CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Long assumed a prehistoric backwater, the Big simple adaptation and includes the possibility of Sur coast of central California was routinely passed natural resource shortages, human overexploitation, over by archaeologists for decades. Between Point and demographic imbalances wrought by both human Sur and Point Piedras Blancas (Figure 1), Big Sur's economic proclivities and unfavorable environmental Santa Lucia Range encompasses some of the steepest circumstances. coastal terrain in western North America with an Ecological archaeology has recently come under exceptionally diverse terrestrial biome that interfaces attack by post-modernists (e.g., Arnold et al. 1997; with a high-energy, exposed, rocky shore. Brumfiel 1992; Bender 1985) who envision diachronic Systematic archaeological surveys, initiated in the cultural patterns as reflections of highly individualistic 1970s and 80s, revealed shell middens of widely histories of power, social conflict, elite conspiracies, varying size in settings ranging from shoreline and gender inequities, minimally influenced by terraces to small benches, 4-5 km inland at elevations environmental context These authors make little in excess of 850 m. Middens with high shell content distinction between ecology and adaptation, but their are also found in the interior valleys of the South criticisms are more suitably directed at the latter. Coast Range, 20-30 km inland. With chronological Models of hunter-gatherer adaptation often envision controls provided by excavation, artifact and faunal only limited relationships between humans and their assemblages from a sample of these deposits environment, emphasizing simple cultural adjustments illuminate systems of subsistence, settlement, and and relative demographic balance. Conceptualizations exchange employed over the last 6400 years by of this type emerged in California in the 1960s and 70s, resident hunter-gatherers. Marine resources were incorporating long-held historical perceptions of the used throughout this sequence, but diachronic California natural environment as rich and stable, and variability in the importance and intensity of the California Indians as generally in sync with their marine resource exploitation was greatest across two natural surroundings. This image was initially forged periods of transition: one ca. 3500 B.C. and the by A. L. Kroeber, who hypothesized a complacent second ca. A.D. 1000-1300. Marked changes in diet environmental past largely in the absence of substan- and settlement suggest that population growth was a tial paleoenvironmental information: significant agent of cultural change at these junctures, but population-induced stress was also exacerbated ... the food resources of California were by high intensity, rapidly-transpiring environmental bountiful in their variety rather than in flux ca. A.D. 1000-1300. Systems of social organ- their overwhelming abundance ... If one ization may have changed at these times, in response supply failed, there were hundreds of to varied labor requirements associated with others to fall back upon. If a drought alternative resources and the subsistence capabilities withered the corn shoots, if the buffalo of different members of the hunting and gathering unaccountably shifted, or if the salmon groups. Explanation of these transitions requires a failed to run, the very existence of full-scale ecological perspective in which human peoples in other regions was shaken to interaction with the environment is not limited to its foundations. But the manifold 2 Introduction distribution of available foods in those that might have impacted the quality and California and the working out of abundance of basic subsistence resources. Most corresponding means of reclaiming obvious are high intensity, rapidly transpiring them prevented a failure of the acorn environmental oscillations associated with natural crop from producing similar effects. It disasters (e.g., floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, or might produce short rations and racking tornadoes) and short-term ecological catastrophes (see hunger, but scarcely starvation. (Kroeber Oliver-Smith 1996). Such events are sometimes 1925:524) invisible in the archaeological record, particularly in the distant past, but intervals of sustained and/or repeated In 1976, in a series of papers edited by Lowell ecological/demographic problems are potentially John Bean and Thomas Blackburn, entitled "Native detectable. Californians: A Theoretical Retrospective," the Many extant treatments of California prehistory richness of the California natural environment was deal with environment, population growth, and wed to Native resource management strategies and culture change in one of these limited ways. Models conservation. Most of the views expressed in this emphasizing population growth and/or cultural volume emphasized the ecological sophistication of evolution posit unilinear or incremental explanations. hunting and gathering adaptations in Native Simple optimization and intensification, while California. The most strident of these was posed by positing different causal mechanisms, often resemble Bean and Lawton who argued that California Indians the unilinear configurations of cultural evolution were not really hunter-gatherers at all, but rather (Fredrickson 1994:100). Cultural ecological models "semi-agriculturalists," who enhanced the natural posit more varied trajectories in response to the productivity of their environment with such skill vagaries of environmental fluctuation. These are (largely through the application of controlled burning countered by suggestions that human influence over [see Lewis 1973]) and sophistication that they had their environment (i.e., overexploitation) may have achieved a hunting and gathering equivalent of been more significant than the affects of climate. agriculture. California Indians were envisioned as Models positing prehistoric resource overexploitation managers of a rich, stable environment, that they are, in turn, opposed by those in which prehistoric manipulated only in ways that benefited both resource stewardship and conservation are themselves and natural ecosystems. emphasized. Supplanting these neo-functionalist perspectives In this study, four alternative explanations for are more recent Neo-Darwinian theories which rely on regional diachronic variability in diet, mobility, and concepts of optimal foraging and economic exchange are considered. Evaluation of the relative intensification --linked with population growth -- to effectiveness of different perspectives is based on explain diachronic variability in settlement and their explanation of transitions at 3500 B.C. and A.D. subsistence often without reference to environmental 1300, since the value of a particular theory is readily change. Intensification concepts have provided good exposed in its treatment of the direction and character explanations for diachronic variability in subsistence of cultural change. Extant theories used elsewhere in among hunter-gatherers in the North Coast Range California, discussed below, include the (Basgall 1987; Bouey 1987), the Mojave Desert gradualist/cultural evolutionary model, a sea (Basgall and Hall 1992), and the coasts of California temperature/cultural ecology model, resource and Oregon (Beaton 1991; Broughton 1994, 1999; stewardship, and simple intensification. Ultimately it Hildebrandt and Jones 1992). Despite this success, will be argued that none of these constructs alone these models also consider only limited directions for provide fully effective explanations for the Big Sur change in the prehistoric past, as the apices of coast, largely because the archaeological record subsistence intensity, social complexity, and exchange reveals a sequence of multi-directional change. Much are usually seen as occurring immediately prior to of the diachronic variability can be directly attributed historic contact to intensification and transcendence of environmental The wholesale rejection of environment as an change, but rapidly transpiring environmental agent of change in optimal foraging and intensification problems ca. A.D. 1000-1300 had a marked affect models is bound ultimately to lead to unsuccessful, on population and culture. The high intensity climate inaccurate characterizations of the past. Environmental change at this juncture may have been a significant change was probably not the primary cause underlying cause of cultural shifts, reflecting the distinction most cultural transitions in western North America, but between low intensity/long duration environmental some types of environmental events provoke changes change and rapidly transpiring environmental that simply cannot be ignored. Especially critical were degradation. Hunter-gatherers are capable of wea- Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Suir Coast 3 accc o 00~~ 0 it w cc~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~c LLJ~~~~~~2S c 0~~~~~~~~I C4~~~~~~ z~~~~~~~ I.- z~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 w 40 2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 4ti~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~U co~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r ir cc'4,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ diL 04~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~V 4 Introduction thering low intensity/long duration environmental SEA TEMPERATURES AND CULTURAL flux, but growing populations are susceptible to rapid ECOLOGY environmental oscillation. Effective explanations must account for behavioral trends that are not Changing sea temperatures have been simply unidirectional or gradualist, and consider emphasized in a series of publications by environmental change of varied intensity, population archaeologists from the University of California, growth, demographic imbalance, human impact on Santa Barbara (Glassow 1992; Glassow et al. 1988; subsistence resources, and social organization. Davenport et al. 1993; Walker and Lambert 1989). Proponents suggest that Holocene changes in ocean GRADUALISM AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION water temperatures strongly influenced marine productivity, subsistence vitality, and cultural change Many maritime prehistories, particularly those among maritime hunter-gatherers in California. concerned with population growth, can be classified Glassow et al. (1988), for example, suggest that seal as gradualist or unidirectional. As populations and sea lion pursuit was strongly encouraged, if not gradually increased, cultures slowly evolved, initiated in the Santa Barbara Channel by a decline in adapted, and changed. Although the era of its water temperatures ca. 3400 B.C., as nearshore theoretical domination has long passed, cultural productivity was enhanced by colder ocean waters evolutionary concepts contribute to many models of which encouraged an increase in sea mammals, prehistoric marine resource exploitation in California. rendering them more available to human populations. The key attribute of cultural evolutionary sequences Concurrent adoption of the mortar and pestle, a is their inevitable postulation of transitions from possible reflection of acorn use, was attributed to a simple to more complex and from worse to better, loss of habitat for seed-bearing plants, associated generally as a consequence of the discovery of new, with the earlier milling technology, as a consequence improved