THE "-MESOLITHIC CONBWARE CULTUPE OF FINLAND (1) Portti J. Pulto Thu nosolithic sottloennt of northern Europo has roceived a groat deal of attention in tho archaeological literaturo of the last fow decados. The work of Scandinavian and German archaeologists, as well as the writings of V. G. Childe and J. G. D. Clark have aidod in making this a relatively well-known seguent of Europoan prehistory. Adjacent to the Scandinavian area, and offoring son interestirg con- trasts with it in archaoological mnterial, is tho lake-studded, pine- and birch-forested onviromnont of Finland. Our ain concorn hero will be to oxanine this archaoological material fran Finland, particularily.the so- called Conbware culture which doninated Finland and the adjacent Russian and East Baltic areas for an apparently long tino during the Mesolithic period. The "Mosolithic" culture of northern Europe indicatos here thoso Ston. Age traditions during the goologically Recent (Holocono) period that pre- cedod agricultural and herding practices in the area being considered, wero characterized by extensivo uso of axes, adzos, and chisels for woodworking, and were supported by an oconony based on hunting, fishing, fowling, and gathering of food. This cultural tradition in northern Europe was apparent- ly carried on for a long tine after domstication of plants and animals had revolutionized the econonies of people in the Mediterranean and Near Eastern areas. The toer "Neolithic" we are using to designato cultures basod on d(- estication of plants and/or food-producing anirmals; however, it should be mentioned that Finnish archaeologists use the older torninology, calling the Conbwaro culturo "Neolithic" on the grounds that it has pottery and rop- resents a sharp break froni pre-coranic culture in the area. Finnish Archaeologists. The boginnings of systematization of the Ston, Ago naterials of Finland go back to the publication in 1909 by Julius Ailis (2) of a survey of Finnish Stone Ages sites. Ailio nentions earlier publi- cations, including a doscription of 632 artifacts published by H. J. Holni- berg in 1863 (3); other nineteenth and early twentieth contury archaeolo- gists in Finland include J. R. Aspelin, Ij. Alppelgren-Kivalo, and A. Hackann (4). Publication of archaeological naterials in the Finnish National Museun series began in 1894. Finnish archaoologists whose main work has bocn done since World War I include A. M. Tallgron, Ella Kivikoski (now Profossor of Archaeology at the University of Holsinki), and Aarne Ayra"p, but dating has also deponded on the goology of M. Saurauo, who has devoted great energy to the study of the history of forestation and shorelines of Post-glacial Finland. Saurano has also participatod in many archaeological investigations, in which his pollon analysis, exanination of marine deposits, and explanation of shoreline changes have boon applied to particular archaoological finds. 32 Besides these archaoologists and goologists alroady nontionod, tho National Museuu staff at Helsinki currently includos sevoral non who havo studied under Ayrapaa, among then V. Luho, C. F. Meinandor, and J. Loppa"aho. Mention should also be mado of the ethnologist T. I Itkonon, who has specializod in the analysis of skis and sled-runnors from Finnish bogs. Archaeological finds. Finnish Stone Age finds can be roughly dividod into three groups: individual finds, gonorally in bogs; huntor-fishor sitoes, which are usually associated with extinct shorolinos; and Neolithic sites, found on slightly elevated ridges near bottom-lands. The bog finds includo the Antroa fish-net (5), the Oulu and Narpio seals (6), and a nunbor of woodon skis and sled-runners. Those bog-finds havo boon tho focus of palynological dating. Hunter-fisher campsites aro scattered ovor nost of Finland, and are thu main source of archaeological mterials. Listing tho "nost inportant" of these sites, V. luho (7) gives the namos of 14 Pro-coramic sites, 14 Early Combware sites, 47 "Classic" Combware sites, and 14 Late Combware sites. Ayrapaa and Luho (8) describe these campsites ae (a) situated on extinct shorelines, (b) sheltered from cold north winds, (c) chosen for the hunting and/or fishing possibilities in the vicinity, and (d) now ofton situated far from bodies of water, due to the rising of the land. The list of "most inportant" sites makes up only a sall percentage of the total known sitoes. The camps aro usually found by accident in tho course of plowing fields or digging for gravol. As an examplo, we nay oxmine tho site of Askola, Honkanieni, in southwost Finland (seo Plate 2 for sites mentioned in text). 2yrapaa, who excavated this sito, describes it (9) as 20-21 noters above tho prosent sea level, located on a plowed hillsido. Occupation extonded over an aroa about 140 meters long and 45 nmters wide. Thicker concentration of cultural materials was napped in an area of about 40 neters by 30 neters, in which area at least throo hearths were also found. Tho depth disturbed by plowing was about 30-40 centineters, and tho total depth of tho sito in the deepest portions appears to have been about 60 contineters (10). The description makes no nontion of stratigraphic variations appearing in the site. The cultural materials fron Askola include the following: 8 axes and adzes (ono of Olonetz groon slate) 5' itchisels" 2 "holod stones" 1 plunmet line-sinker 6 flint projectile points (o8stly fragronts) 8 flint scrapers 1 flint harmerstone 28 workod flakes of flint 135 flint flakes 3 "large rubbing stones" 10 fragomnts of stone tools (indoterminate) 33 3 scrapors of hard local stone naterial 171 flakes of hard local stone material 3 quartz scrapers 10 worked flakes of quartz 218 quartz flakes 1 tool "blank" 2 quartz hanrerstones 42 rubbing stonos and fraguents 9 "polished piecos of stone" 6 fragments of "clay objects" 1 clay figure 2138 fragments of pottery pieces of burned clay pieces of burned bone 1 "stone saw" yrrpa'a dates this sito to the younger phaso of the Classic Corabware period. on tho basis of the pottery style, while geological analysis of the shorolines placos the occupation at a height of 680/o of the Litorina Maxi- uun abovo current soa level (11). (Finnish geologists assign shorolino