THIE PROBLEM OF RACE IN THE MESOLITHIC OF EUROPE1
Robert J. Squier
Tho problen of the origins and racial affinities of the mosolithic
peoples of Europe has recoived attention fron a good many writers in the
past.  Much of the material on this subject is conflicting and tho argu-
ments are scattered throughout a largo nurbor of sources. It may at
least be suspected that some of the arguments have boen influenced by
the geographical locations and cultural associations in which tho hunan
remains have been found. The notion of race itself has undergone sorme
revision in the period during which these remains have boen accunulatod
(Vallois, 1953). Ideas on tho usefulness of small or poorly preservod
skeletal samples for racial identification havo become sorowhat aore
rigorous during this tine. Perhaps it would. be worthwhile, then, to ox-
anine some of the statements on raco in the Mesolithic against the back-
ground of tho bones of contention-the skeletal ronains-thonselvos.
Factors of inportance to studies of prehistoric racc, such as tho
degroe of isolation or of contact with other peoples, must be viewed in
the perspective of the cultural situation pertaining in the particular
case or cases, and this in turn is influonced as regards such factors by
the environmental conditions of the time. Accordingly, I have thought.
it useful to include as a preliminary a briof review of tho major environ-
mental and cultural developnents of the European Mosolithic.
NATULAL AND CULTURAL XNflONMEN2
Natural Environmont. The boundary betwoen the Upper Palacolithic
and Mesolithic in Europe is by common agreenont drawn to coincide with
tho transition from the Late Glacial to the Post Glacial (Recent) period.
Inasmuch as neither the onvironmental conditions nor tho cultural tradi-
tions show a sharp broak from one period to tho next, this lino must be
drawn arbitrarily in both cases. The indications of the final shift fron
terninal Pleistocene onvironmental conditions are not equally marked, or
oqually studied, in all parts of Europe. Differences in latitudo, elova-
tion and distance from large bodios of water mke it appoar very probable
that tho causes of this final shift wore offective in some regions sone-
what oarlier than in others.
The transition is most cloarly narked in northern EuroeO.  Here tho
Late Glacial period is taken to end with the recossion of the glacial sheet
from the Fenno-Scandian moraines. With this event the opening stage of the
Post Glacial, the Pre-Borcal climatic phase, is ushored in. Temperaturo
changos leading up to the retroat of the ice sheet from tho Fenno-Scandian
morainos had brought about a sorios of oscillations in tho climiatic condi-
tions of final Pleistocone tines. Three major oscillations have boQn infor-
rod from paloob-tanical evidence. The first of these, the Early or Lowor
Dryas Poriod, was markod by arctic conditions and tundra growth in northern
55
Europe. This was followed by a period of climatic amolioration, the
AlxQrAd Period, during which birch, willow and pino invaed. the northern
rogions. The final Late Glacial poriod, tho Upper or Younger Dryas
Poriod, marked a tonporary return to arctic tundra conditions. Faunal
remains associatod with these Late Glacial clinatic oscillations indicato
that tundra and steppe forms prodominatod: roindeer, horse, leDming, etc.
The sequenco of contonporaneous oscillations in southern and eastern
Europe has not been worked out in anything approaching the detail known
for northern Europe; what evidence there is fram southern Europe suggosts
a greater regional clinatic variation with sonewhat nilder conditions
overall.
With the opening of the Post Glacial period cane tho onset of clima-
tic changos which, with only ninor regressions, have led to the conditions
of the present. As with the Lato Glacial period, the climatic phases of
the Post Glacial are best read in northorn Europe where varve analysis,
paleobotany and paloontology have given a rolatively precise chronology of
the temperature and precipitation cyclos and the accompanying floral and
faunal changes.
The Post Glacial of northern Europe is dividod into fivo clinatic
phases (Plate 7), one of which is furthor divided into two sub-phases.
Pre-Boreal (ca. 8000 to ca. 6800 B. C.). This period oponed with the
beginning of the recession of the glacial sheet fron the Fenno-Scandian
moraines. Cold temperatures provailod at the start, becoming slightly
warmer as the period progressed. Procipitation was low throughout.
Tundra vegetation gave way to forest typos with birch reaching its maxi-
nun growth in this period and pine gradually increasing. Hazel and aspen
appeared. in the latter part of the period.
Boreal (ca. 6800 to ca. 5000 B. C.). Cold, dry continental climiate con-
tinued during the Early Boreal sub-phase, but during the latter, Late
Boreal, sub-phase temperatures took a markod upswing until at the end of
the poriod summer tonporatures were vory nearly like the present.  Forest
vegetation continuod to increase. Pine doninated during the early half,
but with the increased temperaturos of the Late Boreal, hazol reached a
maximran and new deciduous trees, oak, elm and line, from the south
appeared.
Atlantic (ca. 5000 to ca. 2500 B. C. ). In the early half of this period
optinum toeperature conditions prevailed, with surmer tenperatures slight-
ly higher than those of today. Precipitation took a sharp increase at the
opening of the period until it reached an annual average comparable in
northern Europe to prosont conditions. Such warm, moist conditions en":
couraged the growth of warmth-loving trees. Maple and ash appeared and oak,
elm and line became the doninant forms.  Tho conifers and birch retreated
to the alpine and northernmost rogions.
Sub-Boreal (ca. 2500 to ca. 500 B. C.). Colder continental conditions ro-
turned with this poriod and rainfall dropped to about half its present
level. With this deterioration in climate, pine returned and reached a
56
second maximum growth lovel. The warmth-loving forest types dropped off
sharply. Decreased precipitation lod to a goneral lowering of lake levols
and the dryinrg up of mny s1urface peat bogs.
Sub-Atlantic (ca. 500 B.C. to presont). With the Sub-Atlantic period we
are in the present climatic era of increased temperatures and abundant pre-
cipitation.
The Post Glacial period may be briefly sumrma rized as a phase of trans-
ition (Pre-Boreal) from the arctic Late Glacial conditions followod by two
onsets of cold continental conditions (Boreal and Sub-Boreal) alternating
with two onsets of warm  aritile (Atlantic and Sub-Atlantic) conditions.
Nothing nore than an approximate correlation with this picture has yet been
established for tho contral and southorn regions of Europe. Thero is somL
evidenco (Zeuner, 1952:105) that the sequence of climtic changes in central
Europe was somewhat in advance of that of the moro northerly regions. South-
ern Europe, because of the proxirmity of both elevated regions and large
bodies of water, appears to have experienced considerable regional clinatic
variation.
The changes in climato and vegetation gradually brought about a shift
in faunal types during tho Post Glacial. Land mammals adapted to tho tundra
and steppe environment of tho Late Glacial, including the reindoor, wild
horse, cave bear, olk, arctic fox and lemming, slowly gave way to such forest
specios as the red and roe deor, wild pig, brown boar, beaver and narten.
Marine rmaals    nolluscs and fishes oxhibit a similar change in specios and
increase in numbers, and the saene is true of wildfowl and other bird foms.
Cortain of tho land matmals of tho Late Glacial, such as the roindeer, elk
and wild horse, persisted in the northern regions well into the Post Glacial
and sone of their numbers apparently held out in isolated pockets until early
in the present era.
The release of waters from the receding ice shoots and. mountain glaciers
resulted in a gradual but pronouncod rise in sea lovol during tho Post Gla-
cial. By lato Boreal times this sea level change had isolatod England from
continontal Europe by a narrow strait which has continued to widon through
wave action and tid.al scour up to the prosont day. At the beginning of the
Post Glacial the Bkltic was a huge lake cut off from the North Sea by ice
das. The nolting of the ice early in the Pro-Boreal allowed the sea to
invade the Baltic basin, forning, what is known as the Yoldia Sea. At about
the niddle of tho Pre-Boreal period an uplift of the land again ded the
connection with the sea and the Ancylus Lake was formed. This lake persis-
ted until the beginning of the Atlantic period when tho rising sea level
again breached the connection with the North Sea and again flooded tho Bdaltic
basin. The resulting Litorina Sea was nuch greator in extent than the
Baltic of today.
Simultaneous with the riso in sea level occurred a gradual rise in land
elevations in the glaciated regions due to the renoval of the enormous uasses
of ice. This isostatic re-eolevation of the land was naturally most pronoun-
ced in the regions around which the ice sheets centered., but its effects
appear to havo extended far south of tho farthost glacial advance. Tho
57
PLATE VII
Sone Mesolithic Culturoe of Europe
POST GLACIAL
Sub-Atlantic
-..ca. 500 BC
Sub-Boroal
--ca. 2500
Atlantic
a. 5000
Boroal
-- ca. 6800
Pro-Boreal
-   Ca. 8000
LATE GLACIAL
West         *    .    .   .    .    S   S    S   S    *      0    0   0      0    0   0    0 *    0
ti*t
Erteb4 lo
;- Larniak.
IGudenaa
,.  . .  , _. a..
Tardde n o i
a
i
Al
a a n
.. I   _.
Swidorian
Sauvoterrian
A z i 1 i a n    i
_ _ .  _
Final Palaeolithic Cultures
East I
i
I                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           I
. . .
I
,~
ri,
?f-ll
g
I
&/77
oustatic riso of sea levol and tho isetatic enorgencc of the lanaL cirbibned to
produce an extroreely complicated series of topographical changOs throughout
the whole of the European Mesolithic. These changes addod to tho climatic
and biotic changes mentioned above produced a physical onvironmont on the
whole different fran that of the late Ploistocone.
Mesolithic Cultures. During the Mesolithic, Europo was occupied by a
large number of cultures which show great regional and chronological vari-
ation. These cultures may be clustered on the basis of shared traits into
a series of cultural phases or facies, and these in turn may be divided inte
several rather loosely defined major cultural traditions. Wo shall bo con-
cerned here in the 'iain with only the roughest outline of these groat tradi-
tions (Plate 7).
The te   Mesolithic as it is widely used in Europe has cono to refor
to the group of cultures following the Palaeolithic which dopended for their
subsistence upon hunting, fishing and gathering, and which lacked the means
of food production through domestication of animals or food plants. The
uppor linit of this period nay thus be defined with the introduction of food
production, a criterion which is comparatively easy to detexrine archaeolo-
gically. The lower boundary, however, as was mentionod above, is arbitrar-
ily drawn to coincide with the beginring of the Post Glacial period. This
has resulted in several cultures boing designated as lato Palaeolithic which
bear close resenblances to sane of the early mesolithic culturos. The so-
called "tangod point cultures" of northern Europe are a case in point.
These cultures, whose roots go back to the Magdalenian and Gravettian, wore
by Upper Dryas tines distributed over northern Europe fron northern Holland
to Poland* Their principal subsistence activity was the hunting of roindeer
with the bow and arrow as their chief weapon. All of those cultures shared
the use of crudely chipped, stormed arrowpoints, giving riso to the descrip-
tive torn "tanged point cultures." A strong nicrolithic element is clearly
marked in sane of these cultures. Numerous traits of the early mosolithic
cultures of northern Europe appear to derive ultimatoly fron these reindeer
hunting cultures.
The first culture to be definitely recognized as mesolithic was tho
Azilian. This culture, which is best known for its painted pebbles and
flat, bilaterally barbed harpoons of stag antler, is an early mesolithic
developnent that, like tho Magdalenian fron which it probably derives, employ-
ed caves and rockshelters as habitation sites. Azilian sites are found in
northern Spain, southern and central France and in the upper Rhine drainage.
Azilian-like materials have been reported frca as far east as the Crinea.
Lithic implemonts include crude  retouched flake knives, small equaro and
round scrapers, bumis, and some geometric nicroliths. Bone awls wore used,
and perforated stag canines and sea shells were worn for ornamentation. A
few bone points, possibly for the spear, have been found in Azilian sites.
The Tardenoisian tradition includes a largo group of quite varied cul-
tures, all of which are diatirnguished by the use of large nunbers of micro-
liths. Many of these are deliberately fashioned into geometric shapes in
several traditional forns.  Flake and core scrapers, burins and flake knives
59
aro comon in Tardenoisian sites, and implements of bone, antler and shell
wero used in numorous forms.  Use of tho bow and arrow is inferred from
the finding of triangular nicroliths enbedded in bone.  ?erains of the do-
nestic dog have been rocovered in Tardenoisian sites.
The Tardenoisian is found in the Iberian Peninsula and British Isles,
and froa western Europe to southern Russia, but it appears not to have
penetrated into the fertile plains south and east of the Baltic.  Sitos are
frequently in caves, but open sites on the fringes of the forosts are can-
non in the northern areas. In the coastal regions of France and Portugal,
shell middons of this culture have been found. The Tardenoisian apparontly
spanned nearly the whole of the nesolithic period, being found in Pro-Boreal.
context in northwestarn Europe and persisting until the Noolithic in both
Spain and northern Europe. In southern France a variant of the Tardenoisian,
derived probably from local lato palaeolithic survivals, appears to underlio
the full Tard.noisian. This culture, the Sauvatorrian, differs from the
Tardonoisian principally in its microlithic element.
The appearance of uicroliths in large nunbers in tho Tardonoisian gave
rise to the formorly provailing belief that this culture ropresonted a
nigration fron North Africa by way of the Straits of Gibraltar. This argu-
nent has lcst some of its force with the recognition of a strong nicrolithic
elenent in the Gravottian and somewhat less developed occurrenco in several
other upper palaeolithic cultures of Europe. The implications of this argu-
nent on nesolithic racial origins are obvious and will bo discussed at
greater longth lator in this paper.
In tho coastal rogions of northern Portugal and Spain and in southwes-
tern France, an unusual late nesolithic culture is found. This is the
Asturian, a culture which is found In cavos and rockshelters and in coastal
shell middens. This culture is charactorized by its use of large, crudely
flaked stone tools.  Flake scrapers, core choppers and the distinctive
Asturian "chopping tools" or pointod core picks are found in abundanco.  The
core pick is riade of an olongate pobble, generally of quai'tzite, flaked to a
rough point at the used ond and left unfinished at the othor.  Only slight
use of bone or antler, and this in tho form of large pieces showing wear at
one end, is indicated.  The Asturian has beon found in a numbor of sitos
superimposed ovor Azilian deposits, and there is ovidence that it persisted
at least until contact with neolithic cultures.
The British Isles experienced a complicated series of cultural devolop-
nonts during the Mesolithic. It appears cortain that sone groups of tho
British upper palaoolithic tradition, the Creswellian, survivod well into the
early Mesolithic.  In som  sites evidences are found of Influonce on this
culture by the Late Glacial "tanged point cultures" of western Europe. Early
in the Mosolithic the Tardonoisian of western Europe invaded England and,
sonewhat later, the Maglemosian of northern Europe came into Engiland and
Scotland. Both of these cultures influencod the surviving Creswellian cul-
tures.