technologies. Chartkoff and Chartkoff of early Holocene sea level rise. In contrast, an (1984:40), for example, suggest that Paleoindians in apparent deterioration of environmental conditions California "lacked the knowledge" to exploit ca. A.D. 500, coincident with a rise in sea water shellfish, acorns, and fish, further stating that only temperatures (Pisias 1978) caused resource stress "much later would the rich potential of ocean (Walker et al. 1989) and in-migration of southern resources be realized more fully" (Chartkoff and ichthyofauna (Davenport et al. 1993). When Chartkoff 1984:108). Fitch (1972:115) attributes an considered separately, the Glassow et al. (1988) increase in fish remains during the Middle Period at explanation for mid-Holocene cultural change and Diablo Canyon on the San Luis Obispo coast to the the Walker and Lambert (1989) characterization of discovery of shell fishhooks. Fredrickson (1974, the Middle/Late transition are reasonable and 1994) endorsed a cultural evolutionary framework for relatively consistent with the empirical record; when the northern California coast, in which a highly considered together, they are somewhat deterministic mobile Paleoindian economy gradually progresses to in their portrayal of human/environment semi-sedentism during his Lower Archaic Period relationships, as human population trends are (6000-3000 B.C.), and later to full sedentism. inversely correlated with sea temperatures. Arnold Fredrickson (1974:49) was also explicit in positing a (1992a; 1992b) and Colten (1993) focused on an unilineal progression in inter-regional exchange: apparent 100-year period of particularly high water from ad hoc during the Paleoindian Period, to temperatures ca. A.D. 1150-1250 which they claim systems in which goods were "moving farther and was a time of serious deterioration of marine habitats, farther" immediately prior to historic contact. inspiring the rise of complex social organization and Chartkoff (1989:167) hypothesizes a similarly linear craft specialization. progression of increasingly regularized inter-regional Akin to other theoretical constructs in which trade that reached its zenith immediately prior to large-scale climatic change is seen as a prime mover historic contact. The archaeological expectations in the development of prehistoric subsistence from these theories are relatively straight-forward: strategies and culture (e.g., Baumhoff and Heizer Exotic materials should become more abundant in 1965; Moratto et al. 1978), sea temperature models sites over time, Late Period economies should be have clear, time-specific implications for the coastal sedentary, and expressions of socio-political archaeological record: cultural changes should complexity should increase through regional parallel the sea temperature record, exploitation of sequences. Changes of varied direction (e.g., a marine mammals should increase ca. 3400 B.C. when decrease in exchange through time) are not readily seas off California apparently got colder, while signs accommodated within this theoretical framework. of cultural stress should begin to appear ca. A.D. 300, when seas began to warm (Pisias 1978). Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 5 RESOURCE STEWARDSHIP foods over time. Effective as these concepts are, they do not deal well, or tend to ignore, diachronic At the time of historic contact, the California variability that is not gradual and linear. Furthermore, natural environment was universally described as many intensification models, even the most elegant rich, verdant, and filled with food (Margolin 1989; (e.g., Basgall 1987; Bouey 1987), do not incorporate Priestley 1972). There is a growing consensus that diachronic environmental variability into their this luxuriant landscape was the end-product of a explanations for cultural change. long history of sophisticated resource stewardship by Intimately related to economic intensification, Native peoples (Blackburn and Anderson 1993), are debates over sedentism, which have a long history echoing common opinions about hunter-gatherer along the California coast. Based on the presence of societies in general (Hunn and Williams 1982:1). deep deposits, from which long, continuous Indeed, there can be little question that California occupations were inferred, Wallace (1955) argued Indians effectively manipulated their environment, that sedentism was achieved in the early Holocene by particularly with fire, to enhance its productivity Millingstone peoples. Owen (1964), in turn, (Lewis 1973). Blackburn and Anderson (1993) suggested these same people were highly mobile, argued that the California environment at the time of similar to many contemporary hunters and gatherers. historic contact was best considered a cultural Most recently Binford's (1980) forager/collector landscape enhanced by thousands of years of human scheme has been the subject of ongoing, sometimes intervention. The productivity of many biological contentious debate (see D. Jones 1992) concerning habitats can be improved by low level exploitation varying levels of coastal mobility. Recent portraits of (Hockey and Bosman 1986), but the prehistoric California mobility share a general, but poorly human condition in Native California may not always substantiated, consensus that high residential have been one in which resource exploitation was mobility preceded logistical mobility, albeit with restricted to low level disturbance. Environmentally marked disagreement on the chronology of the or culturally-induced resource stress could place transition from one to the other. Koerper et al. optimal collection and resource management at odds, (1991) and Glassow (1990, 1991, 1995) argue that and in such situations, management would become a Millingstone peoples were largely sedentary, based, secondary priority to basic survival. according to Koerper et al., on the use of bone awls and presumed manufacture of storage-related SIMPLE OPTIMIZATION basketry, and according to Glassow, on a reliance upon stored seeds. In the Monterey Bay area, Optimization concepts have been used logistical mobility is argued to have replaced residen- effectively in coastal settings (e.g., Perlman 1980; tial mobility ca. 500 B.C. (Breschini and Haversat Glassow and Wilcoxon 1988; Erlandson 1991) to 1980; Dietz and Jackson 1981; Moratto 1984), or characterize one element in the subsistence ecology A.D. 1000 (Dietz et al. 1988). On the northern coast, equation. Human foragers can maximize reproductive a similarly late date is posited (Hildebrant 1984). In success through efficient acquisition of food, meeting many instances, particularly along the central dietary requirements and providing ample time for California coast, this putative transition conflicts with other fitness-enhancing pursuits. In its simplest form, historic accounts which clearly suggest residential optimization looks very similar to cultural evolution mobility at the time of historic contact. Stored (Fredrickson 1994:100): as populations grow, diets commodities (e.g., acorns and dried fish) were relied simply broaden over time in a linear fashion. upon, but group movements were also undertaken. Efficient subsistence can have consequences, Binford (1980) originally based the distinction however, which foster constraints on optimization, so between foragers and collectors on environment; that diets do not simply broaden through the course collecting was pursued in seasonally heterogeneous of a region's prehistory. Commonly, a shift toward northern environments, while foraging was a product sub-optimal subsistence is characterized in terms of of resource homogeneity in lower latitudes. His economic intensification (Price and Brown 1985), in model never proposed any clear prediction as to how which more labor-intensive foods are exploited more such strategies should progress over time in heavily (Basgall 1987; Bouey 1987). In much of intermediate latitudes where the central California California, increasing evidence of acorn use over coast is situated. Binford's model provides a highly time is attributed to this process (Basgall 1987). useful settlement typology, but over-reliance on the Intensified, often sedentary, hunter-gatherer construct has probably fostered some misin- economies are generally correlated with high terpretations of mobility. Certainly, there remains a population density, and population growth is need to investigate mobility more carefully making commonly linked to increasing reliance on high-cost full use of the ethnohistoric record. 6 Introduction and material culture. Such criticisms notwithstanding, TOWARD A PREHISTORIC HUMAN any ecological conceptualization of a regional ECOLOGY prehistory must consider historical contingencies-- both those wrought by cultural processes of migration While optimal foraging and economic and diffusion, and those imposed by localized and/or intensification are useful for explaining many temporally abrupt environmental changes. progressions in diet and mobility among California hunter-gatherers, to explain the multi-directional Population Dynamics and Stress sequence apparent in Big Sur and to avoid the pitfalls associated with some conceptualizations (e.g., While population growth seems to provide a environmental determinism or assumed cultural good explanation for gradual increases in diet progression), it is important to consider breadth, growth cannot explain culture change all by intensification within a framework of human ecology. itself (Cowgill 1975), particularly major cultural This framework would also take into account long- transitions. Intervals of significant change can be term and short-term environmental variability and its strongly influenced by population variables, however. influence on resource distribution and quality, Incremental population growth occurred when human population dynamics (including the possibilities of movements and activities began to be influenced by both growth and decline), and the influence of human the presence of groups in adjoining areas. In North activities on natural systems, particularly impacts America, an historical threshold of population from resource overexploitation. Human social circumscription (Price and Brown 1985) would have organization also needs to be considered as a logically manifested itself following initial mediating factor influencing the procurement and colonization. With access to some resources blocked, distribution of resources. groups would have been forced to focus their Certainly any realistic human prehistory must subsistence efforts inward, decreasing diet breadth. A also recognize historical and cultural contingencies marked subsistence shift along the Big Sur coast ca. including such processes as migration, diffusion, 3500 B.C. seems to reflect a threshold of population population replacements, and the accomplishments of circumscription. Elsewhere (Jones 1991) I've argued individuals aspiring to obtain and manipulate power. that initial settlement of California was probably During the era of chronological archaeology, most of characterized by high mobility, as frequent these processes were relied upon heavily if not movements were undertaken to insure continuing exclusively by cultural historians to explain culture high resource yields. As an inevitable outcome of change. The New Archaeology of the 60s, in seeking efficient foraging, population growth could initially to counter the earlier paradigm and develop new be accommodated through annexation of previously- explanatory