A* THE INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA David GO llandelbaum The people whom Columbus met on the shores of the New World, he called "Indians" because he thought that he had reached the East Indies. They were, in fact, part of a popul,ation that inhabited every geographi- cal region of the Western Hemisphere. The best estimate of. the size of this population sets it at some four or five million for North America. Of these, about a million inhabited what is now the United States and Canada; there was a much denser population, about three or four million, in what is now Mexico and Central America. According to the evidence now available, the ancestors of the American Indians came into the Western Hemisphere from Asia. No fossil remains of early types of man have been found in North and South America, nor are there any ancient bones of the evolutionary forerunners of mankind, such as have been found in the Eastern Hemisphere. Hence it seems quite certain that the New World was not inhabited unltil relatively late in the evolutionary development of man. The migration probably took place as a series of movements by small groups of people over a long period of time. The most probable route was by way of the Bering Strait region; other avnues of entry may have been used, but it is likely that the bulk of the migrants came in through what is now Alaska and slowly spread across North America and from there into Central and South America* Among the earliest evidences of man in the New World are the stone implements known as Folscm points, which were first unearthed near Folsca, New Mexico* These characteristic Folsom projectile points and knives occur in association with bones from extinct species of animals and with bones of animal types no longer living in the region where the finds are made. Another type of stone implement has been discovered in caves of the Sandia Mountains of New Mexico; these differ from the Folscm artifacts, but are also found writh the bones of mammoth, mastodon, and other foms of animal life which flourished in Pleistocene times. It is estimated that the age of these and of other early indications of man in the Americas is between 10,000 and 20,000 yearso In physical features, the American Indians bear out their affinity with Asia. The physical characteristics common.to all American Indians also are comman to the Mongoloid peoples of Asia, hence American Indians are classed as part of the Mongoloid racial group. Although frequently * This survey was written for Collier's-Encycglgedia. It is reproduced here, with permission, so as to be more generally available for student use. 51 called "redskins", the typical skin color is a medium brown, and is red only when so painted. The hair on the face and on the body is sparse, the hair of the head is straight or, occasionally, slightly wavy. Both hair and eyes are dark and the face is typically large and broad with high cheekbones. These are the features common to al1; beyond that there is great diversity. Somc groups are tall, as are many of the tribesmen of the Missippi Valley, others arc short; some are long headed, though more are round headed; the Moongoloid fold of the eye is found on some individuals in all tribes, but it occurs in a much higher proportion of sanec tribes than of others. Great diversity is also found in language and there are practically no linguistic traits which may be said to be characteristic of all the American Indian languages as contrasted with other languages. The Powell classificatim listed fifty-six different linguistic families among the aboriginal languages spoken north of Mexico. The more recent Sapir classification, which remains to be fully proven, reduces these to six groupings, Eskimo-Alut, Algonquian-Wakashan, (including Salish, Kutenai, Quileute, Yurok, Wiyot), Na-Dene (including Tlingit, Haida, Athabascan), Uto-Aztecan (including Tanoan, Kiowan, Zuni, Shoshonean, Nahuatl), Penutian (including Tsimshian, Chinook, Kalapuya, Sahaptin, Molala, Klamath, Wintun, Miwok, Yokuts, Costanoan), Hokan-Siouan (including Shasta, Pomo, Salinan, Yuman, Keresan). Over two hundred different languages are classed these groupings and the six categories, do not include all of the indigenous languages of Mexico and ContiUal America. A separate classification of the languages of Middle America lists twenty-nine linguistic families; more inclusive groupings have not yet been worked out satisfactorily. The tribes of North America followed many different ways of life, depending on the individual history of each group and on the restrictions of the natural environment in which each lived. All, however, lacked certain tools and techniques which were widesproad in the Old World. The plough was unknown, nor wore iron implements made. The principle of the wheel was not utilized for transport; all loads were dragged or carried on human or animal back. Of the domesticated animals found . in Europe and Asia, only the dog was used in the Americas. None of the other draft and food animals, such as cattle, sheep, horses, and swine, were known, The ortant food crops of the Eastern Hemisphere, such as wheat, barley, and rice, were not cultivated by the American Indianso It may be that the aboriginal migration to North America ceased at s period before these inventions were developed in the Old World so that they were not brought over into the New* Conversely, many important developments were indigenous to the American tribes and were not known to the rest of the wcrld until the post-Columbian period* The great conters of civilization were in Middle America and in Peru. In the valley of Mexico and among the Maya of Yucatan, high cultures came into being. There were towns and 52 evren empiros. a complex ritualistic religion'comp.lete with temples and.priesthoods, sacrifices and esoteric symbols. These civilizations rested. on an agricultural economy whoe main tools wore only the hoe and digging stick. The staplo crops were maize, squash, and true beans; these wore first developed as food.plants by American Indians. Among the other plants which were first used in the Americas are tobacco, potato, tomato, pineapple, chili pepper, chocolate, and manioc. Cotton was grown and spun, but of another species than that developed in the Old World Pottery was finely made in certain areas and the higher ciivilizations were adept at working several metals, gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead. Masonry reached a high level of skill in certain phases of the Middle American civilizations, as the ruins of great structures now attest- Perhaps the most noteworthXr achievements of the Maya of Yucatan were the mathematical and calendrical systems they developed. The Maya had a system of notation which amounted to writing. Their calmndars, utilized for ritualistic observances, were based on systematic astronomical observation and mathematical calculationsc In mathematics, they used numerals, ,differentiated by position, and had a sign for zero' The development of the concept of zero was a hiah achievement, originated independently of the Old World mathematical inventions, and one which made possible elaborate computations. The high civilizations of Central America occupied a relatively small area. Influences from them reached the inhabitants of 'what is now the southwest and southeast of the United States, but there were many difforing kinds of cultural adjustment among the aborigines of the continent. Only a fow material traits were found universally, or nearly so, among the North American tribes. These, were the use of fire, the fire drill, stone Implements, spear, spear thrower, harpoon, simple bow, cordagc, netting, and basketry, Certain social and religious practices were widespread. Clans -- kinship groups in which relation- ship is reckoned only through one parent -- and clan exoganmr -- the prohibition against marrying a person of o s own group - were comon to many tribes. Shamanism - the direct experiencing of super- natural manifestations by the individual -- was also widespread. The old ways of life are not entirely gone. The tribes of northern Canada, whose lands did not attract white settlers, still occupy their former range and live by hunting and trapping. On the Atlantic coast, the tribesmen were exterminated or pushed back soon after white settlement, but in the midwest and far west reservations were allocated to most tribes within the ancient tribal territory. Some of the old religious and coremonial customs are still practiced on these reservations, although modern Indias have taken over much from their hito neighbors and some things from their education in special Indian schools. A good manrl,'perhaps a majority, of the old languages are still spoken and evidently will continue to be used for years to come. 53 The present Indian population of- the United States 4nd Canada is nearly half a million (an- estimated 402,000 in the U*S. in 1947), roughly half that estimated for aboriginal timos, Disease and depreda.