) (Gellert,
1937: 155). Generally the lower story serves as a shelter for
animals, as storage rooms and also as winter living quarters for the
family (Ivimy, 1939).
In the mountain regions near Golak and in Mefka on the
Topolnica River the houses tend to be squarer and in this case the
veranda is bordered only on one side by a room. The roof is in the
shape of a flat pyramid, or has only a very short ridgepole
(Gellert, 1937: 157). In central Bulgaria one finds the 6ardak, a
balcony on a two-storied house. It differs from the veranda in -that
it is not as massive and is not built into the building (fig. 56d)
(Gellert, 1937: 151).
Farm Buildings. The material used for the enclosure of farm-
yards varies from region to region, and there may be a great variety
of forms in a single area. In the mountain regions and in the Sub-
Balkan basins the enclosure is made of woven brushwood or, less
commonly, of dry masonry or mud. The entrance is a door of simple
wickerwork or boards.  In some villages at the foot of Sredna Gora
and in some western villages the yard is enclosed by a stone wall
with inserted bond timbers.  In some areas, particularly around
Me6ka on the Topolnica River, a fence may be lacking. In general
however, wood and brushwood are preferred in the mountain regions.
In the Marica plain, between Ihtimanska Sredna Gora and Cirpan,
72
almost all farms have high walls of unfired brick which are topped
with a small roof of straw.   The large gateway is also roofed over
and has a small door for people. In the eastern Marica plain the
fence- is of wickerwork or consists merely of a hedge (Gellert, 1937:
161-62).  In eastern Bulgaria the enclosure, 'if present, is a low
one of brushwood (Gellert, 1934: 5).
In the Marica plain there appears to be a difference between
the enclosures in the east and west that cannot be attributed to the
presence or absence of the necessary raw materials. Gellert believes
that the high enclosures in the west are due to a persistence of
Turkish traits (Gellert, 1937: 162). Also, in Sredna Gora and the
Sub-Balkan basins high walls are limited to the west (Gellert, 1937:
162).
In the mountains and the Sub-Balkan basins the yards are small
and crowded together because there is little arable land (Gellert,
1937: 164). When the enclosures are of stone the yards are rectangu-
lar; when the fences are of wood or hedges the yards are often
rounded and there is often much free land between the separate
yards (Gellert, 1937: 165).
Since the houses are generally built to shelter both men and
farm animals and have a number of annexes built onto them, one would
expect fewer separate farm buildings. Barns are not typical of
central Bulgaria.  In Ihtiman we find two-roomed barns made of
timber-framing and mud.  The eaves may be extended and supported by
pillars to form a shelter. Only in the extreme east of the MariCa
plain are barns widespread. Here a small side annex is added to the
barn; the entrance is on the short side where the eaves are extended
to form a shelter (Gellert, 1937: 158). In Juricite one finds
Turkish store houses being used by the Bulgarian population, although
in east Bulgaria they are used almost exclusively by the Turks
(Gellert, 1937: 160). These are large buildings of woven brushwood
with a straw roof that extends far out to the sides. They are gen-
erally built on an incline. The entrance is on the short side and
the back is rounded (fig. 39) (Gellert, 1934: 3). In Karlovo Basin
one finds store houses of wickerwork with straw roofs which have
poles attached to the ridge to prevent the straw from being blown
away (Gellert, 1937: 159).  Stables for sheep in east Bulgaria are
long narrow huts of stone covered with straw or reed (Gellert, 1934:
3). In general the various sheds and shelters for animals are of
poor construction and have no particular regional characteristics
(Gellert, 1937: 159).
Summer kitchens are numerous; they are either built onto the
house or are in the open, in which case they are covered by a roof
of straw, reed, brushwood or brick that is supported on four poles
(Gellert, 1937: 160; 1934: 3).
Buildings Outside the Village. Outside mountain villages one
finds shepherds' huts of brushwood, round or rectangular in shape,
73
with straw roofs. They are rarely plastered with mud. In western
Sredna Gora, transportable sheep pens are used (Gellert, 1937: 169).
RUMANIA
In Rumania there exists a marked difference between settlements
in the lowlands and those of the Carpathian Mountain region. While
topograpny and the presence or absence of such building materials as
stone, wood or clay are important factors, political considerations
also. played a significant role. With the beginning of the 18th
century Greek influence became predominant in Moldavia and Wallachia.
The Porte set up Greek rulers in these principalities, thus in
reality the Rumanians were as miuch under Turkish dominion, although
indirectly, as were the people of the Balkans.  It was only after
the rebellion of 1821 that Rumanian rulers were reinstated.  During
all periods of unrest and foreign invasion the mountains and forests
served as areas of refuge; the Serbian hajduk has his counterpart in
the Rumanian heydoick (Stratilesco, 1907: 30-34).
Location and T   s of Settlements.  The older settlements were
in the nature of hamlets catgj.    These were generally not built on
the top of hills, but rather in depressions, on the edge of forests,
and away from the military roads (Grothe, 1907: 54).  In the hilly
regions of Oltenia and Moldavia the villages were located close to
a river or on the slope of a hill. Farmsteads are generally spaced
fairly far apart, in no definite order. Villages may extend over
two or three hills facing one another (Stratilesco, 1907: 205).
Villages in the Wallachian plains are located close to the roads.
The prevalent type is the road village; buildings are located on
either side of the highway which forms the main road of the village.
Larger villages may have additional cross-roads (Jiinecke, 1918: 7).