With the final retreat of the ice shoet and the rapid spread of the
60
oarly Post Glacial forosts, a now nesolithic culture devoloped in northoast
Ireland. Terned the Larnlan, this culturo appears as a specialized outgrowth
of the paloolithic Croswellian. The Larnian is known only from its lithic
irmplements; only a fow non-diagnostic bone inploemets havo been found in
sites of this culturo. The oarly phase of tho Larnian is distinguishod by
its steoply dressed blade tools, flako picks, porforators and a varicty of
scraper types. In the lato Larnian points with baso retouching, choppers
nado on flakes and cores, and well mado flako axes and adzes appear. This
culture appears to have boon established by niddle Boreal tines and to have
persisted into the early Noolithic. Evidonce of its diffusicn into south-
wost Scotland by the late Boreal has been found at sovoral sites.
During the late Atlantic period, the Obanian culturc developod in tho
coastal regions of Scotland and northern England. This culture shows a
nurmber of influences from the Larnian in its stono imploeonts and stonework-
ing techniques. Other influences probably attributable to the Tardonoisian
and Maglemosian cultures of northwestern Europo are seen both in the lithic
assemblage and bone and antler implements. The stone tools includo flake
blades, picks, chisel-like tools, flake and core choppors and narrow pebbles
with end wear, possibly used in the preparation of food. Bone points, awls
and pins, and barbed fish spoars and wedge-like tools of bone and antlor are
found in abundance. A distinctive Obanian inpleonnt is tho polished bone
splinter with heavily usod end, possibly enployod in tho treatmont of skins
and perhaps also as flaking tools. The Obanian persistod in this northern
region for sone tine aftor the arrival of neolithic pooples.
Beginning very early in the Mesolithic a remarkablo group of cultures
developod in northern Europe.  These are groupod together undor the torn
Maglenosian. Sitos of this general culture have boen found in England and
Scotland, southern Scandinavia, northern Geraany and in tho oastorn Baltic
region. The Maglenosian is generally believed to sten directly from the
late paloolithic peoples of this region, the "tanged point culturos."  Sub-
sistence was by hunlting, fishing and collocting, with numrous local vari-
ations and adaptations. The bow. and arrow was universal among theso groups.
Antler harpoons and bone fishhooks wore used. Scme groups e-uployed wovon
fiber fishing nots. Microliths have been found in the westorn sitos of the
culture, derived perhaps fron both the lato palacolithic groups and from
contact with tho Tardenoisian culture. Probably the nost important devolop-
ment of the Maglonosian was that of a variety of woodworking tools, following
the tradition begun by the cultures ancestral to then. Wodges, chisels,
gouges and possibly adzes were made of bono and antler.  But the nost offi-
cient woodworking invention was the adzo of flint or fine-grainod stones.
These adzos are of the tranchot type, made by striking off a flake from one
ond of a prepared core by a blow at right angles to the lorng axis of tho
coro. East of the Baltic pebbles of fine-grained stone were sharpened to an
edge by grinding to produce the "ground stone axe," an iplenent long hold to
be diagnostic of the Neolithic. In the coastal rogions of Denmark and south-
ern Sweden the tendoncy appears to have been toward a noro settled existence
and increased dependonce upon the sea for subsistence, leading to tho develop-
rment of a distinctive way of life characteristic of lator nosolithic groups
In this region. Elsewhere the Maglenosian persisted much as before, and some
Maglerosian groups apparently continued in their nesolithic patterns of ex-
istence for somoe tine after tho arrival of noolithic patterns in this re-
gion.
In the inland areas of Jutland, a culture vory nuch like the Magle0os-
ian, the Gudenaa culturo, doveloped in early Boreal tinos. Cortain of the
stone and bone imaplements of this culture are suggestive of forns used by
the later coastal cultures of this rogion, and it was at first supposed
that the Gudenaa culture was an internediate devolopment from the Magleno-
sian to these later culturos. This idea has given way with the recogni-
tion that the Gudenaa culture itsolf persisted with only ninor changes in
its pattorns until tho ond of tho Mesolithic.
The lato mesolithic coastal cultures of Denrark, northern Gernany and
southern Sweden are conmonly grouped under the tern ErtobAlle, the name of
one of the sites of this tradition. These are the so-called "kitchen nid-
den" culturos, an appellation which is not truly descriptive of these cul-
tures since not all groups lived on such middens and not all such middens
were inhabited by the ErtebAllo.  These people lived in apparently perman-
ent villages on or very noar the coasts and derived nuch .f their subsis-
tence from tho sea. Their dependence upon nolluscan spc0cios for a large
part of their supply resulted in the accumulation of lanJ Shell deposits
in the village areas, but fish and sea narwals were also.utilizod and re-
nains of land mnanals in the niddens indicate that these too. wore hunted.
The principal hunting weapon was the bow and arrow, the arrows being tip-
ped with nicrolithic transverse arrowpoints (the petit tranchat or "chisel-
ended" point) or soeotines with triangular microliths. Axes of flint and
fine-Grained stones are nuch noro cctnon than adzes in Ertobklle sites.
Tho fine-grained stone axes are ground and polished.. Flake scrapers,
knives, burins, bono and antlor harpoons, wooden throwing sticks and bone
points and awls are among the other items in the cultural inventory. The
most distinctive innovation of this culturo was the uso on a fairly largo
scale of pottery, a development which appears to be entirely independent
of the later neolithic introduction of pottery over the whole of Europo.
This mesolithic pottory is a rough tempered, poorly fired black ware which
is built up by the coilod techniquo. Large, pointed-base Jars and oval
"saucers" (possibly used as blubber lanps) are the nest frequent forns.
The Ertebklle first appears in tho archaoological rocord at the open-
ing of tho Atlantic climatic period. The rising air and sea tonperaturos
and increased rainfall of this period, with the accompanying floral and
faunal changes, nado It possible for man to pursue a succossful existence
in the northern coastal regions, and it is genorally hold that the develop-
Mont of the Erteb,6lle was a response to tho now opportunitios. Certain of
the industrial traits of this tradition appear to stem directly from the
Maglenmosian. But the Erteb/lle is not merely a coastal version of the de-
veloped Maglenosian as was for a tine hold possible. It has been pointed
out (Clark, 1951:95-97) that the blades and burins, certain of the arrow-
points, and the use of deoply incised geometric patterns in decorating
bone and antler agroe nore closely with traits possessed by the Late Gla-
cial peoples of this general region than with the early Maglenosian. The
use of pottery also is an innovation of non-Maglenosian origin.
62
Nunorous othor northorn cultures tending, like the ErtobAllo, to the
use of the stone axe, goonotric nicroliths and in sone casos, pottery, are
known fron the lato Mesolithic.  The nesolithic cultures of Finland are
described in sane detail elsewhere in this voluro.  The Finnrarkian culture
of the extrene north of Norway and the adjacent parts of Russia is distinc-
tive anong nesolithic cultures for its use of refractory stone, leading to
the production of rather crude appearing inplonents. Its gravers and adze
blades are sinilar to Maglenosian pieces  anufactured fror flint, and snoe
of its flake tools are reniniscent of Mousterian forns. This has lod to the
hypothesis that the Finnnarkian was one of a group of eastern hunting cul-
tures which spread westward along the retroating glacial front. An altor-
nativo, and cliDatologically nore likely, hypothesis is that this culture i.s
sirply another nesolithic culture, possibly of Maglonosian affinity, which
noved northward from the Baltic region in late mesolithic tines.
The Mesolithic of eastern Europe is as yet not worked out in detail
conparable to what is known of this poriod in the rest of Europe. One
serious problen has been the difficulty of dating the archaeological depos-
its due to the absence of clearly narked clinatic phases such as are known
for northern Europe. Tardenoisian-like and Azilian-like assenblages have
been reported fran this region, and several skeletal finds fron deposits of
this nature will be describod later in this paper. Tho Swiderian culture
appears to be a distinctively eastern European nesolithic culture. This
culture contains elenents strongly roniniscont of the local Gravottian of
the Upper Palaeolithic. Its distinctive dininutive tanged points in parti-
cular are very sinilar to a Gravottian forn, but greatly reduced in size.
This brief review of nesolithic environnent and culture in Europe has
sone bearine on the discussions of nesolithic skeletal raaterials and race
problens which follow. In the first place, we should note that the Meso-
lithic covered a span of over 6000 years, considerably noro tine than has
elapsed since. Certainly by the end of this period the natural environnont
and biota were essentially as we have known then in historic tines, allow-
ing for the changes wrought by nan. But during the period, the transition
was ndo fron the arctic and sub-arctic onvironmonts of the Late Glacial to
those of the present ora.
What effect these changing conditions had on the novenonts of popu-
lations surviving fran Palaeolithic tines wo can only spoculate upon.  We
night guess that the sproad of forests and water bodies and the gradual
extinction of the large herd riaxnls, togethor with the apparent incroase
in local plant foods, would have tended to bring about the isolation of
huraan groups fran one another for long periods. The effect of this on
hunan physical characters, if it actually occurrod, would be to allow
local differentiation and specialization in particular physical traits,
on the principle of genetic drift.  But we lack real evidence that hunan
populations in the Mesolithic were on the whole nore isolated than during the
Palaeolithic. On the contrary, a review of tho archaeological record shows
that, despite the regional specializations which developed in culture, there
63
must have beon considerablo contact between human groups.  This is so markod
in fact that we are able to rolate groups in fairly largo rogions on the
basis of numerous shared traits.
The goneral picture for any givon tino in the Mesolithic is that of a
nunbor of "tribes," each consisting of a number of localizod bands or "tribow
lets" which wore m'ore or less in contact with one another ard which perhaps
shared a comon language.   The "tribes" aro in turn unitod by sharod traits
into tho great cultural traditions covering large geographical areas, nuch
as in aboriginal Anorica. The intorchango of genos undor theso circunstances
nust have been of a fairly high order and we might expoct to find a consid-
orable degree of variation in the physical characters of the small unit popu-
lations. This doos not deny that sone populations might have experienced
rel.ative isolation of sone duration during their history. It might mke us
deriand, however, a fairly large population sanple before we accopt claims as
to the racial affinitios of this or that group or the foreign origin of this
or that physical trait.
Another area of study bearing on the problon of raco in the Mesolithic
should at least be mentioned. This has to do with the offects wrought aore
or less direotly on manki.nd by the change from Lato Glacial to Recent en-
virornxaental conditions. What factors of solectivity wore involved, for in-
stanco, in changes in disease types and frequencies as a result of climtic
and dietary changes? Another question concerns tho effects on hunan genetics
and plasticity of dietary changes themselves. In a number of the descrip-
tions of the mesolithic skeletal materials reviewed on the following pages
the authors coment on tho incroased frequency of dental caries in the Meso-
lithic, usually attributing this to the differonceo in dietary habits. What
wore the other, less easily detectod, effects of tho supposed shift fron a
predominantly meat diet to one high in plant or sea foods? Differonces in
soil chemistry due to incroased precipitation and the resultant offocts on
nutrition, viewed both regionally and in general, raise othor problems.
These are only acne of the questions that can be raised, but not answered,
in this area of inquiry. A start has been made (of. Coon, Garn and Birdsall,
1950) toward thoir consid.eration in race problems, but it is only a start.
They should at least bo borne in mind, however, as of possible significance
in the picture wo are about to review.
MESOLITEIC SKELETAL MATERIALS
We shall be concernod here with a brief description of the majority (3)
of the European human remains which are generally accepted as of nesolithic
age. Many remins of doubtful mesolithic provenience have been described.
It has been necessary to rely on recent opinion for the selection of those
to be considered here. The descriptions below are arranged by nodern nations
in Europe, beginning in the south and working north and then to the east.
Tho general location of each of the sites discussed is shown on the nap, Plate
8. Stature and the principal cranial measurements and indices of the more
complete of the skeletal finds are Given in Table 1.
64
Portugal
Muse. Beginning shortly after the middle of the last century, a series
of skeletal finds wore nade in the shell niddens in the Tage (Tagus) River
valley near the village of Muge, District of Santar6on, in southern Portugal.
Some 200 burials have been removed fron these mounds to dato, many of which
have been scattered and lost. Most of the finds are fron two mounds locally
termed Cabeqo deL Arruda and Moita do Sebastiao.  These sites are dated from
their cultural materials as Tardenoisian, although not necessarily contem-
poraneous. The first description of any of the romains was that of Paula e
Oliveira (1886) who published a brief description of five crania. Two other
short papers, by Peroira da Costa (1907) and Mendes Corroa (1923) followod,
describing respectively one and three other crania not doscribod by Paula
o Oliveira.
In 1930 Vallois made an attonpt to locato and noasure all of the skoletal
materials known to be from the Muge sites (Vallois, 1930). During this sur-
vey Vallois discardod several of tho crania described by tho previous writers
because of their unreliability due to post-morten deforation. He added a
number of previously undescribed crania and gave the first description of
many of the post-cranial materials. Only nine crania wore found sufficiently
complete and undeforned for detailed neasurenent and observation, and stature
could be calculated fron the long bones of only 22 individuals (Table 1).
The skulls are ovoid in form with sone vault flattening. The occipital
region is rounded and not protruding. Cephalic indicoes average 71.8 for the
malos, 72.5 for the females. The frontal bones are straight anong the fe-
males, inclined among the mles. Browridges are rugged in the nedian region,
but not on the sides, auong the males and only slightly doveloped among tho
fenales.  Faces are nesoprosopic (mosene), mesorrhine and mesognathous.
Some variation oxists in these indices as will be noted in Table 1. The or-
bits are low. Mandibles are nedium in sizo with pronounced chins. Teeth are
large for the size of tho skulls. The sex identification given by Vallois
has been employod in the above cranial summary. It is interesting to noto,
however, that the metrical values given (see Table 1) are nearly identical
for the male and female groups. Sex differentiation was perfomed on the
basis of the general ruggedness of the skulls, especially with regard to oyo-
brow ridges. No vory groat reliance, therefore, should be placed on the sex
data.
The post-cranial skeletons, which in most instances could not be related
to the skulls, were in general light with only a few individuals showing
strong nusculature. The femoral pilaster was strongly developed on about half
of the individuals, weak or absent on the rest. Platyneria was marked in the
majority of cases, and about half of the individuals showed platycnouic db-
velopnent of the tibia. Stature was short to nediu (males 160.7 cn., fo-
males 152.7 cmn. ) .