*. tion decimated the Indians in the first period- of contact with whites, ,but during the last three decades the Indian population has been increasingo There has been considerable admixture diith other peoples so that many whites and Negroes in America have s Indian blood and -many Indiana havo some white or Negro ancestors. In. Mxico, it is estimated that about a third of the total population is pure Indian and another third is part Indian. The peoples of some of the smaller countries of Central America, such as Guatemala, are almost all Indian in ancestiry* There were American Indians in every branch of the armed services during the war, some of whom served with great distinction. Indians were especially useful in c ucations teams; they spoke in their native tongues over the voice radio or telephone, thus using a code which the onomny could not break. Some of the Indian soldiers wore following ancient martial traditions of their tribes, others came from tribes that were not at all warlike in former days. The various cultures which existed at the time of first white contact can be grouped according to culture areas. For tho most part, each area really represents a distinctive culture type. The content of each culture type, the tribes vwhich shared in this content, and the-areas in which the types occurred are now described. ESKfO All along the arctic, coast oC the continent, from southern Alaska around to Laborador, there still lives a people distinctive in physical typo, in language,, and in culture. Their habitat includes _many of the islands of the Arctic Ocean, coastal strips in Greenland, and oven the tip of Siberia which lies nearest Alaska. Their faces are broader and flatter than those of other American Indians, their noses are long and narrow though not high, their eyes are narrow and frequqntly have the Mongoloid fold. The Eskimo language is not related to any other, insofar as is now known, and is remarkably similar throughout the farfluig range of these people. The di5stinctive character of Eskimo culture is partly the result of the harsh arctic enviroment, which has discouraged visitors, both white and Indian, and so has kept the Eskimo relatively isolated from alien contacts; it has also enforced special cultural adjustments just to insure sheer survival. Dress must bewrarm if the wearer is to keep alive. Typical costume, both for men and women, consists of fur or hide trousers, shirt, and a long outer jacket provided with a hood which can be pulled over the head. Mittens and boots complete the costume'. 5;4 The domo-shaped winter house is made of blocks of snow fitted together, with a low covered passagewar leading into the entrance and an inner lining of hides for insulation. Heat is provided by a lighted moss wick placed in a shallow stone tray and fed with oil- or blubber. Som of the castormost Eskimo have winter houses of stone, rather than of snow, and sane of the westernmost build winter houses around a wooden frame. All liso a tent in ser made of hides fitted around an assemblage of polcs. Food is obtained almost entiroly by hunting. Many groups depend largely' on land animals, such as Caribou, during the sumor, and on Boa mammals, especially seal , during the winter. Caribou may be hunted in a cinmunal drive, driven into water whore they may easily be dispatch- ed, or stalked by a lone hunter. In winter, the huntor waits at the aealst breathing holes until an anial appeara and then harpoons it. When there is open water, seals ar huntod from the kayak, a cmoo frame covered and decked with skin. Another type of boat, also of hides ovor a wooden fraa but larger and open, is used for transport. It is usually rowed by the mmn. Land transport is mostly on sleighs drawn by dogs. Social organization is simple; local groups consist of a few related families. There is little ritualism, though there are many myths and folk tales concerning a female ruler of the sea and other supernaturals. There is usually a yearly gathering in which masked men impersonate the deities. Disputes arc often settled at this time by a singing contost in which the oppments ridicule each other. Audience reaction decides the winner and the defeated contestant withdraws his claim or quarrel. The causes of illness or other misfortunes are diagnosed by shamans. The shaman may indicate, if the patient has not previously confessedd, that a taboo has been violated -- Eskimo life is ropleto with taboos - and may prescribe ofterings to the deities to avert the evil. The AIEUT of the Aleutian Islands and other Eskimo groups of Alaskla have customs somewhat different from those of the eastern Eskimo. These traits wore probably takmc over from neighboring Indian tribes and include such items as basketry, pottery, hats instead of hoods, greater oconomic dependence on fish and birds, mourning ceremonies, and the ceremonial distribution of property. NORTH PACIFIC COAST The humid, forested coastal strip, from the limit of Eskimo territory in southern Alaska down to the California boundary, supported a series of tribes who had a uique and vigorous culture based on the exploitation of the sea and the rivers. The northermost tribes of this region, the TLINGIT, HAIDA., and TSBHIAN, best represent the special developments of the area. Their staples of diet, fish and 55 shellfish, wore obtained comparatively oasily from the teemg waters and wore supplemented with berries and with animal food obtained by hunting. Thoir houses were substantial, gable-roofed structures of cedar planks; in front stood the totom polos which indicated the clan affiliation and the prestige of the family of the house. Wlood was their main raw material* Of it they made water-tight boxes in which food was cooked by dropping hot stones into the liquid. These boxcs wore often richly ornamented with carved designs of conventionalized animal figures. Mats were woven of codar bark shredded fine and oven somo clothing was made of bark and root fibers. Men wore a shirt and a breech clout; women a shirt and a skirt. Both wore an outer cloak of fur or hide thrcwn over the shoulders and fastened with thongs. A wide rain-hat was woven of basketry; moccasins were worn only occasionally. Though they had no metal tools, neither axes nor saws., they were able to fell huge cedars and to fashion large, sea-going canoes. Transport was almost entirely by water and there was a constant visiting and trading among the groups of this littoral. Languages of several stocks were spoken; most men could usc dialects other than their own. Social prestige was a matter of highest importance. Families were grouped into clans; clan membership was usually reckoned through the mother's lineo Scmetimes the clans of the tribe wore further classed into two sections -- as the Ravens jnd Eagles among the Haida- which corpeted against each other. The competition for prestige extmeded to all social groupings and was expressed mainly in the potlatch. A potlatch was a feast given ,y one individual or one group to another individual or group. On such an occasion the givers of the feast distributed rich gifts to their guests and also destroyed valuable property. The more valuable the gifts and the greater the destruction, the higher was the prestige of the donor* The guests, who wtere also social rivals, suffered a corresponding decline in public esteem until they gave a potlatch in return and outdid the previous potlatch giver in the munificence of gifts distributed and wealth destroyed. Those with a respoctable number of potlatches to their credit were usually chiefs and nobles; those with none were generally commoners. Because property was the means of attaining the social goals coveted by these tribesmen, it was very important to them. Property was eithcr in material goods -- canoes, blankets, copper plaques -- or in non-material traits - the right to sing a certain song, to use a particular name, to display a prized crest* Slaves were valued property and wore the captives taken by war parties. Wiarriors wore wooden helmets and slat armor and wore armed with bows and arrows, spears., war clubs., and daggers. The central figure of mythology was the Raven, but the important dcities were the fish and sea- mammals. In each community there were certain men and women who had special rapport with the supernatural 56 beings. Theso shamans functioned chiefly in the treatment of sickness, but thoywere also crcdited with powers of sorcery, with influence over the wcather and over the run of fish. The tribes on and near Vancouver Island, thoe KWAKIUTL, NOOTKA, BE LCOOLA, COWICHAN, KLULLA, QUIXEUTE:, and CON)X, diffored in some respects from the northernmost groups; there was a tendency toward patrilineal descont, there wcre societis writh religious functions which conducted the winter ceremonies, such as the Cannibal, Bear, and Fool societiess Farther to the south, along the Washington and Oregon coast, liveod a number of small tribos whose way of life was basically similar to that just described, but with less luxuriance and intensity. Among these groups were the TWANA, CHA3LLIS, CHBIOOK, SALISH, TILLAM)OK, ALSEX, COOS, CHASTA COST.A, TAEIMdA, and KAIAPUYA. The southerrnmost affiliates of this culture area were the Klamath River tribes of northwestern California, the WIYOT, KAROK, HUPA, and v YUROK. The ruling passion in these groups was the quest for money, which took the form of Dentalium shells. Women were the shamans and also the artisans here, producing basketry of a very high ordor. Ceremonies consisted of rociting set formulae at spocific sacred places. CALIFORNIA Not all the aborigines who lived within the boundaries of presnt- day California are included in this