TH SELECTION OF RECORDING EQUIPMENT FOR FIELD USE
Alan P. Merriam
Although recording devices have been used by anthropologists for a
good many years, it is only within fairly recent times that developments
in electronic recording have made these instruments practicable for almost
all field work. Recording finds a place in many fields of anthropological
endeavor; in music, linguistics, folklore, personality studies (as a pro-
Jective technique), and general ethnography, among others, it serves as a
most useful research tool. At present, then, the ethnographer is not so
>sch interested in whether a recorder should be used, as in what type of
recorder will give the best results. Those not directly concerned with
the field of comparative, or ethnmusicology, in which recording bulks as
a major part of the field operation,, are often at a loss when choice of
proper recording equipment for field work must be made. There are, how-
ever, a number of simple criteria by which recorders may be accurately
Judged even though the field worker has no detailed knowledge of record-
ing devices. It is this selection of the recorder of best general service
to the ethnographer which will concern us here.
Historically, recorders have developed from cylinder to disc to wire
to tape; from heavy to light, from large to small, from an acoustic to an
electronic basis. First in the field was the acoustic cylinder machine
which gave results that could be interpreted only with considerable diffi-
culty; such equipment is, of course, obsolete today. The choice among
disc, wire and tape machines, however, still faces the ethnographer.
Disc recorders seem to have alaost no special advantages; the equipment
is expensive, heavy, bulky and difficult to handle properly under mobile
field conditions. Further, it is often complex in operation and mistakes
are permanent since discs cannot be erased; blank records are also buy
and must be kept free from dust, dirt and scratches, often a difficult
assignment in the field. Disc recorders of an embossing type are also
available, but while light and relatively easy to handle, they are not
built for anything approaching high fidelity recording. It is conceivable
that they might be used for conversation between ethnographer and infor-
mant, but they are by no means sufficiently versatile to serve general
needs. Although disc recorders have been used successfully on many occa-
sions in the field, much more suitable and versatile equipment is presently
available at considerably lower cost.
The wire recorder has distinct advantages over the disc machine;
the equipment itself is light and portable, while the spools are much
easier to handle than discs. Again, with wire an uninterrupted hour of
.recording may be made as opposed to the maximum of approximately five
minutes with discs. On the other hand, the wire recorder in most cases
gives lower fidelity tha  discs and music is often rather badly distorted.
Wire snarls easily, causing destruction of part or all of a spool. Many
tire recorders do not kave a high speed forwvard wind thus making it impos-
sible to play the last two m   tes of the spool without listening through
the prec4ding selections. While wire recorders present many features which
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make them more satisfactory than disc recorders, their usefulness is '
limited in general to the recording of conversation between ethnographer
and infornt; for any more exact work, wire produces too high a degree
of distortion. It should 'be noted that these remarks do not cover the
mosb expensive wire recorders, some of which give excellent reproduction;
such machines are certainly too expensive for general use.
This leaves only the tape recorder which, for all purposes, is un-
questionably most effective in the field.  Superior in fidelity to botuh
wire and portable disc machines, it is at'the same time portable, easy tot
operate and highly versatile. In addition, tape is easily spliced, and
recordings may be edited to produce smooth performances. The range of
styles, models and prices in the tape recorder field is both enormous and
confusing to the layman, but while it is neither possible nor desirable tD
list all types of machines there still remain a number of basic points on
which a decision can be reached; minimum requirements, at least, are not
difficult to list.
Care should be taken initially in securing the best possible balance
between portability and durability; both machine and case should be light
in weight but sturdily built. It is, of course, sound practice to test
the models before buying, and to ask advice of persons who have had field
experience with a particular recorder.  Simplicity of operation is also
an essential point, for considerable differences are to be found among
the various models.  Some, for example, require extra time in threading
the tape around the capstans or drive wheels, while others may be thread-
ed in a single, simple operation. For general purposes, the fewer dials
necessary to operate the machine, the better; essential are, however, at
least a master switch and volume control, as well as a level indicator
and controls for the reel movements. Various kinds of level indicators
may be encountered, including a light of varying intensity, a " magic
eye" arrangement, or a needle arm; the latter is most successftl.