In the course of his examination of the Muge mterial, Vallois attemipted
t, locato for rioasurenont two crania which Paula o Oliveira had previously
65
-.-
ci (31
described as brachycophalic. Theso skulls unfortunately had disappeared
and were represented only by casts, from which nothing truly accurato in
the way of neasurenent could be obtained. Seven othor skulls which ap-
pearod to be brachycephalic wero so badly deformed that thoy could not
be used. Vallois concluded (1930:379) that it was very likely that the
bracycephalic "type" doscribed by Paula o Olivoira was in roality mesoco-
phalic and that no truelraohycephalic had been recovered fram the Mugo
nounds.
In a later cormunication Nbndes-Corroa (1933) replied in part to Val-
lois' treatment of the Muge materials. Noting that Vallois had classed the
upper facial length-breadth relationship as nesoprosopic (moseno), Mendes-
Corroa (1933:370) states that it would be nore accurato to indicato that
this relationship is more loptoprosopic (leptono) than chameprosopic
(ouryone), inasnuch as the nean uppor facial index is 53.6 for the speci-
nones described by Vallois. Ho objects also to Vallois' charactorization
of the Mugo populations as averaging nesognathous, remarkin3 that truo
orthognathism is the exception.  Tho general picture would bo better ex-
pressed, he feols, by desoribing the Muge finds as of a "tendency" toward
prognathism, or as "mesoprognathous."
From a restudy of the materials storod with the Service Gsologique
at Lisbon, Mendes-Correa takes exception with Vallois' treatment of the
question of brachycophaly in the Muge populations. Despite the clear in-
dications of post-norten breakage and defoamtion, which caused Vallois
to elininate some specinens in his study, Nendes-Correa feels (1933:371-
372) that enough can be deterninod to indicate that a small m inority are
brachycephalic or at least exhibit a clearly marked brachycephalic '.ten-
doncy." Thus Moulage No. 170 is brachycephalic despite its doformation.
Craniun No. 24 from Moita do Sebastiao-not mentioned by Vallois-is
brachycephalic despite the lack of several cranial fragnents and porhaps
a slight deformation. No. 1 fron the s&a site, which Paula o Oliveira
called sub-brachycephalic, is not unusable as claimed by Vallois but can
give braincase measurenents with only slight error. Cranium No. 15 from
Cabeqo da Arruda, which was not located by Vallois, is, despite its con-
siderable defortion, clearly brachycephalic, so regular evon as to war-
rant the tern "sub-spherical."  Other crania in the Service G6ologique are
mesocephalic or of a "brachycephalic tendency." Vallois' severity toward
the brachycephales of Muge is not justifiod, Mendes-Corroa feels, since
there is no real reason why brachycephaly should not exist in the noso-
lithic populations of Muge. The predominant type, however, is clearly
dolichocephalic, he statos, as both he and Vallois have maintained.
In this &=e papor (1933) Mondes-Correa mentions the discovery in
1930-1931 of several fragmentary skeletons in Cabeqo da Amoreira, an-
other of the Muge sheilmounds. These will be nontioned below as described
by Atafde. The extrene rarity of trapezes in Cabeqo da Anoroira as com-
pard with Cabeqo da Arruda leads Mondes-Corroa to infer a greater age for
the forner, Justifying the tern "capsio-tardenoisioene" (in line with his
belief in the North African origin of the Tardenoisian) or "tardonoision
tros ancien" for the culture (1933:367-368). This early Tardenoisian of
67
Cabeqo da Anoreira has in addition certain resemblancos to the Sauveterrian,
the author statos. Lator works by other writers apparently have not cro-
dited this suggestion of an affinity with tho Sauvoterrian.
Mondes-Correa s remarks in this papor, we may note, appear to be di-
rocted nore to Vallois' caution than to his actual use of certain of the
Mugo matorials. Tho differencos between the two writers in tho interpro-
tation of those materials will be brought out lator in this papor. In the
absence of dependable metrical data to support Mendes-Corroa' s contention
of brachycephaly in tho crania which Vallois rogarded. as unreliable for
nmasurenent, we are left with nothing nore concreto on this question than
the knowledge that the two authors are in disagreemont. Vallois still
maintained, as lato as 1940 (p. 614), that the claims for a brachycephalic
olemont in the Muge populations rest on badly deformed crania.
In 1940 Atafdo published a description of tho skeletal romins found
in tho Muge sitos by Mondes-Correa and others between 1930 and 1937. Fron
Caboqo da Amoreira cano a number of fragmentary individuals, of which two
wore suitable for sone reoasureraents. No. 1, a nale adult, is of relativo-
ly robust appearance.  Tho skull is ovoid in nona verticalis, tending to-
ward ellipsoid, with a protruding glabella. The frontal is slightly re-
ceding, and a small occipital torus is present. Maximum skull longth is
186 n., but only an approximate breadth could be obtainIed (136 m.  ()),
giving a questionable cephalic index of 73.1. No. 3 fron Cabeqo da Anor-
etra is a male With ovoid. sk1ul form, slightly protruding glabolla and
slig^htly inclined frontal. Stature was calculated by tho Pearson fornula,
fron a reconstructed humorus, as 155.6 cm.
Atafde gives sone data on throe now finds in Cabeqo da Arruda. No.
1 in this new series is an adult female consisting of a badly deformod
skull and several long bones. Stature as calculated from one tibia is
144.8 cm. No. 2 of this sories is an adult fenale with a sma11 ovoid
skull. The zygomatic arches are small. The parietal oninences are well
marked., and glabella and occiput are slightly projocting. Maximum length
of tho skull was measured as 172 ma. and naxirmm breadth as 143 nm.  Those
neasurenents yiold a cophalic index of 83.1.  This one skull, Atafdo
statos (1940:646), confirms the occurrence of brachycephaly in the Mugo
sites. The post-cranial skeleton is small and without narkod nusculature.
Staturo, obtained by the Pearson formula, is 143.1 ac. No. 3 from Cabeqo
da Arruda is in tho best stato of preservation of all the recont Muge
finds. The skeleton is that of a male of robust build. The skull is
ovoid in form with vertical frontal, projecting glabella and strong brow
ridges. The occiput is rounded, with no projecting torus; the mastoid
processes are large. Thu facial profilo is apparontly orthognathous, but
some post-norten facial distortion has occurred. Sono distortion of the
nandible is apparent, but it is clearly robust, with pronounced chin. Tho
cephalic indox is 71.9. Cranial capacity using the Leo-Pearson formula
is calculated at 1349.9 cc. Stature by the Pearson fornula is 160.2 cm.,
just under the nean obtained by Vallois for the Muge males.
In Table 1, craniai noasureomnts arid indi^os fratn tho rcoprts Af YVa-
68
lois (1930) and Atafde (1940) on thoir respective skeletal series are list-
ed in separate columns.
Tho now materials described by Atafde fall eaeily into tho rango of
characteristics described by Vallois, with the exception of tho brachyce-
phalic fenale.  It is unfortunate that here at Muge, whero a good skeletal
sample might have been secured, we are left with only a conparativoly small
and in many cases poorly preserved collection of romains. Wo can hardly
rogard' the few remains suri=rized above as truly roprosentativo of the Mugo
sites.
France
Mas d'Azil. The type site of the Azilian, a cave site in the Depart-
ment of Ariege, south France, was excavated in 1887-88 and 1895 by Pietto
and briofly described, but without a systoeatic description of the skeletal
renains found there. Theso renains consist of several fragmontary bones,
representing a mandible, a tibia, two fenora, two humeri, a fibula fraguent
and fragments of the right ulna. The post-cranial bones were locatod sone
years later by Sawtell and briefly described (Sawtoll, 1931:244). The
bones, which wore covered with red ochre, were describod by Sawtell as
those of an adult fonale as deternined by the slight devolopment of the
fenoral pilaster and the goneral lack of robusticity in othor characters.
Stature, calculated by the tibia only, was 145 cn. The fonora showed a
slight ouryneric developm'ont and the tibia was moderately platyonenic.
The condition of the remains precluded further neasurenents or obsorva-
tions. The roeains from Mas d'Azil tell us virtually nothing as to the
physical nature of the inhabitants.
Montardit. The rockshelter site of Montardit is locatod 18 kilo-
meters west of Mas d'Azil in the Department of Ariege. Tho site was ox-
cavatod by I. and P. Vaillant-Couturier and Ruth Sawtoll in 1924, and its
skelotal materials wore described by Sawtoll in 1931. An Azilian lovel
lying above a Magdalenian level was found at this sito, tho two levels be-
ing separated by a sterile layer. Two extended burials surrounded with
rocks were found in the Azilian level. Tho first of theso, temed Mon-
tardit I by Sawtell, was of an oldorly nale. The skull was in fragmontary
condition, lacking parts of both tonporals, and portions of the right pari-
etal and frontal. The skull base and nost facial bones woro nissing. A
complete fenur, tibia and humrus were recovered from this burial. The
rest of tho post-cranial bones were fragmentary. Eyebrow ridges are rug-
ged. The frontal is noderately sloped. The mastoids are large and rugged.
The monton and gonial angles are strongly marked. The occipital region is
roundod with only slight protuberanco. The skull is ovoid in form. Long
bones are sturdy and show heavy nusculature. Stature as calculated by the
Pearson formula was 159.8 cn., by the Manouvrier formula 160.2 cm.   The
cephalic index is 75.8, barely into the mesocephalic range.
Montardit II, the second burial, was in a very poor state, with only
fragnonts of the parietals, occipital and right frontal remaininC of the
skull. No long bonos were present, and only fragmonts of several other
69
post-cranial bones were found. Sawtell judgod the specinon to be a nal
by its greater skull thickness (than Montardit l)and proninent occipital
torus. Age was eastited as young adult on the basis of suture closure.
Only two neasurenents wore attenpted: naxinum width of skull, 136 r.,
and glabella to lanbda, 119 mr. The canparable neasurenents on Montardit
I are 136.5 and 116 ra. The fra6montary state of both specir.ens  fron
this site necessitated extonsive reconstruction, especially in the case
of Montardit II.  Probably none of the n3easurenonts, oxcept for the stat-
ure of Montardit I, can be regardod as dependable. We can derive little
fron those renains beyond the fact that bQth specimins show rugged skole-
tal features and that ono was of nediun stature.
Sauvetorro-la-L"raance.  This sito, the type site of tho Sauvoterrian,
is located in the lepartnent of Lot et Garonne, southwestern Franco. The
site was excavated by L. Coulongees in 1938. Beneath a hearth of Sauvoter-
rian provenience was found a damaged hn braincase with part of the
facial bones from the right side. The cranial renains were first called
to attention by Vaufroy (1938) in a brief note in which a nunber of obser-
vations made by Vallois, after a prelirminary reconstruction, are quoted.
Vallois notes that the ronamins are those of an agod individual. Features
by which sOx night be deternined are of an uncertain nature. Tho skull
is ovoid in forn, nosocephalic and of rediun vault height. The faco is
noderatoly long and clearly orthognathous, with slightly projecting nalars.
NIasal for is leptorrhine and tho orbits are of nediun height. Vallois re-
narks that the Sauvoterre skull is renarkably sinilar in a nunber of foat-
uros to the Granat nao, to bo discussod below, its nost notable diffor-
ence being in its greater relative breadth. These few observations nay
woll give us as clear a picture as nay be obtained fron tho daged Sauve-
terre specinen.
Roe du Barboau. The skeletal roeins fron this site have not been
described.  The sito is a rockshelter in the eastern Dordogne which was ex-
cavated in 1934 by Vidal and Roye, and briefly reported upon in 1935 by
Vidal and Peyrony.  Ono skeleton in very fragrpentary condition was recov-
ored fron a level clained to be of Sauvetorrian origin. It is doubtful if
the daagod state of those remains will warrant anything nore than general
observations of the physical characteristics.
T6viec. The excavations on the snaIl isle of T6viec on the Breton
coast have contributed the largest dependable series of skeletal naterials
known for the entire M3solithic of Europe. This site, excavated by the
Pequarts fran 1926 to 1928 and describod by thenselves, Boule and Vallois
in 1937, is a snall shellmound roprosenting a local dovelopnent of the
Tardenoisian. Ton rock-lined tonbs containing 23 individuals were exca-
vated. Of this number, seven are adult nales, seven adult femoles and
one an adolescent foeale of 14 to 16 years. The remins wore in a gener-
ally excellont stato of preservation, attributable, according to the au-
thors, to the neutralizing effect of the shell content of the site on the
soil acids.
The 14 adult and one adolescent specinons are oxcellently described
70
by Boule and Vallois. The seven nales rargo in ago fron approximiately 20
to 47 yoars of age.  The soven adult femles range from 20 to 35 years.
The skulls are thick bonod and rather massive in structuro. Cranial form
Is predominantly dolichocephalic among the males (range 71.6 to 76.8; nean
74.3) and dolichocephalic to mesocephalic anong the fonales (range 70.3 to
79.4; mean 75.1).  The faces tond to bo low and rolatively broad.  The or-
bits are low. Nasal indices for both males and females average in tho me-
sorrhine ranges Sub-nasal profiles are orthognathous to mosognathous, but
one female showed a pronounced prognathism (indox 106.6). Tho frontal ro-
gion is straight anong the females, sloped anong the oales. Eyobrow and
glabella ridges are large for all but one of the malos and for soveral of
the femles.   The nasion depression is deep, the zygomtic arches sa11.
Mandibles are robust with pronounced chin and broad asconding rani. Tho>post-
cranial skeletons of those people are not especially robust. Stature is
short to nedium, averaging 159 cm. for the males and 151 cn. for the fo-
males. The distal extrenities are relatively long. Tho fenoral pilaster
is only slightly developed. Platymoria is marked, and the tibia is platy-
cnomic. Tho Teviec series, despite its marked variation in certain feat-
ures, exhibits on the whole a fair degroo of uniformity.
Cuzoul de Gramat. The rocksheltor site of Gramat, located sono 25 kilo-
motors northeast of Sauveterre-la-L6mance, was excavated by Lacau and Nio-
derlender and its skeletal finds wero doscribod by Vallois (Lacan, Nieder-
lender and Vallois, 1944). The site contained five cultural levels: bo-
ginning at the botton, one Sauveterrian level, three Tardenoisian levels
and a neolithic level.  The various levels were differentiated by soil
changes as well as by cultural materials.
In the lower level of the Tardenoisian proper wero found one conplete
male skeleton and fraiaents of three or four others. The frataentary
pieces are too smll to warrant full description, but Vallois does note one
feature of interest concerning them. This is the fact that they show ovi-
dence of cutting, and burning, which Vallois bolioves indicates cannibalism
and considers as a survival frao the Upper Palaoolithic (Lacan, Nioderlond-
or and Vallois, 1944:52-53).