frameworks, abandoned many of these bypassed, lower-ranked resource habitats, like those principles in favor of "in situ" adaptation. In of Big Sur. Frequent movement within an expanded California, models of in-place adaptation are range of habitats would continue to fuel population complicated, if not doomed to fail, by a linguistic increase, and ultimately, a shift to more labor- map that can only be explained as at least a partial intensive lifeways ca. 3500 B.C. result of migrations, population movements, and Population increase can also contribute to replacements (see Kroeber 1925, 1955a). There is precarious demographic situations, which place simply no other reasonable explanation for the human populations at risk from natural downturns in existence of many highly distinctive language groups resource productivity. Shnirelman (1992:28) suggests in such close proximity. While early linguistic that hunter-gatherers could experience crises as a result models posited overly simplistic relationships of environmental changes, shifts in population size between language groups and archaeological density or structure, technological inadequacies, or a phenomena (e.g., Kroeber 1955a; Baumhoff and combination of these factors, and describes many Olmsted 1963), more recent studies have considered ethnographic and historic accounts of hunter-gatherer these relationships more seriously (e.g., True 1966), crises. Among historic hunter-gatherers living adjacent resulting in a variety of attempts to integrate adaptive to agriculturalists or pastoralists, crises often spawned adjustment with historical contingency (e.g., Basgall shifts in subsistence. Some !Kung San, for example, 1982, 1987; Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982; Moratto engaged in farming during periods of abundant 1984; Warren 1964; Whistler 1988). In one instance, precipitation, but mostly foraged during drought years Hughes (1992) criticized attempts at correlating (Shnirelman (1992:34). In aboriginal economies linguistic and archaeological classes, suggesting that unexposed to agriculture, economic orientation did not the effort might be all but hopeless due to the change in thie face of periodic resource shortfalls, but infinitely complex relationships between language death rates sharply increased (Shnirelman 1992:30). Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 7 Shnirelman (1992:34) cautions that hunter-gatherers 1977), low intensity/broad scale environmental can shift to food production in the face of demographic change, be it atmospheric or marine, generally cannot pressure only where conditions allow farming and be assumed severe enough to promote major cultural when the ecological transition is gradual enough to shifts by itself. Attempts to argue such a relationship provide people enough time to transform their underestimate human ability to transcend low subsistence practices and value systems. Without these intensity climatic variability through technological factors, a demographic crisis could result in innovation or the implementation of back-up disintegration of the economy, inter-regional strategies (cf. Flannery 1972; Kelly 1983). The aggression, violence, and extinction of some groups. remarkable biotic diversity of the Big Sur coast, in Testart (1988) made a strong case that storage- particular, provides a hedge against serious resource dependent hunter-gatherers, like those of the central stress in the face of low intensity/long duration California coast, were more at risk from long-term climatic change. shortfalls than were non-storing foragers. While storage Environmental variability cannot be totally is a mechanism for countering seasonal shortfalls, dismissed in explaining changes in mobility and diet, storage-reliant hunter-gatherers are inevitably however. Many of the Holocene climatic changes dependent on a few important staples because were of such low intensity and long duration, that commonly there is only a limited number of species they provided sufficient opportunity for technological that occur in large quantities and are amenable to adjustment. Rapid and severe environmental storage. Failure of one of these species (e.g., a failed deterioration, on the other hand, demands immediate salmon run or poor acorn crop) could cause significant response. Arnold (1991, 1992a, 1992b) and Stine problems (Testart 1988:173). In intensive economies, (1994) have directed the attention of the California storage was a necessity that did not necessarily provide archaeological community to a period of high insurance against shortfalls of more than a few seasons. intensity/brief duration environmental oscillation As a consequence, Testart (1988:173) suggested that dating ca. A.D. 800-1350. Referred to by the level of susceptibility of storage-reliant hunter- climatologists as the Secondary Climatic Optimum, gatherers to food shortages and catastrophic famine was Little Optimum (Sulman 1982), or the Medieval probably comparable to that of agriculturalists. It is Warm Epoch (Ingram et al. 1981), this interval is worth mentioning as well, Cohen's (1977) likening of associated with extreme drought and warm the demographic stresses that precipitated the temperatures in many parts of the world (Stine 1994), advent/acceptance of agriculture by hunter-gatherers to although precise dating varies from region to region, a crisis-like situation caused strictly by human (Ingram et al. 1981:16). In California this population growth. If such stresses underlay phenomenon was recently identified in tree rings in agricultural and intensive hunting and gathering the Sierra Nevada, dating ca. A.D. 1100 to 1375 economies in western North America under complacent (Graumlich 1993), and lowered water levels in Mono environmental circumstances, rapid environmental Lake, east of the central Sierra (Stine 1994). It is deterioration would have the potential to cause even represented in the White Mountains tree ring more serious problems. sequence as well (LaMarche 1974), and has been linked to harvest failures, famine, disease, and Long-term and Short-term Environmental depopulation in Europe (Sulman 1982:6). In contrast Variability with the slow, low intensity climatic change of most of the Holocene, the abrupt, intense fluctuations While high-intensity/short duration environmental between A.D. 800 and 1350 may have contributed to flux could combine with growing populations to cause significant resource stress among many California significant demographic problems, much of the hunter-gatherers, including those of the Big Sur climatic change of the Holocene was long in duration coast. and low intensity so that it would not have demanded immediate or strenuous response from resident hunter- Intensification and Resource Overexploitation gatherers and would be unlikely to promote rapid cultural change. The early-middle Holocene, for One anticipated consequence of population example, is commonly associated with climatic circumscription and economic intensification would amelioration, when warm dry climatic conditions of be resource overexploitation. The possibility that the era alternatively classified as the Altithermal Native inhabitants of prehistoric California in some (Antevs 1948), Xerithermic, or Hypsithermal (Porter instances overexploited their environment was and Denton 1967) gave way to a more favorable suggested as early as 1916 by Gifford, who argued climate. Along the California coast, where ocean that the impacts of human collection were responsible waters mitigate the extremes of climate (Johnson for changes in molluscan fauna in San Francisco Bay 8 Introduction shell mounds. That explanation was subsequently is impacted and subsequent harvests are diminished. dismissed, as changes in San Francisco Bay shellfish Shellfish, which are typical r-strategists with small assemblages were subsequently recognized as body sizes, short lifespans, and rapid reproductive reflections of the Bay's paleoenvironmental history cycles, are even less likely to be exploited into (Bickel 1978). Due to the prevalence of the neo- extinction (Claassen 1986:130), but can indeed suffer functionalist environmental paradigm in California in from overharvest. Zooarchaeological findings the 1960s and 70s, overexploitation was not raised supporting a model of marine mammal overhunting again as a possible influence on prehistoric California along California shores have subsequently been fauna until 1980 when Botkin suggested that reported by Burton (2000), Porcasi et al. (2000), and diminution in shells over time in a south coast shell Walker et al. (2000), although Colten and Arnold midden was the result of overly intensive harvest. (1998) argue against such a scenario on Santa Cruz Botkin, however, did not further explore the causes Island. Broughton (1999) presented one of the most or consequences of human overexploitation nor did comprehensive models of resource intensification and he place his finding into chronological or ecological depression based on findings from the Emeryville perspective. Salls (1988; 1992) discussed the shellmound in the San Francisco Bay area.. possibility that fish were heavily overexploited at San It is not unreasonable to expect that over- Clemente Island, but supported his case with very exploitation would be a byproduct of circumscription meager data. Fish were probably the one resource and decreased mobility. Many researchers attribute that was most difficult to overexploit in Native sedentism to a richness and diversity of coastal California. Raab and Yatsko (1992) have since resources (Sauer 1962; Perlman 1980). Perlman discussed the likelihood that insular populations were (1980:292-294), in particular, equates coastal most likely to engage in overexploitation due to a productivity and optimization with sedentism and demographic situation that would almost inevitably cultural complexity. Being sedentary, of course, re- result in resource stress. The possibility of quires a year-round food source, either natural or overexploitation of extinct megafauna has, of course, stored (Binford 1980; Kelly 1992:53). In Native Cali- been championed by Martin (1967) for nearly three fornia, at the time of historic contact, populations decades. Human predation has also been most recently with a stable year-round food supply engaged in any implicated as an influence in the population histories of number of decidedly labor-intensive subsistence elk (Kay 1990, 1994) and bison (Truett 1996). activities, including acorn exploitation (Basgall 1987; More recently Hildebrandt and Jones (1992) and Bettinger 1991:100), pelagic fishing, and offshore Jones and Hildebrandt (1995) argued that pursuit of marine mammals (Hildebrandt 1981, exploitation of California marine mammal 1984). Some coastal inhabitants, including those of populations approximated a prehistoric tragedy of the Big Sur, were only minimally involved in marine commons in which these animals were overexploited resource acquisition. Optimal resource use could only during thousands of years of pursuit by humans. be accomplished in situations where a level of Initially available in large numbers in hypothetical selectivity could be maintained and resource mainland rookeries, these animals were pursued overexploitation avoided. Groups moving regularly along the entire length of the California and Oregon among a wide range of territories could maintain coasts. Through time, optimal exploitation of the such selectivity, but population circumscription easily accessible