percontages using present sea lovel as 00/o and Litorina Maxinun at 1000/0 whon discussing shorelines of late post-glacial age; seo Plate 1). Accord- ing to gyrapa"a, pottery of the younger phaso of the Classic Corbware period is rogu.arly associated with shorelines that are 700/o of tho Litorina Maxi- nun (12). Tho third typo of find belongs to what the Finms call "HaImer-axe," "Cordware," or "Boat-axe" culture, and differs markedly in soavrerl ways fron the hunter-fishor sitos. Its distribution is narrowly restricted to tho southwest corner of Finland, which corresponds with the area offering the riost toeporate climato as well as the best alluvial soils. These sites in- clude burials as well as habitations, unlike tho Conbwaro sites in which burials are not known. No suro indications of donestic plants or anirals are known frorm these sitos, but circunstantial ovidonce points strongly to a Neo- lithoc economy. Tho Boat-axe Culture is clearly intrusivo in Finland, and corresponds in pottery style, tool types, and burial techniques with Neoli- thic cultures in Swedon and south of the Baltic Soa (13). Also, the restric- tion of finds to tho narrow coastal striP of soUthwost Finland argues for an ocOnomic basis difforent fron that of the huntor-fishors (14). Chronological Mothods. Finland's StonO Ago cultural riatorials are or- ganized into a chronological franework by tho use of goological and palaeo- botanical ovidence. The geological evidence is based on observation of oustatic and isostatic changes in the Finnish shorelines. The geologist M. Saurano has identified a series of old Finnish shorelines which he correlates with the Yoldia Sea, Echineis Sca, Ancylus Lake, Mastogloia Sea, and Litorina Sea phases of the post-glacial Baltic (seo Plate 1). A large number of Meso- lithic sites aro located along these ancient boach-lines, apparently reflec- ting the inportance of fishing in the econonic pattern. Exarmination of the Conbware pottery styles in terns of their relationships to these shorelines has lod the Finlish nro.haeologists to discard their older, purely typological 34 pottery sequences in favor of a chronology in which cultural matorials from higher (hence older) shorelines are assumed to precede material fron sitos nearer the present sea level. Thus, V. Luho affirmes; "By comparing among themelvos pottery fragments found from zones of different olovation it can be affirmed that pots decorated in cortain ways appear only at certain elevations; in other words, decoration of pottory changes in direct rolation- ship to (shoreline) elevations" (translation by this writer) (15). Luho also believes that this geological evidonce shows that "tho so-called Suomusjarvi culture habitation sites, froa which pottery is not known, aro older than the early Combware sites" (16). Palaeontological ovidence for dating is used, as already nontioned, in connection with bog finds. Assigning relativo ages for theso bog finds de- pends on both pollen analysis and exanination of deposits of marine life. The relative soquences in Fimnish archaeology built up fron tho above methods are given absolute dates in several ways by tho Pinnish archaeolo- gists. Sauramo assigns absolute dates to his postulated Baltic Sea sequen- ces and vegetation periods by the technique of varvo-counting. Certain points in the Finnish chronology havo also been cross-dateA with rtarials from other countries in northern Burope. The nost important oxample of cross- dating is the fixing of the ternination of the Combware period at the time of the incursion of Boat-axe culture, which apparontly sproad vory rapidly into many areas of northern Europe about 1800 B. C. (17). Finland in Early Post-Glacial Time. The geological dovelopments of northern Europe fron the torminal Pleistocone to the presont havo been oxton- sively studied by Baron do Geer, M. Saurano, and several other geologists. From their studies it appears that the major part of Finland was freed of ice during the Finiglacial Retreat, which onded when the Scandinavian ice- Ms88 split in two (18). This Jantland Bi-Partition, which is dated at 8700 B. P., is used by Finnish goologiets to mark tho beginning of post-glacial tine (19). Human occupation in Finland may possibly have occurred before the be- ginning of post-glacial tine. High beach-lines in the northernmost parts of Finland and Norway have yielded roughly flaked tools of dolonite flint, quartz, and quartzite, which are variously dated at 10,000 to 5,000 B. C. (20). These interesting cultural remains show no apparent connection with the culture of nesolithic Finland, so no further discussion of thoe is war- ranted here. The first traces of human activity in south Finland have been dated to what Saurano calls tho Ancylus Lake-Mastogloia Sea periods, or about 6500- 5000 B. C. (21). These beginnings of Finnish mesolithic activity are ovi- denced by threo important bog-finds: the Antrea fish-not, the Heinola slod- runnor, and a bone "ice-pick" from Kirkkonumzi. S. Pdlsi excavatod tho first of theseo finds at Antrea, Korpilahti, near Lako Ladoga, in 1914, un- covering a series of 17 pine bark floats, some stone not-woights, fraGnonts of the willow-bast not material, and several stone and bono implenents (22). The stone axes and chisels associated with the net mterials are core tools 35 of slate, slightly polishod: t the cutting edgo. Inplenents made of organic naterials included an axe of elk antlor, a dagger or spearpoeint of elk bone, and a chisel of elk bone. The pollon analysis of the Antrea excavation was re-examined by E. Hyyppd (23) in 1933 with the result that tho find, was dated to the Ancylus Lake stage, or about 6500-6200 B. C. The Heinola sled-runner is 3.8 neters long, carved fron pine, and notch- ed for supports in such a way that T. I. Itkonen believes the runnor to belong to a two-runnor type of sled. Dating of this find to tho Ancylus period also depends on pollon analysis (24). The Kirkkonuni bog find was associated with and dated by Ancylus-age marino clays at a point 34 rioters above the prosent sea level (25). The object, described as an "ice-pick" by the Finnish archaeologists, is shaped from the foro-log of an elk, sharpened to a point, and measures a shade