While mountain villages average a population of 350, the largest
being around 700, villages of the plains average 700 and may reach
2000 (Grothe, 1907: 55).
ilouse Types. Due to the scarcity of wood and stone in the
plains, buildings are generally constructed of wicker and daub, in
which technique the Rumanians are masters. The roof is made first,
the walls afterwards. The principle posts are first set into the
ground, then the studs of the outer walls and inner partitions are
spaced at 1 to 2 foot intervals. After the roof has been formed
walls are built up. Mud is kneaded down with the feet, mixed with
straw, and shaped into lumps that take the place of bricks. These
lumps are then set between the studs and left to dry (Stratilesco,
1907: 208). More often walls are of wickerwork, plastered inside
and out with a mixture of mud, straw and cowdung to a thickness of
15-25 centimeters (Ja}necket 1918: 10). The rough walls are smoothed
out by applying thinner and thinner layers of mud and cowdung mix-
ture. They are then whitewashed inside and out. Floors of timber
are recent; the floor is comonly of tamped earth.
74
The hipped roof is rather flat and made of corn straw or reed,
about 40 centimeters thick. The frame is often of the collar type,
horizontal beams supporting opposing rafters (figs. 60a, 64). Pan
tiles appear only in isolated instances. In 1918 sheet iron was
becoming popular because it was economical and saved time and
effort. It was generally painted red-brown. Chimneys are usually
inadequate or lacking (Janecke, 1918: 11).
Every house has an open veranda (spa) on at least one side
which may or may not have a low banister. It is slightly elevated
from the ground and is protected by an extension of the eaves.
While many Moldavian houses consist of only one room, even the
smallest house in Wallachia has an anteroom (tinda). Here the main
room is called odaia and has a special stove that is heated by a
flue from the hearth in the anteroom. Often an additional odaia is
added on the other side of the anteroom forming a syametrical three-
room house. Sometimes additional units are built onto the house on
one or both of the narrow sides (figs. 57c, 58).- The roof is
extended over them in the form of a catslide (fig. 57a). These
units are used for storage of agricultural tools, stables, summer
kitchens, etc. If two are not sufficient, three or more units may
be added. The prispa may be extended alongside the annex; or, when
the annex protrudes in front of the house, the prispa may stop at
the annex wall (fig. 57c). Occasionally a large house may have two
parallel rows of rooms. However, this arrangement complicates the
roof construction, which in this case is generally unsuccessful
(JLnecke, 1918: 11-16).
The interior is very simple. The anteroom serves for the
storage of house implements; maize is kept in wooden boxes and
placed along the wall, and there is also a small handmill for
grinding maize. A large oven with a hearth in front of it is
located at the wall opposite the door (figs. 57c, 58). The anteroom
has no ceiling. When two odaias are present one is used for both
living and sleeping quarters, while the other is used for the stor-
age of blankets, carpets etc. It is somewhat of a guest-room.
In the Rumanian house special attention has been given to the
hearth and stove, and the whole house can be said to have been built
around the hearth. The hearth is the showpiece of the room. Arched
over the hearth is a decorated mantel on which cooking utensils are
placed. Niches on either side of the hearth are provided for the
same purpose.  Because of the inflammability of the straw roof, the
chimney is of brick (these are the only bricks in the house and are
made by the peasants themselves). The stoves in the living room are
of unusual construction.  The most spectacular of these are the
columnar stoves which are not only beautiful but also effective.
To the main part of the stove have been added graceful clay pipes
which are either arranged symmetrically or placed on one side. The
better ones resemble organs. The rest of the stove is also made of
clay bricks set in mud mortar and covered with a layer of plaster of
a lime and sand mixture. Decoration of clay or plaster may be added.
These stoves are generally built by Gypsies.
75
Windows are generally double even in the simpler houses, one
opening to the inside, the other to the outside. The are always
barred and set in a wooden frame (Jainecke, 1918: 27-28).
The Rumanian house is noteworthy for its exterior decorations.
Special attention and much imagination is given to the woodwork.
Much art is evident in the pillars supporting the roof over the
veranda (fig. 57d), lintels supporting the eaves, the railings of
the veranda and the window and door frames. The corners of houses
may have designs in low relief.   Painted designs may be placed on
the wall in great abundance (figs. 57a, 57b). Because of the les-
ser opportunity of embellishment through woodwork and because
whitewashed walls lend themselves well to painting, painting of the
exterior is characteristic of the plains. The Rumanian does not shy
away from bright colors. Ultramarine is most popular, for it is
said to scare away evil spirits. Combinations of red    blue and
yellow are common, and dark green shades are also favored (J&snecke,
1918: 23).
The basic difference between the house of the lowlands and
those of the mountain region is that the latter are of two-story
construction (fig. 64a). Building materials in the mountains are
stone and wood rather than wicker and mud. When houses are built
on an incline a high stone foundation forms the ground floor
(pivnita). This can be used for stables, storage rooms and also as
a wine cellar.  This form persists even when the terrain is flat.
The higher house is appreciated for its better view, greater security
and suitability for defense.
While the floor plan often consists of a row of rooms similar
to that of the lowlands, a number of changes have taken place.   The
anteroom with its large hearth is generally left out (fig. 64b).
This is due to the fact that the bricks that line the hearth are
not available, and the wooden walls are more inflammable than the
predominantly mud ones of the plains. Where the hearth is present
it is put into a special annex. Instead of the hearth an oven-stove
(a combination stove and oven) is used, which permits the main room
to be used as liting room and sleeping room as well as a kitchen.