breeding sites caused a decline in would constrain mobility, and encourage exploitation populations, a disappearance of mainland rookeries, of narrower foraging radii, thereby promoting and an increased reliance on smaller more elusive resource overuse. taxa (e.g., harbor seals and sea otter). Pursuit technology gradually increased in sophistication as Social Organization and Gender human hunters were forced to pursue their prey in less accessible offshore contexts. Marine mammals A final variable to be considered in foraging are susceptible to overexploitation because they are economies is social organization and the manner in k-strategists, with large body size, long lifespans, which it influences division of labor, particularly small populations, and long reproductive cycles. along gender lines. Social organization is treated Optimal foraging theory suggests, however, that extensively in several intensification sequences in these animals should not have been hunted into California (e.g., Arnold 1992a; Bouey 1987; L. King extinction, as the costs associated with pursuit of 1982; C. King 1990; Martz 1992). In nearly all cases dwindling populations become inordinately high these efforts have concentrated on the rise of so- (Smith 1983). A species need not be harvested to called complex or non-egalitarian social organization. extinction, however, to be overexploited, but rather Most involve the Chumash of the Santa Barbara can be collected to the point that population renewal Channel and attempt to document social stratification Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 9 and the timing and causes of its emergence from 1981:110) and more frequently gather and process. simple egalitarian precursors. These arguments There are strong differences of opinion as to the articulate with an increasing interest in complex chronology of division of labor by gender (see hunter-gatherer societies, and a growing recognition McGrew 1981; Zihlman 1981), but there is some that inequality is related to mobility and specific consensus that that it must have emerged as part of ecological conditions (Gould 1982; Kelly 1991). the biological evolution of modem humans because it More importantly, for the purposes of this study, it is so pervasive among hunter-gatherers. Certainly it has also been recognized that there is a range of was well established before colonization of the New variability among so-called complex hunter-gatherer World. Not surprisingly, California groups societies (Kelly 1991:153). Whether or not a class conformed with this division at the time of contact society has actually been documented among the (Willoughby 1963; E. Wallace 1978:683). Men, Chumash, Native groups of the Big Sur coast - however, are perfectly capable of gathering, and speakers of Salinan, Costanoan, and Esselen California ethnography describes their participation languages - were organized politically into tribelets in the collection of any number of vegetable and socially into patrilineages (Bean 1978:673). commodities (McGuire and Hildebrandt 1994). There is no reason to assume that these structures Women are also capable of hunting, and existed throughout the prehistoric occupation of this ethnographic accounts describe their pursuit of game area, and it is important to identify possible signs of of among hunter-gatherers in other parts of the world their development in the archaeological record. It is (Estioko-Griffin and Griffin 1981), but in Native also germane to consider the possible influence of California hunting and fishing were male-dominated these structures on resource access, mobility, and activities (E. Wallace 1978:683). What is important exchange. is the range of relative participation of men and Goldschmidt (1948) suggested that lineal women in the various tasks associated with descent was associated with high population in subsistence. A typical gender division of labor California, and Baumhoff (1962:228) demonstrated a characterized Native California at contact, but world correlation between tribes with highly developed hunter-gatherer ethnography suggests a potential for unilineal organization and population density. It variation in the past. follows, therefore that lower population densities of In a review of hunter-gatherer ethnography, the early Holocene may have been associated with Hayden et al. (1986) identified a strong correlation non-lineal descent, and that subsequent population between certain ecological/technological situations events (e.g., mid-Holocene circumscription) may and the status of women. Low status appears to be have influenced the development of patrilineal highly correlated with resource stress, participation in organization. The abrupt cultural changes of the warfare, and the importance of hunting in overall Medieval Climatic Anomaly may also have subsistence. Such correlations have significant influenced the socio-political sphere, but in keeping implications for alternative conceptualizations of with the premise that this was a period of serious mobility and diet, particularly those emphasizing environmental problems, changes in social organiza- population growth, intensification, and resource tion may reflect crisis, as resource competition stress, be it achieved gradually or catastrophically. encouraged solidification of territorial boundaries, Intensification is contingent upon the availability of and the tribelet system of political organization processing labor, which affects foraging decisions emerged. Lineal descent reckoning was still and influences a group's ability to behave in an practiced, but the wide-ranging structural integrity of optimal fashion (Bettinger 1991:101). Kelly (1991, the lineage system was disrupted. 1992:58) has outlined possible gender outcomes of Intimately related to concepts of social intensification and reduced mobility, suggesting that organization and inequality among hunter-gatherers reliance on a reduced foraging radius encourages the is variability in gender-based roles, particularly those development of social alliances through inter-lineage of women. Kelly (1991:153) and Hayden et al. marriage. In such circumstances women are at risk of (1986:157) have observed that male/female being manipulated by men as exchange objects in the relationships are commonly unequal even among establishment of alliances and the concomitant need societies that are otherwise characterized as non- for increased processing labor, akin to the manner in complex. Certain generalities about the division of which Service (1962) portrayed the exchange of labor according to gender have long been recognized women in the development of lineal descent systems. among hunter-gatherers. Men are more mobile and Among patrilineal agriculturalists, exchange often more commonly hunt, while women, owing to the takes the form of bridewealth, which represents the constraints imposed by pregnancy and child-rearing, net benefit that female labor provides to a group (Bell are generally less mobile (Jochim 1988; Zihlman and Song 1994; Goody and Tambiah 1973). As 10 Introduction inter-lineage alliances grow, exchange increases, the ship of land that pushed the remaining Native need for processing labor increases, the status of inhabitants into more remote, undesirable areas (Plate women paradoxically decreases as they become 1) where they eked out somewhat precarious livings. objects of manipulation by men (Kelly 1991:146). When the first serious attempt at anthropological Women's status among hunter-gathers dependent ethnography was undertaken early in the 20t century upon storage is commonly lower than among their (e.g., Mason 1912, 1918; Harrington 1942), Native non-storing counterparts (Kelly 1991:146). inhabitants were residing in small scattered adobe Women in Native California, operating within dwellings (Plate 2), subsisting largely on a systems of lineal descent, were strongly associated combination of ranching, farming, and sale of their with foodstuffs marking intensified subsistence (i.e., labor. Salinan-speaking peoples, who were the group acorns and fish) (E. Wallace 1978; Willoughby that occupied most of the Big Sur coast, were 1963). If it can be assumed that more optimal concentrated in settlements at the head of the San circumstances of lower population density and higher Antonio River, among other places. These people mobility preceded intensified subsistence, women's spoke Spanish, English, and Salinan, and their roles and, indeed the division of labor along gender familiarity with and apparent use of hundreds of lines, may have been different in the past. Hill et al. Native plants and animals indicate they were still (1987) have demonstrated that among contemporary pursuing some gathering and hunting, albeit with foraging populations, men, by participating in new technology and as an apparent supplement to the hunting, provide far fewer calories to a group than other forms of subsistence. Despite this remarkable they could by gathering, as gathering produces mean continuity, the tremendous changes that accompanied net caloric yields twice as high as those associated successive rule by Spain, Mexico, and the United with hunting. Hill et al. suggest that the reason for States, which included extensive inter-marriage male hunting is the occasional acquisition of a major between Salinan and Euro-Americans, renders the bonanza which would reward males with greater ethnohistoric data from the early 20th century of sexual access to females. The relative importance of somewhat limited value in attempting to reconstruct hunting versus gathering, however, and the pre-contact foraging lifeways. In some instances, pre- participation of group members according to gender contact settlements marked by archaeological sites may be more related to diachronic variation in the have been associated with named villages or availability of prey and the relative importance of encampments. Such cases provide an opportunity for labor-intensive resources through time. archaeological findings to enhance the limited ethnohistoric record, but the gap between pre-contact European Contact and Colonialism lifeways and the ethnohistoric record of the 20th century cannot be overlooked. Complicating any attempt to reconstruct prehistory in central California was the virtual PREVIOUS RESEARCH elimination of traditional cultures over 200 years of historic contact and acculturation. European Archaeological research began in the South seafarerers, who communicated with some Native Coast Ranges in the 1940s when Arnold Pilling from Californians as early as 1542, never landed along the U.C. Berkeley began surveys along the coast of rugged and inaccessible Big Sur coast. Spanish Monterey County. Pilling recorded hundreds of explorers finally made their way through the area by midden deposits including several of the sites foot in 1769, establishing Mission San Antonio de investigated for the current project. Seminal Padua two years later in the interior along the San excavations were completed soon thereafter at Antonio River (Figure 1). Under influence of the Willow Creek (Pohorecky 1964, 1976) on the coast missionaries and impacted by newly introduced (CA-MNT-281 and -282) and in the interior at diseases, Native populations declined precipitously Isabella Meadows Cave (CA-MNT-250) (Meighan and the traditional hunting and gathering lifestyle 1955). The important but largely descriptive findings eventually disappeared. An emphasis on cattle from these two investigations stood as the only ranching introduced by the Spanish and perpetuated substantive excavation data from this region until the under the regimes of Mexico (1822-1847) and the 1980s. An avocational archaeologist, Don Howard, United States (post-1847), precipitated a conversion investigated scores of sites in the 1970s, but the of local inhabitants from foragers to small-scale reporting from these investigations varied in subsistence ranchers, and/or ranch laborers. The completeness and research value. Professional work global events that placed California under control of from the 1960s through the 1980s focused more on this succession of large nation states fostered reconnaissance and site survey including large continually changing rules about the control/owner- projects in the interior by Edwards (1975) and Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 1 Plate 1 Overview... offre.anaLcaPak(oa.unpr.er.Pa)adaraweeTtoEcnls one of J P Barrington's~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... prmrySlmncosltns,ws.iig.n191 (htorphtke y..P Barrington, courtesy of the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History).. ... Swernoff (1982) and~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ on th southern Big Surcoast.THE.PRESENT.STUD by Baldwin (1971)~~~.. Swrnf.sreeachasoinlue modest testing at four sites in the interior (CA-MNT- The purpose of my study was to define a local~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .. ......... 