over 11 inches in length. These three early Finnish finds have been compared with the well-known materials fron Kunda in Esthonia. Zyrapaa says that tho early Finnish ieso- lithic matorial is relatod to the Kunda culture because of the sinilarity in tool types, sinilar reliance on bone as raw matorial, and similar reliance on fishing in the economy (26). The Pre-Ceranic Cultures. The earliest occupation sites in Finland are grouped together by Finnish archaeologists as "Pro-Corauic cultures," the most important of which is called the Suomusjsa"rvi culture, after the parish fron which the largest amount of material has been collected. This culture has tool types that do not depart a great doal from the chiscls and axes of the Antrea find mentioned above. Axes are bifacially flaked with alight polish- ing of tho cutting edge, and the stone material is fron local deposits of poor quality (see Plate 4a). "Spearpoints" are wido, leaf-shapod, serrate- edged, and nade of slate (27). The nost provalent forn in the cultural in- ventcry is the bifaced axe described above. The Suomusjarvl. occupation sites are located along strand-lines that are identified by geologists as coincident with the first Litorina Sea Transgression (ca. 4000 B. C.), although a few sites appear to be on slightly earlier boaches, according to Ayrrapaa (29). A younger phase of the pro-coramic poriod is givon the designation of Kisko culture. New items appearing in this phase include the "banana-shaped rubbing stone," four-sided chisels, "rubbing stones on which implements were polished with a circular notion" (30), and a now kind of extra-hard slate as raw mterial for adzes, axos, chisels, and "spearpoints." Separate fron tho south Finnish Suonusjarvi and Kisko traditions, the Finns identify an eastern Finnish culture of pro-ceramic age, the Ilomntsi culture, that is distinguished by its preforence for Olonotz groen slate as raw matorial. The Ilorants8. axe is round or ovoid in cross-section, pointed at the butt, polished to a sharp edge, and was fashioned by the peck-and- polish technique (31) (see Plate 4b). Associated with this axe type is the s)-callod hunp-backed, curve-edged chisel. 36 Archaeologi.cal excavations by V. Luho in 1946-47 at a site in Kurojoki, Alajarvi in west contral Finland brought tho question of nicrolithic projec- tile points into focus (32). This site produced 38 quartz projectile points which Luho identifies as rhouboid, trapezoid, triangular, and transverse nicroliths. The geological dating of tho site tentatively places it in the sano period as the Suonusjarvi and Kisko culturos, which is supported by the fact that no lpottery appears in tho site. Luho nentions a total of one certain and seven "indefinite" nicroliths fran othor sites in Finland, of which the ono certain nicrolith waa in a sito with Early Conbware pottery, while the others all cone fran Pre-ceranic sites (33). Both Ayrapaa and Luho note the strong resenblances between those Finnish nicroliths and what they refer to as "Late Tardenoisian influenced" nicroliths widespread in northern Europe in Mesolithic tines (34). The Finnish archaeologists bolieve that the above pre-ceranic cultures correspond to the Canpigny culture of continontal Europe, and the Erteb/lIe, Lihult, Lir nhan, and N/stvet traditions of MWsolithic Scandinavia. The Conbware Culture. The Conbware culture of Finland shows-a fairly sharp departure fron the previous tradition. The nest notablo innovation, pottery-ruaking, diffused into Finland as part of a widespread culture sphere that covered nost of northeastern Europe, fron the Vistula rivor in Poland clear across to the Ural nountains (see Plato 3, Inset). The Canbware pots are large, poorly fired, and toepered with sand, crushed-rock, bone-fragments, or occasionally asbostos; the decorativeo stylG consists of scratches and pits that appear to have been rmade with suall sticks, twisted cord, fish vertebrae, and notched or toothod "conbs." Thoso pointed- base or ovoid pots were predoninantly largo, sone having capacities of over 30 quarts. The stone .tools of the Cazbware Doople appar. to-.fllow thkO - basic patterns of the pre-ceranic cultures, althoueh adzes apparontly becona nuch predominant over axes in wood-working oquipment. Plumet fish-line sinkers, shanks of composite fish-hooks, projectile points, and "spearpoints" in these campsites attest to the hunting-fishing naturo of the econony, al- though a significant reduction in the appearance of the slato "spearpoints" takes place (35). Early Conbware (ca. 3000-2250 B. C.) (36). Thu earliest pottery in nesolithic Finland, called Early Canbwaro (Canbware I), is associated with shorelines that are Judgod by the geologists to be 10-20/o- lower than the Litorina Maxinum Transgression in the "Maxinum-to-nodern sea lovvo. con- tinuum" (37). This pottory is course-tempored and deDcoratod with various in- prints such as "E," "I1," and. "II"-shaped mnrks, wavy linos, and "fish-verte- brae" designs; these decorations almost always extend over tho entire surface of the vessel. Early Combware is sub-divided into two phases, designated I:1 and I:2 (see Plato 4c, d), on tho basis of style difforences associated with slight differences in shoreline elevations. Besides clay vessols, thoso Conbware sites sonotimos contain small clay figurines (see Plate 6c), which continue to appear throughout the entire Conibware period. Thoso figurines will be discwnso4 in more detail boelow. 