The male skeloton was dorsally extended with the arms alongsid.&. the
body. The skull is complete except for a piece of the right parietal and
temporal bones.  Post-cranially, only the sternun, left radius and left
fibula were nissing. Tho head form is dolichocephalic; somo difficulty
was experienced in measuring hoad broadth due to the right temporal bone
breakage, but Vallois fools that the index could not have been greater than
73.2 and more likely was the 71.2 obtainod fron his roconstruction. Tho
glabella and eyebrow ridges are extrenely strong. The frontal bone is ele-
vated and rolatively large, with only slight inclination. The face is or-
thognathous, leptoprosopic and leptorrhine with low orbits. The toeporal
crosts are rugged, the mlars protruding.   The mndible is heavy, with
strong chin eminonce and broad rami.  The post-cranial nembers aro rugged;
the fouora are masive and without platymoria.   Stature was calculated at
164 cm.
71
The Grarnat find, despite its apparently iurierous "prinitivo" characters,
is within or just baroly outside of the rango of variation for tho Terviec
ales and well within the rango of rodorn European populations.
Hoodic. Hoodic is a sDall island approximatoly 30 kilonoters couth
of the isle of T6viec on the Broton coast. The site is a shollnound strik-
ingly sirlilar to the Toviec site and yielding cultural materials of tho sane
local facios ofthe Tardenoisian (Pe6quart,. 1934). Nine rock-outlined graves
were oxcavated. Fron those wore recoverod the rermins of 13 individuals,
eight of which wore in a fairly good state of preservation. The full de-
scription of these rorains will add one of the better serios to the noso-
lithic skelotal invontory.
P         This site is a cave in the Doparteont of Basses Pyrenoes,
southern France. Exploratory excavations by Laplace-Jauretche in 1951 re-
vealed a late nesolithic industry associated with the renains of Rocont
fauna. A single adolescent hur2an skeleton was recovered frau a bed of
Holix sholl of this "lato nesolithic" provenionco. The renains consist of
a badly fragpented craniun and a number of damaBed post-cranial bones.
Tho youthfulness and fragentary condition of this skeleton render it of
very linited usofulness for netrical studies.
Switzorland
Laufon. In 1945, a rockshelter noar the town of Laufon in the, valloy
of the Birse was excavatod by Ludin. The site contained several Tardenois-
ian levols and, beneath thoso, a level sealed by an undisturbod stalactite
deposit in which were found a nurbor of flint inplenonts. Thoso consisted
in thc nain of sirnple blades and a type of point writh edge ret;ouching on
one face only. Tho level was assiened to the early Mosolithic on the
basis of this asseublage, with the likelihood that it is of Sauvotorrian
affinity.  Fron this levol was recoverod tho skoleton of a nature  1ao.
The romains consist of a craniun in a fairly good state of preservation
and a nunber of post-cranial bones, no)st of thon broken or inconpleto.
A short description of tho site and hunan renains was publishcd by
Bay and. Ludin in 1951. Tho skull is dolichocephalic, with an indox of 71.5.
The face is short with a broad bizygenrtic breadth, giving a hypereury-
prosopic index (72 to 75). Nasal form is nesorrhino,, and the orbits aro
low. Tho raandiblo is sall with chin not espocially prominont.   The
facial profile is nosognthous. Stature was calculated at 155 to 160 cn.
Luxomburg
Loschbour. The rocksholtor sito of Loschbour is locatod near tho vil-
lage of Reuland, apprDxinately 20 kilonoters northeast of the city of Lux-
eraburg. Two cultural levels were found in the site, a pottery-boaring
lovol probably of neolithic origin and bclow this a sandy clay level con-
taining antler, bone and flint inpleVrior?ts. This lower level was pronounc-
ed raesolithic of unspecifiod affinity by Oswald Monghin, who visited the
sito during the exmavation in 1935 (Heuortz, 1950:439). A nearly conaploto
aclult ialeb skeleton was found in the lower level, lying in a flexod posi-
t iorn.
72
The Loschbour naterials are in a relatively woll preserved state.
Some cranial deformation had occurred after burial and a few of the facial
bonos were broken during recovery with 108s of a few fragments. Several
of the long bones wore broken but wero restorable. Restoration of the
skull was done by Clavelin of the Musoun d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris.
The materials are described by Heuertz (1950).
Head form is long and relatively very narrow, giving a hypordolicho-
cephalic (65.0) index. The frontal is high and noderately inclined, and
tho vault is of nedium height. The face is leptoprosopic total facially
and nesene upper facially with a very straight profile (total profile
anglo 950). Danmge to the nasal region provented precise neasurenent, but
Heuertz states that the nasal forn probably is in the platyrrhine range.
Brow ridges are heavy. The orbits are low, but the facial breakage pre-
vented the accurate restoration of this region. The ralars and mandible
are noderately strong and a pronounced chin is prosent. Cranial capacity
using the Manouvrier nethod is 1584. The post-cranial members are large
with medium musculature. An average of 160.2 was obtainod. for the stature
using the Pearson, Manouvrier and Rollet formulae.
Holland
Deventer. This site, located south of tho town of Deventer in eastern-
central Holland, was discovered during excavation for sand and gravels in
1936. Four gravel strata were found, soparated by layers of sand. Tho
botton stratum contained a cold fauna and is attributed to the late Pleis-
tocene. The sands above this yielded Recont fauna and several antler arti-
facts of a type which could be either Maglemosian or Tardenoisian. Above
the gravel stratum which sealed off this supposed early mesolithic level
were a sand level containing neolithic materials and another vith later
naterials. The cultural materials are believed to havo accunulated during
succossive occupations of the site which wore torminated by flooding of the
nearby strean (Vallois, 1943:3-4).
Skeletal naterials occurred in each of the artifact-bearing lovole.
These are described by Vallois. In undoubted association with the mosoli-
thic level, in Vallois' opinion (1943:3-5), wore a calvarium in fairly good
shape, a complete braincase, a frontal fragmont of another individual, a
mandible of an infant of 4 to 5 years and two badly oroded tibiae. Another
cranial fragment, an occipital bone,was found in doubtful association with
the mesolithic level and will be ignorod here.
Tho calvarium, C1, is complete except for damage to the nasal bonos
and right facial region. Sex features aro of a nixed nature, but Vallois
feels that the overall size and large brow ridges indicate a male. Age by
suture closure is 40 to 50 years. The skull is ovoid in form with a very
regular outline, rnesocephalic with moderate parietal eninences and a pro-
truding occipital bun. The vault is low. The frontal is straight with
narked brisses and fairly heavy glabella and brow ridges. The nasion de-
pression is deep. The skull and face are disharmonic, the 'upper facial
73
dex being euryene.  Zygouatic arches are fooblD.  Soue prognathisn is pre-
sent in the sub-nasal region but the total facial profile is ioderately
orthognathous. Nose foin is platyrrhine although questionable because of
the facial d.ataage, and the orbits are low.  Cranial capacity is calculated
as 1625 cc.
The complete braincase, C2, was without deforration but was consider-
ably corroded, perhaps by strong soil acids.  Weak developrient of the
muscle attaohnonts led Vallois to assign the specixien as fenale, and of not
less than 50 years of age as indicated by suture closure.  Tho skull foe
is ovoid, nesocephalic in the longth-breadth relationship.  Vault height
was relatively slightly greater than for the calvariur C1; the frontal was
nore vortical and the occiput less protrusive. Brow ridges are vory weak-
ly developed.  Cranial capacity was neasured as 1417 cc.
The fragment of the frontal bone, C3, has attached to it a small piece
of the left parietal.  This enabled Vallois to estirato ago of the speci-
men fron the suture closure: approximately 30 to 40 years.  The presence of
heavy brow ridges indicates that the individual was a nale, Vallois states.
The nasion dopression is strongly marked. The specinen is generally larg-
er than the equivalent part of the calvarium C1.
Both of the tibiae fron the nesolithic level are considerably eroded
by soil action. One is a right tibia of an adult, showing noderate robus-
ticity and a slight platycnonic developnent. By comparison with a con-
ploto tibia which is nearly idontical in its conparable measurements. Val-
lois derives a stature of approxlnately 166 cm. for the Deventer individual.
The other tibia fram the Deventor levol is a badly worn right tibia frcn a
person of less than 16 years of age.
Unitod Kingdom
At the present time, no huran renains of certain mesolithic proveni-
once in anything approaching a fair state of preservation are known fron
tho United Kingdou. A number of finds in fair condition are of.'ossible
mesolithic origin but the doubts concerning then rule then out of a study
of this kind (cf. Martin, 1935; Vallois and Movius, 1953:200-212).
The only matorials which are of undoubtod nesolithic origin aro thoso
f'rom the caves at Oban, Argyllshire, on the western seaboard of Scotland.
t"ere, fron 1869 to 1895, a series of excavations were carried out which
produced much material of a culture which later cano to be termed after
the placo of its discovery, the Obanian.  A number of finds of skeletal
materials, nost of then in a sadly danaged state, were also made in those
caves. The remrins werc described by Turner in 1895.
Mackay Cave. Two skeletons, an adult male and a child of approxi-
natoly 8 years, wore recoverod in this cavo in 1869. During their transit
by ship to Glasgow they were badly damaged by wate-r exposure whon the ves-
sol sank. They wore recovered but in a non-restorable   state. Turner's
obsorvations on this  aterial are theroforo understandably linitod. Tha
74
Male adult skull had proninent supraorbital ridges and occipital torus and
a heavy mandible. The femora showed platymeria, and the tibiae wore pla-
tycnoeic. Stature by the Manouvrier fornula was 165.4 c.
Distillery Cave. Numerous fragmentary remins were found in this cave
In 1890. Fragmen-ts of eight mandibles, four probably of adults, and num-
erous skull and post-cranial fragpents wore recovered. No restoration was
possible with those renains.
MacArthur Cavo. From the ridden layers of this cave wore recovered.,
in 1895, a nuuber of fragments of post-cranial bones, including only two
of long bones
Dermark
A number of sites bearing skeletal remains of Maglemosian and Erto-
b26ile age have boen excavated in Denmark. The remins from several of
those sites will not be included here because of the youthfulness or ex-
tremoly fragmented nature of the specimens rocovered (4).
Koolbjerg   0   A single human skeleton was found in 1941 by workmen
digging peat in Koolbjorg Bog, Odonse canton. No cultural mterials or
faunal remains were associated. with the specimen. The level in which the
remain were found was dated by pollen analysis as slightly later than the
niddlo of the Boreal period. The skeleton is thus only inferentially of
Mbglonosian cultural affinity.
Tho renains were in generally excellent shape except for slight dam-
ago to the base of the skull. They were not in anatouical rolationship
but were sonewhat scattered, the left femur being found some 10 roters fror
the skull. Inasmuch as no other ind.ividuals appear to bo represented in
this find, all of tho remains are taken to bo fron one skoloton.  The des-
cription of these mterials was published by Brosto and Fischer-M4ller in
1943.
The skeleton is that of a female of 25 to 30 years. The skull is
ovoid. in outline without heavy musculaturo. The frontal is roderately
high and slightly inclined with medium brow ridges and slight glabella de-
volopment. A mrked nasion depression is present.    Skull form is dolicho-
cophalic. The nandible is broad and heavy.   The total facial index is
ouryprosopic, upper facially meseno.  Facial progmathism is well marked.
The nasal forn is leptorrhine and the orbits are low and rectangular. Cra-
nial capacity was calculated as 1430 cc. The skeleton is quite gracile
post-cranially, with marked platymeria and platycnenia. Stature using the
Manouvrier formula was 157.8 cn.
Kors,6r Nor. The romins from this site consist of a singlo well pro-
served skeleton of a mture male. The skeleton was resting on and was
oovered with slabs of bark of trees. The find was Lade by a workman in
1943 on a narrow inlet on the southwest coast of Sjaelland.  One artifact,
a pointed flint flake, accompanied the burial and no other cultural mater-
75
ials were nearby.  The grave was covered by mrine sediments but above these
wore deposits datable by pollen analysis as late Atlantic in aGcQ. Thus we
know only that the grave is earlier than this. Norling-Christonsen and
Br6sto, who described the site and its skeletal remains (1945), aro of the
opinion that the flint flake found with the burial and other flint arti-
facts froa the near vicinity are of ErtobAlle manufacture.
Age of the specimen was estimatod as 40 to 60 years from suture clos-
ure. The skull is ovoid and dolichocephalic with well dovelopod toeporal
crosts but only slight development of the occipital torus. The frontal is
medium in hoight and noderately sloping. Brow ridges are hoavy in tho
modial region but only medium in size laterally. Theo faco is characterized
by large mlars, medium facial hoight, low and rectanfgular orbits and lepto-
rrhine nose form.  Cranial capacity is 1640 cc. The staturo is given as
approximately 166 cm.
]Ravnstr  Bo and Vedbaek. Data on the skeletal roains fron those
two sitos wero not availablo to r  at the time this paper was prepared.
The Ravnstrup find consists of a portion of a braincaso whilo the Vedbaek
material is the nearly complete skeleton of an adult malo. Tho few measure-
nents listed in Table 1 on these remins are taken from HJortsJO (1945:228).
Norway
Bleivik. In 1952 work:aon turnod up a fragmentary hurman skeleton in a
field at Bleivik, near tho town of Haugesund on the west coast of Norway.
The skeleton was lying in marine sodinents datable by pollen analysis to
the first part of the Atlantic poriod. No cultural materials wore found.
The description of the materials was given by Torgersen and Getz in 1954.
The find consists of a calvarium and parts of the facial skeleton,
the shaft and distal end of the left humorus, the shafts of both femora,
and several rib and vertebrae fragments. The cranial sex characteristics
indicate the specimen to be male, of an age estimated at approximately 60
years. The skull is in the lowor nesocophallc range. Musculature is well
marked, especially in the heavy occipital. The frontal is sloping and has
marked developnent of the glabella and brow ridges. The nasion depression
is woll narked. The face is relatively high and narrow. The nasal form
is mesorrhine and the orbits are deep.
The fonoral shafts are strongly built with pronounced nuscularity and
prominent pilasters. Both fonora are ,hyperplatynoric. By measurenont of
fenora comparable in features presont in tho Bleivik specinens, stature is
estimated as not greater than 160 cm. The fragmentary condition of the
Bleivik materials, especially the facial and post-cranial bones, seriously
limits their use for detailed description and comparison with othor specimens.
Sweden
St.nas. This site is a Maglonosian shell midden on the southwest-
orn coast of Sweden. In 1842 the reamins of one individual, consisting of
a braincase in fragtonts, a fenur, tibia and soveral foot bones, were
found here.  These naterials were reconstructed and described by Froderic
76
(1908). .The defective braincaso gave a cranial index of 71.9 and had rug-
ted eyebrow ridges nedially and laterally.  The leg bones wore heavy with
narked fenoral pilaster. Stature was calculated at 181 cn. Subsoquent to
Frederic' s work on theso materials tho post-cranial bones woro lost, but
not beforo another ostinate was mde of the stature (HJortsJo, 1945:227).