32,-6,-51 n 110.I heery190 ot cltrlsqene slt pe.d of tanstion an Hunter-Liggett stepped up its compliance with evaluate the relative effectiveness of alternative~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ .......... ...... section 106 of the National Historic Preservation act, theories for explaining cultural changes........ and their.. ..... I...... .... qm......... .. and over 40 sites~~~~~~~~....... wee. vsiae ewe 19 n eainhpt the nvirnmen. M objctvewa.t 2000, the most important of whic are included.in.the.demonstrat that. a.. bradfrmeor.o.hma present study. CRM investigations of the last decade ecology, not limited......... to...........adaptationism....or..ne.- or so have also included modest testing projects at functional ideals about Native American conservation~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .... ..... ....... . . .. ..... ..A...MNT.......2..... (Breschini.... et al.. . 194, AMN- bt ht lo ae it acun oultondnais 515, CA-MNT-540, and CA-MNT-862 (Wickstrom overexploitation, and different- typesI and severity of........... . ........ and Jackson 1994), CA-MNT-1455 (Cartier 1995).........environmental. change... can.provide.a.coheren CA-MNT-1592 (Hilebrandt nd Jones1998), C- explantion forpatternsin the pehistori.past..T MNT-798, -799, and -800 (Edwards et al. 2000). accomplish this objective, the ethnohistoric and................. More detailed summaries of the history of research archaeological records were used to reconstruct~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ ..... ......... are available in Breschini et al. (1983), Eidsness and systems of diet, settlement, and exchange.... ........ employed..... Jackson (1994), Jones et al. (1989), and Jones (2000). immediately prior to historic....... contact......... The........ develop-... ........... . .. 12 Introduction .. . . .. ... . . . . R~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. . ..... . _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ...... . . ...... Plate 2 Maria Jesusa Encinales (right) and Maria de Los Anges ( , to o Salman c l with another I i the Smithsonian Institute and the Santa Barbara Museumof.Natural.History) inathe 2archaJeologial rconlerd,ht and period of readingels obetained from oHarchaetologca prmuselshll significant transition were established. These in turn (Appendix I). This sequence covers only the last two were placed in context by reviewing available millennia, or roughly the latter third of the cultural paleoenvironmental information, and conducting history. Research completed in adjacent regions some limited original research. Transitions were then includes oceanographic studies from the Santa evaluated relative to alternative expectations derived Barbara Channel, palynological investigations from from cultural evolution, cultural ecology, resource the Monterey and San Francisco Bay areas, and tree management, and simple intensification, ring and other studies from the Sierra Nevada. In a state marked by environmental diversity, the The ethnohistoric review (Chapter 3) includes Big Sur coast, because of its central latitude and pertinent secondary and historical sources, range in elevation, exhibits remarkable ecological emphasizing analyses of mission records (Milliken heterogeneity (see Chapter 2). The diverse resource 1990; Gibson 1983, 1985), early historic accounts, base presents many scheduling conflicts, and there is and original research on the recently published field no clear seasonal/spatial pattern in resource notes of John Peabody Harrington (1985), who availability. Environmental conditions preceding conducted fieldwork in the South Coast Ranges those of the present were assessed through a review during the early part of this century. Accounts written of paleoenvironmental studies completed in the by the first Spanish explorers of central California surrounding area, and a preliminary investigation of also provide a seasonal transect across the Santa Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 13 Lucia Range in 1769 which suggests that coastal shoreline, while CA-MNT-1236 was situated at an inhabitants at that time congregated in villages, away elevation of 713 m. It was anticipated that the from the shoreline, during parts of the year, and differences in location, size, and constituents dispersed into smaller residential camps during reflected temporally discrete systems of settlement others. Harrington's notes and maps identify two and diet that could be isolated with chronological villages inhabited by Salinan-speaking peoples and controls achieved through excavation. Field recovery one upland shell midden, associated with hunting. involved a mixed excavation strategy, employing 1 x The archaeological record confirms these three sites. 2 m units to recover samples of artifacts and mammal Data from 30 archaeological sites are presented remains, and 20 x 20 cm columns to obtain as the main thrust of the project. For the most part, invertebrate and fish remains (Chapter 4). The the Big Sur coast was unexplored prior to this study, archaeological investigations undertaken specifically but limited excavation data from three sites reported for my study were multi-faceted and were not limited previously (Pohorecky 1976; Howard 1973) have to a single class or type of site constituent. All of the been incorporated. Twenty-six of the remaining sites micro- and macro-constituents recovered during were investigated over a ten-year period between excavation were considered relative to questions of 1986 and 1996 for a variety of research and CRM diet, site function, and exchange. undertakings. Seventeen of these were coastal sites, This study essentially presents a regional situated between Point Sur and Point Piedras Blancas prehistory for a long overlooked and unusual if not (Figure 1), mostly within Landels-Hill Big Creek dramatic portion of the California coast. It employs a Reserve and Andrew Molera State Park. The Piedras variety of principles to attempt to define the most Blancas site (CA-SLO-267) at the southern edge of effective explanations for diachronic patterns in the the study area is situated on land held by the regional record. During the era of processual California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) archaeology, many studies, regional and otherwise, and a private owner. It was investigated for Caltrans were constructed to highlight or demonstrate single in 1996. The twelve inland sites are all within the theoretical principles -- usually those closely related Fort Hunter-Liggett military installation in southern to basic adaptation. Despite the unquestionable im- Monterey County and were investigated between portance of such contributions, the intent of the 1995 and 2000. Findings from two sites, CA-MNT- present monograph is to demonstrate that regional 1571/H and -1580, are limited to surface observa- prehistories employing only a single ecological or tions. Investigations at all other sites included social principle will ultimately achieve only limited subsurface findings. While this monograph was in success in explaining the past. This is largely due to preparation, Caltrans conducted a major excavation at the fact that human beings are complicated creatures CA-MNT-1942 at the mouth of Big Creek on the Big driven by both cultural and biological forces. They Sur coast. Findings from that investigation also function within highly complex environmental (Wolgemuth et al. 2002) have been incorporated into systems. Honest recognition of the failure of the present study. Detailed descriptions of excavation individual principles at particular junctures leads to results from all of the sites are available in technical prehistories that are highly particularistic--even when reports (Table 1), most of which are on file at offices when emphazing human ecology. Perhaps, however, of the California Historical Resources Inventory at they are more accurate. Sonoma State University and the University of California, Santa Barbara. Summaries of the technic- al findings are reported here (Chapter 5). The investigated sites included shell middens, flaked stone scatters, and bedrock mortar outcrops, ranging in location from the shoreline to 30.5 km inland (Table 1). Most deposits were middens with concentrations of invertebrate remains, flaked stone debitage, mammal and fish bone. Most also yielded human remains, ground stone implements, bone tools, and shell beads, although there was significant variability in the density and relative diversity of constituents. The sites also varied considerably in size and elevation: CA-MNT-569, a multi-component site covered an area of ca. 63,744 in2, while a midden at CA-MNT-759/H had a surface area of only 250 in2; CA-MNT-63 and CA-MNT-73 occur at the 14 Introduction Table 1 Characteristics of Study Sites Trinomial Name Elevation Area Inland Primary reference (m) (M2) (Ian) COASTAL SITES CA-MNT-63 Molera 12 2500 0.0 Jones (1994, 1995) CA-MNT-73 Big Sur River Mouth 3 2700 0.0 Jones (1994, 1995) CA-MNT-281 Willow Creek II 5 - 0.0 Pohorecky (1976) CA-MNT-282 Willow Creek I 3 - 0.0 Pohorecky (1976) CA-MNT-480*** Gamboa/Tsalhkak'a 595 18,000 1.6 Howard (1973) CA-MNT-759/H Arbuez Boronda 350 250 2.4 Jones and Haney (1992) Jones (1995) CA-MNT-1223 Dolan I 370 1365 0.8 Jones (1995) CA-MNT-1227 Harlan Spring 305 4135 0.6 Jones and Haney (1992) Jones (1995) CA-MNT-1228 Redwood Terrace 245 548 1.2 Jones and Haney (1992) Jones (1995) CA-MNT-1232/H Interpretive Trail 245 3756 1.1 Jones and Haney (1992) Jones (1995) CA-MNT-1233 Highland Camp 550 2413 1.6 Jones and Haney (1992) Jones (1995) CA-MNT-1235 Cliff Hanger 125 452 0.4 Jones and Haney (1992) Jones (1995) CA-MNT-1236 Shakemaker 713 981 3.3 Jones and Haney (1992) Jones (1995) CA-MNT-1277/H* Santos BorondaIMatalce 565 18,870 2.0 Jones and Haney (1992 Jones (1995) CA-MNT-1571/H** Tr'akten 866 2300 4.2 Huddleson and Jones (1992) CA-MNT-1580** - 872 800 4.3 Huddleson and Jones (1992) CA-MNT-1942 Big Creek Bridge 1 1500*** 0.0 Wolgemuth et al. (2002) CA-SLO-267 Piedras Blancas 2 37200 0.0 Bouey