The two-room house predominates; due to the absence of the
connecting anteroom, each room has a door to the veranda (6erdak)
(fig. 66). Sometimes the veranda at the top of the stairway is
expanded into a hall-like structure (foi$or) (fig. 64a) covered by
a hipped roof at right angles to the main roof. In summer most
activities take place there.
The foundation is made of rocks or of large pebbles from the
river.  Walls are made of horizontal logs or boards which cross at
the corners, each fitting into a notch in the other. A mud or lime
plaster is never omitted, and to facilitate this plastering thin
laths are nailed diagonally across the beams.
76
The roof is steeper than in the plains and protrudes further
over the house. The support is in the form of a collar. The raf-
ters tend to be too widely spaced, which results in slight bending
of the battens; but, while it makes for a weaker roof, this results
in softer and more pleasing lines. The four corners are not sharp
but tend to be rounded (fig. 62). Wooden shingles are almost
exclusively used for roof covering. They are about 15 centimeters
wide and may be as long as 3 meters.   They overlap two to four times.
Shorter shingles form 6-10 rows. The smaller shingles may have
their ends in the form of swallow tails or other decorative shapes.
The ridge shows a special development. On the wlindward side the
first layer of shingles is made to protrude over the ridgepole (fig.
62). These shingles also have excised patterns and are very orna-
mental. The ridgepoles may extend slightly over the hip and have a
small gabled roof, one shingle in height (fig. 62). This provides
an opening for the smoke to escape through.   Ornamental poles rise
at either end of the ridgepole (fig. 61).a
Chimneys are lacking and the smoke may escape through openings
at the ridge or otherwise through the roof, which then shows all
shades of gray to black. In some areas of Oltenia in southwestern
Rumania one finds wooden chimneys (fig. 65). These are made of
wicker and daub and are covered with shingles.
A special development in the foothills of the Southern
Carpathian Mountains is the privy, wlhich is in the form of an annex
located at the end of the veranda (fig. 64b).
In general the buildings in the mountain districts show a
greater variation than those of the plains. The woodwork is super-
ior, and shows a great deal of inventiveness. The construction,
however, is irregular, sloppy and often not functional. Pillars
that carry no weight may be very thick, while those that must sup-
port much weight may be much too slender (Ja"necke, 1918: 35-43).
Kulas (fig. 67) are found only in the mountfinous regions of
Oltenia in the district of Mehedinti, Gorj and R.amnicu-Valcea.  They
were built by the boyars, the wealthy landowners.   The oldest ones
come from the period when the Rumanian rulers were paying tribute
to the sultan.  The ground plan is a square 7 by 12 meters in length.
The width of the walls is 30-70 centimeters.   The kula (fig. 67) may
have three or four stories, each about 2.5 meters in height. Each
story has one room. The ground floor is used for storage; some-
times a well is built into it, and occasionally there is a subter-
ranean escape passage. The upper floors may also be used for
storage, but are mainly living quarters.   Windows are generally
found only on one side; the other walls are provided with loopholes.
On the top floor there is generally an open veranda (Oerdak) about
3 meters wide, the roof over which is supported by pillars (fig.
67). The exposure is toward the valley and the south. On the side
opposite the 6erdak there is a simple wooden balcony under the
eaves (fig. 6T7FiMany kulas have a privy tower attached to them.
77
The stairway, about 1.25 meters wide made of massive logs, is
generally on the inside of the buildings; when it is located on the
outside it leads onto the wooden balcony. The exterior is white-
washed.  In addition, the surface is decorated with molded bands
around each story division.  There may also be a vertical division,
thus creating a number of large panels. While these areas are
symmetrical, neither they nor the molded bands that enclose them
have any relation to the placing of windows or pillars (Janecke,
1918: 62-63).
In 1895 there still existed about 55,000 earth huts (bordei)
which were inhabited by the poorest population, generally Gypsies
(fig. 63). They are common in the Danubian plain.   Over an excava-
tion 1-3 meters deep is placed a gabled roof. The roof is made of
boards over which earth is laid. Sometimes reeds are placed over
the boards before the earthen cover is added. The entrance is on
one of the gabled sides, generally with a southerly exposure, and
a window is placed on each gable side (Janecke, 1918: 4).
Farm Buildings, In the lowlands the buildings are arranged in
no def'inite order; though generally the house is closest to the road.
The corn-house (coNar) is either opposite to or at right angles to
the house so that it can be watched. The yard and orchard are sur-
rounded by a fence.  The simplest fence is made of wickerwork
between wooden poles. Mote often, however, it is made of boards
that have intricate excised designs (fig. 60). The wealthy people
may add an imposing gateway with a small door. Flower or vegetable
gardens are rare, and the latter are called bulg;ri, since they are
generally kept by immigrant Bulgarians who grow all the vegetables
for town consumption (Stratilesco, 1907: 233). The farmstead is
surrounded by shady trees, and there is generally a plum orchard at
the back of the farm buildings (Jinecke, 1918; 8-9).
In the mountain regions the arrangement of the buildings in the
yard differs from that of the lowlands. The stables and other
buildings are arranged on the border of the yard in a horseshoe
form to serve as -protection for the house. The yard is usually
very small, and has a strong high palisade with a massive gateway,
the whole giving the farm a fortress-like appearance (the author
points to the presence of bears in sumer and wolves in winter)
(J0necke, 1918: 32-35).
In the lowlands there 4re generally not many additional farm
buildings in the yard4 and this fact is correlated with the pattern
of building additional annexes to the house, a,more economical and
practical procedure. Stables are of the simplest lathwork or
wickerwork, covered with a straw roof. Sheds for the storage of
straw,s h&y~ 'nd'costalks are absent, for the latter are stacked
into tall round piles in the open. The baking oven for summer use,
made of mud and briks, has'a hipped roof supported by four pillars.