This also gave a tall stature, 180 on.
Hylliekroken. The Hylliekroken roeains, a single skeloton, were
found in 1943 by worklon in sands near the coast of  southern Sweden. In
those sands near the skeloton wore flint implements of ErtobAlle type. A
doscription of the skeleton was published in 1945 by Hjortsj*o.
Tho cranium had suffered considerable post-norten dam ge. The facial
bones, most of tho nandible, and large parts of the lower frontal and low-
er temporal bones were missing.  The right side and lower region of the
occipital wore also badly damagod. The reconstruction was nade by Hjort-
sJo, who attompted tho reconstruction of the lower frontal region so as
not to givo too great emphasis to cranial length. The large sizo of the
skull and ruegedness of the occipital led the author to believe that the
remains woro those of a Dale; age was estimated by suture closure as ap-
proximately 50 years.
The skull is ovoid and dolichocophalic, of nodiuml vault height. Snall
frontal bossos are prosent and the touporal crests aro well developod.
Several small fragients of the randible wore present, which in the author's
opinion indicate that tho mandible was of robust structuro. Fragments of
noarly all the long bones were found, but only the loft humerus could bo
reconstructed so as to obtain stature. Using the Manouvrier fornula,
staturo was calculated as approximatoly 162 cn. The post-cranial nateri-
als indicate that the individual was of a robust build.
Gormany
Ofnet and Kaufertsber.   In the autuon of 1908 the excavations of R.
R. Schnidt in the cave of Ofnet, in west-central Bavaria, were rewarded by
the findineg of two nests of skulls, 27 in one group and six in the other.
The cave contained a serios of suporimposed cultural levols, beginning
with the Aurignacian, then Solutrean, Magdalenian, a generalized nesolithic
level, neolithic, bronze and rocent (Breuil, 1909:206-210). The nesolithic
lovol, which was only five centinoters in depth, was distinguished frorm the
Magdalenian level by virtue of its faunal roeains and, loss spocifically,
by its cultural mterials.
Numercus non-diagnostic microliths and perforated stag canines were
found in this level, but only one artifact, a triangular microlith, which
would serve to distinguish the lovel fron the Magdalenian was recoverod.
On the basis of the total faunal and cultural finds the level was termed
"azilio-tardenoisionne" by Breuil (1909:210). The crania were in two pits
extending from the nesolithic level into the Magdalenian level but not into
the Solutrean. The soil surrounding the skulls in both pits was heavily
77
stained with rod ochre. With tho skulls were nunorous perforated stag can-
ines and sholls so placod as to suggest original arrnngeriont as necklaces
and in one case as an ornauented headdress. The perforated shells were
nostly of the land snail, but one Meditorranean species, Coluabella rustica,
was identified anong tho others. A nunber of nicrolithe of indeterninato
shape wore found in the soil around tho skulls.
The Ofnet skulls have been rather uncritically accepted as of noso-
lithic age on the basis of the evidence given above, and in nost cases they
have been assigned to the Azilian. Clark (1939:218), howover, points out
that there is no particular reason, aside fron Br?uil' s original statonent
that the site stratigraphically resonbled that of Mas d'Azil, to apecify
this period in preference to the Tardenoisian; the skulls night equally
well be Azilian or Tardenoisian. The possibility exists, too, that they
are not nesolithic at all, but nay belong to a torminal phaso of the Magda-
lonian. No renains of anial associated only with the lato Ploistocone
were found in the nesolithic level, but, on the other hand, the spocies
found in this level are known to have existed in the late Pleistocene as
well as in the early Mosolithic.
Certainly the cultural materials are not distinctive of tho Mosolithic
alone; all of then could be either late Palaeolithic or Mosolithic. The use
of rod ochre with burials, too, could equally well be of either period.
Skull burial, the so-called "cult of the skullS,tt is well known for the Mag-
dalonian and Solutrean, and also for the Neolithic. Thus, this trait at
Ofnet need not bo taken as Indicative of the Mesolithic. We shall include
the Ofnot skulls here, thon, with the above reservations as to their cul-
tural provonionco.
In 1913 F. Birkner excavated in a cave near Kaufertsberg, only a short
distance fron the Ofnet cave, a single  abl skull.  The circuorlstances here
were exactly the sano as at Ofnot: a sku1l buried in a pit in a generalized
nosolithic context. No nortuary offerings acconpaniod this find, howovcr.
The first description of the Ofnet skulls was given by A. Schliz who
presented data on 21 of the total of 33. Fourteen of the nurber described
were adults, which Schliz (1912:241-251) divided into types according to head
forn. In 1923 a second and nuoh nore conplete description of the Ofnet
naterials was publishod by W. Scheidt, and the Kaufortsberg find was includ-
ed.  This author elininatod cortain of the skulls considored by Schliz and
kept for discussion of racial origins four nale and six fenale skulls, plus
the Kaufertsberg find. The   aterials olininated by Scheidt were so treated
because of their inconplete state or inpropor reconstruction. The 11 skulls
described by Scheidt wore divided into three basic groups consisting of
three brachycephalic specinens, two dolichocephalic and six nesocophalic.
It is pertinent to add here that in 1931 the Ofnet and Kaufertsberg raterials
were exanined by Vallois who noted that the reconstruction of a nunber of the
specinens was very approximate because of their fragnentary condition (Pequart,
Boule and Vallois, 1937:173). Pending further work on theee reramins, how-
ever we shall depend on the data given by Scheidt.
78
Sex differontiation of the specimns was naturally made on the boasis
of the visiblo evidence: size and thickness of bonos, browridgo, nastoid,
occipital and mandible development, frontal inclination and so on. A
considerable overlap in these features exists between the groups selected
by Scheidt as males and females, adding to the uncertainty which i8 natur-
ally attendant upon sex differentiation without evidence from the post-
cranial skeleton. Howevor, Scheidt appoars to be quite cortain of his
selection in each case and we maust accept his diagjwsls4
In goneral, the skulls designated as male are larger in absolute
measurenent than the fenale. Head form among the four Ofnot nales rangos
fron very dolichocophalic to barely brachycephalic (70;k24 to 80.77) and
the Kaufertsberg male is nesocephalic. The six females range fron dolicho-
cephalic to moderately high brachycephalic (73.9 to 86.7). Browridgos are
strongly developed on three of the Ofnet males and the Kaufertsberg male;
the females range in browridge developnent from noderately rugged to slight.
The occipital torus is nost rugged among the Ofnet males, the females and
Kaufertsborg skull showing a rounder occipital region. Ofnet faces are
ouryprosopic and orthognathous, where such neasurenents could be taken.
The Kaufertsberg face is nesene upper facially and the total facial index
is leptoprosopic; no facial or alveolar prognathism is present. Tho two
Ofnet nales for which the nasal index could be determined were loptorrhino;
five Ofnet females range fron leptorrhino tvo platyrrhine, and the Kauferts-
berg index is platyrrhino. The orbital index is a high nicrosene for one
Ofnet  ale, and high nesosene for another. The females and Kaufertsberg
male are microsome. One male and one femalo Ofnet cranium had extrenely
heavy nandibular development, with flaring gonial angles. The rest varied
from small to medium heavy mndibles.
It is apparent that the Ofnot and Kaufortsberg remins show a consid-
erable variation in cranial features. This variation renains to a great
extent when the skulls are arranged in norphological groups with head forn
as the principal criterion, as was done by Scheidt.  Sex differentiation is
overlooked in such grouping, and the intragroup variation suggests that the
romains could be ordered following other criteria with perhaps just as much
neaning. It appears to the present writer that those materials are beat
considered as a group without particular concern for morphological types.
The frasmentary nature and uncertain reconstruction of the majority of the
skulls renders then unsatisfactory for reliable description in any case.
Poland
Janislawice. In 1936, a group of farmers digging gravel in a field
near the village of Janislawice, central Poland, encountered a humn burial.
The burial was in a pit intruded into sandy soils and filled with soil of a
different color. With the burial were a number of nicroliths, including
several geonetric points, two bone points, a wedge-shaped antler implenent,
several perforated stag incisors, and some fragments of raramal bono and shell.
The cultural materials were assigned to the early Tardenoisian on typologi-
cal grounds by Chniolewska (1954). She points out, however, that a number
79
of sinilaritios exist in the lithic inplements to rmatorials from Danish
Maglenosian sites of the early Boreal period.
Tho burial was excellently preserved but badly broken and scattored by
the farmers who discovored it. Roeaining for study are the ontire rear por-
tion of the braincase, including the comploto occiput and several adjacent
fragaents of the texlporals and parietals, the lowor extrenities, part of
the pOlvis and parts of the upper long bones. The individual was a male,
of an estimated age of 30 years. The long bones are noderately heavy and
show a fair degree of nusculature. Stature was calculatod as 158.1 cm.
Steslicka-Mydlarska, who describod the skolotal materials, attenpted
a reconstruction of the skull, including tho frontal and facial region,
based upon a serios of nodern Lapp skulls which closely match the Janis-
lawico skull in tho rear braincase measuroments (1954:66).  By this somo-
what unusual nethod the author-derives the information that the Janislawice
specinen is brachycophalic, tapoinocranic, ouryprosopic, and has a platyr-
rhine nasal index and low orbita.
U.S S. S. R.
Fatma-Koba. This site is a cave near the southern tip of the Crimea.
In 1927 a oonplete but badly shatterod human skeleton was found in a level
containing Recent fauna and cultural materials stated by tho discoveror,
Bontch-Osmolovskii, to be of Tardonoisian affinity. Tho human roeains are
doscribed by Debotz (1936), who made the reconstruction.
The skeloton is that of an adult male. The skull is ovoid to penta-
gonal in outline, and dolichocophalic. The spocinen shows a noderately
heavy sagittal crest, but the occipital is rounded and non-protrusive.
Skull thickness is medium to light; the mastoid processes are large. The
frontal is mrked by protruding bosses and strong latoral brow ridg3es, but
only woak nedial ridges and glabella. The face is ouryone upper facially,
mesognathous, and-has a low platyrrhine nasal index and very low orbits.
Cranial capacity by the Manouvrier method is 1720 cc., by tho Pearson moth-
od 1498 cc. The skeleton is robust post-cranially. Stature is medium: 168.2
cm. using tho Manouvrier formula, 168.9 cm. by the Pearson fomula.
Murzak-Koba. The cave site of Murzak-Koba is located in the southern
Crinea, a few kilonoters distant fron Fatma-Koba. Two skeletons wore found
in this site in 1936, lying side by side, dorsally oxtended. The bones were
sonewhat deteriorated but in anatonical position. The level in which the
remins occurred containod a Recoent fauna and imploeents of late Tardenois-
ian type. Description of the skelotal materials is by Zirov (1940).
No. I is a female of 20 to 25 years. The skull is mesocophalic with a
cranial capacity of 1534 cc. as neasured by the Pearson method. Face form
is ouryone upper facially. The orbits are low. Sone facial prognathism is
present. Stature is 163.2 cmn. by tho Manouvrier formula, 160.1 cm. by the
Poarson foraula.
80
No. II is a male of 40 to 50 years. Tho skull of this specimen is
dolichocephalic and has very heavy eyebrow ridgos. The nasion depression
is deep. Uppor face form is low nesene. The orbits are low and vory
wide, giving an extrenely low index (58.0, averaginig the indices). Cra-
nial capacity is the san  as for the female  1534 Oc. by the Pearson
mothod.  Stature was calculated as tall, 132.I4 on. by tho Manouvrier for-
raula and 177.4 by the Pearson fornula. The tibiae are described as Cro-
Magnon in type, sharp and compressed laterally. The post-cranial feat-
ures indicate a generally robust individual.
THE PROBLEM OF RACE
In the above roview, Thunan remains representing not less than 120 in-
dividuals from 27 sites have received at least some nention. Post-norton
deterioration or     ture development cause the elinination of mny of
these for cmparative purposes. Lack of descriptive data on others fur-
ther narrows the picture. In Table 1 are tabulated a series of commonly
used conparative data on the best preserved of the materials described
above for which infornation is available. This table summrizes data on
a total of 68 individuals from 18 sites, but of this number only 49 are
represented by nore than three or four entries; and several of these by
only a slightly greater nunber than this. Thirty-five of this reduced
total of 49 were rocovered from three sites.  Thus it appears that we are
not in a very good position to discuss nesolithic populations.  The series
of ixaable remains is, in fact, not nuch larger than the minimun sanple
which it would be advisable to have from a single site for an analysis
concerning the racial affinities of the population.
Nunerous assertions have been made as to the racial types of the
finds fron a number of the sites reviewed above. The following discus-
sion will be linited for the nost part to the ideas on racial types ad-
vanced by those who actually described the skeletal renains, since it is
fron these sour@es that nost of the ideas on nesolithic races have sprung.
Ruth Sawtell (1931:238) prefaces her racial discussion of the Mon-
tardit materials with a note which might well serve as a keynote to this
whole discussion:
There can be little scientific satisfaction in drawing conclu-
sions as to race type froma a solitary specinen, nor can the fairly
anusine gane of ninute comparisons with isolated individuals fron
other epochs lead to brilliant discoveries. But until sone ninety-
nine additional men who inhabited the Pyrenees during the Azilian
culture period are unearthed, we sinply put on record the unreliable
first, and wait hopefully for more.
Having thus qualified her conclusions before offering then, Sawtell
goes on to conpare the Montardit skeletons with three specinens fron Cro-
MSgnon, two fron Solutr4, the Chancelade find, and the Muge and Ofnet-
KaufertP,rs*r7 saorles. The greatest metrical similarities were found with
3l
the KaiXtat'tsborg skull and one of the mosocophalic sku"?s fron Ofrnot, arnd
sonewhat 1088 with one of the Muge skulls.  The Ofnet and Muge skulls were
described as females.  Fron this cmparison Sawtoll concluded (1931:250)
that the racial affinitios of the Montardit population wore not with the
groups of the Upper Palaeolithic but with tho Azilio-Tardonoisian typos of
France, Portugal and Bavaria.
Keith (1931:405) reached a sonewhat differont conclusion on tho Mon-
tardit natorial:
In its dimensions, in its shape and in the charactors of its
face and jaws this Azilian skull bears so closo a resomblance to
the smallor Magdalonian skulls found in the southwostorn departments
of Franco that I think wo must assign all to the samo race. The
Azilians in Southern France nay well havo boen tho direct descendants
of the indigenous Magdalenian population.