38 Classic Combware (ca. 2250-2000 B. C.). Whereas the Early Conbware pottery in Finland appoars to bo only a peripheral reflection of a nore souther- ly cultural tradition, the Classic Conbware development is believed by Fin- nish archaeologists to be focussed in south Finland, with close similarities of decoration style in nearby areas of Karelia and the East Baltic provinces. The decoration of pottery takes on an appoaranco of greater care in artistic design, and shows "nore active creativo imagination," according to Luho (38). Rows of carefully spaced pits alternato with rows of "conb-scratchings" or "dotted-lines": (see Plates 4e, f; 5a, b). Bird figures, usually swans with excessively long necks, appoar on some of the pots. Classic Conbware pots are well-fired, and fino-tompered, of predominantly roddish and yellow hues. Now inports of raw materials into Finland during this period include flint from tho Valdai area in western Russia and amber for ornaments fron East Prussia. The clay figurinos of this period take on a phallic form, which Ayrdpa'a and Luho believe is also a diffusion from the outside because it departs considerably from the earlior anthropomorphic form (see Plate 6c, d). The Classic period is the shortest of the three postulated phases of the Combware culture, the abundance and relative richness of sites supports the argument that this phase was an "exuberant" development in the history of the Combwaro tradition. The Classic pottery style is sub-divided into soveral variants, including Classic II:1 and II:2 (style variation associated with slightly different shoreline levels), J'dk'arla style (a regional variant), "pitted" and "rhombic-pitted" styles which spread into the southeastern Fin- nish area from the south and east, according to Luho (39). Late or Decadent Coubware (2000-1700 B. C. ). This final period of Combware culture is also called the Uskela culture by the Finns, after the parish In which the pottery was first identified in quantity. The dis- tinguishing feature of the Uskela style is the concentration on pittod decora- tion. Rows of large pits alternate with smaller depressions, possibly as a development from tho "pitted pottery" of the lato Classic tradition. Ttomb- scratched" decorations persist to a slight degreo in Uskela III:1, narking the separation between it and III:2, which is called Sipil'anhaa pottery after a site in southwest Finland. Another short period has now been distinguished in the stylistic sequence, making Pyheonsilta syle (from the site of Myn,miiki, Pyheensilta) the final pottery style of the Combware period (40) (see Plate 5c, d, e). The Late Conbware sites, like the sites of the preceding period, show evidence of continued receipt of anber from East Prussia. Luho points out that sites with Uskela type pottery are also found in the East Baltic coun- tries, especially Latvia, along the postulated route by which anber was car- ried to Finland (41). Tho importation of Russian flint, however, stops con- pletely with the end of the Classic Combware period. The end of the Late Combware period is signalled by the arrivral of the Boat-axe culture, which spread rapidly over large areas of northerri Europc in the first centuries after 2000 B. C. As nentioned earlier, this culture was rest,rictod to the southwest corner of Finland where climte is nildest and the nost fortile alluvial bottrnlands are found (42). 38 Boat-axo sitos and the distribution of stray boat-shapod axes stay within fairly close bounds, and presumbly tho hunter-fisher oconormy continu- ed in sone fom over tho rest of north and east Finland. Some of the Uskola and Pyheensilta Combware sites are apparently contemporary with the Boat-axe settlenent, but little is yet known about the successors to these cultures. The Boat-axe period in Finland is fairly short, (ca. 200 years), however, and the final phases of the Stone Age (the Kiukais culture) cloarly show a nixture of Boat-axe and Conbwaro traditions (see Plate 5f). Combware tool typos and pottery styles again predominate, but Finnish archaeologists be- lieve that the Neolithic econony of herding and agriculture brought by the Boat-axe people continued, as evidenced by the choice of living sitos and the appearanco of large "grinding-stones" (43). The Hunter-Fisher g of Life. Conbware sites are nearly always found on sea, lake, and river shores, and this choico of settlenent location sup- ports the conclusion that a considerable portion of the diot of Combware poople depended on fish and other water-dwelling life. Seal hunting was practiced at least along the Gulf of Bothnia, for skeletons of seals with harpoons in. their ribs have been found at Narpi6 and Oulu along the west coast. These seals probably 8ank into the clay of the Litorina Sea floor during the Classic Combware period, according to Saurano, who dated the finds by pollen analysis and examination of associated narine deposits (44). Tho soals were shot several kiloneters from shore, but due to the rising of the land-nass were now located well abovo the present sea level.-the Oulu seal 15 meters and tho NiirpiO find 17 noters above sea levol. Harpoons associated with the finds aro made of elk bone, notched along one side only, and measure 8.25 and 9.5 inches respectively (45) (see Plate 5g). The Narpio seal was of the species Phoca gronlandia, which has becone ex- tinct in the Gulf of Bothnia, possibly becauso of Stone Age huntirng. This species of seal nakes up a large proportion of the bone fragments found in Stone Age sites in the adjacont Aland islands, whore seal-hunting was apparent- ly one of the mainstays of a culture that had traits of both Finnish Conbware and kesolithic Swedish traditions (46). Fishing during the Finnish Mesolithic period was carried on by nets, hook-and-line, and (possibly) weirs. Besides the Antrea not find, ovidenco for not-fishing includes the occurrence of "holed stones" at such sites as Askola, Honkanieni, and collections of fist-sized stonos fron soveral sites. A campsito at Iajoki, Koskenkorva contained 20 "holed stones" and Imajoki, Piirtola had 18 of those objects (47), which supports the theory that they were used as net-sinkers since that kind of uitilization would roquire the considerable quantity of "holed stones" that has been found. Occurrence of fist-sized pebbles in sites recalls the collection of such stones found in as- sociation with the Antrea fish-net. Hook-and-lino fishing was carried on by use of conposite hooks with shanks often mde of slato. Plurmet-type sinkers with grooves or holes for line have been found in several sites, including Askola, Honkaniemi. The Finnish archaoologists bolieve that woir fishing was practic.d during 39 Stone Age timos, and they cite nuLerous canpsites which wore located beside narrow straits which would be ideal for the use of a woir. Howover, the only possibly diroct ovidence for such a practice is from a site in Nyland, whore a series of vertical aspen stakes extending a distance of 13.5 