78
The only notevorthy building is the corn-house (p&tule de
porumb) (figs. 59a, 59b), which is found, however, only among the
well-to-do.  Unlike the house, it is a two-story structure. The
lower floor has plastered walls, and serves as stable and cart-shed.
The upper story is made of wickerwork, often arranged in interesting
patterns, permitting the air to circulate. The attic is used for
the storage of food and is reached by a ladder from the outside.
The hipped roof is of straw (Janiecke, 1918: 25-27).
In the mountain regions stables have only three walls, and
animals stay in these half-open shelters even in winter. The
imposing corn-house of the plains is rarely found in the mountains.
In its place. is erected a long narrow building of wickerwork. This
rests on short stone pillars about 50 centimeters above the ground
and is covered by a shingled roof. Since the ground floor of the
house is used for storage there is no need for many additional farm
buildings (Janecke, 1918: 43-45).
CONCLUSION
Having presented an area by area discussion of the village forms
and farmsteads, it is desirable to trace the distribution of certain
major elements. Roughly, four types of settlement pattern can be
distinguished.  They are the village consist'ing of widely scattered
hamlets (Cvijic's Stari Vlah type); the agglomerated village (Cvijic's
Timok type); the road village (Cviji'Cs Ma&va type); and the 6iflik
type, the settlement created by Turkish landowners. The first of
these is composed of widely scattered houses in no regular order,
grouped into hamlets a number of which constitute a village. It
predominates in Slovenia, Western Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
western Serbia, and in the mountain areas of central Bulgaria and
Rumania. A variant of this form, characterized by more closely spaced
houses within the separate hamlets (Cvijic'ts Ibar type), exists in
the Karst regions behind the Adriatic coast, in Albania and south-
western and western Serbia. Hilly terrain and forested regions are
conducive to this scatter, but are not the sole determinants. The
Ibar type is associated with greater barrenness of soil and the
necessity of conserving arable land.
Agglomerated villages are characterized by crowded houses set
in an irregular order along crooked streets. They prevail in
eastern and southern Serbi' and in southern Macedonia. While they
are associated with the necessity of conserving arable land in some
of the more barren regions of eastern Serbia, this explanation will
not hold for the fertile basins of Kosovo, Kumanovo and Skoplje.
Here they are no doubt the result of diffusion from the Aegean
coast, as these areas are on communication lines which run up the
Vardar and Morava River valleys from the coast toward Beograd.
The third or Ma6va type is that of the more or less planned
village lying on both sides of the highway. These villages tend to
79
be larger than those of the widely scattered type and consist of
farmsteads arranged in a regular fashion along an often exag-
geratedly wide road. They are restricted to fertile lowlands and
are found in Slavonia, the Sava Plain, the lower Morava valley, the
plains of eastern Bulgaria, and the Wallachian lowlands of Rumania.
In Slavonia they were the design of the Austrian military border
authorities; those in the area of Beograd appear to have been an
imitation by the Serbian government of the Austrian-imposed forms
of Ba6ka and Banat. Their occurrence in the plains of eastern
Bulgaria and Rumania must also be attributed to planning by the
respective governments, perhaps connected in east Bulgaria with the
population resettlement that occarred there in the 19th century.
It is not known whether this form is indigenous in any of these
areas, nor from what area the Austrians derived it. It may very
well be an artificial creation designed for colonization and control.
The Uiflik type of settlement was created by Turkish landowners,
and consisted solely of the dwellings of the bey and his peasants.
This feudal village plan is commonly geometrical, and comprises the
well-constructed landowner's house tnd the standardized, shabby
buildings of his tenants (aifci). Ciflik settlements are most
densely distributed in southern Macedonia and south Serbia, especi-
ally in Skoplje and Kosovo regions. They are also found in Bosnia
but here they do not follow the geometrical pattern; the reason for
this lies in the better relationship of the Slays and Turks in this
area. Many of the Bosnians accepted Islam; consequently some of the
landowners were Slays themselves. What has happened to the 6ifliks
since liberation from the Turks is not reported, nor is it known how
many have persisted.
As far as geographical location of settlements is concerned, a
preference for settlement on slopes, possibly in a zone between the
valley and the mountains, is evident.  With a mixed economy, the
desirability of having fields, pasture and forests near at hand is
clear. On the Adriatic coast and in the mountainous hinterland
consideration must be given to the strong winds from the sea, hence
the leeward side is sought. Similarly, the sunny slopes have more
settlements than those with northwestern and southwestern exposures.
Running water is also a factor in choice of location, but there the
shape of the valley is important; villages of northern Albania and
the Sub-Balkan regions of Bulgaria are not found in steep valleys
even if water is available there. The zone of springs on the
Dalmatian coast is a zone of habitation, and in the hilly regions
of Oltenia and Moldavia, as in Bosnia and Herzegovina, settlements
are located close to a river. In fairly level terrain slopes are
preferred, and isolated hills in a valley are popular; whereas at
high altitudes the villages descend into depressions. In the Karst
regions, where arable land is only found in depressions and basins,
settlements occur at their edges.
The distribution of buil-ding materials is closely related to
natural resources. In forested mountain regions wood and stone are
80
predominant, stone being used mainly for the foundations of the
house and the basement, rarely for the superstructure. Most houses
built on an incline have basements of stone. Wooden houses with
stone understractures are found ita northwestern Slovenia, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, western Serbia, and the mountain regions of Rumania.