Hand in hand with simplicity of operation goes simplicity of setting
up the machine; in some cases speed is essential, and thus a single case
which includes both machine and microphone might have definite advantages.
Of basic importance is the rate of speed at which the tape is fed
through the machine; with present models a tape speed of 7 1/2 inches
per second produces genenally good results. Many machines currently fea-
ture a tape speed of 3 3/4 inches per second on the basis of tape saVing,
but this speed is not satisfactory for musical recordings although it
may be used for talking.  Again, many recorders-and these are usually
the better models--may be adjusted to feed the tape at 15 inches per
second; while this gives high fidelity recording it has the obvious dis-
advantage of high tape cun.sumption. At present, then, the standard rate
of 7 1/2 inches par second gives results which are satisfactory, at least,
in all forms of recording.
A high-speed rewind is an essential; very few machines lack this fea-
ture. At the same time, the high-speed forward wind is equally essential
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and is not found on a few of the current models; this point should be
closely checked by the prospective purchaser.
Erasing devices may also be troublesome if a poor machine is Be-
lected. While all machines have this feature, which, of course, allows
the tape to be used, erased, and reused endlessly, the erasing device
should be so arranged that the tape cannot be wiped out accidentally.
Further, a check should be made to be sure the eraser does its job tho-
roughly; a tape which has been poorly erased carries a hum, at least, if
not the actual sounds of the previous recording.
The use of any recorder obviously presupposes available sources of
electric power. All machines operate on alternating current at 110 volts,
60 cycles, unless of foreign make or specially made in this country; if
reliable outlets for this type of current are present there is, of course,
no problem. If, however, electricity must be supplied by the ethnogra-
pher, as is often the case, two possible courses are open- the use of a
generator or of a car battery and converter.
An electric generator has both advantages and disadvantages. In
the first place it is usually heavy and bulky, with a weight of perhaps 80
pounds or more. It is also noisy and must be placed downwind and at a
considerable distance from the microphone; breakdowns, too, can cause
embarrassment. Again, with a generator, same means of checking on the
power supply must be available - a volt meter is essential in this re-
spect, and a frequency meter a good idea. On the other hand, a gener-
ator provides a steady source of power which is usually constantly re-
liable; the generator can also provide light for night work, or electri-
city for any other instruments which require it. Good generators will
charge wet cell car batteries while running. In general, a generator
seems excellent providing the ethnographer is in a permanent or semi-
permanent installations  the present author used a generator with excel-
lent results in Africa while constantly on the move.
The second alternative is the use of a regular car battery; since
six volts of direct current are produced, a converter must also be used
to step it up to 110 volts and to convert to alternating current. Under
these conditions the normal car battery may be expected to last from
three to eight hours without recharging which means, of course, that
the ethnographer must be near an establishment which has a charger.
Again, if the recorder is used steadily two batteries may be required
so that one may be used while the other is being recharged. If an
automobile is available a certain amount of recharging may be accom-
plished by nuning the engine; this may even be done while recording
is taking place. Most converters are simply handled and require little
time to put into operation; at the same time they are relatively light
and portable. The choice, then between a generator and battery-con-
verter setup must be left up to the individual; if the location is more
or less penxar.e.nt, the generator seems best, but if the ethnographer
is moving constantly, the battery-converter is perhaps more practical
since it is the less expensive and somewhat more portable of the two.
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Mention may be made here of the various miniature tape recorders
which are operated by a combination.spring and dry cell battery mechanism
and which may be carried as easily as a portable radio, These maohines
will run at several speeds so that recording timR varies; the principle
advantage is portability. While such machines are perfectly acceptable
for speech recording, fidelity tends to drop sharply with more demanding
tasks unless exceptionally high quality microphones are used; the machlne
must be wound frequently, and tapes must often be exchanged. Generally
8peaking, no playback is possible, so that the tape must be transferred
to another machine in order to be audible to any but the operator who can
monitor with earphones. Replacement of the special batteries must also
be considered.