and Basgall (1991) Jones and Femeau (2002) INLAND SITES CA-MNT-332 - 440 8679 21.0 Haney and Jones (1997) CA-MNT-361 - 374 2120 21.5 Wickstrom (1995), Haney and Jones (1997) CA-MNT-504 - 459 942 15.0 Haney and Jones (1997) CA-MNT-507 - 445 5105 22.0 Haney and Jones (1997) CA-MNT-519 - 387 19550 16.0 Jones (2000) CA-MNT-521 - 373 30,500 19.0 Jones and Haney (1997a) CA-MNT-569 - 380 63,774 20.0 Jones and Haney (1997b) CA-MNT-861 - 376 6048 24.0 Haney and Jones (1997) CA-MNT-879 - 354 5860 22.0 Haney et al. (2002) CA-MNT-1657 - 453 2356 22.0 Haney and Jones (1997) CA-MNT-1672 - 433 4847 20.0 Haney and Jones (1997) CA-MNT-1754 - 531 5183 30.5 HaneyandJones (1997) *Midden only; overall site area including historical materials is larger. ** Surface data only ***Approximate CHAPTER 2: ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT For hunter-gatherers, characteristics of the local with a variety of subtypes (Henson and Usner environment, particularly the types, distribution and 1993:85-230). These range from cool, moist redwood seasonality of available resources are major forest, commonly found in drainages influenced by contributors to the overall human ecology. Dietary coastal fog, to steep, dry, rocky slopes supporting practices, settlement patterns, and divisions of labor various types of chaparral. are at least partially conditioned by the structure of Also contributing to the lack of homogeneity in local resource assemblages, and attempts to explain the Big Sur landscape is latitude. Big Sur is located changes through time in these practices and patterns midway between northern mesic environs, and more require knowledge of the local environment. The xeric southern environments. Both flora (Bickford following is a description of features of the Big Sur and Rich 1984:7) and intertidal fauna (Ferguson coast and adjacent interior valleys, both past and 1984:5) reflect this mid-latitude position; topographic present, that would most influence its aboriginal and microhabitat diversity result in a strange co- resource potential. This description culminates with existence of both northern species and southern reconstruction of paleo sea temperatures for the late species found nowhere else. Big Sur also retains a Holocene based on a study of oxygen isotope number of endemic taxa, so that the composite readings obtained from archaeological mussel shells. environment, a mix of northern, southern, and endemic species, exhibits astounding taxonomic CONTEMPORARY SETTING diversity that has attracted the attention of botanists since the nineteenth century (Henson and Usner Coastal Zone 1993:85). The geology of Big Sur is dominated by deep sea The coastline between Point Sur and Point sedimentary rocks of the Franciscan Formation along Piedras Blancas - the area generally known as the Big with intrusive and metamorphic rocks of the Coast Sur - is the most rugged stretch of shoreline in Ridge Belt. The Franciscan assemblage underlies California (Plate 3) and one of the most most of the coastal topography at the mouths of the environmentally diverse. Marked by a near absence Big Sur River and Big Creek. A small outcrop of the of coastal terraces, the Santa Lucia Mountains (part Monterey Formation occurs at Point Piedras Blancas, of the South Coast Ranges) rise directly and providing an important source of siliceous stone. precipitously from the Pacific Ocean. Peaks in excess Metamorphic rocks also occur 4-5 km inland at Big of 1500 m (5000 ft) occur within less than 5 km (3 Creek and the Big Sur River. miles) from the shoreline, creating one of the steepest The Mediterranean climate of the Big Sur coast coastal gradients in the continental United States brings cool, wet winters and warm dry summers with (Henson and Usner 1993:12). This steep coastal flank frequent fog. Average temperatures are 12.8?C encompasses a varied topography that promotes a (55?F), although inland areas experience a more wide array of micro-habitats. Seven distinct plant extreme temperature range. The moderating influence communities have been identified in Big Sur, each of fog is not felt above ca. 610 m (2000 ft); 16 Environmental Context i .. ... ... ... . a __~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... .. Plate 3 Big Sur coastline near Big Creek looking south (Photograph by John Smiley) the higher elevations regularly receive snow in the associations are those of grassland, oak woodland, winter and reach temperatures above 32?C (90?F) in chaparral, and mixed evergreen forest, which summer (Engles 1984). Overall, Big Sur lands are generally occupy the uplands beyond the influence of characterized by a highly variable climate; summer fog. Dense stands of resource-poor chamise temperature, humidity, precipitation, and fog cover chaparral occur on the dry slopes of the highest change dramatically according to elevation and reaches of the Santa Lucias (Henson and Usner exposure. 1993:1 18). The coastal flank of the Santa Lucia Range is Coastal sites investigated for this study, indeed bisected by a series of small, steep creeks and rivers, most sites on the Sur coast, cluster in three different that drain directly into the Pacific Ocean. Among the environmental zones. Shoreline sites are common, largest of these are the Big Sur River and Big Creek, particularly on small terraces at the mouths of major along which most of the archaeological sites drainages. Associated with coastal scrub, this setting investigated for this study are situated. The Big Sur is represented by sites at the mouth of the Big Sur River and Big Creek have enough year-round flow to River, CA-MNT-63 and CA-MNT-73, as well as CA- support small steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) SLO-267 at Piedras Blancas. Sites are also common fisheries. at moderate elevations (250-600 m) on ridge tops and The vegetation pattern on the coast is a dense small benches near stands of grassland/oak woodland mosaic in which virtually all of the plant (Plate 4), particularly in the Big Creek area. Less communities that occur within the greater province of abundant are sites in the rugged upland of the Santa central California, including coniferous species more Lucias, over 2 km inland, at elevations in excess of common in the interior ranges, are found. With 600 m. These occur near pockets of grassland, respect to resource potentialy the most significant Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 1 Plate 4. Looking.noth.from.Soltice.Peak o th .cnta Bi. Srostshwngth.oata.egtaie.osi of oak woodland, grassland, and..scrub.(Photograph.by John.Smiley) chaparral, mixed evergreen forest, and the upper limit zone and offshore waters include: shellfish, fish, sea~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ of..... the redwoods....... mamals anmain ala (klp. Selihih Te.r.... estr.ial... mamlstatfeuetths.abtts md-t.ig.itoa.zn.icud.use.Myiu inclde backtaild der (docileu heionu), aiWoniaus),baracle(Baanusspp),.lmpe boca.Ly.. uus,.oot.(ais.arns,.ry.ox(olis.a.pp).ad.n.sece.o.cion(Ntaln (Urocyon....... cieroagntus,.ototal.abi.c..onia).Tx.mstcomnl.econerd.n.h (Sylvilaus auduoni), an mountan lion (elis mi - low ntertida zone.iclude.thee.othe.specie concolor)... Prngor anelp (nilcpr.f.hio.(shncitnreulrs,Mpai.sp..n americana) _44:~ were freqenty.osered ySanih.Cyptchitn.sellri).blck.balne.Haloti explorers.... in. .. the inerior .alley. Tule el. (eu.rahroi),ad.laktubn.nil(egl elaphus). ... . . wer .prsen in the ineroraswel utdi.fnerais..here.aalne(Hliti.rfeces)ar not frequent the rugged coastal....... zone.............O.h.on ecuieyintelwitetdlzn terrestrial taxa, deer were probably the mos (Ferguson 1984:58)..Other.common intertida significant. California~~~~~~~~~~. ..... cosa deer..... dont. nae.ninetbrts,ntgeealyrstite.oa.atiua major seasonal migrations but~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......... reid most............. ofterzn,ae.h.e nmn A p lives in the same small territory~~~~~.................. (Taber and.asmnn.antogramic).ea.rchn.(Sronyloentotu 1958). purpuratus), and purple olive (Olivella biplicata)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... The coastal zone typifies exposed, high energy (Ferguson 1984).~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... outercoass ofCaliorni. Muh ofthe horeine.i.Marne.fsh.iclud.thoe.comon.o th.ope marked by steep cliffs flanked by isolated narrow rocky coast of central California, particularly rockfish.......... . .... beaches. Potential resources occurring in the littoral that frequent near-shore kelp forests. Most abundant~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~................... 18 Environmental Context are cabezon (Scorpaenichthys marmoratus), surf off from the tempering effects of the Pacific Ocean perch (Embiotocid), rockfish (Sebastes spp.), and by the Santa Lucia Range, the installation lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus). Smaller taxa include experiences greater extremes in temperature and the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax), herring, precipitation than does the coast. Daytime and sardines (Clupeidae). temperatures in the summer commonly rise above Marine mammals include year-round residents, 100?F and often drop below 32?F in the winter. the sea otter (Enhydra lutris) and harbor seal (Phoca Records kept between 1960 and 1997 show that vitulina), and seasonal migrants including the lowest temperatures occur in December and highest California sea lion (Zalophus californianus), Stellar in July. The range during this period was between 7 sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus), northern fur seal and 115 degrees. Mean annual temperature is 58.2?F . (Callorhinus ursinus), and southern fur seal Mean rainfall is 19.22 inches (48.8 cm), with a (Arctocephalus townsendi). In the 1990s, elephant recorded maximum of 36.76 inches ((93.3 cm) and a seals (Mirounga angustirostris) established major minimum of 7.15 inches (18.2 cm). The higher mainland rookeries near Gorda and at Point Piedras elevations regularly receive snow in the winter. Blancas. Overall, the inland valleys are characterized by a highly variable climate in which temperature, Inland Valleys humidity, and precipitation change dramatically according to elevation and exposure. The inland investigations were undertaken at sites The inland biota is nearly as diverse as that of within Fort Hunter Liggett, a 164,762-acre military the coast. Eighteen distinct plant communities have facility in southern Monterey County on the eastern been described and mapped within Fort Hunter flank of the Santa Lucia Range. Located midway Liggett (Osborne 1997), including some modern between the Pacific Ocean and the Salinas Valley, the communities (e.g., ponds), and others with very facility encompasses two major drainages --the limited (albeit important) distributions (e.g., wet Nacimiento and San Antonio rivers- that parallel one meadows, vernal swales). The immediate banks of another, and flow north to south into the Salinas River. the Nacimiento and San Antonio rivers are associated Both are associated with expansive inland valleys. with riparian communities (sycamore riparian, mixed Heavily dissected rolling hills separate the two valleys. riparian, willow riparian, valley oak riparian, and Within this intervening area are smaller tributaries of cottonwood willow riparian). The flatter, lowest the Nacimiento River. portions of the valleys are associated with grassland Elevations are highest along the western and two savanna communities: valley oak savanna installation boundary, which follows the main ridge and blue oak savanna (Plate 5). The grasslands today system of the Santa Lucia Range and rises to a are dominated by non-native annuals such as soft- maximum of 1150 m (3744 ft.) at Alder Peak. chess brome (Bromus hordaceous), wild oat (Avena Drainages west of this crest flow directly into the spp.), and wild barley (Hordeum murinum). Native Pacific Ocean. Elevations in the valley floors range bunch grasses such as Nasella spp. and Melica from 240 m (ca. 800 ft.) along the lower San Antonio imperfecta were abundant prior to historic grazing River to roughly 370 m (ca 1200 ft.) in Milpitas. A (Osborne 1997:18). Grasslands also seem to have wide variety of soil types reflect the diversity of the increased at the expense of woodland communities installation's topography, although loamy types are during the last 200 years due to agricultural activities most common. Soils in the installation were described (Osborne 1997:18). The grasslands often intergrade and mapped in 1978 (Soil Conservation Service 1978). with valley oak savanna, which is the more The inland study area is underlain by a variety of widespread of the two savanna communities. Valley geologic formations derived from marine sediments oaks (Quecus lobata) prefer deep alluvial valley soils and volcanic intrusives dating from the Pre-Cretaceous and tend to form open savanna in those settings to the Plo-Pleistocene. Of particular relevance are the (Osborne 1997:19). On the fringes and interspersed marine sediment-derived sandstone outcrops which between the valleys in rolling hills are two variants of occur primarily in the Nacimiento River drainage. what Barbour and Major (1988) defined as blue These sandstone outcrops were particularly attractive oak/digger pine forest: blue oak woodlands and to prehistoric people, as locations for bedrock mortars foothill woodlands. Of these, foothill woodland, and for rock art, and as habitation areas which offered marked by an association of blue oak and gray pine some protection from the elements. Also of importance (Pinus sabiniana) (formerly digger pine) with is the locally available Monterey chert, used for occasional shrubs (e.g., Ceanothus spp., Rhamnus manufacture of flaked stone tools. spp.), is the most widespread. The higher elevations The climate is typical Mediterranean with cool, and more rugged terrain of the Santa Lucia Range are wet winters and warm dry summers. Because it is cut associated with mixed chaparral and chamise Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 19 1|| Plate 5 Aerial view of the Gabilan Creek area (Photograph courtesy of Susan Alvarez, Fort Hunter-Liggett) chaparral. From the standpoint of aboriginal land use, SHORT TERM CLIMATIC CHANGE the grassland, savanna, and woodland communities held the most potentially important floral resources. Climatic variability can be measured on many The chaparral communities provide habitat for game temporal scales along the central California coast. animals. First, much interannual variability in marine and Terrestrial mammals that frequent these habitats terrestrial climate is related to El Ninlo and its parent, include black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus), the El Ninlo Southern Oscillation (ENSO), although bobcat (Lynx rufus), coyote (Canis latrans), gray fox the impact of El Niuo on water temperatures and (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), cottontail rabbit marine productivity is more direct than its influence (Sylvilagus auduboni), and mountain lion (Felis on terrestrial biomes. Elevated sea-surface concolor). Pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra temperatures associated with the ENSO of 1982- americana) were observed by Spanish explorers in 1983, for example, had widespread effects on the central California but have not yet been identified in California coastal environment, including reduced Fort Hunter-Liggett archaeofauna. The species was upwelling, physical disturbances to kelp beds represented at CA-MNT-229 in the Monterey Bay (Dayton and Tegner 1990:433; Tegner and Dayton area, however (Dietz et al. 1988:340). Tule elk (Cervus 1987, 1991), and reduction in northern anchovy elaphus) were also present in the interior valleys, and a populations due to reproductive failures (Fiedler single bone from CA-MNT-332 (Haney and Jones 1984). Many studies of California precipitation 1997) represents their presence prehistorically. Of the patterns based on historic records, show correlations terrestrial taxa, deer were probably the most significant between ENSO events and rainfall peaks (Michaelsen game animal. and Daily 1983; Yarnal and Diaz 1986). 20 Environmental Context One study by Schonher and Nicholson (1989) intensity has important implications for coastal found the relationship to be regionally specific. hunting and gathering groups who subsisted on a mix Redmond and Koch (1991) reported a meaningful of terrestrial and marine foods. Although El Nifios correlation between ENSO events and rainfall on the lower marine productivity, terrestrial productivity is southern coast and interior deserts. Hughes and Diaz probably high during very strong El Niiios, as a result (1994) found that the ENSO cycle has been operative of high rainfall. It appears then, that strong and very in the northern Pacific for at least the last strong El Ninios would lower marine resource millennium. In a longer study based on a 600-year potential for hunter-gatherers, but the impact of these tree ring record, Haston and Michaelsen (1994) events would commonly be offset by enhanced concluded that the ENSO/rainfall relationship may be terrestrial productivity, thereby preventing more equivocal than reflected historically, but that simultaneous deterioration of the marine and wet years associated with ENSO events tend to be terrestrial resource base. exceptionally wet. El Nifio events are very short-lived phenomena, Historic records of rainfall and sea temperatures during which high sea temperatures persist for no from Monterey (dating back to 1919) and Big Sur more than two or three years. This renders them (dating back to 1972) generally show a positive effectively invisible in the archaeological record of correlation between precipitation and sea temperature mainland California, where midden deposits (Figure 2), and a strong relationship between ENSO generally reflect occupations of several centuries, if events and rainfall. Based on determinations made by not millennia, and where faunalturbation Quinn et al. (1987), there were 16 ENSO events compromises vertical stratigraphy in middens. Lack between 1927 and 1987, with intensities varying of precision in marine-shell derived radiocarbon between moderate (N=9), strong (N=4), and very dates, based on varied correction for upwelling strong (N=3) (Figure 2). Historic rainfall and sea (Kennett et al. 1997), further lessens chronological temperature data show a clear correlation between resolution so that individual El Nifno events simply very strong ENSO events (1941, 1958, and 1982/83) cannot be identified. Nonetheless, it is important to and inordinately high rainfall. Among nine years recognize the relationship between ENSO events and associated with strong or very strong events, seven climatic variability, as one study (Anderson 1994) show inordinately high precipitation. Intervals of suggests that warmer, drier conditions of the non-El Niuo (e.g., 1932-1938, 1945-1950, 1960- Medieval Period may be the result of the low 1964) show moderate sea temperatures, and during frequency and intensity of El Nifios. 34 years with no ENSO event, 22 (64.7%) show rainfall below the yearly mean. The overall pattern is SEA-LEVEL RISE consistent with ENSO events in Peru, where El Nifio was originally linked with "years of abundance," Rise in sea-level following the last glacial when heavy rains come to the coastal deserts maximum (ca. 18,000 years ago) was a significant (Philander 1990:1). influence on shoreline environments of California. At Moderate ENSO events show marked variability the peak of the last glacial, seas were approximately in rainfall and sea temperatures and some tendency 120 m below their present level (Bloom 1983; toward lower than average rainfall. The moderate El Fairbanks 1989). This low-stand was followed by Nifio of 1976/77, for example, was associated with fairly rapid transgression (Flandrian) until exceptionally low rainfall. Among 15 years during approximately 7,000-6,000 years B.P., when sea which moderate ENSO events occurred, ten are levels stabilized--with very slow rise up to the associated with lower than average rainfall. The two present. Along low-lying shores of California, rising lowest rainfall years of the century (1931 and 1977) seas affected major changes in the size and character both occurred during moderate ENSO events. of estuaries (Bickel 1978), transforming them from Rainfall records from the southern Sierra Nevada deeply incised channels to broad embayments. where Graumlich (1993) detected Medieval droughts Drainages of the Big Sur coast, however, are also show correlation between ENSO events and generally very small, and no major estuarine habitats precipitation. Very strong ENSOs are marked by high were created--at least none are visible today. rainfall, while non-ENSO years are drier. Moderate Bathymetric contours show that the land lost to sea- El Nifios show even greater variability than on the level rise along much of the Big Sur coast amounts to coast, with both extreme highs and lows. The lowest only a very narrow strip- in some locations only 1.0 rainfall of the century was again associated with the kmn wide based on 120 m bathymetric contour. This moderate ENSO of 1977. strip was wider (up to 10 kin) in the vicinity of Point On an interannual scale the relationship between Sur and Piedras Blancas. At 10,000 years B.P., sea rainfall, sea-surface temperatures, and upwelling level was 20-40 m below its present level, and the Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 21 IN RNFALW L (cm) RAIFALL (cm)a 8~~~C 2- 2 ~ ~~~~U.U IA 0% MU CM1 3 o 0~~c 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 w~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 22 Environmental Contecxt shoreline was generally within 0.5 km of its present Altithermal, or the Postglacial Substage [5500-3000 location. Because so little land has been lost to sea- B.C.]) was represented by a maximal stance of oak level rise, Big Sur may be a good location to identify and sunflower pollen, dating ca. 3400-2400 B.C. The very early coastal occupations. climate became cooler and moister after 2400 B.C. (Antevs' Medithermal dating post 2000 B.C., or the PALEOENVIRONMENTAL VARIABILITY Neoglacial Substage [3000 B.C.