Houses of boards, without stone foundations, are found in the flat-
ter terrain of eastern Slovenia and in western Croatia, where stone
is naturally scarcer. In this region straw roofs are more common
than in mountainous areas, where shingled roofs predominate. This
may be correlated with the more developed agriculture and the
greater abundance of straw in the more level terrain.
The buildings of the barren Karat region, extending from north-
western Slovenia to Albania in the south, and eastward into Metohija
and the mountain areas of southern Macedonia, are made almost
exclusively of stone, due to the scarcity of other material. Roof-
ing is of stone, as are frequently enclosures of-the yards. Wood
is scarce in these areas, and greater use has to be made of brush-
wood and wicker as a result.
In the lowlands where both stone and wood are less common,
greater dependence is placed on wattle and daub and unfired brick,
these methods being frequently found in assoc'iation with one another.
Wicker and daub is the chief material used in the lowlands of
Rumania and in the coastal regions of Albania. In all the rest of
the Balkans its distribution follows that of unfired bricks.   Its
usage extends as far west as Bijelovar in northwestern Croatia, and
is found in Slavonia (wherever it has not been replaced by bricks)
in the lower regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in eastern and
southern Serbia, southern Macedonia, and eastern and central
Bulgaria. In barren regions, wattle and daub may be supplementary
to stone (Metohija); its combination with wood appears to be less
frequent, and the half-wood, half-timber framing and daub houses
of western Serbia would appear as a rather specialized form.
Roofing material in the areas under consideration is limited
to straw, shingles and boards, stone and tiles. Wooden shingles
are associated with wooden buildings; however, they occasionally
are found on a stone kula or a wicker and daub construction (as in
Slavonia). Straw has the widest distribution in relatively flat
terrain.  It is found in eastern Slovenia, Croatia, Slavonia, east-
ern Bulgaria, and the lowlands of Rmania.   Stone slabs are limited
to the Karat region of Yugoslavia and Albania. A number of dif-
ferent forms of tile occur, their shape and distribution indicating
origins. Thuss, the cylindrical tile is found in the Vardar and
Morava valleys and predominates in southern Macedonia, southern and
eastern Serbia, central and weatern Bulgaria, and is also found in
Albania. Tiles are also used in the Adriatic coastal region, in
northwest Slovenia, and in the Sava valley. Those of the Adriatic
coast do not appear to be curved, but are rather flat and circular;
in northwest Slovenia they are unusually large, curved, and deep in
81
cross-section. These may have been introduced from Italy. Those of
the rest of Slovenia and Slavonia are different again, and point to
central European origin.
Two basic forms of floor plan seem to stand out; that of the
two-unit house which either consists of kitchen and living room or
kitchen and stable, and the three-unit house, consisting of a central
kitchen with anteroom and two side rooms.  In the latter the kitchen
has a more specialized function and is of smaller dimensions, most
of the daily activities taking place in the side rooms. In the two-
unit house the kitchen has a greater function in that it is the
center of all activity, the other unit being used mainly for sleep-
ing. The tripartite form is characteristic of Slovenia and extends
into Croatia; it is typical of the less mountainous regions of
Bulgaria and Rumania. It has been suggested that this is a modifi-
cation of the so-called Frank style of house, a Western introduction.
The two-unit type- is more frequently found in areas of less contact
with the West. In the northern parts of the area the second room-
is more usually used as a living room, while in the Karst regions
and in southern Serbia, it tends to be transformed into a stable.
This regional variant may be due to increased poverty; at least no
other explanation can be offered. On the other hand, in southern
Serbia there seems to be an inclination to use as few rooms as
possible even when others are available. Hence there is no neces-
sary correlation between crowded quarters and poverty. Albania
forms an interesting contrast to other regions in the lack of a
central kitchen and the presence of identical fireplaces in each of
the two rooms. The better houses of the Dalmatian coast also show
a basic tripartite division, but here the central room is either an
anteroom or expanded into a large hall. The two-story Moslem houses
with a squarish foundation in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Metohija
show much uniformity in their interior division, and point to their
common origin in the house of the bey.
The veranda or balcony under the extended eaves is a character-
istic feature of Balkan architecture. It is rare only in the Karst
regions and the Dalmatian coast (perhaps related to the use of heavy
roofing slabs which might militate against great extension of the
eaves). In the alpine regions of Slovenia and the mountains of
Rumania it is located on the second story and runs along two sides
of the house; in less mountainous terrain and lowlands it is
generally only along the front, and frequently a railing may be
absent. A common variant is the veranda enclosed by the protrusion
of the two side rooms, identical forms being found in Slavonia and
Bulgaria.  In the lowlands of Runia and also in Albania, on the
other hand, the veranda always extends the full length of the
house. The location and form of the veranda is also influenced by
the ground plan of the building.  In long rectangular buildings
the veranda is generally found in the front of the house. When the
building tends to be of square plan the location may be more vari-
able, for example in the houses of eastern Serbia.
82
Taking this area as a whole, the hipped roof appears to be
dominant. It prevails in Bosnia and Bersegovina, in Serbia,
Albania, Bulgaria and Rumania. Gabled roofs have a more westerly
distribution, being found in Slovenia, Croatia, Slavonia, and also
in the Adriatic coastal and Karat regions. In the latter case the
stone slab roofing may be more conducive to the simpler form. The
jerkin-head roof appears to be limited to Slovenia and western
Croatia. While roofs are naturally higher in the mountainous
regions, they tend to be lower as one proceeds eastward, probably
as a result of increasing eastern Mediterranean influence. Their
association with curved tiles would support this thesis.   The rea-
son for the low roof of the Adriatic coast and Karat regions, how-
ever, is the danger from heavy winds in these areas.