meters was found in 1911. However, the dating of this find is uncertain, which leaves the real ovidence for weir-fishing largely in tho realm of conjocture (48). The hunting of land an a was also an important part of tho oconomy of mosolithic Finland. Except for the ono sito in Alaj"arvi, the Pre-coranic sites show a predcminance of "leaf-shaped" slate "spearpoints" over the snall projectile points which the Finnish archaeologists tern "arrowpoints." Dur- ing the Conbware period, however, small points of flint, Iquartz, quartzito, and slate dominate over the largo "spearpoints" (49). Several varieties of "holed stones" are identified-as "club-heads" by the Finns, ranging all the way from sinplo ovoid forms to complex rhombic, cruciform, and aninal-head inplenents. Whilo the simple "holed stonos" nay havo served just as well as not-sinkers, tho nore carefully preparod "holed stones" ny well have been haftod weapons. Preservation conditions for organic materials are extrenoly poor in nost of the Finnish hunter-fisher sites, but small fragments of burned bone are usually found in and around campsite hearths. Tho sito of Alavus, Ojalankangas yielded considerable amounts of bone fragionts which were identi- fied as the roeains of "largo land mnalas" by Professor Winge of Denmark (50). The Mesolithic sites in the adjacent Rland Islands contemporary to the Fin- nish Combware sltes are in calciferous soil favorable to preservation of bone, and they have yielded roeains of birds, fish (noetly cod), and particularly seals in large amounts (51). Mbsolithic nan in northern Europe was a woodworker. In Finland he had good naterial available-pine, silver fir, 8pruco, as well as certain de- ciduous trees. Tools of quartz, quartzite, flint, slato, bone, and antlor were used to ike things out of:wthis wood. Axes, adzes, and chisels are abundant in hunter-fisher sites, although tho finished products made with these implonents aro not frequently found. In pre-Ccmbware tinos, axes such as the Suonusjarvi type were propared by flakring and finishod by application of a slight polish to the-cutting edge. tyrapaa believos that the polishing techniquos were first applied to bone tools, and later adapted to the harder .stone naterials (52). Tho peck-and-polish tochnique was widely used during the Mesolithic period, particularly in the working of Olonetz groon slate. Polishing of these implonents was dono by use of sandstone rubbing stones, such as wore found in the Askola, Honkanieni site in large numbers; and flint saws wore used to produce the four-sided adzes and chisels that becaue popular during the Combware poriod. Among the products of wood-working, itoes of travel equipment wore un- doubtedly of first importanco. The Heinola sled-runner of the Ancylus Lake period has already been nontionod, but this is only the oldest of a serios of 21 sled-runners that have been dated to the Stone Age (53). This quantity of sled-rurners is sufficiont to show some of the stylistic and technical changes that occurrod in the Stone Age, according to Luho, and also sone hypotheses about important travol routes can be nade from this ovidonco. Luho believes that these sleds were powored by dog-team during at least part of tho Meso- lithic period. Remains of dogs aru known fron at least six sitos in thu, Combware area, five of them being in Russia. The Finnish site containing re- mains of a dog is at Pihtipudas, Rd5nni, which is of Pre-coranmc and Early Ccmbware age. Luho notes that one of the types of canine found in these Sites-the "large, wolf-like" Canis familiaris inostranzowi-is particularly adaptiblo to the harnoes. Of other moans of travel that m-ight havo been usod in Mesolithic Fin- land there is no reliable evidence. Remains of both skis and dugout boats abound in the Finnish bogs, but the oldest of theso are from the Bronze Ago. The Mesolithic peoples of Finland also used their wood-working tools to solve the housing problem. Finnish archaeologists report several sites with traces of house posts. Most of these "huts" wero snall in floor space, but floor areas of about 20 squaro moters are reported fron Maaria, S6ikki- Jarvi, and Vdrtsila (56). A particularly unusual find was made at the Combware sit of Raisala, Pitk"aJarvi, where a hut was equipped with an ante- roon. Possibly it was tho dwelling of some miesolithic notable, for among tho finds in the floor area were three amber ornanonts-rare itens in Finnish Mesolithic inventories (57). A second type of dwelling found in the Finnish Mbsolithic is the semi-subterranean pit-dwelling, which occurs in several Pre-ceramic and Early Conbware sites; for example Lapinjarvi, Malmbacken, in which were found two pits, one 3.5 meters by 2 meters and 1.8 neters deep (58)X Of the artistic proclivities of these Mesolithic peoples we have already hinted, especially in connection with the decorative notifs of the pottory and the humanoid representations in the form of clay figurines. The early Conbwaro figures, such as a series of at least ten figures from Painio, Toispuolojannurimi, are generally 2-3 inches high, and often represented in a sitting position (59) (see Plate 6c). Some of then have a faint suggestion of a board, possibly indicating a male figure. Decoration of the figures is similar over a wide area in Finland--incised markings suggesting clothing, shoulder straps, and belts. Traces of red ochre suggest that sono of the figures wore painted. As nentioned above, the Classic Combwaro period is marked by the appearance of nore clearly phallic representations. Clay figures and fragnents of clay figures are known frol Paimio, Askola, Espoo, Porvoo, Liljendal, Lapinjairvi, Garmolby, Pihtipudas, Kaukola, R'a'isala, Johannes, and several other Combware Sites. The Rland Islands also contain clay figures in Mesolithic sites (60) (see Plate 6d, e). In 1897 a carved wooden image about 9 inches high reprosenting a human face and shoulders was found during railroad oxcavations at Pohjankuru between Helsinki and Turku in southwest Finland (61). It speaks fairly well for the sophistication of early Finnish archaeology that the site of thu find (at a depth of 8 meters) was exanined in considerable detail by the archaeologist Hj. Appelgren-Kivalo, who also took extensive soil sanplos. However, 19th century geologists were unable to give any kind of date to the find. Dating of the Pohjankuru "Wooden God'" (which resembles clay images fron Paimio) waitod noarly 41 40 yoars, until 1936 when E. Hyypp'a exanined tho find and associated soil samples. Both pollon analysis and rarine-life renains pointed to a date fron the niddle of the Litorina Sea period, .