culture area, but those are who inhabited the great central valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers and who lived along the coast for some two hundrcd miles to the north and to the south of San Francisco Bay. Though situated between the strong culture centers of the North Pacific Coast and of tho Southwest (described bclow), they were little influenced by either and developed a characteristic way of life of their own. Acorns wore the basis of subsistence, supplementod by various kinds of wild soeds and some fish and game. Women wore little but a short skirt of hide; men oven less, principally a small piece of hide folded around the hips, Moccasins were used only on journeys and in cold weather. Houses usually had a framarork of poles covered with bark, brush, earth, or tulo. In most settlements there was a special structure, the "mswat house", used by the men as assembly room and dormitory and frequently heated until tho sweat poured from the inmates. Social groupings were simple* A cluster of related families formed a settlement or villangce; frequently the fm ilies were associated into totemic clans, a person's clan being that of his father. Marriage was by purchase and a man could not marry a woman of his own clan* There wore few occasions on which a clan or a group of clans acted together; political orgacnization was feebleo Warfare was relatively rare* 57 A girl' s puberty was celebrated by an important ceremony. The girl had to fast and undergo other restrictions; songs wore sung over her and dances revolved around her for several nights. The main singers wore usually the shmans whose songs were believed to have been taught them by their faniliar supernatural beings. Curing was a shaman's prime function; illness was thought to be caused by the presence of some intrusive clement or object in the patient's body. It was the shaman's business to use his magic powe'rs to extract it. in initiation ceremony into a men's society was practiced by most of these groups, being most highly developed in the lowor part of the Sacramento Valley, among the southern sections of the LAIIDU and WTINTUN and among the FOMO. Boys went through a double initiation, onc before puberty and a second soon after puberty. The society held four-day dances in earth-covered lodges* The dancers wore feathered costumes and were represented as returning spirits of the ancient ones -- or so the uninitiated were supposed to think. These three tribes intansively developed most of the typical traits of the area, as in basketry' Pcmo baskotry, especially, was highly skilled; 'it is considered to be equal to the finost basketry made anywhere,* The Pomo spoko a language of the Hokan family; tribes using related languages wore the SHlSTAk, YANA, YUKI, W1APPO, and S,LfN. Ponutian languages were spoken by the Maidii and Wintun,and by the MIWOK and YOKUTS in the San Joaquin drainagc, and by the COSTNOAWIS of the coast between San Francisco and Monterey bays* In the northwost corner of the California area (in the vicinity of Cape Mendocino) and transitional in culture between it and the southernmost groups of the North Pacific area, lived a cluster of Athabascan speaking tribes, the IXTTOLE, SINKYONE, LASSIK, NONGATL, WAIIAKI, KATO', and CHILULl. GREAT BASIN Adjoining the California area on the east, were tribes of the Great Basin culture area, occupying the large interior drainage basin covering the present states of Nevada and Utah, plus adjacent parts of Oregon, Idaho, and Wyoming. It was an arid region, sparsely inhabited by small, scattered oroups of people who lived mainly by seed-gathering and hunting. Pine nuts were a major food in many places and habitations were shifted to follow the best yield of nuts. Conmunal rabbit drives were held in the fall; in the spring, antelope drives would be led by a shaman who was believed to have special supernatural powers for the purpose. Since these were the main occasions when people assembled, dances were held then, gambling went on, and shamans performed their curing procedures. Dress and housing were simple, generally like the California patterns. Basketry was fairly well developed among several of these tribes, 58 The small, bilateral tfmily was the main social unit. There was little tribal cohesion; the femilies inhabiting a certain geographic iocality were known by the name of tbe lality, in addition to the generic tribal name* The typical tribcs were Shoshonean speakers, the UTE, PAIUTE (including PAVT30), nd $ N (includng OSIUTE) AI&o sharing in this culture type wre several tribes whose territory was within present 'day Calif o'mila, the C-LC-EHUEVI, PANAWINT, KAWIAIISIU and MONO. Geogrqhically and ltrl ansitional btween California and the Great Basin were the twV*s ,t U** Pit River (Northeast California) and Klamath Lake (South 0roga) region, the KIAMATH, MODOC, ACHOMAWI, and ATSUGEWIi On the opposite rim of the l Bain., along the Wind River of 'Wyoming, lived the WI1JD flVER S (t?XTAH or UNCQOMPAHORE UTE) who had been much influenced by Plei#e oustoms.- On the northern rim, along the Snake River of Idaho, there wore peoples basically of this culture area, but who made groat ute C the salmon that were available in the rivers They were the WNOC( (or WiOTIUEIN PAIUTE) and the L5IXX SHOSHONI. PIA"MAt' To the north of the Great Basin, on the high plateau which forms the drainare of +he Columbia and Fraser rivers, lived the tribes grouped in the Plateau culture area. They, too, were a thiner, scattered population with little tribal cohesion* Thiir cultures, like those of the Great Basin, rwere generally on a simple plane and differed principally in that the staples of diet were salmon, dried and pulverized for storage) roots (especially the camas root),t berries, and deeri Food was cooked in baskets or lined holes by dropping hot stones into the container of liquid. Winter houses were often partly Mderground; sumer houses were crude sheltex's covered with mats, rush, or barkw Clothing was of deerskin and covered the whole body; in cold weather blankets of woven rabbitakin were u'sed. Woven bags carried food and utensilsa and basketry was very finely made. There were scme patterns, such as the potlatch and armor,; reminisacert of the North Pacific Coast, though not strongly developed. The Dalles of the Columbia River was an important trading center in the latter period of the aboriginal life and people from the many small tribes along the lower and middle Columbia came there to barter. Plains influence affected these tribes to the extent that the and parrfeche were used and elaborate floral designsj in beadwork were made, eakers of Chinook languages among these tribes were the WISHRAM, WASCO, and MULTNOMAJI Sahaptin speakers were the TENINO, UmATILMA, YAK ILMA WALLA WALIA, KLIKITAT. C(lLIZ, PZfALLUP, NI'NtSQUALLY, PCWANWAIAM14, 7AI\TAPA!i, and PAWS* Those who used Salish languages were the SPOKANE, 17ENATCHI, and SINKISE. The WLAIA and CAYUSZ spoke languages related to Salish. 59 Along the upper reaches of the Columbia there were a number of Salish speaktn peoples, the L2THW, OXAAGONp SANPOIL, NStLEU, COLVIZ, L PDf D'QRELL, ALZSMFL, COUR D'ALWiNE, and FIAT1MAD, Do.rder=ng on the Plains were the $ehaptin-speakir NBZ PRC2 and the KWIMNAX, whose lwguage ia related to 3alish* In the Fraser tiver region rere the LILWOTB, THOLJON, and SHUSW1AP wh- used Salishan languages, and the NICOLA and CWLCOTIN who spoke Athabacan tongues. VWESTERN AND EASTEN SUBRTIC Just below the arctic coast of the Rekimo, extendng in a broad band across the continent from the Rockies to Laborador and Newfoundland, is the present and the ancient habitat of te subarctic tribs Cribou, the main source of food, still are taken in winter drives9 usually being driven onto snow or ice .tere they flounder and can eaily be killed. Snowshoes enable the hunters to travel long disance-s in the winter; tobaggans are drawn by doge or by hand. Swuer travel is largely by canoes, made of birehbark or skin. Fish are eaten, at some places and in some seasons being the main item of diet* They are taken by hook and line, with nets, or are speared. The cache is important as a means of storing, until needed, the food taken in a successful hut or fishing expedition. Clothes are cut and tailored. and are wa= against the subarctic winter. Frequently the moccasjn is made with legging attached and is ornamented with quillwork and beadwork in floral desiGns. Robes woven of strips of rabbitskin are common. Household utensils are mostly of birch bark; spruce root fibers and the semi-tanned skin strips called babiche are used as ropes and thongs. Rousing generaly takes the form of a conical framework of poles, covered with hides or bark. The simple family is the importasnt social group; there is little tribal cohesion. Shmans sing their songs of supernatural power to the accowpanilent of a tambourine dru. The custom of foretelling the future or anwering questions by reading the cracks on a bone, usually the heated shoulder bone of a large animl is prevalent. The vast expanse of territory most of the area of Cnda -- which is encompassed in this culture area, is divided into two major sections by Hudson Bay. The tribes west of Hudson Bay are speakers of Athabascan languages. Those tribes of the wester subarctic who live in the drainage of the Yukon River and alaog the Rockies