Two kinds of tape are available, paper- and plastic-backed; the for-,
mer is more economical and gives reasonably successful results, but the
latter is rocomended because of its more uniform reproduction due to
smaler variation in thickness. The usual roll of tape is 1/4 inch wide,
the usual spool contains 1,200 feet of tape; at 7 1/2 inches per second
a single roll gives slightly more th   half an hour of recording. Some
machines record on the edge of the tape rather than the back; in this
case, the tape may be turned over after the first half hour and re-run
through the machine, thus giving an hour of reproduction. It should be
noted that edge-recorded tape canmot be edited since two different recor-
dings are present on the same tape.
Tapes should be stored in a cool, dry place whenever possible; over
long periods of time dampness and heat may possibly cause the backing of
the tape to separate frm the body. Tape will also stretch if improperly
handled, producing distortion if unevenly stretched, or lowering of pitch
if evenly stretched. As far as can be determined at present, deteriora-
tion of reproduction over a period of time is negligible; as a matter of
fact, tape seems almost indestructible under aty but the most exceptional
conditions.
Microphones are usually included in the purchase of a tape machine.
These are generally satisfactory if properly handled, although they are
not normally successful in recording very high or very low frequencies
required for high fidelity; special microphones for this purpose must be
purchased separately. Earphones for monitoring purposes are also often
included in the price of the machine.
It is well to carry certain extras in case of emergency in the field.
Fifty feet of shielded cable gives microphone maneuverability, and power
cable may also prove useful in reaching a standard electrical outlet.
Connections and extra tubes of all types required by the recorder should
be available; a package of extra fuses for the converter is essential
since fuses sometimes burn out under accidental overload. Scissors and
scotch tape should be carried for splicing purposes. Finally, a kit of
small tools for radio repair is essential; the number of repairs which
the layman ,n.n make is often stirprsi.ng, although care must be exercised,
of course.
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Some further general points on recording technique may be briefly
noted here. Tapes should be marked, not only on the box and reel,
but also in the recording by a code number announced by the ethno-
grapher; this can save considerable confusion later. A tuning fork
or pitch pipe A at the beginning of each song guarantees proper pitch
on later playback. Microphone placement is a problem which must be
met according to the siutation; in general, the informant should be
kept at least 12 inches away from the microphone if singing alone,
and at much greater distances in group singing. Except in special
situations, the microphone should be kept off the ground and away
from excessive heat and moisture. The problem of when and where to
record is again one which must be met as the situation dictates; in
some cases recording in the informant' s most familiar surroundings will
produce the best results, since he may remain at ease; in other instances,
certain songs of a sacred or personal nature, for example, may best be
recorded outside the familiar environment and away from other members
of the informant' s culture.
Prices of recorders and accessories can only be given sketchily.
Good disc recorders are expensive, running in the neighborhood of
$500-$1,000 and up, while wire recorders may be purchased for approxi-
mately $100-$150, although prices range up to at least $800. The
least expensivee tape recorder, which cannot be expected to stand up
indefinitely under the demands of field work, and which does not give
particularly high fidelity, falls in a price range equal to that of the
less expensive wire recorders; a tape machine of average capability
costs approximately $2004300.   For the specialist in music tape
machines may be bought at prices ranging up to $4,000; in this case
microphones must be purchased separately, the combination, however,
giving the best possible results.  Generators cost in the neighborhood
of $250-$400, a converter which may be used with an automobile battery
costs approximately $60. -A good car battery should be purchased in
order to obtain most satisfactory results in terms of functioning time
without recharging. Plastic-backed tape retails at $5.50 per roll;
paper-backed tape is considerably less expensive. In all cases, prices
quoted above may be reduced through the discounts ordinarily given to
educational institutions.
For the ethnographer, then, who wishes to use a recorder to obtain
average or better than average results in all phases of general inquiry,
the following basic equipment is probably indicated: a tape recorder
in the middle-priced field, with a car battery and converter if standard
electrical outlets are not available, to be used with piastic-backed
tape. For more or less exacting recording, other equipment suggested
in the preceding paragraphs may be used. In any case, in mak:ing a pur-
chase it is well to keep in mind the points noted above if satisfactory
reaults ln field reccording are to be obtained.
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