-thus contemporary with the Corabware culturo. Particularly convincing evidence for this date were the renains of Litorina-type iarino organies inboddod in the wooden figuro itself (62). Both the clay figures and the wood inage appear to have their closest cognates in rogions south and east of Finland. Woodon figuros sinilar to the Pohjankuru find are known fran East Karelia, iNorth Russia, and Siberia (63). As for the clay figures, Ayrapaa believes that both conb-narked pottory and clay figures were diffuscdto Finland fron the Balkan-South Russian area (64). These forns are different than any fron western European traditions, but resenble pottery styles and figurines fron Russia and the East Baltic states; Cozbware pottery does not extend into south Russia, but clay figures appear in Runania and Odessa (see Plato 3). V. G. Childe writes of sinilarities botween central Russian and Finnish Conbware pottery; cemparing sherds fron Yasikovo near Kalinin with Finnish Early Conbware, and seeing a connoction botween Finnish Classic Coabware and pottery fron Lyalovo near Moscow (65). Artistic achievenient also appears in the Finnish Stone Ago in the forn of aniraal-head irnplenents, chiefly bear-head and elk-hoad axos. The figures are nade in a naturalistic style, resembling the elk, reindeer, and other aninal figures ongraved on rocks in northorn Scandinavia. Tho "animls" often have raised dots for eyes, drilled holes for nouths, no nostrils, and little or no ears. This naturalistic art is assigned to the closing phasos of the Combware period by Ayrapa"a and Nordnan, but dating is uncertain be- cause the aniral-heads are stray finds, unassociated with any clearly datable sites. Animal-head axes are found in widely scattered points in northeastern Europe, including two places in Sweden, but appear to be most closelyfas- sociated with the Iake Onoga aroa with its noarby sourco of Olonetz green slate, fron which several of the objects are mde. Nordnan lists eloven aninal head objocts from this East Karolian aroa, including an elk-head dagger of horn from an undated burial ground on Olonii Ostrov (Deer Island) in Lako Onega (66). The animl-head axes in both finished and unfinished forn appoar to have been traded over a wido area, as wore othor artifacts mde of the prized green slato. This variety of slate is found in northeastern Europe only in a very sma11 aroa near Petrosavodsk in East Karelia, but itens rade fron this material are found ovor nost of Finland and Esthonia. Ayrapa"a notes that evidence for the working of groen slate articlos is lacking in nost Finnish sites, and believes that the material was traded in the fo m of finishod arti- clos and "blanks" fron "factories" such as the site of Suoja in East Karolia, where extremely activo production of groon slate inplmnonts appears to have been carried on for the "export market" (67). Other stone materials were also involvod in sano kind of trading acti- vity, including red slate fron northern Scandinavia which occasionally appears as "arctic-typo" knives and spearpoints in South Finland (68). As nontioned above, the inportation of low-grado flint fron the Valdai rogion of wostern Russia was carried on in considerable quantities, but restrictod mainly to the Classic Corbware period. Later, during the final poriods of the Stono 42 Age, flint was obtained that closely reseables the flint found in south Sweden (69) . MiNntion has alroady beon made also of the occurrence of ambor ornanents in Finnish sites, showing connections with East Prussia. This material was expensive, judging fron its oconomic inportance in other trado aroas of Stone Age Europe, and very few hunter-fishers in Finland wore able to afford this luxury. This wide diffusion of cortain stone materials, coupled with stylistic ,sinilarities in pottery decoration over a fairly large area in northeastern Europo, shows that considerable travolLng and.intrrGpu con&aot wurc prevalent in this coniferous forest area frco early M3solithic tines. Conclusion. Durirg tiost of the Stone Age, Finland playod the role of recipient to culture diffused from neighboring areas. Almost all of present- day Finland was buried under glacial ice during that earliest phaso of the post-Ploistocene whon the Mesolithic way of life was developing farther to the south in Europo (70). When the land area of Finland began to opon up for habitation, the oarliest culturo traits-bone inplenonts and stono axes-boro - resomblance to the Kunda culture of Esthonia, which in turn appears to have been an eastern variant of the Maglenose cultureo of northern Europe (71). Tho few nicroliths found in Finnish sites also show comnection with Scandinavian and north-central European cultural developments. However, the advent of the Conbwaro culture in Finland brought traits, such as pottery styles and clay figures, that have their closest afCfinities to traditions directly to the south in the East Baltic states and Russia, as well as east into northern Russia extending into Siberia. Early Finnish archaeologists were tenpted to.oquate this Combware culturo with the Finnic- speaking peoples, on the stronrth of continuities of tradition apparuntly from the Stone Age down to historic times in East Baltic and northoastern Russian areas whero Fimnnic-speakers are still found today (72). The archaeo- logical evidence for this hypothesis is far from complete, however, and in Finland, where the most conplete archaeological rocord is found, there is no continuous cultural tradition that ties the Stone Ago population tz the pooplo who wore occupying the region when Swedish "Crusaders" began to "open up" Finland early in this nillonium. Cultural similarities between Finland and Scandinavia occurred again during the relatively briof occupation of southwest Finland by the Boat-axe people who