have been influenc-ed by t.raits from the Eakimo and the North Pacific peoplec. Among them there is considerable use of saln and they have the complex of customs that goes with the catching and use of salmn. l{ouses ae more substantial than are those in the eastern.,subartic, often being made of planks and partly underground. They have clans and a more highly developed ceremenial life than elsewhere in the areas These "Pacific Drainage" cultures, according to Osgood's classification, 6o include the following tribes: AHTENA, CARRIER, HAN, INGALIK, KOYUKON, KUITOHIN, NAHESNA, TAHLTAN, TANAINA, TANANA, TSETSAUT, and TUCHCCtE. The other tribes of the western subarctic, whose range lies mainly in the drainage system of the Mackenzie River and of other rivers flowing into arctic water, are the BEAR LAKE$,BEAVER, CHIPEWYAN, DOGRIB, HARE KASKA, MOUNTAIN, SEKANI, SLAVE, and YELLlCrKNMM E. The tribes of the eastern subarctic, to the south and east of Hudson Bay, are speakers of Algmnquian languages, save for the extinct BEOTHUK of Newfoundland whose tongue was probably related to Algonquian though not properly of that linguistic family. These northeastern tribes are still hunters and trappers and are engaged in the fur trade, as they have been for over two centuries. They are the CREE, SAULTEAUX, M.IONTAGNAIS, NASKAPI and TZTE NE BOULE. EASTERN WMODLAED The tribes whom the American colonists knew, traded with, and fought a"ainst, wetre mainly those of the Eastern Woodland area wlhich stretched south from the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence ,iiver valley to the valley of the Ohio River and to the Carolinas, and eastward from the Lississippi Rver to the Atlantic seaboard, These peoples raised maize, squash, and beans, and hunted deer, bear, wild fowl, and sometimes buffalo. Deer were driven into water, wherever possible, and then dispatched by bow and arrow or spear from bark canoes or dugouts. Fish were taken with hook, spear, or net. In winter, hunters wore snowshoes; the toboggan was occasionally used. Loads were often carried on the back, held by a tumpline around the shoulders or forehead* Men's clothing consisted of a breech clout, leggings, a sleeved shirt, and soft soled mocassins. WYomen wore a short skirt and a jacket. Skin robes were used in cold weather. Gannents were ornamented with floral designs done in quillwork and beadvork-; Winter houses wore generally dome shaped, with coverings of mat or bark placed over a frame of bent poles. The summer dwelling was either a rectaLngular bark house or a conical wi covered with mats, hide, or bark. Household utensils were of bark or wood; fine mats were woven and some splint basketry made. Families were brouped into clans and the clans into tribes. The people of a tribe generally acted together, principally in matters of warfare. Raids against other tribes were accompanied with much ritual which consisted mainly of manipulating sacred objects that were wrapped in ceremonial bundles. A scalp dance celebrated the warriors' victorious return. Religious ideas revolved around the concept of a supreme deity, Manitou, and a host of subordinate supernaturals, many of them animal spirits, who would reveal themselves to mnen, Those who had such supernatural visions coul.d become shamans and would invoke their guardian 61 spirits to aid in curing, clairvoyance, warfare, or whatever project the shaman undertook as part of his religious role. There was a region of especially dense population around Lake Michigan and Lake Superior, in present-day WYisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota* Here lived the Algonquian speaking IENOMINI, SAUK and POX, OJISVA (CHIPPEWA), POTAYWATOMI, MASCOUTEN, and the Siouan speaking rWINNEBAGO. These peoples gathered an abundant annual harvest of the wild rice which grew along the edges of the many lakes and streams in their country. This economic surplus allowed for luxury develop- ments, such as their rich ceremonial life* Some of the ceremonies had to do with the middwiwin, a secret society with initiations for each of its several degrees and having a panoply of special ritual, songs, and paraphernalia. The climax of a mid6wiw'in performance came when an animal skin was brandished toward a novice and a shell was thus supposed to be ma,ically propelled into him. lWhen the shell was removed, again by magical procedures, the subject was then supposed to be fortified with the supernatural powers of the ceremony. Relationship was reckoned chiefly through the father; the exogamous, patrilincal clans were also totemic in that all members of a clan were held to have a special relationship with the creature or object for whom the clan was named. Similar customs were followed by the tribes who lived along the north shores of Lake. Superior and Lake Huron, the Algonquian speaking OTTAWA, ALGCIKIN, and the OJIBWA of Canada. These latter, peoples did not have as ample wild rice harvests, but at certain seasons they took great catches of fish, notably sturgeon. South of the wild rice region, in what is now Illinois and Indiana, were tribes of similar culture though somewhat poorer economically. These also were Algonquian speakers, the IILINOIS (including the CAHOKIA, KASKASKIA, PEORIA, and TAMAROA) and the MIAMI (including the PIANKASHAW ,and WEA). A good part of the upper Ohio River valley seems to have been uninhabited in early historic times, but in the eighteenth century it was filled with tribesmen moving away from the encroachments of the colonists along the Atlantic coast. This region then held some of the SHAWNEE, the DELAIWARE (or LENAPE), and the KICKAPOO, all Algonquian speakers* Many of thn tribes of the Atlantic slope were crushed so early that comparatively little is knowrn about. them. But there are still survivors of the MICIMAC and AIAKI in Nova Scotia and Nerw Brunswik arid of the P52IODSCOT, PAXSSAIl1A'UODDY, and MAIACITE in Maine. These Algonquian speaking peoples practiced some agriculture and used maple sugar, but c-. otherwise had strong cultural resemblance to their northern neighbors of the eastern subarctic area. The tribes of southern and central New England were more dependent on agriculture. All were Algonquian speakers -and all are now extinct. They were the FEM1DJACOOK, VWAPPINGER, NIPMUCK, IOCUMTUCK, MASSACHUSET, NAUSET, WAUIPANOAG, COWESIT, NARRAGANSET, NIANTIC, Il)HEGAN, PEQUOT, MONTAUK, QUINNIPIAC, UNQUACHOG, and NAUGATUCK. 62 South of New England to the Carolinas, the Atlantic coast tribes had more intensive agyriculture. They made pottery, used stone bowrls and pipes, and utilized edible roots for food.. Some were Algonquian speakers, such as the CONOY, N.12TICOKE, POIMATAN, PAIZICO, DELAMRE (including MUNSEE), and SHAE; some wore Siouan speakers, the CATAIMA and TUTELO; others were Iroquoian speakers, the TUSCADORA and NOTTAWAY. The main group of Iroquoian speakers in the Eastern VWoodland area lived in the region around Lake Erie and Lake Ontario and along the valley of the middle St. Lawrence* The most important of these peoples at the time of first white cotact were the tribes who lived in prosent- day New York state and together formed tho League of the Iroquois; they were the MOHAWK, ONEIDA, ONANDAGA, CAYUGA, and SENECA. Theirs was a vigorous, flourishing culture. Their villages were often surrounded with several hundred acres of tilled land; their storage pits were filled with corn, with dried venison and other meats, with nutritious nuts, roots, and berries. Their houses were long structures in which lived a number of families. They developed political institutions to a high degree; the League was in effect a federal union with representative government. It was based on the clan, the group of related families -- in this case the relationship was traced through the mother. Women had independent property rights and had an important voice in all tribal affairs. Then a man married, he went to li've with his wife's family; the house and all the household articles belonged to the womian. The tribe was composed of a group of clans who lived in a definite territory, spoke a distinctive dialect, and had a council in which the various cbans were represented. The council of the League was madc up of fifty peace chiefs or sachems, who decided on all matters affecting the common welfare. AunTanimous voto was necessary for a decision, but this did not seem to hamper the effectiveness of the federal organizatim, among the Iroquois at loast. Records were kept on strings of shell beads, called a There was a priesthood of three men and thrce women, the "Keepcrs of the Faith", which supervised religious ceremonies. Secret societies or "medicine lodg,cs" performed coremonies to propitiate special super_ rfatvifal bc:igs; each scictyhadits om songs and dancesi officecrs and ritual* Thc ritual was used particularly for curing and the members woro grotesque masks in the performance. Lilitary operations were a matter for private enterprise; a band of warriors oager for glory could take to the warpath against the onemies of the League. Only occasionally did all thc Iroquois unite forcos under a single war chief. From the time of their earliest contact, the Iroquois fought the French. Iroquois friendship and support was an important factor in the ultimate supremacy of the English over the French in North America. Of the same