In the doscription of the Montardit materials abovo it was noted that
none of the facial bones wore prosent in the case of Montardit II and that
most of these were lackirng from Montardit I. It was also pointed out that
no groat credonce could bo given to neasuremonts derivod fron tho skulls of
the Montardit specieuns because of the approximato nature of tho reconstruc-
tions. Thus neither the qualified conclusion of Sawtoll nor tho positive
ono of Keith need bo taken very seriously.
The Muge roemins have been the subject of several claims as to racial
types represented. Those have stemned fron the conclusions reached by those
who originally described tho skoletal naterials. Paula e Oliveira, who was
the first to study theso roeains, sugeostod (1886:310-320) that tho dolicho-
cophalic skulls night have descended fron tho Cro-Magnon "race." The two
crania which ho measured as brachycophalic ho reGarded as exhibiting mongo-
loid influences. Both of theso ideas were, in keoping with ideas curront at
that tine -the long-headed Cro-Magnon "race" and the round-headed Mongoloids-
and neither of then were basod upon anything more than tho nost cursory con-
parison, with head form as tho primary factor.
Mendes-Correa, after an oxauination of the Mage remains, noted that
negroid characteristics are comnon to all of the dolichocophalic skulls.
These ho termed (1923:570-573) a special group, Homo afer td   us. This
group, he declared, belongod to a fauily of primaitive equatorial races, tho
so-called "bloc equatorial," which was characterized by nicrosene orbits,
prognathism), mso-platyrrhine nasal form, and especially by extreno dolicho-
cephalic head form. This family had already given birth to some European
races in the proto-Ethiopian type of Combe-Capolle and the two negroids of
Grinaldi, MencIos-Corr?a doclared. Tho Muge race was thus related but not
identical to these.
Vallois, in his study of the Muge remains, disavowed the notion of
an African origin and suggestod that the Muge population was desconded from
local 4ipper ;talaoolithic peoples (Vallois, 1930:386). He maintainod in this
study that all of tho uppor palaeolithic skeletal finds, Griaaldi and Chan-
colado excepted, belonged to ono race which he tormed the Cro-Magnon race.
82
The "Old Man" of Cro-Magnon he believed to be an extrene typo of this race,
not to be taken as the type specimn. This provoked a roply from Mendes-
Correa, who rejected the idea of a single upper palaeolithic race, Gri-
naldi and Chancelade again exceptod, and reaffirmed the existence of
Hono tSAaUA, and the origin of this type from a "bloc equatorial" form
such as Conbe-Capelle (Nendes-Corr'a, 1933:368-369).
It should be noted that at about this tine Morant published the ro-
sults of his statistical comparison of the upper palaeolithic skulls
with those of nodern populations in which ho showed (1930:135) that, des-
pite the variability existing in the upper palaeolithic materials, the
population of 17th Contury Londoners was rather nore variable. If there
were races in existonce during the Uppor Palaeolithic, Morant declared
"....it is clear that they nust have been nore honogeneous than any
nodern typos which can be distinguishod."
In a later paper, Vallois returned to the negroid affinities clain-
ed by Mendes-Correa for the Muge skelotons. Here Vallois notes (Phquart,
Boule and Vallois, 1937:167) that only one hypordolichocophalic skull oc-
currod in the Muge remains that he was able to neasure. Of four skulls
on which the gnthic index could be determined, Vallois found only ono to
showr sub-nasal prognathisa; two other skulls which could not be neasured
for this character appeared frcm observation alone to be slightly prog-
nathous. Nor are the facial or nasal indices of the Muge series es-
pecially indicativo of nogroid ancestry, he declarod. The nearest sini-
larities appear to be with the Teviec group and tho dolichocephalic spedi-
moxn from Ofnot, in his opinion; but even here there are considerable
differences.
Coon (1939:64) concluded that the Muge remains are nost similar to the
late Natufian population of Palestinoe This conclusion is given without a
specific metrical comparison between the two groups. He goos on to state
that the Muge and Natufian remains ropresent a northward movement from a
Mediterranean racial honeland sonewhere in southwestern Asia, northeastern
Africa, or both. Vallois, while admitting the general sinilarity of the two
groupe, points out (Pequart, Boule and Vallois, 1937:188-189) that there
are at the sane time differences, of the same order as those botwoen the
Muge, Toviec and Ofnet groups.  Furthermore, the defective state of the
skeletal matorials in both groups.7prevents any very specific conparisons.
Thus he fools that it is premature to spoak of racial affinities.
Both Mbndes-Correa and Vallois, we should note, are convinced that
the Tardenoisian invaded Europe during the Mosolithic out of North Africa.
This belief, which has been shared by many others, is founded on the fact
that microliths were first noticed in large numbers in Tardenoisian assen-
blages. It was perhaps natural thon to look to the post-Aterian culturos
of North Africa for tho origin of the Tardenoisian. With the increaso in
knowledge of the prehistory of Europe, however, has cone the realization
that microliths wore already present in the Gravettian and Magdalonian and
in the Lato Glacial cultures of northern Europe. Hence the argumonts for
an immigration fron North Afrioa have lost sono of their strenrgth (Childe,
83
1954:32-33; Clark, 1951:93). This does not, of course, rule out the possi-
bility that sone novenent of pooples between the two continents night have
occurred. Smith (1953:118-119) has shown that we camnot yet entirely dis-
regard such a possibility. We can, however, rule out the necossity of an
inniigration to explain the prosenco of nicroliths in tho Tardenoisian, oven
for those who refused to crodit the possibility of indopendent invention.
The main differonco between Mendes-Correa and Vallois in this natter,
it appears, is that the former is willing to use the notion of an irxrigra-
tion fron Africa to strongthen his case for an African affinity of the
Muge population, whereas Vallois insists on a likely African ancestral
group before he will comit hinself as to the affiliations in that direc-
tion with tho Muge materials (Vallois, 1940:625-626).
The Ofnot and Kaufortsberg remains havo excited their share of specu-
lations as to racial affinitios. Schliz, who published the first dotailed
description of the Ofnet finds, divided then (Schliz, 1912:241-251) into
three basic norphological groups. The two extrene groups, the brachyce-
phalic and dolichocephalic specinens, were declared to represent pure
races which had descended from the Palaeolithic. The internediate group
of nesocephalic specimens wero a mixture of the extrene forns. Subdivi-
sions of each group were made on the basis of cranial indices and facial
features.  The brachycephalic "pure" race was a hypothetical racd wrhich the
author believed to have existed in the Palaeolithic and which persisted in
the Mesolithic and Neolithic. The conparison of the dolichocephalic skulls
was principally with the skulls fron the caves of Engis and BrUinn.  These
comparisons were nade using single examples to represont each "pure" race
from Ofhet and single examples of the palaeolithic skulls.
The later study of Scheidt on the Ofhet and Kaufertsberg materials is
very similar in its conclusions as to race. Scheidt roconstructed and re-
measured the Ofnet skulls and in so doing eliminated sone of those used by
Schliz in his classification. But his final results (Scheidt, 1923:78-86)
are about the same. His brachycephalic pure raco is founded upon a hypo-
thetical palaeolithic group which persisted through tho Mesolithic and re-
sulted in the neolithic type of Grenelle (which sito has since been shown
to be of-uncertain age). This pure raco was represented at Ofnot by throo
skulls, two female and one male. The dolichocephalic race was based on a
comparison with the Brunn, Engis and HusBowitz naterials, and three skulls
from Cro-Magnon. One male and one female ropresented this type at Ofnet.
A third group of mesocephalic remains was held to be the result of nixture
of the first two groups, with some prodominance of the mesocephalic type
charactors.  This group consisted of four Ofnet fenales.  Another mesoce-
phalic type, consisting of the Kaufortsberg male and one Ofnet Dale, was
believed, by Scheidt also to be a nixed type resulting fron the two pure
types but with influences fron yet another brachycephalic elenont which
the author attributed to the remains fron the cave of Furfooz, Belgiun
(which Schoidt bolioved to be Palaeolithic but is now in the uncertain
category).
Numerous other claims as to the racial background of the Ofnot.and
Kaufortaborg rmaterials, such as tho Lapponoid and negroid typos claimed by
Ulbrlch-Kudelska (cited in Vallois, 1937:171-173) and the Pygoid type pro-
posed by Stolyhwi (1928475-76), have been rmade but wo shall not consider thom
84
here, They are all based upon cQnparisons of single skulls from Ofnet and
Kaufertsborg with other single specienons, or with the generalized specifi-
cations of some larger group such as those cited ixnediately above,
Boule and Vallois have nade a sonewhat broader approach to the pro-
len of nosolithic physical types. Thoso authors, after DDking detailed
comparisons between the Granat and Tevioe raname and those from Mas d' Azil,
Montardit, Muyge, Ofnet, Kaufertsborg, St ngenas and a number of Uppor Paloa-
lithic finds, sot up four European raesolithic morphological types. These
are defined as follows (6).
The brachycephalic type of Ofnet consists of the three clearly brachy-
cephalic skulls from that site. They aro defined secondarily by thoir low
cranial vault, eury- or mesoprosopic face, lack of prognathisrm, moso- to
platyrrhine nose, low orbits and noderately large interorbital diamnter.
The dolicho-nesocephalic type of Teviec comprises all of tho remains
from this site, the Kaufortsberg skull, three nesocephalic skulls fro Of-
net, the Montardit skeletons and perhaps the Mas d'Azil renains (on cul-
tural grounds). Socondary characters of the typo include a high cranial
vault, broad facial index, rosognathism, nesorrhino nasal index, low orbits,
narrow interorbital dian ter, short staturo, high radius-hunorus indox and
strong platynria and platycnenia. It is obvious that the authors had to
exercise their inaginations to include tho Ofnet, Kaufertsberg and Montardit
naterials under some of these secondary criteria.
The dolichocephalic type of Ofnet includos the two dolichocephalic
finds at Ofnet and, very approximately, the St&ngenas material. This type
shows groat length of skull absolutely and relatively, noderately high vault,
strong occipital developnent, euryprosopic face, mesorrhine nose and low
orbits.  The large skull dimensions suggest to the authors that this type is
of relatively tall stature.
The dolichocephalic type of'Muge consists of tho majority (number un-
specified) of the finds fron the Muge sites.  This type is high vaulted and
cranial dimensions in general are smaller than those of tho preceding types.
The face is nore narrow, reso- or leptoprosopic. Other features include a
mosorrhine nasal index, orbits often mesosene, large interorbital dianeter,
nesognathous facial profile and noderate developme'nt of platyneria and
platycnenia. Stature is couparablc to the T6viec group, but the skeleton
is more gracilo.
The Graat skeloton is compared to each of the four mosolithic types
given above and found not to corrospond exactly to any of then. Its groat-
est similarities appear to be with the Mugo or Toviec norphological types,
but it differs specifically from each: by its greater stature, absoluto size
of skull, and orthognathisn, from the Mugo type, and by its greater stature,
more robust cranial features, leptoprosopism and orthogmathism., frm the
Teviec type.  Vallois decides, therefore, that the Gramat find is intermed-
iate between thoso two typos. He is reluctant to establish a now type on
the strength of only one examiple and prefers instead to regard the Granat
find. as an actual nixture of the T6vioc and Mugo types (Lacau, Nioderlonder
85
and Vallois, 19441.:89-90).  He takes the internodiato charactor of the Granat
find as ovidence of the broad diffusion of the Tovioec and Mueo typos during
the Mesolithic. Granat, ho speculates, nay be one of the first evidences
of this diffusion. The Gran t skeleton, wo should note, is not "intemediate"
betwoon the T6viec and Muge sories in a number of inportant charactoristics,
as a glance at Table 1 will show.
In thoir comparison of European nesolithic skeletons with those fror
the Upper Palaeolithic of Europe and Algeria, the Natufians of Palestine,
and with the generalized characters of living pygaies and negroids, Boule
and Vallois found no evidence of positive genetic relationship. They pre-
fer to set the nosolithic Natufians apart as a separato morphological group,
similar but not identical to any of their European types. The question of
affinity with negroid or pygay types is quickly disposod of. The only lipper
Palaeolithic find which they consider as close, perhaps significantly so,
to any of the mesolithic types is that of Chancelade. The resenblances of
this find to their To6viec norphological typo appear to the authors as of
possible racial significance. But they are restrained in this conparison
and state that more finds of the Chancelade "race" nust be mde before any-
thing dofinito can be said.
Boule and Vallois specifically disavow the notion of race in the formu-
lation of their morphological types. These typos, they clain, are estab-
lishod on phenotypic characters which nay not be the nost significant ones
for racial deterninations. Thoy point out that considerable variation in
physical type existed in the Upper Palaeolithic and in the Neolithic. By
their division of tho mesolithic naterials into norphological types they are
denonstrating that such variability existed also in the Mesolithic (P4quart,
Boulo and Vallois, 1937:189). We have seen, howevor, that in practice the
four nesolithic morphological types are not regarded sinply as descriptive
catogories to highlight physical variability. Thus one of the four, the
T6oviec dolicho-mesocephalic type, is seon as the possible descendant of an
upper palaeolithic Chancelade "raco." And Vallois has treated the Gramat
find as an internodiate form resulting fron the mixture of two of the mor-
phological types. However thoy nay be defined by Boule and Vallois, their
"types" are treated as genetically differentiatod groups, as races.
In his report on the Deventer remains Vallois (1943b:21)compares these
remains with the norphological types defined by Boule and himsolf. He finds
that the Doventor materials aro nost sinilar to tho "type dolichoct3phale
d'Ofnot."  Tho facial and vault forms aro tho same and both show woll dcvo-
loped occipital tori, but tho two Ofnot skulls aro longor and moro narrow
than the Doventer specimens. The Ofnot cranial-facial disharnony is more
markod, tho frontals are narrower and nore recoding, and the muscle roliof
is more rugged. The Ofnot crania, Vallois remarks, show a generaUly morc
brutalized aspect than do the Doventer remains. Ho foels that the most im-
portant difference betwoen tho two lies in the greater skull breadth of the
Deventer finds but notes that this nay be only a secondary matter. Perhaps
the Devonter population had evolved toward a brachycephalic cranial form; or
porhaps a nixturo with tho "typo brachycophale d'Ofnot" is indicatod in the
Trliand_ rortains. Tho imr<portant thing, Vallois fools, is that here we have
86
proof of a relation between the fossils of Holland, and ono of the alroady
known forns of tho Mosolithic of Bavaria'
Vallois goos on to conpare the Dovontor matorials with a series of
upper palaeolit"hic spocimens and with the nodorn population of Holland. He
finds a definite affinity with the Cro-Magnon population of wostorn Europe,
sufficiont to infor a genotic connection betwaon the Doventer and Cro-Magrnon
pooplos (1943b:23). The greator cranial broadth of the Holland forns nay
indicate a shift toward brachycephaly in this population, or may be the
result of mixture with a broad-headed race. Vallois concludes that the Meso-
lithic finds ropresent an intemodiate forn botwoon the Cro-Magnon and modern
Holl-and populations. Differing from the Cro-Magnon group principally in
thoir groater cranial dinensions, the resolithic peoples have become modified
in nodern Holland by an alongation and narrowing of the faco.