ranged widely into north Germany, Poland, the East Baltic area, as well as Sweden and Denmark. These food-producing intrudors nark the ond of the Mbsolithic period in Finland as we havo used it hero, but the hunter-fishor way of life nay have continued for nore than a thousand years longer in tho forests of north and east Finland as well as adjacent territories in northern Russia. The archaeological material fron this terninal Stone Ago is particu- larly slim, however. The tine lag in diffusion of cultural elements into the Finnish area il- lustrates its peripheral position in relation to so-called cultural centers 43 such as Denmrk and tho Noar East. Tho Combwaro culture of huntor-fishers flourishod in Finland at a time whon complex urban, bronze-using cultures wore well-doveloped in Mcsoptaxmia and Egypt. ContoLlporanoous cultures in Denmrk appear to have boon woll along in developing a Neolithic econony, Judging from pollen analysis of forostation changes, and traces of barloy and. wheat grains in shell-nounds that datu back to lato Atlantic tines (73). These beginnings of agriculture in Dennark occur at least a thousand years before the first evidonce of a Neolithic oconumy in Finland, according to chronological informa- tion from Finnish archaeologists. Pottory, which is so inportant in most Combware sitc in Finland., appears at about 3000 B. C., also several hundred yoars later than in Denmark (74). It is interesting to note that this pattoern of tine-lag in diffusion of traits to tho north holds also for later historical devolopmonts. For example, the introduction of Christianity into Finland occurred a full L thousand years after the Near East had given birth to this movemont; it was not until 1154- 1155 A. D. that Swedish knights carried out tho "First Crusade" into southwost Finland (75). Also significant in the pattern of Stone Ago dovelopments in Finland is the fact that cultural influences from two quito widely separatod traditions mot in tho Finnish area. We noted tho inportance of Wostern traditions in the earliest Mesolithic finds, which however bocame heavily influenced by cul- ture traits more nearly rolated to eastern traditions found in Russia, and extending into Siberia. This mixing of Eastern and Western traditions is still in evidence in Finland, for exanple in the neeting of Luthoran with Greek Orthodox Christianity. The product of this hybridization of Eastern and Western traditions dur- ing the Mesolithic was a tonacious culture successfully adaptod to the demand- ing environment of the northern coniferous forosts. Tho Coubwaro culture persisted in Finland for a period of nore than 1200 years, and stone tools of the Combware tradition were an important part of the Neolithic culture that carried on aftor the brief doninanco of the Boat-axe tradition camo to an end. This picture of prehistory is far fron complote, for further resoarch can add much to the current knowledge of the Finnish aroa, and koy problens, especially in chronology, are yet to be solved for the northern Russian region. As future archao3logical investigations add to our knowlcdge of tho prehistory of northeastern Europe, we may expect that those discoveries will also have irmportant inplications for the rost of the Circumpolar area stretching across Siberia to the New World. 44 NOTES (1) For instruction in Finnish archaooloGy as woll as aid in gathorine source rterial I an indobtod to Dr. Aarne Xyra',Ha, Dr. Ella Kivikoski, and Dr. C. F. Meinandcr, all of tho Univorsity of Holsinki, Finland. (2) Ailio, 1909. (3) Ho1nberg, 1863. (4) Appoliron-Kivalo, 1894; Aspolin, 1899; Hackmn, 1909. (5) 2yrapaa, 1937, p. 106. (6) rayr*pWU, 1937, p. 114; Loppaaho, 1936, pp. 1-9. (7) Luho, 1948, pp. 35, 41, 49-50, 56-57. (8) Luho, 1948, p. 58. (9) Ayrapa"a, 1929a, pp. 15-32. (10) Ayrapa"a, 1929a, p. 19. (11) Zyrepaai, 1929a, p. 31. (12) Ayrapaa, 1929a, p. 31. (13) Childe, 1950, pp. 134-138; Shotolig et al., 1937, pp. 68-70; Zyrapaa, 1937, pp.120-121. (14) 2iyrapaa, 1937, pp. 120-121. (15) Luho, 1948, p. 161. (16) Luho, 1948, p. 161. (17) Luho, 1948, p. 57. (18) Clark, 1936, pp. 5, 6; Saurac1, 1954, p . 231. (19) Saurauo, 1954, p. 231. -(20) Luho, 1948, pp. 22-25; Ayrapaa, 1937, pp. 102-104. (21) Luho, 1948, p. 25; Saurano, 1954, p. 231. (22) Luho, 1948, pp. 25-29. (23) Hyyppa, 1933, pp. 9-14. 45 (24) Aario, 1934, pp. 22-27. (25) Ps"paa, 1937, P. 106. (26) AyraP`a, 1937, P. 107. (27) iYrdpiL, 1937, p. 110; Luho, 1948, P. 31. (28) Saurauo, 1954, p. 231. (29) Ayrapaa, 1937, P. 110. (30) Luho, 1948, P. 32. (31) Ayripa", 1937, P. 111; Luho, 1948, PP. 34, 91. (32) Luho, 1947-48, PP. 5-23. (33) Luho, 1947-48, p. 5. (34) Luho, 1947-48, P. 5. (35) Luho, 1948, p. 38. (36) Luho, 1948, P. 38. (37) AYrap"a 1937, p. 116. (38) Luho, 1948, p. 44. (39) Luho, 1948, p. 48. (40) Luho, 1948, P. 54. (41) Luho, 1948, P. 56. (42) Ityra"pa"a, 1937, p. 120; Luho, 1948, P. 57. (43) Moinandor, 1954, P. 113. (44) Saureno, 1936, pp. 9-15. (45) Leppaaho, 1936, PP . 1, 3. (46) Luho, 1948, P. 72. (47) Moinander, 1950, p. 166. (48) Clark, 1952, ppX .44-45. (4i9) Luho, 1948, pp. 114-115- 46 (50) Mbinandor, 1950, p. 164. (51) Moinandor, 1950, p. 29. (5Q) yrapaa, 1937, p. 110. (5:3) Luho, 1949, p. 2. (54) Luho, 1949, pp. 14-18, including raps of pDstulatod travel routos. (55) Luho, 1949, p . 20. (56) Luho, 1948, p. 140. (7)) Luho, 1948, p. 140. (58) Luho, 1948, p. 143. (59) 2yrapad, 1929a, pp. 28-32. (60) Ayr'a'a, 1941, pp. 82-119. (61) Loppa'aho, 1936b, pp. 38-42; Hyypa, 1936, 43-52. (62) Hyyppa, 1936, p. 46. ;(63) LoppHaho, 1936b, p. 40. (64) Ayrapaa, 1941, p. 115. (65) Childe, 1947, p. 205. (66) Nurdnn, 1944, p. 75. (67) AYrrpWa, 1944, p. 70. (68) Luho, 1948, pp. 120-128. (69) Luho, 1948, p. 120. (70) Platt, 1955, p. 434, inclu1inrg nap of Finland during the period of the Baltic Ice Lako. (71) Indreko, 1954, p. 144. (72) P'alsi, 1916, p. 176. (73) Childe, 1953, p. 193. (74) Childo, 1950, p. 33. (75) Platt, 1955, p. 7. 