speech family and culture type as the Iroquois, though not with the same high political developmcnt, wore their neighbors the HUJ.11N, NEUTRALS (WYANDOT), ERE, CONESTOGA, SUSQUHAIMTNAl, and TIONONTATI. The TUSCAI.ORA became part of the Iroquois confederacy in 1715) SOUT}AST Political development also reached a relatively high level among many of the tribes of the Southeast, the regibn between the Savannah and Llississippi rivers, fronm Tennessee to the Gulf coast. Agriculture supplied the basis of subsistence in this area; the principal crops were maize, squash, and pumpkins. Tobacco was raised then as now, and sunflowers were cultivated* Deer were stalked, occasionally being taken in surrouncs. Fish were taken in weirs and by the use of fish poisons. Birds were killed with blow,gunst Houses were made in either round or rectangular plan, but were always built of a fra:uerwork of poles covered with wickerwork or plaster. Inside the house, a raised shelf ran along one wall to make a bed; it was often covered with mats finely woven in ornamental designs. Cane and splint basketry was used, as was pottery. Knives were made of shells or of sharpened reeds. Men wore the breech clout, sleeveless shirts, leggings, and mocassins in winter# A cloak of fur or hide was worn over the shoulders, sometimes being replaced by a mantle of feathers. lWomen wore a short skirt made of hide or woven out of grasses or mulberry bark and a loose fitting upper garment. Pearls and shell beads were prized as ornaments and were among the main items of aboriginal trade. Travel was largely by dugout caoe. Settlemcnts consisted of houses scattered through the woods; there was a central place for social gatherings and frequently a temple and community house. -, here there was danger of enemy raids, the houses were closer together, surrounded by a stockade which included watch tovers. Each town consisted of a number of clans; clan membership was through the matcrnal line. Noteworthy anong Southeastern cultures were the NATC.IEZ, who lived along the lower M;ississippi. This tribe had a casto system, headed by the Sun clan. The chiefs were of this clan; they had considerable autocratic powcrs, wcre bolne about on littcrs, and were considered to be descendants of the Sun deity. In the temples there burned a perpetual fire and there were recepta'oles containing the preserved bones of deceased members of the Sun clan. To the temple were brought the offorings made in the course of claboratc planting and harvest rituals. The greatest of these ceremonies was performed at the tine of the first picking of the new corn crop. On this occasion, everything was considered to be renewed and new fires were kindled for the beginning of a new year. 64 The peoples who had cultures of this southeastern typc and who spoke languages of the liuskogean family wore the ACOLAPISSA, ALABAMA., APALICHE,E, CHAKCHIUMA9, CHICKASAII, CHOCTAW, CREE1K, CUSAO, HITCHITI, HULA, KOASATI, MODILE, SE;UNOIZW, TUSKEGEE, and YAMASEE. Classcd with this culture grouping are the Siouan speaking OFO and BIIOXI, together with scveral tribes whose languages were related to Muskogean, the TUNICA, CHITIlACHA., TIMUCUA, and YUCHI. Also speaking ln guages rolated to ]luskogean, but posecs1 oulturujs considerably poorer and simpler than those of the other boutJioLstern peoples were the CALUSA of southern Forida, the KARANKAiWA, ?AWA, and ATAILKPA of the Texas Gulf coast, and the COAHUILTEC and TAMAULI1EC of the adjoining Mexican Gulf coast. The CHEROKEE wore originally a mountain poople of the southern ippalachian range, culturally affiliated with the southeast and speaking an Iroquoian language. Bordering on the Plains area and foUlowing some of the customs of the buffalo hunters, was a group of tribes whose way of life was nevertheless predominantly like that described for the Southeastern peoples. They wore the CADDO, KICHAI, WAICO, WICHITA, and TAWAKONI who spoke languages of the Caddoan family, and the QIJAPAW and ARKANSAW who spoke Siouan dialects* They Inhabited the valley of the Red River and adjoining parts of east Texas. PLAINS The great herds of buffalo which roamed the plains and prairies made possible the exuberant Plains culture, a typel which is probably the most popularly known of all American Indian cultures. There is good evidence to indicate that before the coming of the whites the plains region was relatively sparsely inhabited. But when the use of thc horse and the gun spread among these tribes -- often considerably in advance of actual contact with the whites who introduced these to the Indians -- the efficiency of the buffalo hunt vras so greatly increased that a more luxuriant culture and a denser population devclopod than had been possible beforc, Typical of this area were the tribeis who lived in the basins of tho upper Missouri and uppor Saskatchewan rivers And in adjacent lands that are now in Colorado and Wyoming. These were the Algonquian speaking BLICKFOOT (including the BLOOD and PIEGAN), ARA.PAHD, ATSINA (or GROS VENTRE), CHEYENNE, CROW, the Athabascan speaking SAURSI, and the Siouan speaking ASSINIBOIN and TETON DAKOTA. The last named tribe comprised several subdivisions ,the BRULE, HUNKPAPA,& KULUWITClTCA,. MINICONJOU, OGILA, TWiO KETTLE, and SANS ARC. These peoples had no agriculture, little fishing, and made small uso of roots and berries. Thoir staple of life was the buffalo; its flesh fed them, its hide clothed them and provided materials for their housing. Camps were moved to follow the buffalo herds and large social gatherings took place during the seasons when the buffalo hunt was most 65 productive. When many families came together, buffalo were usually hunted by partics of mounted men; if possiblo, the herds would be driven over cliffs or stampeded into pounds where they could be shot at vi11. A buffalo hide covcr ovor a conical frame of poles formed the tipi, the common form of housing. Rawhide boxes called Earflpches held the household possessions. They were decorated, as were other hide articles, Y&th geometric designs. Mon's clothing consisted mainly of the breech clout and mocassins. On special occasions leggings and a shirt were morn, with a buffalo robe in cold weather* Women wore a sleoveless one-piece dress. Ceremonial clothing.was elaborately decorated in quillwork or beadwork. Families which inhabited the same genoral geographic region were loosely organized into bands -- clans were either absent or weakly developed, except among a few tribes such as the matrilineal Crow. When a band or scveral bands camped together, the tipis were pitched in a great circle3, often with a council or warriors' t in the center, There were mcn's societies which had their own songs, regalia, and officers. These societies wero ofton ramkod by age, so that a man passed from one to the othor as he grew older. Frequently these societios policed the buffalo hunt. Transport was by dog and, in historic tiMes, by horse. Packs were not placed directly on the animals' back but were loaded on a travois, an . shaped contrivance of two poles and a crosspicco, which the dog or the horse dragged. Horses came to be the center of interest of the Plains people. To secure horscs they raided their neighbors and carried on constant warfare. War parties could be organized by any warrior eager for booty and glory. The leadcr of a war party was usually one who, for that purpose, had received some supernatural sanction in a vision' A.boy was sent out to some lonely place to receive a vision. There he fasted, sometimes tortured himself, until ho dreamed that he saw some supernatural being come to him and promise to aid him in his ventures. In the vision, this guardian spirit would teach the boy power-songs and instruct him in the ritual that he must perform in ordor .to recoive the boon of supernatural aid. This aid might be for success on the warpath, for skill in curing, or for any other purpose deemed desirableo On the return of a successful war party, a scalp dance was held to celebrate the victory, in the course of which each warrior counted coup, and recited his battlo deeds. The most important ceremony of all was the Sun Dance, hcld annually in midsummer, A special circular lodge was built for the ceremony, its conter pole brought into camp in ritual fashion, as though it wero an enemy. The Danco was usually. given in fulfillment of a vow and among some tribes the dancers who had vowed 66 to do so, tortured themselves* The Sun Dance and the other typical traits of the arca wcro found among the Algonquian speaking PLUMIS CREE and PL?INS OJIBI9 who occupied the northern edge of the area in what is now Saskatchewan and Manitoba, ovon though these tribes were late arrivals into the plains. They had ccio westward from their woodland homes in quest of furs for the fur tradc. Once out on the prairies they likedit so well that thcy stayed there and soon became full flcdgod plains dwellers* Between the Missouri and t3o 1Asa4ssaippi rivers in what is new North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota, were the Eastern Dakota. Tho subdivisions of this largc tribc wcro the IMiEAKANTON, SISSETON, WT.AHPEKUTE, WJ'HiETI-O- SANTEE, 3 ,d2~KTONi,. These were allied in a loose confederation and resemrblod their follows among the Western or Teton Dakota save that the eactern bands gathered somo wild rice, raised some