Several of the other writers on the nosolithic skoletal finds are noro
restrained in their conparativo treatments than eie of thoso reviewed above.
Heouertz (1950:441) states simply that the Loschbour skeleton boars a closo
resemblance to the dolichocephalic typo of Cro-Magnon. Br"Osto and Fischor-
M6l1ler (1943) find that the Koolbjorg ronains do not differ essentially frco
many of the neolithic reLains Iof Donmark, despito the presence of several
"Cro-Masnon" features, such as short facial longth, low orbits, dolichoce-
phaly and moderato cranial vaulting.  Norling-Christenson and Brosto (1945:
16-17) conclude that the Korskr-Nor, Vedbaok, Koelbjorg and Ravnstrup finds
all belong to an "earlN Nordic" group which differs in no respect from the
greater part of the modorn population of Denmark. Tho Bleivik rains are
likewise described (Torgerson and Gotz, 1954:33) as of a type corion in
modern Norway.
Hjortsjo comparos the fragmontary Hylliekroken skeleton with an Upper
Palaeolithic series and with the Danish finds. The Hylliokrokon male is
found to resemblo the "Old Man" of Cro-Magnon nuch more than do the Danish
skeletons (1945:227) but, on the other hand, Hylliekroken diffors no more
than do these others fron the livirg Nordic dolichocophalic population. H1e
concludes that tho Hylliekroken find supports the idea that the original
population of Scandinavia belonged to a racial type of short stature and
dolichocephaly.
Zirov, in his paper on tho Murzak-Koba roeains (1940:183), notes that
both the male and female frcn this site present charactors which are found
in the Cro-Magnon "race." This race, he claims, constitutes one of tho
principal stages of the ovolution of uipper palaeolithic nan of Europe, North
Africa and western Asia. I His Cro-Mignon "race" thus appears to be somewhat
less narrowly defined than is usual.
A sonewhat unusual method of comparison was employed by Stoslicka-
Mydilarska (1954) in her study of tho braincase fragment from Janislawice,
Poland. Lacking a sufficient comparative saxnple fron the Mesclithic for
statistical reconstruction, she selectod a serios of 50 Lapp skulls bearing
the strongest resenblance to the nan of Janislawico. This sories was ninutely
conpared with tho Janislawico skull fragment. The analysis indicated, as
87
night be expected, that "...the individual of Janislawice roprosonts a nor-
phological. ty-po that we find froquently among the contoeporary Lapp popula-
tion" (1954:66).
In this rocital of statements on the racial affiliations of the noso-
lithic romains, no attempt has boen made to analyze in detail any particular
clair.  The purpose has boon simply to noto som  of the ideas advanced by
those who have boon intimtoly concornod with tho actual specimens. Fron
the doscriptions of the naterials from each site wo can get an idea of the
condition of the original specimens and hence of thoir reliability for con-
parativo purposes. We havo seon that many of then are not capable of yield-
ing dopendable noasurenmnts. The numbor of specimens of undoubtod nesolithic
context which havo given large sories of roliable measurements is indeed
small. Some of the abovo statoemnts on race are thus quostionable on this
ground alone.
The practice of dividing skeletal series into morphological typos and
relating similar typos, while regarding intormediato forms as mixturos of
alroady defined types, does not appear to be productivo of much that is U8s-
ful to the study of race. It does, to be sure, point up the variability
that is presont in the respective series. But this variability is already
apparent in each serios, and it need not bo rogarded as resulting from racial
admixture in each case. Similarly, the comparison of single spocinens with
each other, or even with largeo serios from the sane or fron different tirme
periods, is not likely to tell us much about populations.
The diffusion of cultural traits on a fairly largo scalo throughout tho
rogions of Europe is indicated by tho archaeological rocord, just as it has
been in othor periods. We nust assume, thereforo, that some diffusion of
genes occurred as well. Wo do not know what isolating effects nor what selec-
tive factors were involved in the changes in onvironmental and biotic pheno-
nena during the shift from Late Glacial to Recent conditions.  But, given
the genetic heritage of tho upper lalaeolithic population, which by itself
shows great variability in physical characters, it is not surprising to find
a similar variability anong nosolithic Groups. Whother the differencos bo-
tweon these groups are of the order of race or net is certainly not clear
from the studios so far made, any nore than is the case with' uippCr paloo-
-lithic- populations.
What is needed obviously is nore and larger series of remains from sites
of indisputable mesolithic contoxt, as well as similar sories from the Upper
Ialaoo.lithip. Until these are available, the problem of race in the Moso-
lithic must renain unsolved.
88
TABLE 1.
Mugo:
(Vallois, 1930) (5)
(Atafde, 1940)
Montardit I (mae)
Teviec
Gramat (ale)
Laufon (nale.)
Loschbour (male)
Deoventer C1 (male)
C2 (fea. )
Koelbjerg (fonalea)
KorsAr Nor (male)
Ramnstrup
Vodbaek (nale)
Bloivik (nale)
Hyllioekroken (nalo)
StRngenais
Of not (5)
Kaufortsberg (nalo)
Fatma-Koba (n.le )
Murzak-Koba I (fon.r)
TI (ralo )
Max. Cranial longth
Rango
(3M) 173 -185
(6F) 170.5-181
(2M) 185-186
(1F)
(7M) 180-191
(8F) 172.5-190.5
(4M) 182-205
(6F) 174-179
Mean
179
176
185.5
172
180
_ me
202
186
200
193
176
191
197
187
198
184
(202)
196
190.5
176.7
182
189.5
190
198
Max. Cranial breadth
Range               Mean
(3M) 123-136         129
(6F) 125-133         128
(2M) 133-(136)       134.5
(lF)                 143
136.5
(7M) 129-143
(8F) 133-142          --
(144)
133
130
151
137
141
144
141
144
139
146
(141)
(4M) 139-147          144
(6F) 133-150          140
141
138
146
140
89
i     -                                                                                       -1--
I
TABLE 1. (cont.)
Muo:
(Vallois, 1930)
(Atafdo, 1940)
Montardit I (mal)
T6Orvioc
Granat (nale)
Laufon (nale)
Loschbour (nale)
Deventer C1 (nale)
02 (fen')
KoolbJerg (fonale)
Kors/r Ncr (1le)
Ravnstrup
Ved.baok (nale)
Bleivik (nale)
Hylliekroken (mialo)
Stangena-s
Ofnat
,BEasion-Brega ht.
i                                                                                                                              4.
Rango
(2M) 131-132
(4F) 125-133
(6M) 128-150
(8F) 129-142
(2M) 136-137
(6F) 122-139
Kaufertsbore (Dale)
Fatra-Koba (lao)
Mur vak-K.oba I (fen.)
II (nalo '
Mean
131.5
129
151
138
135
127
(138)
143
156
143
143
128
139
150
I Gnathion-Nasion ht.
Moan
(6M) 106-129
(7F) 99-113
116.3
107.8
126
120
114
(iM)
(1F)
113
99
115
9o
TABLE 1. (cont.)
Muge:
(Vallois, 1930)
(AtafIe, 1940)
Montardit I (raie1)
T6viec
(rranat (nab)
Laufon (male)
Loschbour (male)
Deventer C1 (male)
C2 (fon.
KoelbJorg (female)
Korskr Nor (nalo)
Ravnstrup
Vodbaek (riale)
Bleivik (Dale)
Hylliekroken (nalo)
StRngenas
Ofhet
Max. Bizygor2atic dia.
Rangeo
(3M) 115-128
(5F) 113-122
(7M) 123-150
(7F) 120-139
(2M) 140-144
1,(5F) 124-138
Kaufortaberg (male) X
Fatna-Koba (m-alo)
Murzak-Koba I (fem.)f
II (male)I
-i
Mean
121
.118*6
139.2
130.8
(134)
(130)
(136-140)
139
150
(134)
131.6
125
137
139
147
Prosthion-Nasion ht.
Rango
(3M) 63.5-68
(5F) 55-68.5
(7M) 65-73
(7F) 61-6e
(3M) 63-66
(6F) 58-68
91
Moan
65.5
63.2
_ _0
68.9
64.4
74.5
67
(68)
-v
70
77
-._
(70)
a. _
65
61
64
66
67
76
- _
-t
1(Cranial Capacity
Muge:
(Vallois ,
1930)
(Atafde, 1940)
Montardit I (male)
Teviec
Gramat (male)
Laufon (nale)
Loschbour (nale)
Doventer Ci (.ale)
C2 (fen.)
Koelb jerg (Tfemale)
Kors8r Nor (mle)
Ravnstrup
Vedbaek (male)
Bleivik (nale)
Hylliekroken (rale)
Stungenas
Ofnet
Kaufertsberg (male)
Fatna-Koba (mie)
Murzak-Koba I (foIu.)
II (mnie)
Range
(2M) 1262-1456
(4F) 1238-1449
(1M)
(6M) 1339-1737
(8F) 1444-1720
(4M) 1380-1632
(6F) 1039-1493
Mean
1359
1364
1349.9
1389
1561
1548
1861
1420
1584
1625
1417
1430
1640
_ _
1450-1500
(1550)
1491
1277
1422
(1498-1720)
1
1534 1
1534 iI
Range
(3M)
(6F)
(2M)
(1F)
(7M)
(8F)
69.1-73.4
70.7-73.6
71.9-(73.1)
71.6-76.8
70.3-79.4
(4M) 70.24-80.77
(6F) 73.9-86.71
92
Mean
71.8
72.55
83.1
75.8
74.3
75.1
71.2
71.5
65.o
78.2
77.8
73.8
73.1
75.4
72.7
75.5
(72.3)
(71.9)
75.78
78.76
77.47
72.8
76.8
70.7
ICaphalic Index
- is
-
I
I
.I
TABLE 1. (cont.)
TABLE 1. (cont. )
(1ge:
(vallois, 1930)
- (Atafde,
Montardit
Teviec
1940)
I (male)
Granat (nale)
Traufon (nabc)
Loschbour (raale)
Deventer C, (uale)
C2 (feLeu)
Koelb erg (fena)le)
Kors4r Nor (nale)
Ravnetrup
Vodbaek (naiao)
Bleivik (male)
Hylliekroken (aeb)
Stngeneas
Ofnet
Kaufortsberg (aJe)
Fatna-Koba (mle)
Murzak-Koba I (rfen.)
II (raie)
Total Facial Indox
Ranr3e
(6M)
(7F)
Mean
76.6-91.4
76.7-86.8
(2M) 78.47-78.57
(1F)
84.6
82 * 2
(94)
(72-75)
92.3
_ _
82.0
_ _
77.34
92.0
(3M) 52.5-57.3
(5F) 48.6-58
(7M) 43.3-53.6
(7F) 46.6-52
(2M) 45-45,82
(5F) 42.03-49.19
93
Mean
54.3
53.2
49.2
49.1
55-5
51.5
(48.5-50)
_w _
50.4.
51.3
45.47
4.2~
48.2
51.7
I-   -- -
L-
-
.
.
i
i
I
I
I
I
I
Upper Facial Index
TABLE 1. (cont.)
Muge:
(Vallois, 1930)
(Atafde,
Montardit
Teviec
1940)
I (nale)
Graraat (male)
Laufon (ral1o)
Loschbour (nalo)
Deventer C, (rale)
C2 (fenr)
Koolb jerg (Tfenale)
KorsAr Nor (nalb)
Ravnstrup
Vedbaek (mole)
Bloivik (nalb)
Hylliekroken (nao)
Stangenas
Ofnot
Kaufertsberg (nale)
Fatn-Koba (nale)
Murzak-Yoba I (fon.)
II (nable)
NaalIn e             ObialIn.o
Rarie
(3M) 50-52.6
(5F) 47.9-56.1
(7M) 44.6-55.7
(7F) 47.o3 -55.8
Moan
50.9
51.3
51.3
50*3
47.2
(54.3-56.5)
40.0
38.6
48.0
(2M) 41.18-47.17
(5-F) 45*45-54,55
49.62
54.17
52.2
Range
(3M) 68.4-81.5
(6F) 69.7-84.7
(6M) 68.2-77.7
(8F) 68.2-85.3
Mean
74197
79.2
71.9
74.5
71.1
_9
(79o5)
76.9
76.2-78.0
81.8
89.7
(2M) 82.05-88.24
(6F) 67.5-74.36
70.72
70.73
66.7-68.3
63
57v4-58.7
94
Orbital Indox
Nasal Index
T E ( tpi Ia
Muge:
(Vallois, 1930)
(Atafdo, 1940.)
Montard.it I (male)
Toviec
uranat (nale)
Laufon (mae)
Loschbour (uale)
Deventer Cl (male)
C2 (fenr.)
KoclbjerS (femalao)
Kors/r Nor (nale)
Ravnstrup
Vodbaek (nale)
Bleivik (ramle)
Hylliekrokon (nale)
Stangenas
Ofnet
Kaufortsborg (mle)
Fatna-Koba (nale)
Murzak-Koba I (fen.)
II (nbo)
Rango
(6M)
(7F)
Mean
93.1-101
92.9-106.6
(2M) 85.4-95,5
(6F) 84.4-96.6
.0
98.8
100.4
93.9
1 0
_ _0
90.8
92.1
100
Rarege
(6M)
(6F)
83-90?
80-870
(1M)
(5F) 89-92'
0
95
Mean
85.80
82.50
92?
820
0
95
88?
830
84 _
0 _
790
86
Total Facial Prognathe
TABLE 1. (cont.)
I Gnathic Index
TABLE 1. (cont.)
Mugo:
(Valiois, 1930)
(Ataf de, 1940)
Mntardit I (r.al e)
Tooviec
Graxat (role)
Laufon (ta1e)
Lo)schbour (male)
Deventer C1 (male)
C2 (fen.)
KIolbbjerg (female)
Korshr Nor (nale)
Ravnstrup
Vod.baok (nae)
Bleivik (nal)
Iylliekroken (nale)
St2ng'ems
Ofnot
Kaufcrtsborg (nalo)
Fat1a-Koba (nale)
Murzak-Koba I (fen.)