47 BIBLIOGRAPHEY Aario, Leo 1933 Kuortaneelta loydetyn reenjalaksen ika (Dating of the Kuortan sled-runner). Suoren Museo 40:15-17. Helsinki. Acta Archaeologia .Archaeological investigations and finds in the countries in the ye>ar 1934. Acta Archaeologia Coponhagen. Archaeological investigations and countries in the year 1935. Acta Coponhagen. Archaoological investigations and countrios in the year 1936. Acta Copenhagen. Archaeological investiaations and countries in the year 1937. Acta Copenhagen. Scandinavian 10: 261-282. finds in the Scandinavian Archaeologia 11:308-339. finds in the Scandinavian Archaeologia 12:301-336. finds in the Scandinavian Archaeologia 13:231-253. Ailio, Julius Die steinzeitlichen Wohnplatzfunde in Finland. 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Canbridge, Canbridge University Press. 1952 Prehistoric Europe. London, Methuen. 3uropaeus, Aarne (see Ayrapaa.) Girbutas, Marija 1955 An ancient art of hunters and fishers. Archaeology 8:268- 277. HaQkran, Alfred 1909 Arkeologiska forskningar 1908. Suonen Museo 16:15-17. Helsinki. 49 Holaberg, H. 1863 Fortecknin och afbildnirLgar af Finska fornlouningar. Finska Votenskap-Socioteten 9. Holainki. Hyyppa", Esa 1933 Antrean Korpilahden kiivikautisen vorkkol'o'yon geologinen i 0nrays (Geological dating of the Antrea, Korpilahti Stone Age not find). Suonot MUseo 40:9-14. Helsinki. 1936 Pohjankurun puukuvan goologinen iarawa.rays (Geological dating of the Pohjankuru wooden statue). Suonen Musoo 42:43-52. Helsinki. Indroko, Richard 1954 Kunda kultuuri paritolust (The origin of the Kunda-cultur4). ETS Pohjala 70. Stockholm. Itkonen, T. I. 1930 Muinaissuksia ja jalaksia (Ancient skis and sled-runners). Suonen Musoo 37:82-90. 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A. 1944 ItHkarjalaiset eloinpaaasoet.(East Karelian aniial-head woap- ons). Muinaista Ja vanhaa Ita-Karjalaa (Prohistoric and old East Karelia). Helsinki, Suonon Muinaisrtistoyhdistys (Finnish Antiquities Association). Platt, R. R. 1955 Finland and its geography. New York, Aruorican Geographical Society. 51 Palsi, Sakari 1916 Kulttuurikuvia kivikaudelta (Cultural picturos fron the Stone Ago). Holsinki, Otava. Saurano, Matti 1929 The Quaternary goology of Finland. D3ullotin de la Comission Goologique do Finlande No. 86, Helsinki. 1936 Narpi*on ja Oulujoon kivikauden hyljel'6yd*t 2. Ianradra"ys (Stone Age seal finds of Narpio and Oulujoki 2. Dating). Suonen Museo 43:9-16. Helsinki. 1945 Suonen urheilunuseon suol'oyto3o3n ianraaarays (The dating of the bog-finds in the Finnish Museuri of Athletics). Suonen Muinaisnuistoyhdistykson Aikakauskirja (Finnish Antiquities Association Journal) 45:268-276. Helsinki. 1954 Das Rbtsol des Ancylussoes. Geologischen Rundschau 42:197-233. Leipzig. Saurano, Matti and Sakari Palsi 1937 Pielisensuun Mutalan kivikautinon liosi (A Stone Age hearth in Pielisonsuu, Mutala). Suonon Museo 44:1-13. Helsinki. ShetoliQ, Haakon, Hjalnar Falk and E. V. Gordon 1937 Scandinavian archaeology. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Sinonson, Poul 1952 Scandinavia, 1947-1950. Amorican Journal of Archaeology. 56:51. Suaonn Musoo-Finskt Museuu 1949 Sisa"llys-Register 1894-1943. Helsinki, Suonen Musoo. 52 PLATES I-VI I. Chart of Post-glacial Dovelopuents in Finland. II. Map of Finland Showing Major Archaeological Sites. Kittila Oulujoki NirisJarvi *Pihtipudas Ala Jrvi Kuortane IljaJoki Ngrpio (Narpes) Kiukainen Pairio Uskela Kisko Kirldonunmi (Kyrkslatt) 15S 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Siuntio (Sjundeg) Espoo (Esbo) Sucus arvi Hoinola Porvoo (Borga) Askola Liljendal Lapinjarvi (Lapptra"sk) Vilpuri (Viborg) Antroa Sa&.inki Kaukola Vartsila Ilc3antsi rII. Map Showing Distribution of Clay Figures in Northern Europe. 1. Painlo 2. Siuntio (SjundeR) 3. Espoo (Esbo) 4. Porvoo (Borga) 5. Askola 6. Liljondal 7. Lapinjarvi (Lapptrask) 8. Viipuri (Viborg) 9. Johannes 1O. Raiosla ll. Kaukola Inset Showing Conbwaro Culture (Dotted line narks western and 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Sszinki Pihtipudas Sa*rai snioni Kubenino Purciens Koloncy Stanok Balachna Toand Torslunda Area in Northeastern Europe. southern boundaries). WT. Finnish Mesolithic Artifacts. (a) SuonusJa3rvi Stone Axe (b) Ilonantai Stone Axes (c) Early Conbware Pottery (I:1) (d) Early Conbware Pottery (I:2) (e) Classic Conbware Pottery (II:1) (f) Classic Conbware Pottery (II:1) (after Luho, 1948). 53 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. V. Finnish Mosolithic Artifacts. (a) Classic Ccribwaro Pottery (II:2) (b) Classic Ccnbware Pottery (II:3) (c) Lato Conbware Pottory (Uskela; III:1) (d) Late Coribware Pottery (Sipildnhaa; III:2) (e) Late Corbware Pottory (Pyhoensilta; III:3) (f) Kiukais Pottery (e) Oulu and Nrpio' Soal Harpoons (after Luho, 1948). VI. Finnish MoBsolithic Artifacts. (a) Mesolithic Spearpoints (b) Mesolithic Rhorbic and Cruciforn Stone Artifacts (c) Early Ccbware Clay Figures (d) Cl .sic Conbware Clay Figure (aC) Tland Island Figure (after Luho, 1948; Ayrapa"a 1941). Clinato Sub-Atlantic ca. 1000 BC Sub-Boreal ca. 2800 BC Atlantic ca. 5800 BC Boroal ca, 6p00 BC Pro-Boreal Q Qca.000 BC Culture SW. Iron Bronze Age Kiukais Boat-axe Culture Cont. -E . Age Culture III II C robkwaro I Kisko Culture oUUolu3 - Joarvi Culture- Ilonantsi Culture (Antrea 4 shnot) I - Land/Sea L Linnea Soa L i t 0 r i n a S a a Trans. IV Trans. III Trans. II Trans. I (axinuri) Masto-L ia Sea Ancylus Lake Echinois Sea Yuldia Sea Tiuc (B.C.) 0 500 1000 2000 4 3000 4000 5000 4 6000 7000 4 8000 after Saureaho, 1954 /vX22) " ') I O' AJVEA 16Ar-4C X X ~~9.3 ?0 "% Soai Lt?, o ufiAR,Y o 50: ,OAYs AN/VVAIA SO k. A /tCt/' 6/ 4 CARK, CL /SE oq HIC S/ r,65 r. Co0,IeAI{ C, rC U 6C A L /A'o 5 co ku "A /S JVTrIS (4b-. "lC,N~A,4D6R, l9ir#) ) 6 SL(O-l R LNEuo 19IVP) (446er I-fjof, I9 S 6E OCD /,R,S,/, 6 Zs of' C3o tr/VIA I hD - .LAD rs .--% II fq 6j` ? qp2 - -Ow (1$ A IS,5'14 18 43 IAL NDM eJ%) J , C4 p 17TCT- Ty \ .\ i .. \ __ __ i 7:: .- " W,' ,. 'N / ! 11 "' IJ IJI }# % sJ I" If tE I I I if I I " ,,,.,.,,all.,lt'? a /ts + fr(~~~~~,&Y' , 1'' Ii III1 loa ! _s_ ;'----f'-* -V/I / . . / 7 j   * : I   s-- --'-.. 'I-, '<  L * -*----  - V K 4.) I. I. -I . N' / 2 / N . ~~~~~. I . , v I I ......... d i s1) .'fI . K Ul'"' I,', * # ./~ ---l I- --l 4 I . " ;- I * "C".\ - 0 ,. . ,. /~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I - I '\\ C t I . - - , . .. .. , 7 '. ;11- ol  -I; - N /.2 /1'. -. .P , I ' J..i i.b 17 \ ,II .f I I 11 ( I I I! t _I , i '. / '1, I 11 I) I, V .\ /.,9 I.