corn, and generally were less completely dependent on the buiffalo than were the western bands. Along the stretch of the Missouri that flows through North Dakota there were three village tribes, the Caddoan speaking ARIKARA and the Siouan speaking MANDAN and HIDATSA. Though they wore, also buffalo hunting peoples, they lived in palisaded villages and practised agriculture. Their houses were earth lodges, rather than tipis, and the latter-two tribes had matrilineal clans. In the drainage area of the lower Missouri lived a group of Siouan speaking tribes who also did somc farming and usod eaith covered houses. The Sun Dance and other ceremonial aspects of the typical Plains tribes were cithler absont or weakly developed among them and they werc organized into patrilineal, totemic clans. Nevertheless, the general pattern of their cuJture classes them with the other Plains peoples. They wore the KANSA, MISSOURI, OTO, OMAHA;, PONCA, IOW,A, and OSAGE. The Caddoan specaking PAWNE have a number of Southeastern traits, but also wvere fundamncntally akin to the buffalo huntors. Among the fiercest warriors of the area were the tribes who lived near the hoadwvaters of the Red and Canadian rivcrs in prescnt-day Oklahona and Texas, Th-se were the COMLJNC13 KIOWiA, and KIOWAl[^-AlPACHE whose languages were, respectively, of the Shoshoneran, Kiowran, and Athabascan stocks. Thoir range was adjacent to that of the Apache of thei Soutlhwest area and in some ceremonial arid material traits they resembled their noighbors of the Southwest. SOUIThWIEST The territories occupied by the tribes of the Southwest culture area include modcrn New Mexico, Arizona, southern California, and northern Mexico to about thc Tropic of Cancer. Of the cultural sub-types, within the area, the best known and the most highly developed is that of the Pueblo peoples. 67 Of all tho North Amecrican Indians, therc are none who preserve the old way of life in higher degree than do the Pueblo tribes of New 'lleXiCO and .rizona. They still inhabit their old towns, still live in their aboriginal apartment houses made of adobc brick or stone chinked with clay and plastered over with mud. Most houses are now in one story, but a few are in several stories, cach terraced back from the one below. Women make fine painted pottery; some of their pieces are prizod by outsiders as works of art# Men weave textiles of native cotton and of wool. Formerly men wore a loin cloth, a poncho-liko shirt, a kilt and leggings -- all of cotton cloth. Occasionally a blanket woven of rabbitskin strips was used as a robe. Deerskin moccasins or yucca-fibro sandals were used on journeys. Semo women still wear the old costume, a cloth dress reaching from the shoulders to the knees and fastened over the right shoulder only. Women's mocassins have strips of deerskin extending up the leg. Both sexes wear necklacos, carrings, and anklcts of shell, turquoise, and silver, which the men make. These arc an agricultural people; they raised maizc, beans, squash, gourds, tobacco, and cotton in ancient days. Doer, antclopc, and rabbits wore hunted for food and for hides. Deer and antelope were driven into a stockade or worc simply run donm until the hunter could come right up to the exhausted animal and dispatch it. Corn is not only the staff of life, it is the sacred substancoo Corn meal is sprinkled and manipulated through all the complex Pueblo rituals and the claborate ceremonials aro performed primarily so that the deities will bring rain and an abundlit crop. Those ceremonies. are lengthy affairs which consist of long religious preparation by those responsible for their performance and then a public appearance, usually of dancors masked to impersonate the appropriate doities, in the plaza of the town. The religious organizations responsible for the various ceremonies moet in speciUl chambers, called kivas, which are usually partly underground. The kivas are used not only as chapels, but are also clubhouses and workshops for the men. There was a strong feeling of solidarity among the families of a town, though little cooperation existed among different pubblos. They were not warlike people, though they sometimes rctaliated for raids which thG Navaho, A.pache, or Comanche made against them. But for the most part they assumed a defensive role and many of the towns were located atop high mesas for reasons of defense. Pueblo traders often travelled among other tribes and frequently were middlemen in aboriginal trade, The western Pueblo peoples are the HOPI (including the towns of BAKABI, HOTAIVILLA, ORBIBI, SHIPAULOVI, SIMMOPOVI, MISHONGNOVI, SICHOMOVI, and Vi.;LPI) who speak a language of the Shoshonean family, the Tanoan speaking HLATON, and the ZUNI whose languago is probably 68 related to the Shoshoncan languages. These are the largest of the Pueblo groups and aro famous for their ceremonies, especially for the spectacular snake dance of the Hopi. The snake dance is actually not one of thc most important coremonies in tho annual cycle, but like the other rites, it is performcd as a means of propitiating the deities so that thcy will bring rain and all other blessings needful for thc welfare of the crop and of the tribe. The Hopi settlemcnts arc located on an arid, rocky plateau where the tribesmen must work hard and long in their fields to provide food for their familics. Despite this, almost as much time is spcnt in performing religious dutics as in tending the crops. Religion spreads through the whole fabric of lifeo The Sun is the highest of their gods and below him are many subordinato deities, =mong whom arc the katchinas, the spirits of departed ancestors who revisit the Hopi for six months every year and bring rain clouds with thenm Clans are important in Hopi life. A person belongs to ths clan of his mother and a man may not marry a woman of his own clan*. At marriago ho goes to live in the house of his wife's parents. Women own thu houscs, together with all tha household furnishings and food stores. Marriage is monogamous, but divorce is not difficult. If a woman finally loses all paticnec with her husband, she may simply pile his saddle, clothes, and other pcrsonal belongtings outside the door, WBhen he rcturns, ha knows that he has been divorced and picks up his gear to go back to live in his mother's house' until he marries again. Zufli culture is similar to that of the Hopi. The Zufli are also preoccupied with ritual, the intonation of set prayers, and the manipulation of prayer sticks and other sacred objects. The most holy objocts of all arc the sacred modecine bundles which are kept in the inner rooms of the houses of priests. No one over onters these sanctums except the priest when ho must perform the ritual and an elder woman of the household -- or the youngest girl child - to mnke offerings to the bundle before cvery meal, to "feed" it. Zufli is a theocracy where authority is wielded by the priests, who are organized into four major and eight minor priosthoods. The kachina priests perform certain ceremonial functions in thc calendric cycle of ccremonies; they put on their masks -- with the proper lengthy preface of ritual -- and come out at the timo whcn the childron are initiated* Some of the k"-tchina priests whip the boys and then take their masks off and put thcm on thc heads of the boys, This is the grcat revelation rhcn the boys lcarn that thc danccrs arc not actually the katchina spirits but only the priests masked as such. The scared boysarcevn thewhips and are commandod to whip the katchina pricsts as their first lesson in the fact that hcreforth they, as initiates, will have to perform the acts which the uninitiated beliove are performed by the katchina supernaturals. 6,~ Certain dancers i2;pursonate anhia"l supcrnaturals.. These are members of the socret societios which cure sickness, the medocine societios. The animal gods, chiof of wrhom is the bear, are the patrons of theso societies# From themo, it is believed, comos the members' powers to hear the sick* A person who is cured by the ritual of these societics must later takc up meaborship in the group of the doctor who has cured The eastern Pueblos, those near the Rio Grande River in Now Mexico, are gencrally like thoso of the west in economy and material arts. The matrilineal clan is less important among the eastcrn groups. .3mong;- some it is totally absent, being replaced by thc simpio family unit or by groups of patrilineal descent. In the castern towns, also, ceromonial- ism seems to be less elaborate, But this impression may only be a consequence of the fact that the eastern groups, to this day, are highly secretive about their ritual practices* The eastern pueblos fall into two linguistic groupings. Those speaking Tanoan languages arc TAOS, PICURIS, SANDIA., ISLETA., JEMEZ, SANT JUA.N, SANUTA CLRA, SAN ILlEFONSO, and TESUQUE. Those of the Keresan linguistic family are ACOM, COCHITI, SIA, S&AN FELIPE, LIGUNA, S.NTO DOMINGO, and S3ANTA AA. AIrchaeological investigations have demonstrated that tho Pueblos once cxtended over a much wider territory than was occupied by them in historic times. The record of the prohistoric rise of Puoblo culture is a fascinating one, showing how the Pueblo peoples developed from a simple hunting and gathering plano of life, callod "Basketmakert, through several stages in which pottcry, masonry, intensive