Chimneys are not the general rule. The smoke is left to
escape through lidded openings in the roof or through chance cracks.
A number of different forms of openings occur. Only one chimney
form stands out, namely, the large squarish stack- topped with a
special roof; it is found in eastern Slavonia, northeastern and
western Serbia, and,, interestingly enough, in southwestern Rumania,
which borders on Serbia. This distribution would suggest a Serbian
origin.
Two heating devices can be distinguished, the hearth and the
stove. The latter is always located at the partition to the kit-
chen, from where it is fired. The combination of hearth and stove
is predominant in Slovenia, Slavonia, Bosania and Herzegovina and
Rumania. Greatest specialization in stoves occurs in Rumania, with
Bosnia and Herzegovina forming a close second. In more southerly,
warmer regions, the stove is lacking, and the hearth is used for
both cooking and heating. While hearths vary in form, they tend to
be higher in Slovenia and Croatia, but are raised only a few
inches from the ground in Dalmatia, Albania and Rumania. It
probably makes a significant difference whether the hearth approaches
the height of a table, or is so low that one must stoop to work at it.
Finally, consideration must be given to the exterior decoratiOn
of houses, which is limited to the northern portion of the area
studied. Intricate woodwork is found only in the Alpine regions of
Slovenia, Croatia, Slavonia and Rumania. Painting of the exterior
shows the same distribution. Northern areas outside of the Balkans
would have to be investigated to throw light on this distribution.
A number of alternative methods exist for the placement of farm
units. A continuum exists--ranging from numerous separate, scat-
tered units to the compact organization which strives to encompass
all units under one roof. A central point in this continuum is the
placement of a number of units under a separate roof.   Greatest
consolidation is achieved in the alpine regions of Slovenia; in
eastern Slavonia and Croatia there is a tendency to house the farm
units in rows under a single roof. East Bulgaria and Rumania share
the same pattern of adding annexes to the short sides of the main
83
house. In two-story buildings the basement is generally used for
storage and stabling. The greatest number of small farm units is
found in western Serbia. It would almost appear that the more
compact arrangement is associated with the more fertile regions.
High yard enclosures are characteristic of only a small num-
ber of areas; in northwest Slovenia and south central Albania are
found high masonry walls which are built onto the houses, together
with which they enclose the yard.  In the mountainous regions of
Rumania high palisades form the enclosure. The only other type of
settlement with high walls is found among the Moslem population of
Bosnia and Herzegovina and southern Serbia and Macedonia. While
it has been argued that high walls are a means of defense, it is
important to note that the defensive kulas of Albania and Matohija
have but the flimsiest of yard enclosures.
An extensive analysis of the house form cannot be made without
consideration of the whole of the culture and its history. Never-
theless, in this limited paper, a few factors can be indicated
which are important. Certain political factors have influenced the
type of settlements. Mountain regions have tended to maintain
their independence from foreign domination by withdrawal, their
rugged terrain being an asset in this reaction. There they were
joined by refugees from the lower regions. Consequently one finds
in Bosnia, Serbia and the Carpathians of Rnia settlements that
are highly inaccessible. In the lowlands, however, no doubt due to
their greater value for the dominating power, one finds the intro-
duction of planned villages either of the Ma6va or the 6iflik
variety. They are generally associated with greater uniformity of
house type as well. Associated to some extent with conflict with
the Turks is the presence of fortress-like kulas in the Kossovo
region and also in Bosnia and Herzegovina, many kulas being centers
of famous battles in Serbia.
While kulas are regularly associated with the need for defense,
their origin has not as yet been satisfactorily traced. On the one
hand they are related to Turkish rule, and in Bosnia and southern
Serbia they were almost exclusively owned by Turks. On the other
hand they are characteristic of the feuding areas of Albania and
Metohija, and were also erected by the boyars (landlords) in south-
west Rumania. In this last region they were copied after those of
Serbia. While some authors would point to a Near Eastern origin
for the kul&,I'Nopcsa (1925: 55) would derive them from the
Longobards of northern Italy.  Haberlandt, in his "Kulturvissen-
schaftliche Beitrage" (1917), claims that kulas were comon in
Albania between 890 and 1274 A.D., and believes them to be of Sw'iss
and south German origin (cited in Nopcsa, 1925: 54). However, the
Arabic term kula is found among Byzanti'ne writers of the 11th
century and among Serbs by 1350 (Nopcsa, 1925: 52).  A Turkish
origin is therefore unlikely.
Comparatively few Turkish traits have been adopted by the
Slavic population, there being a sharp segregation of the two ethnic
84
groups in all regions except Bosnia. One of these traits is
apparently the two-story house with a square foundation with the
upper story protruding over the lower. Another is the long barn
with one rounded end. Whether the upper story balcony, frequently
called by the Turkish term dardak, is a diffused item, is debatable.
It is interesting to note that this terr is applied to the balcon-
ies of mountain houses of Rumaia. In what manner the "'ardak"
balcony differs from any other is unclear. The question may also
be raised whether balconies on the upper story were not known prior
to Turkish influence. Matters are complicated by the extremely
varied usage of this term Uardak which may refer to a Moslem house
(in Bosnia and HerzegovinaT, a special house built for sons (in
Croatia), a barn (in west Serbia), or the pavillion of the aiflik
bey (in southern Macedonia). The most common usage is that refer-
ring to a balcony of a two-story house. One gets the impression
that the term ardak is associated with any improved construction
that was introduced into the area. Whether the derivation of the
form was always Turkish or not is uncertain.