II (nale)
Range
(11M) 152.6-169.1
(11F) 143.5-158
(2M) 155.6-160.2
(2F) 143.1-144.8
(7M)
(8F)
144-167
145-157
Mean
160.7
152.7
159.8
159
151
164
155-160
160.2
_w _
157.8
166
(16-0)
162
180
168.2-168.9
160.1-163.2
177.4-182.4
96
a - -- -- -
I
Stature
i
i
I
I
I
I
ENDNOTES
(1) This paper was originally propared for a seminar in physical anthropo-
logy given by Dr. T. D. McCown, Department of Anthropology, University
of California, Berkeley. To Dr. McCown I owe my thanks for his criti-
cisn and helpful suggestions in the original version of the paper. I
an also indebtod to Mr*. Robert To Anderson for help in the translation
of the Scandinavian natorials used.
(2) The briof surrBaries which follow are based principally upon the works
of Breuil and Lantier, 1951; Childe, 1950, 1954; Clark, 1936, 1951,
1952; Lacaille, 1954; Movius, 1942; Smith, 1953; and Zeuner, 1952.
These authors are in essential agreereent on the general picture pre-
sentod hero. The use of roforencos to particular studies will thero-
fore be held to a nininun.
(3) Detailed descriptions of the remains from several mesolithic sites in
Europe were not available to the writer at the time this paper was pre-
pared. These sites are: Arene Candido, Italy (t"Early Mesolithic"; 7
nae, 2 foeale); Urtiaga, Spain (Azilian; male cranium); Rochereil,
France (Azilian; mle); Ravnstrup, Dernmark (no artifacts; calva of fe-
male (?)); Vedbaok, Denmark (forerunner of Ertob1le culture; male);
Bottendorf, Germany ("tMesolithic"; 1 fragmentary nale adult, fragments
of 3 child skeletons); FalkensteinhWhle, Gernany (Azilian; fragmentary
skeleton). The data given in Table 1 on the Ravnstrup and Vedbaek re-
mains are taken fron ]Ijortsjoo, 1945:288.
(4) The sitos excluded are: Dyrholnen (ErteAlle), Honsehals (Ertebfllo),
Maglemose Bog (Maelemosian) and Svaordborg (Maglemosian). These ma-
terials are described by Nielsen, 1920-241, Arnborg, 1925, and Degor-
b/I., 1942. A number of the remains from sone of these sites show evi-
doences of cuttire and breaking, stronely suggesting cannibalism. For
data on several other sitos of doubtful mOsolithic age in this area,
see Clark, 1936:133-136, and Coon, 1939:72-74.
(5) In tabulating the Mugo and Ofnet mterials I have included sone measure-
ments which the authors of the descriptive reports placed in brackets
to indicato them as uncertain values. Any error thus introduced in the
mean values for tho nale and femalo serios is therefore to be attributed
to ne.
(6) See Po'quart, Boule and Vallois, 1937:186-189; Lacan, Niederlender and
--allois) 1944: 85-89.
97
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, Josoph
1895     Notico of a cave recontly discovored at Oban, containing huran
rerains, and a refuse-hieap of sholls and bonos of aninals, and
stone and bone inplenonts. Proceedings of the Society of An-
tiquarios of Scotland 29:211-230. Edinburgh.
Arnborg, John
1925     Undorkiksfragiont och 10a tnder av Danniskor fran DanDarks
aldsta stenAIder. Dansk Naturhistorisk Foroning, Videnska-
belige Moddelelser 80:365-412. Copenhagen.
Atafde, A.
1940     Novos osquelctcshumnos dos Concheiros nosolfticos de Muge.
Congresso do Mundo Portugues  1:629-651.  Lisbon.
Bay, R. and C. Ludin
1951     Ein nesolithischer Skelletfund aus den Birstal. Schweizorische
Naturforschenden Gosellschaft, Verhandlungen 131:166-167.
Lucerne.
Boule, Marcellin
1946     Lea homes fossiles,   lo6nonts de pal6ontologio hiaino.  3rd
Qd., rev. Paris, Masson.
Breuil, Henri
1909     Le gisonont quaternaire d'Ofnet (Baviere) et sa sopulture
nsolithique.   L' Anthropologie 20:207-214.
Brouil, Henri and R. Lantior
1951     Les homos do la piorro ancionne (Paloolithiquo et M6soli-
thique). Paris, Payot.
Brkndsted, Johanres
1938     Danarks *.ldtid.  1, Stonalderen. Copenhagen, Gyldendalsko
Boghandel Nordisk Forlag.
Br'Osto, Kuind and K. Fischer-Willer
1943     Koelbjorg-Skelettet, Et fund fra tidlig Mglonosetid. Aar-
bo5ger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie 1943, 2:211-231.
Copenhagen.
98
Burkitt, M. C.
1924     Our early ancestors-. Caubridgo, Cambridge Univorsity Pross.
Cartailhac, E.
1886     Les a*gs prehistoriquos de ItEspagno et du-Portugal. Paris,
Ch. Reinwald.
Childe, V. Gordon
1948     The dawn of European civilization.  4th od., rov. New York,
Knopf.
1950     Prohistoric migrations in Europe. Instituttot for Samenlig-
nendo Kulturforskning, Serie A, Foreloaningor 20. 0slo,;
1954i.   Prehistory. In The Europoan Inheritance, ed. Sir Ernest Barker,
Sir George Clark and P..Vauchor, vol. 1:1-155.  Oxford, Clar-
ondon Pross.
Chmiolewska, Maria
195)4k   Gr6b Kultury Tardenoaskiej w Janislawicach Pow. Skierniowico
(A Tardenoisian grave at Janislawice, Skierniowice Admin.
District). Wiadcoosci arohoolo6iczno; Bulletin Arch6ologiquc.
Polonais 20:23-46. Warsaw.
-Clark, J. G. D.
1932     The Mesolithic age in Britain. Cambridge., Cambridge University
Press.,
1936     The Mosolithic sottlenmnt of northorn Europo. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.
1951     The earliest sottlermont of tho West Baltic area in tho light
of recont research. Procoedings of tho Prehistoric Society'
16:87-100.  Cambridge.
1952     Prohistoric Europe, the econonic basis. Now York, Philosophical
Library.
Coon, Carleton S.
1939     The races of Europe. New York, Macmillan.
Coon, Carleton S., S. M. Garn and J. B. Birdeell
1950     Races: a study of tho problen of race fornaticn in rman. Sprinjg-
field, Charles C. Thonas.-;
99
DQ"-#- botZ,*  0   J7, s
3.936    SqWlt 18          4t    tQ   &i S4 I9            R-Koba on
Crt o    Ar          ?    tZ     r   j   , No, 2$s44.3,63o
DogorbA3, Maau8
1.942  Et KnQ         ojt1alo fIrcD;Tlt   opI%djcs3o   on 4oJldro Stoneldar.
Okkon4ddingo Do         3 golteo      VidoILA         84Qskab,
Archaoolo6Uko*X     :ulittorisko acrkiter' l.  o* I*  aoponhogoX
Fiold, ZIenrry and Eugone Prostos
1937     Archoeology in tho Soviet V nion.   morian Antbropologiot
39:,457-490,
Frederic, J.
1908     Da1 Schadolfragment von StiingQnas in Sohveden. Zo1tsobriU
fUr Morphologio und Antivopologio 11;317-376,   Btutt8Art*
louortz, M.
1950     Le giseaont prohistoriqio No. 1 (Lo8chbour) do la vol do do
1,Ernz-Noiro (Grand-Duchd do Luxembourg). Arohivoo do L In8ti-
tut grand-Ducal do Luxombourg, Soction dos Sc1on oog ?ft=t4os,
Physiquos ct MathoLatiuQs, n.se 19:409*441. Lonbotwg
HjortseJo, Carl-Horean
1945     La crano do HyUiokrokon do 1' ao do Piorre nordiquo aanoian,
opoquo Ertob11o,o A'Ota Archacologica 16:222in2299   Coponhagon*
Hooton, Earnost A.
1946     Up fran tho apo. Rav. od. Now York, Macni1cn.
Koith, Sir Arthur
1929     Tho antiquity of raan. London, Willioza   and Norgate,
1931     Now discocvorios rolattini to tho antiquity of mn.    London,
William  and Norgato.
Klinok, Stanislaus
1928     Cortribution a la syst6onatiquo dos cranoe epipal6oXithiquo8.
Anthropolgia 6:59-109.   Praguo.
100
Lacaille, A. D.
1954     Tho atono ago in Scotland.   Publications of the Wollcono
Historical Medical Musouta, n.s. No. 6. London, Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Lacau, R., A. Niodorlendor and H. V. Vallois
1944     Le gisonent nosolithique du Cuzoul do Granat.   Archives do
l'Institut de Pal6ontologio Humaine, M6rioiro 21.  Paris.
Lacorro, M. T. and F.
1953     Lee horos 6ponyras d'ATn M6thorchen et Corbo-Capello.    Bul-
letin de la Socitoo Pr6historique Franqaise 50:258-275.   Parts.
MacCurdy, George Grant
1924    HEna origins; a nnual of prehistory.      Now York, D. Appleton.
Martin, Cecil P.
1935     Prohistoric nan in Ireland.   London, Macnillan.
Mbndos-Corr'a, A. A.
1923     Nouvelles observations sur l'Horao Taganus Nob. RPvue Anthro-
pologiquo 33:570-579. Paris.
Los nouvelles
Inturnational
1931:357-372.
fouilles a Muge (Portugal).    Quinziono   Cc'6ngros
PIAptlrspolo. o    ot a'Arcjoolo[io PtfhiQtjriquo,
Pariso
Morant, G. M.
1930     Studies of Palaoolithic nan, 4: a bionetric study of the
Uppor Palaeolithic skulls of Europe and of their rolation-
ships to oarlier and lator types. Annals of Eu6onics 4:109-
214. London.
Movius, H. L.
1942     Tho Irish stone age.  Caubridge, Canbridge Univorsity Press.
Nielsen, H. A.
1920-24  Squelottos hnanins du plus ancion age de la piorro
dans los tourbiores de Svaordborg et de Mullorup.
de la Societo Royalo des Antiquaires du Nord, n.s.
.(Nordiske Oldskrift-S&olskab). Coponhapen.
docouverts
M6noires
1920-1925
101
1933
Norling-Christonson, Hans and K. Bro3sto
1945     Skolot8ravon fra KorF/r Fa Nationa     usots - Arbo JdLrk,-
1945:5-17. Coponhagen.
Oborrier, H.
1924     Fossil nan in Spain.  Trans. by H. F. Osborn.  Now Havon,
Hispanic Society of Anoricas.
Paula c Olivoira, F.
1886     Los osseraents hunains du Mus6e goologiquo a Lisbonno. In
Les ages pr6historiques de l'Espagno ot du PortuGal, od.
E. Cartailhac, pp. 305-321. Paris, Ch. Reinwald.
P6quart, Marthe and Saint-Just
1934     La n6cropolo n6solithique do lt1lu dtHc;dic (Morbihan).
LtAnthropologie 4411-20.  Paris.
Pdqi.art', Marthe and Saint-Just, M. Boulo and H. Vallois
1937     Teviec station-n6cropole n6solithiquo du Morbihan. Archivos
de l'Institut de Pal6ontologie Haine, Mezoiro 18. Paris.
Poyrony, D.
1948     91or"onts do prehistoire.  Paris, Alfred Costes.
Quonstedt, W. and A.
1936     Fossiliun catalogus. Vol. 1. Ananalia; Pars 74, Honinidao
Fossiles.  Gravenhage, Verlag fur Naturwissonschaften.
Sawtell, Ruth Otis
1931     Azilian skelotal rermains from Montardit (Arie'o) France.
Papers of the Peabody Musoun 11:213-253. Caxabridck.
Schoidt, Walter
1923    iDio eiszoitlichen Schadelf'unde aus dor Grosson Ofnet-H:3hle
und von Kaufertsborg bei Nordlingen. Munich, J. F. Lehnanne
Verlag.
Schliz, A.
1912     Die diluvialon Menschenreste Dlutschlands. In Dic diluvials
Vorzeit Doutschlands, ad. R. R. Schmidt, pp. 229-256. Stutt-
gart, E. Schweizer-bartsche.
102
Smith, Margaret A.
1953     Tho Mosolithic in the south of France: a critical analysis.
Proceedings of tho Prehistoric Society 18:103-120. Cambridge.
Steslicka-Mydlarska, Wanda
1954     Szczatki ludzkic znalozione w grobio tardenoaskiu w Jaslawi-
cach, Pow. Skiorniewice (Report on human remins from a
Tardonoisian grave at Janislawico, Skiorniewice Adxainistra-
tivo District). Wiadonosci Archoologiczne; Bulletin Archeo-
logique Polonais 20:49-66. Warsaw.
Stolyhwo, Eugonia
1928     L' analyso anthropologique des cranes provenant do 1' 6poque
opipaloolithique on Europe. Anthropologic 6:71-76. Prague.
Torgersen, Johan and. Bernhard Getz
1954     Stoinaldorsmannen fra Bloivik, SkRro, Rogaland   3, Antropo-
logisk unders/kelse. universitetot i Bergen, irbok 1953,
Naturvitenskapolig rokke, No. 6:20-31. Bergon.
Turner, W.
1895     The human and aninal roeains found in caves at Oban, Argyll-
shire. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
29:410-423. Edinburgh.
Vallois, Henri V.
1930     Recherchos sur los osseemnts nesolithiques de Mugorm. L' Anthro-
pologic 40:337-389. Paris.
1940     La population du Portugal "a l'6poquo nesolithique. Congresso
do Mundo Portugues 1:609-626. Lisbon.
1943a    Anthropologie de la population frangaiso.  Paris, Didier.
1943b    Los ossemonts humins de Koorhuisbeck, pros Deventer, Hollando.
Verhandelingon der Noderlandsche Akadenie van Wetenschappen,
Amstordan. Afdoeling Natuurkunde, 20 Sectie, vol. 40, No.
3:1-25. Ansterdan.
1953     Race. In Anthropology Today, ed. A. L. Kroober, pp. 145-162.
Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
Vallois, Honri V. and Hallan L. Movius, Jr.
1953     Cataloguo dos hooes fossiles. Congres Goologiquc Interna-
tional, Comptes Rendus de la Dix-Nouviono Session, 1952, 5:61-
376. Algiers.
103
Vaufroy, R.
1938     Un crane nasolithique a Sauvotorre-la-Lrmanco . L'Anthro-
pologie 48-395. Paris.
Vidal, M. and D. Poyrony
1935     L'home -du Roc du Barbeau ot son giseraont. L'Anthropologio
45:205-207. Paris.
Von Bonin, G.
1935     European races of the Upper Palaeolithic.  HIunan Biology
7:196-221.
Zounor, Friedrich Eberhard
1952     Dating the past; an Introduction to geochronology. London,
Methuen.
Zirov, E.
1940     Los squoleottes de la grotto de Mourzak-Koba. Resuue.
Sovotskaia Arkheologiia 5:183-186. Moscow.
10o4