agriculture and town settlmncnts appeared. By studying thc tree rings of the timbers taken from the ruins of ancient sites, archacologists havo been able to give a precise dating to some of these stages, back to th... early centuries of the Christian era. The causes of the rise and fall of Pueblo cUltures aro not clearly known, but in the early historic period the Pueblos 'Were being harassed by the raids of their Athabascan sp eaking neighbors, the lNavaho and Apache. The NA.VAHO, whose population of somn 55,000 makes them the largest existing tribe in the United States, still occupy their old homelamd in what is now northwestern New Mexico and northeastern Arizona. It is an arid region with just barely enough rainfall for agriculture. The Navaho grow corn, as they have for conturies past, but one of the mainstays of their present econony consists of the flocks of shoep which were originally acquired from the whites. Before that, hunting and food gathering wore of greater importance in Navaho economy than they are now* Dler and antelopc wcre the principal game animals. --They were driven into corr3ls or chased towards hunters stationod at strategic spots; sometimes hunters would just track the game until the animals could run no more. As was true very widely among American Indians, the boar was an ospecially sacred animal and 70 the killing of a bear had to be accompanied by special ritual practices* The ancient Navaho had a scanty costumc; a breochelout for mcn, a short two-piece apron for romen, with mocassins and animal hidos added in cold weather,& A^Lt the beginnig of the historic period, i the seventeenth century, they had adopted a version of the Pueblo drcss stylc. Wihon Navaho women saw the fashions worn by the wives of .,merican army officers in the 1860's, thoy took to wearing a modified form of that style, one which thoy liked so well that they still wear it* It consists of voluminous, flouncod skirts of bright calico and tight bodices of velveteen. Nowadays,. men usually wear variations of the cowboy costume, including large hats, colorful shirts, and neckerchiefs* Both men and women wear lavish silver ornaments which the tribesmen began to make about a contury ago. Navaho women learned to weave from the Pueblo people and their rugs and blankets have com to be known as among the finest oxamiples of Indian weaving. The house, called hogan, is a structure of logs, partially or wholly covered with earhE It is usually six-sided, with the roof logs grtadually built in toward the conter so that the top is mounded. A smoke hole is left in the ccntor. Pottery and basketry are old crafts, but nowadays baskots and pots are mado mainly for use in ceremonies, The N1avaho religious cerenmies, called "chants", are still central in the life of the people, for very few have abandoned the old religion. Ceremonies are conducted by chanters who have learned the detailed ritual of one or several of the rites, are able to repeat the proper prayers, sing the songs, manipulate the sacred objects, and make the dry paintings of colored sand that are...appropriate. In this procedure they must be letter perfect, for a mistakce is thought to cancel the beneficial effects of the ritual and may even -bring evil results. All chants are performed to cure someone who is sick, but the performance, in itself, is considered to be for the general good of the people. Each is considered to be under the auspices of a particular supernatural or a set of supernatu.rals. The performance of an important chant is a costly and lengthy affair; the relatives of the patient contribute toward its expense. Relationship through the mother is stressed; the matrilineal clan functions chiefly in regulating marriages because no one may marry a person of his own clan. The families scattered over a particular geographic region formed a band. There is now an elected tribal council, but in olden days there was practically no tribal solidarity. Bands from the interior of the area used to raid ilexican settlements knowing that they themselves were protected from reprisals by distance and that the consequent punitive expeditians by Mexican troops would strike the bands closer to the limits of the tribal territory. The bands of the APACHE, whose customs and dialects were similar to those of the Navaho, ranged over so great an expanse of territory and had so little tribal cohesion that occasionally a war party from one Apache band would raid the encampments of another. The major divisions 71 of the Western Apache, who lived and still live in eastern Arizona, are the TONTO, CIBECUtE, SAN CARLOS, and W!{ITE MOUNTAIN. The egstern Apache, whose range covered almost all of New ML1exico and southward into Texas and Mexico, include the JICARILLA, CHIMICAHUAA, LIPAN, and MESCALERO. The Apache did some farming, but relied mainly on hmting and on gathering wild fruits and seeds* Their houses were brush covered. structures built on a framsework of poles which were bent over and tied at the top. Costume has been generally similar to that of the Navaho; the Apache did little weaving but the'Western Apache were quite proficient at basketry. The eastemmost of the Apache were the Jicarilla, wrho wore close to the plains and who took over the tipi and other elements of Plains culture. Basically, howTevnr, the Jicarilla resembled the rest of the Apache. They tell the emergence myth which relates how the ancient ancestors of the tribe lived underground until they climbed up out of the underworld on a ladder of mountains and sunbeamse At the place of emergence they wero given instructions by the supernaturals as to how to conduct themselves in the world, Then they wandered in great clockwsise circles, Those who dropped off along the route became other peoples, but those who did not tarry reached the heart of the wvorld, the center of the universe; it was the Jicarilla Apache country and they spoke the Jicarilla Apachn language, The supernaturals tauglht the people how to conduct ceremonies, one of the most important of which is the four day rite given for a girl when she attains puberty.- Curing rites may be either in the form of lengthy set ceremonies, like the Navaho chants, or through the doctoring of a shaman who has received power to cure through some personal supernatural experience. Like many other of the Southwestern peoples, the Jicarilla Apache feared the ghost of one recently dead. Hence, burial rites are hurried. A corpse is washed, dressed, and its face painted red. The possessions of the deceased were interred with the body or burned, else the ghost would return to claim them. The relatives, especially those of the maternal clan, had to undergo a purifying ceremony. In northwestern Arizona, there were (and still are) three Yuman speaking tribes, tho YA,3XTPAI, WALAPAI, and HAVASUPAI who were geographic- ally and culturally close to the tribes of the Great Basin. But they did share some basic traits of the Southwest. Thwe Iiavrasupai, for example, farmed the bottom lands in tho Grand Canyon and used masks of the Hopi typo. Along the lotcwer Colorado River and its tributary the Gila URiver in western and southern Arizona, lived;a number of Yuman speaking peoples; the river tribes of the Colorado were the COCOPA, HALYIK1ALAI, KOIHUANA, YUMA, !-.ALCHIDHOIMA, cand iMOHAVE; those of the Gila were the 72 KAVELTCADOM and MARTO1ICOPA. These tribes cultivated the flood-plain of the rivers am-d eked out their diet with fish, rabbits, wild seeds, and fruits. Their houses were generally rectangular, flat topped, and earth covered* They made considerable quahtities of pottery, though little basketry or textiles. Their religious practices revolved around the individual' s experience in dreaming highly conventionalized dreams of a mythological patterno South of the Gila River. in Arizona and in adjacent parts of Mexico were the Shoshonean speaking PLA and PAPAGO. They were agricult- uralists who practiced irrigation. They wove cloth from native cotton, made basketry and a little pottery. Also Shoshonean speaking were the tribes of southern California below the Tehachapi Range, the GABRIELINO, SERRANO, CAHUILIA, LUISENO, JUANENO, CUPMO, TUBATULABAL, and the Hokan speaking CHUMASH. These were mainly food-gatherers whose culture was simple and contained only a few of the traits of the more complex Southwestern cultures# Southward to the tip of the peninsula of Lower California were tribes who used Yuman anc related languages, the DIEGUENO, KAM.;iLA, AKPXA'ALA, KILIWA, COCHIM1VI, WAICURFA, and PERICO* They too had a simple way of life, subsisting mainly on wild seeds and fruit and on fish and molluscs* In northern Mexico there were a number of tribes whose cultures were related to those of the American Southwest, who farmed whcre farming wtas possible, and who hunted and gathered wild foodstuffs to supplement their subsistence* They were such tribes as YAQUI, MAYO, PIMA BAJO,0 TEHUE3CO, CAHITA, OPATA, TARAIUMIARA, and SERI. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AIERICA Two great native civilizations developed in this region. The earlier was that of the MAYA of Yucatan. The great periods of the Maya city-states came during the eighth and again about the twelfth centuries A.D. Their towns wore social and religious conters into which the masses of people, who lived in small farming hamlets of the vicinity, came periodically to worship, to trade, or to celebrate festivals. The Maya farmer grew corn, beans, and squash as staple crops, but he also raised plants vwhich have caom to be important in many parts of the world -- tomatoes, chili poppers, sweet potatoes, and cocoa* Tobacco and cotton were also growm. A shifting agriculture was practiced in that new fields would be cleared out of the forest and jungle every year and the old, no longer productive fields abandoned. 73 The towns contained great masonry tcmples which were elaborately decorated in sculptured stone and plaster and which wrere often erected atop pyramids. Some of the carvings are a form of hieroglyphic writing which has not yet been deciphered* Other carvings, those which represent their astronomical and calendric computations, have been decoded, though there is still disagreement among scholars as to the exact dates which are represented. But it is clear that the Maya knew enough to foretell the positions of the stars and planets, such as the changing positions of Venus, and to predict eclipses of the sun and moon. They had invented a series of numbers with the place system used and counted by multiples of twenty rather than of ten. This learning was entirely in the hands of the priests. They trained novices in the lore of the culture and conducted the service of the deities in the temples. Sacrifice was an important part of this service, usually of animials, but sometimes of humm beings& At one period there were nunneries to which were sent youn, girls especially selected for th'iir grace and beauty. The most distinguished of the girls wore selected for the highest honor, that of becoming brides of the doities and of beinc sacrificod on the altar of the temple. 1lcquisito for personal beauty was a forchcad which slanted back sharply fron the ceebrows. Babies' hecads were bound with boards so that thcy would grow to.have the peaked head considered comely. Squinted eyes were also considered handsome as vwere teeth which had been filed to a point. Men ordinarily wore little more than a breech- clout, but priests and nobles had wooden helmets adorned w'ith strcamers of cloth and feathers, jaguar skin mantlcs, and ornamonts of gold and jadc. Women wore a simple one-piece dress which hung, sack-like, from the shoulders to the feete The social order was feudal, with the priests and nobility ruling and directing the work of the common people, There were many public facilities, such as great granaries in which corn was stored as a precaution against a possible poor harvest, Slaves were either war captives or citizens temporarily enslavod for debt or misdeed. Through the thirteenth and fourteenth cmturies, a series of devastating wars among the city-states was followfed by famines and epidemics so that when the Spanish landed in Yucatan in 1517, they were able to conquer the remnants of once powrerful societies. Maya speaking descendants of the ancient peoples still live in the region, but lit tle of the great achicvements of tho old civilization has survived among thgm. They are such groups as the CHONTAL, CHOL, CHORTI, and LACADON. Still flourishing w,hnn thc Spaniards first arrived, were the AZTECS of the vallcy of Lexicoo Their civilization was a continuation of that developed by the Maya ad their noighbors. The magnificent Aztec temples, sculptures, and astronomical and mathematical knowledge were continuations of M}laya ideas rather than original contributions. 74 The great Aztec accomplishments were in organization, administration, and conquest. Like the Hlaya, they vwcre agriculturalists. Corn was thoir staple crop. Tho productivity of their farming was greatly increased by thc invention of chiampas, floating gardens. These wore smnall artificial islands made in rnmsEWIEds and consisting of mud scooped over a raft or within a revetrient. As vegetation grcw on the farm plot so made, the so'il wvas bound together into a firm and fertile gardcn. The maguey plant, also called agave or contury plant, was known as the fried of the poor. Its roots wore used for food, its leaves for thatch, its fibers for textile thread, and its juice formented into an alcoholic beverage, pulque, which is still used and which has important nutritive as well as exhilarating valueso Society was organized in offective fashion. A group of families formed a clan, Each clan rogulated its own affairs, but joined with the other clans of the tribe in a council of clan leaders. This council decided all mattcrs of tribal importanceo There were schools gaintained by the clan in which children were trained in arts and crafts, in history and religious observances, and in warfare. A special school was devoted to training in ritual and in the duties of a chief. The great power of the Aztecs began when a number of tribes formed a union. They were thus able to vanquish all surrounding peoples until the cxtent of the Aztec empire was nearly that of modern Mexico. An able monarch of the Aztec League, Montezuma the First, reigned from 1440 to 1469, a time when Aztec fortunes wore at their peak& The ruler held court in a center which contained stone palaces and temples. The temples were great structures often built on pyramid-like platformnsj in them the priests mado frequent sacrifices on the altars. Human sacrifice was necessary for important occasions and one of the reasons for the constant warfare in which Azted armi's engagod was the necessity of securing captives for sacrifice. Comerce was encouraged by the state; merchants formed a class of hig,h prestige. Mlerchants would travel in groat caravans -- loads were carriod on the backs of porters -- and thus spmad Aztec knowledge and artifacts over the rwhole region of Central Aencricao, Law courts functioned in every market conter; the lower courts. were under a centralized judicial council which was headod by a suprome judge. He had the power of final review. Religion extended through all activitics. The most popular sport was one played in the ball courts of a tample. It was a game played with a hard rubber ball which could be struck only with the elbows, hips, or logso One of the ways in which a scoro was made was by passing the ball through a ring set vertically in the wall at each ond of the court. 'ifhcn this type of score was made, the scoring side and 75 their friends had the right to snatch the clothes off the backs of the losing side. W[hen Cortez and his followers arrived in 1519, they shattered Aztec government and civilization* The Spaniards destroyed nearly all of the treasures of thc Aztecs, finely carved jade and turquoise ornaments, rich cloaks of featherwork, and precious sculptures. They burned the books of picture writing and torc down the temples and the tablets of calondar records* Thouah the civilizntion vras wrecked and thc spirit of the pcople brokcn, the Sp-anish could not wipe out every vestige of the Aztec way of life. ..Many of the Aztecan (Nahuatl) languages survivod and a.re still spoken in Mexico among such Indians as the HUICHOL, CORA1, MIXTEC, ZAFOTEC, TOTONXC, and HUASTEC. Aztec cultural influence extended southwrard to the rcgion of modern Costa Rica; beyond there the cultures were of a South Anmrican casts From Nicaragua into Mexico the aboriAinal languages may frequently be heard and vestiges of the ancient cultures remain. 76 BIBLIOGRAPHY These are some of the principal sources used: Birket-Smith, K. 1936 The Eskimos. ?bthuen and Co., London. Goddard, P. E. 1914 Indians of the Northwest Coast. Anmrican Museum of Natural History,, Handbook Series no. 10. New York. 1931 Indians of the Southwest. American Museum of Natural History, Handbook Series no. 2. New York. Jeness, D. 1932 The Indians of Canada. F. C. Acland, Ottawa. Kroeber, A. L. 1925 Handbook of the Indians of Calif orni, Bureau of American Ethnology,, Bulletin 78. Washington. 1939 Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. University of California Publications in Anmrican Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 38. University of California Press, Berkeley. Morley, S. G. 1946 The Ancient . Stanford University Press, Palo Alto. Murdock, G. P. 1941 Ethnographic Bibliography of North America, Yale Anthropological Series, vol. 1. Yale University Press, New Haven. Pareons., E. C. 1939 Pueblo Indian Religion. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 2 vols. Radin, P. 1916 The Winnebag Tri Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, vol. 37, pp. 35-560. Washington. Ray, V. 1939 Cultural Relations in the Plateau of Northwestern America. The Southwestern Museum, Los Angeles. Speck, F. G. 1935 Nas . University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. 77 Spier, L. 1933 Yumxrn Tribes of the Gila River. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Steward, J. H. 1940 Native Cultures of the Intermontane (Great Basin) Area, Smitheonian Institution Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 100, pp. 445-502. Washington. Swanton, J. R. 1946 The Indians of the Southwestern United States, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 137. Washington. Vaillant, G. 1941 The Aztecs 'of Mxico. Doubleday and Co., New York. Wisslerr, C. 1934 North American Indians of the Plains. American Museum of Natural History, Handbook Series no. 1. New York. 1938 The American Indian. Oxford University Press, New York. 78