Social organization is reflected in the dwelling patterns. All
over Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slavonia and Serbia one finds the one-
unit, heatless houses of the zadruga members, which are often built
one next to the other, sharing a common roof. A different pattern,
also associated with the zadruga, is the splitting up of the house
to form two complete dwelling units. This pattern appears to be
followed in regions where arable land is scarce. In Albania houses
are also modified in this manner. There separate dwellings are
deemed undesirable, and one prefers to build an annex onto the
house and keep the family members under a single roof. In Albania,
however, the social form is that of a lineage rather than the
zadru a. In the zadru?a regions the prestige of the patriarch is
indicated by his residing in the guest-house, whereas the younger
married and unmarried members must occupy the less favorable
separate units.
Even value systems find their expression in architecture. In
Bosnia and Serbia one frequently finds a separate guest-house or a
special room reserved for that purpose. When the kula consists of
three stories the entire uppermost story is reserved for this pur-
pose. Hospitality is one of the major values, and reflects the
honor of the family in these areas. There also appears to be
preferential treatment of certain livestock. Horses and cattle are
generally kept in the lower story of the house, whereas smaller
livestock are quartered elsewhere.
A final interesting example is that of the contrasting prestige
values of grain and maize.  This finds expression in the separate
storage of these two commodities and in the more careful construc-
tion of the granary than of the corn shelter, for example in
Slavonia and Serbia.  It is significant that in Rumania, the most
outstanding farm unit is the corn-house.
85
This study of Balkan house and farmstead types can only be
regarded- as a preliminary survey. I have indicated some of the
more obvious distributions and determinative factors. A more
thorough analysis will have to wait until intensive mapping of
material traits, and extensive cultural comparisons, have been
done in this area.
86
S L O V E N I A
Fig. 1   aine House
Fig. 2   Floor Plan of Alpine House
A) Anterom, B) Kitchen with Fireplace,
C) Living Room with Stove,
D) Bedroom, E) Stable
B     A      B
Fig. 3 FloorPl     of House from
Skofji Loka
A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
Anteroom
Living Room
Bedroom
Kitchen
Stable
Fig. 4 Floor Plan of House from
Bela Krajina
A) Anteroom
B) Living Room
Fig. 5 Hlpuse from the Slovenian Karst
B
I
m .
m      I    m        n     I
S L O V E N I A
Arrangement of Farm Buildings in
Prene
A       B     D     E|1|     F |l I
Fig. 6
A) Livring Room
A      B    D            B) Kitchen
L         C) Anteroom
D) Bedroom
. D          E) Stable
F) Threshing Floor
F - .G) Storeroom
H) Hay Barn
I) Straw Storage
J) Wood Shed
K) Podstenj
Fig. 7        L) Pojata
Fig. 8
S L O V E N I A
Fig. 9 Kozolec
Fig* 11 Structure for the
Stor    of Cor
Fig. 10 Kozolec
Fig. 12
C R O A T I A and S L A V O N I A
7=RV\VI\WV1\
Fig. 14 Kerbschnitt Designs
Fig. 13 Croatian House from the Vicinity
of Sisak
C
A      B
DL    I
D
1~      ' E
Fig. 15 House from Slavonska Pole
Fig. 16 Floor Plan of Farma
house near Bjelovar,
Croatia
A) Anteroom
B) Kitchen
C) Living Room
D) Sleeping Room
E) Location of Further
Partitions
Fig. 17 Building Containin   Rooms of the
Zadruma    ers (    t Slavoni
2.---                  gw-- el" F-- VP"
I            J%     11 bb
Fig. 18 Stove with Concave Tiles,
Bench7F a  ide Seats
(KupaR., Croatia)
/seO
/oCh
oa o e
0 0 ,
I              '
Fig. 19 Stove from Lika, Showing Earthen-
ware Bowls rand Ni
I      _  _ _ _
YUGOS LAV LITTORAL
Fig. 20a One-story House from the
Vi i     of Boka Kotorska
Fig. 20b Floor Plan of F. 20a
A) Xitchen with Fireplace,
B) Sleeping Room, C) Stable,
D) Crib, E) Yard, F) Sheep
Pen, G) Dog House
Fig. 21a Ground Floor of Two-
story House. A) Main
Room,, B) Rom, C) Stair-
case
Fig. 21b  UpperSto    of Fi.  21a
A)) Aiteroom
B) Room
C) Staircase
D) Saloga
H
A         ',C
Fig. 22  Floor Plan of Kitchen
A)RREtchen7    ,) Fireplace,
C) Storeroom         _
LI
Fig. 23 Cross-section of Pi gst
C) PT   gh     closiire
C) Trough-
Fig. 24 House in the Vicinity of Boka Kotorska
m               - - -      Mm
a-n- d- t h e K A R S T
BOS N I A and HE RZEG OV I N A
D
L B
Fl
Fig. 25
, ,i T
A    2
Fig. 26
E  I
I c
A
B.
T,
Fig. 28
A
B
D  T
Fig. 27
4
A  B
TC
I
i       I
E     I
Fig.. 29
Kitchen
Living Room
Second Room
Annex
Place where
Added
Fireplace
Stove
or Storeroom
Annex Would be
A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
S E R B I A
A
0:
-I
Fig. 30 Floor Plan of House in
Eastern Serbia. A) Kitchen
B) Soba, C) Fireplace,
D) Storeroom
B
.,A
Fig. 32   House with Porch in Rear
A)Kitc'hen, B) Soba,
C) Krevet
Fig. 31 House in Eastern Serbia
A) Kitchen, B) Soba,
C) Fireplace, D) Store-
room, E) Odvod
Fig. 34 ChimnfZ Stack of
Morava House
A                 A
E)     '41 >'
I                       i  . .
B                 B
F
-                   I                        -
C
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
Fig. 33   Interior Division of
House with woim-
eys       K itchen,
SY-oba,, C) Fireplace,
D) Old Fireplace,
E-F) Partition
Figo 35 Ambar with Kog
A) Compartment for grain
B) Open Passage
C) Kol
I
I
A
B
I
D
--r
i
I
I
I E
I
L
I
I
SERB IA
Fig. 36  Ko -of
Twien
Fig. 37 Barn with Stable
Figo 38 Chicken Coop
Fig. 39
LA4
Floor Plan of Barn in
Northwestern Serbi a
. B
I
I
c
I
F              E
Fig. 41 Floor Plan of House in
umanovo Region
A) Kitchen, B) Sleeping
Room, C) Guest Room,
D) Fireplace, E) Veranda,
F) Room for Clothes Storage
Fig. 40 Rortable Sheperd's Hut
of Western Serbia
Fig. 42   er Story of Kula
A)-Anteroom, B) Kitchen,
C) Storeroom, D) Stair-
case9 E) Fireplace,
F) Soba
Fig. 43 Farmstead in Southeastern Albania
Fig. 44  Houses of Be and dif6i
.(SoutherncnT a
SO UT HER N       )
1     E1
1     10
?I
I  11     I
Fig. 45 ItifEi House
II
III
MACEDON IA
1.- Trem
2. Keral
3. Odaja
4. Ambar
5. Ku6a
6. Fireplace
7. Aur (stable)
8, Chicken Coop
9.m KoNara
100 Yard
11. Threshing Floor
12. Plemnja
1.
2.
3.
4o
59
7o
8.
90
10.
11.
12.
130
Ajer
Pulata
Stairway
Ambar
6. Odaja
Cireplace
Ci ler
Pulata
Opening of Stairway
Opening to Ambar
Odaja
Fireplace
Fig. 46a House of Independent Peasant
I.
II.
IIIo
Ajer
Second Story
Third Story
Fig. 46b Vertical Cross-section of F      46a
I      1   Ml
A L B A N I A
Fig. 47 House of Wattle and Daub
Fig. 49 Veranda House
Fig. 51 House Transformed
into Two Separate
5We    l1     s
Fig. 48 Floor Plan of
0    47
M -             Vw
0          -     --
I  1111
Fig. 50 House with a Room on
the Veerandia
U
I            I
Fig. 52 Floor Plan
a House of
Hoti
of
the
AL B AN I A
Fig. 53  Building with Stai     House
Fig. 54 Kula in Northern Albania
Fig. 55 Fieplace with Niches and           for Smoke
B U L G A R I A
P.-- x    lil-tI -
-
I            I
L.c     A    IB
Fig. 56a Upper Sto
A) Kitchen
B) Miteroom
C) Balcony
D) Living Room
E) Fireplace
Fig. 56c East Bulgaia House
with Stable
A) Living Quarters
B) Stable
C) Veranda
A                  B
HI            I         .I. S
C
a
C
S
Fig. 56b Ground Floor
A) Stable
B) Storeroom
C) Pillars
Fig* 56d Balcony House
in Central
Bulgaria
Fig. 56e House with Side Annexes
D
A
B
C
D
111"E~~~~~~~~
r                              *     s   -    |    X                               |
R U M A N I A
Fig. 57a House of the Lowlands
Fig. 57b Side View of Fig. 57a
-              f~~~~~~~~~~~~~-1
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~   __'_D
Fig. 57d Woodwork on the
Veranda
Floor Plan of Fig  57a
Anteroom, B)- Living Room
Storage Room, D) Veranda
/    /
a
House with two Annexes.
Fireplace, DTVeranda, E)
A) Anteroom, B) Living Room,
Stable, F) Chicken Coop
Fig. 57c
A)
C)
./
2,a 0S   | rp/S,,X0Ss <Xsl  ,/"//s,'/,,/zz/z |   {#o '','' '-v m 2  /|K/  Z/'/l
Figo 58
C)
m           %.a                                                                     -  I
In      13
I.
R U M A N I A
Fig. 59a Corn-house
Fig. 60 Fence wi'th Excised Designs
Fig. 61 Decorations at End
or gepole
Fig. 59b Front View of Fig 59a
I  m  -M  m - -
L F~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Fig. 62 Arrigement of Shingles
at Ridgepole
Fig. 59c  Floor Plan of   .   59a
A) Stable
B) Cart-shed
Fig. 63 Semi-subterranean House
of the Danube Plain
R U M A N I A
Fig. 65 Chim    in Oltenia
Fig. 64a llountain House
Fig. 66 Floor Plan of Mountain House
Fig. 64b  Floor Plan of    . 68a
A) Living Room, B) Veranda
C) Foi;or, D) Privy
Fig. 67 Kula
0
(S
Z~~~
0'
,St ~3
c tt1' 0.
_    I
s  s   8 *_ .~~ft
'tttt3 l'
? t} 61
-cn
rn
.CA
CO)
I-
F
C,
rn
CA
4.
r
0'
U
0
a
9
p
'p
a
S
r
p
9
3
g
a;
0
a
S.
NOTE
(1) The term, "cylindrical tile," as used in this paper refers
to the roof tile described as "normal tile, imbrex" by
Morse (1892: 9). It is the type commonly found, for example,
in the Spanish missions of California.
87
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abbreviations:
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