-present]), although modem conditions of temperature, rainfall, and The degree to which ambient conditions along vegetation were not established until after ca. 300 the Big Sur coast remained constant over the last B.C. 6400 years is a subject of considerable relevance to Pollen cores reported from the central coast raise the reconstruction of past human lifeways. That the questions about the severity of the impact of climatic North American continent experienced a series of fluctuations on the biotic environment. Adam et al. large-scale low-intensity environmental fluctuations (1981) found that pollen from the terminal during the Holocene Epoch has been known since the Pleistocene (ca. 10,000 B.P.) in the Santa Cruz work of Antevs (1948, 1952). The degree to which Mountains indicated the presence of a pine- these changes significantly altered the composition of dominated coniferous forest, much like that which human environments along the California coast, now is found 800 km (500 miles) to the north, as a however, is open to discussion. An opinion offered result of mean annual temperatures 2-3 degrees by Johnson (1977) is of paramount importance and is below those of today. As the Pleistocene epoch certainly accurate to some degree: because of the ended, there appears to have been a coastward and tempering effect of ocean waters, the severity of northward progression of warmer drier climates impact in the coastal zone was less than in inland (Axelrod 1981), and pine-dominated forests retreated contexts. northward from their former extension to well south Paleoenvironmental data obtained from the Big of Big Sur. The disjunct stands of Ponderosa pine Sur coast are limited to a study of oxygen isotopes occurring in the Santa Lucia and Santa Cruz reported in more detail below. This preliminary study mountains are probably vestiges of this earlier compliments detailed research completed to the north vegetation pattern. in the Monterey and San Francisco Bay areas, to the Another pollen core reported from Elkhorn east in the Sierra Nevada, and to the south in the Slough 90 km north of the Big Sur River (West Santa Barbara Channel. Synthesis of data from these 1988) indicates that wholesale vegetation surrounding regions provides an adequate proxy for replacements did not transpire during the last 6400 reconstruction of the actual local conditions. years on the central coast. Pine, redwood, oak, and Holocene paleoenvironmental data are available from grass pollen are all present in moderate frequencies in terrestrial and marine sources. the lowermost levels of the 6.9 m core, but a shift of some significance is evident between 400 and 356 The Record From the Land cm, where pine reaches its lowest frequency, and oak declines. Concomitantly, grasses, high-spine The first coastal pollen sequence available for composites, and redwood all appear in elevated California was actually recovered from a marine core proportions. Dating ca. 3200 B.C., this pattern con- in the Santa Barbara Channel, but it depicts changes forms with the decrease in pine and increase in in terrestrial vegetation (Heusser 1978). This redwood associated with mid-Holocene in the San sequence shows vegetation and inferred climatic Francisco Bay area (Adam et al. 1981), and further changes that are generally concordant with Antevs' correlates with Heusser's (1978) dating of peak western North American climate sequence (Heusser warming in the Santa Barbara Channel. Adam et al. 1978) and more recent global climatic sequences (1981) have pointed out, however, that the continued (Shackleton and Opdyke 1973; Currey and James high frequency of redwood pollen at mid-Holocene 1982). The early Holocene was characterized by a argues against persistent drought during this period cool wet climate, with a higher incidence of pine and on the coast. fern (Antevs' Anathermal dating 7000-5000 B.C., or More recently, on the basis of a pollen core from the Late Glacial). Pollen from terminal Pleistocene Arroyo San Augustin, West (1987) suggested that layers at Daisy Cave in the Santa Barbara Channel chaparral and sage were important constituents also suggest more widespread pine forests until about throughout the Holocene, with a continuity in species 9000 B.C. Mid-Holocene (5800-2400 B.C.) was a common in the coastal sage scrub community (Munz warm/dry period, as xeric taxa (oak, sagebrush, and with Keck 1968). Rypins et al. (1989:84) have also sunflower) became more prominent in vegetation emphasized the apparent complacency of Holocene around the Channel. Peak warming (Antevs' vegetation profilles on the central California coast. Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 23 Even Heusser (1978:677) commented that the The Record from the Sea magnitude of vegetation change over the last 6,000 years in the Santa Barbara Channel was not great. A rapidly growing oceanographic data base Findings from the Sierra Nevada east of Big Sur holds promise for reconciling conflicts in terrestrial indicate that while the coastal zone may exhibit a sequences and providing more fine-grained dating, uniform Holocene climatic history, inter-regional although better understanding of the complex rela- variability is also apparent (Davis and Moratto 1988). tionships between ocean water temperature and In the southern Sierra Nevada a high frequency of terrestrial climate must ultimately be developed. A sage pollen in Early Holocene sediments in a location Holocene ocean temperature sequence from the Santa today covered with typical Sierran montane forest Barbara Channel based on radiolarian fossils (Pisias speaks to serious aridity in that location between ca. 1978, 1979), has been relied upon heavily by local 8000 and 5000 B.C. archaeologists (e.g., Glassow et al. 1988; Arnold A pollen sequence reported by Morgan et al. 1992a). Two aspects of this sequence are significant. (1991) from the Santa Ynez River area in northern First, there is a strong suggestion that the mid- Santa Barbara County supports the general trends Holocene period of warm terrestrial conditions was outlined by Heusser (1978), albeit with slightly punctuated by a period of cold water between 3400 different dating. Cores from Santa Lucia and Oak and 1800 B.C. Second, periods of very warm ocean canyons suggested that Early Holocene climatic temperatures were identified ca. 1800-1600 B.C. and warming culminated with a peak warm/dry interval A.D. 200-1200. between 5600 and 2800 B.C.; a trend toward cooler The cold water interval beginning ca. 3400 B.C. conditions began after 2000 B.C. (Morgan et al. corresponds closely with a glacial advance detected 1991:93). As the pollen reported in this study were in the White Mountain Bristlecone pine sequence recovered from somewhat suspect alluvial contexts, (LaMarche 1974), suggesting it is linked with the alternative dating for peak warm/dry conditions terrestrial cooling. In the Santa Barbara Channel, proposed is questionable. however, the mid-Holocene decline in water tempera- The Oak Canyon core reported by Morgan et al. tures corresponds with a period of terrestrial warming also showed an increase in coastal scrub pollen in the pollen sequence (Heusser 1978). As discussed between ca. A.D. 400 and 1400, suggesting an above, ocean cooling is historically associated with interval of warm and dry conditions. Other evidence reduced rainfall on the central coast. There are two for significant climatic variability after ca. 1000 B.C. alternative interpretations of mid-Holocene comes from inland locations, which also suggest that terrestrial/marine climatic relationshps. Pisias (1978: California was influenced by the period of global 381) argues that the correspondence between cool drought dating A.D. 800-1350 known alternately as seas and dry terrestrial conditions reflects the the Little Climatic Optimum, Medieval Warm Epoch, historical inverse relationship between sea surface or Medieval Climatic Anomaly. California coastal temperature and terrestrial climate. Glassow et al. habitats were probably also affected by the ensuing (1988), however, suggest the interval of cool water Little Ice Age, A.D. 1500-1800 (Koerper et al. temperatures, beginning ca. 3400 B.C., coincided 1985). Tree rings from the southern Sierra Nevada, with a cool wet terrestrial climate. east of Big Sur, reflect drought between A.D. 1100 Glassow et al. (1994) reported supporting and 1375 (Graumlich 1993), while low stands of evidence for an interval of reduced ocean temper- Mono Lake in the eastern Sierra dating A.D. 705- atures beginning ca. 3400 B.C. in the form of oxygen 1270 (Stine 1990) have been linked with global isotope profiles from an archaeological mussel shell climate change (Stine 1994). More recent, refined from Santa Cruz Island. These data support earlier dating of the Mono Lake low stands shows two assertions about the antiquity of red abalone middens, intervals of drought, the first between A.D. 890 and which in the Channel Islands mark cold ocean A.D. 1110, and the second from A.D. 1210-1350 periods (Glassow et al. 1988). Glassow et al. (1994) (Stine 1994:549). Stine further suggests that this dry date this interval ca. 3900-2500 B.C. Another recent interval was caused by a climatic anomaly with no study by van Geen et al. (1992) reports greater analog in the contemporary weather cycle of upwelling off the mouth of San Francisco Bay ca. California. This interval corresponds with a brief 2000 B.C., consistent with lower surface sea interglacial in the Sierra Nevada (Curry 1969) and temperatures. the White Mountains (LaMarche 1974), which are The Pisias (1978) sequence posits a short-lived followed by glacial advances of the Little Ice Age return of warm water conditions between ca. 1800 (see also Fagan 2000). and 1600 B.C., which corresponds with an interval of reduced runoff into San Francisco Bay between 1700 and 1450 B.C. (Ingram and DePaolo 1993). After this 24 Environmental Context interval, cool waters returned, and most local Summary and Sythesis of Previous Research paleoenvironmental sequences throughout California depict the termination of mid-Holocene warming at A fine-grained, fully concordant Holocene this juncture (Moratto 1984:548) paleoenvironmental sequence, incorporating surface The period of warm water conditions dating sea temperature, terrestrial climate, and vegetation is A.D. 200-1200 in the Pisias sequence overlaps with not available for the central California coast, and the Medieval Warm Period of A.D. 1000-1400. there are contradictions with the existing Occurrence of a warm ocean during this interval is oceanographic and terrestrial data. Nonetheless, some further indicated by studies of archaeological black patterns are suggested. The end of the Pleistocene abalone shells from the Channel Islands, which was apparently associated with cooler and/or wetter between A.D. 1150 and 1250, show patterns of climate that slowly ameliorated with the end of growth consistent with a warm habitat (Arnold and glacial conditions. Pollen from the Santa Barbara Tissot 1993). Arnold (1992b:132) and Arnold and Channel shows higher frequencies of pine (Erlandson Tissot (1993:391) likened this interval to an extended et al. 1996; Heusser 1978) than today, as a reflection El Nifio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), suspecting it of terminal Pleistocene climate. Warming associated was caused by changes in oceanic currents. with the close of the Pleistocene seems to have The Little Ice Age has been detected in the culminated in an interval of warm and/or dry climate oceanographic record of southern California, where at early-mid Holocene. Originally referred to by oxygen isotope profiles taken from archaeological Antevs (1948) as the Altithermal and today known as mussel shells suggest water temperatures 3.00 C the mid-Holocene warm period or Holocene colder than present (Koerper 1985:101). Dated ca. maximum, this period is reflected in most California A.D. 1400-1800 this interval may have been paleoenvironmental sequences (e.g., Woolfenden associated with increased upwelling and cooler 1996) as it is many other places in the world (Roberts climate. This correlation provides some support for 1998). The chronology, duration, severity, and actual the Glassow et al. (1988) interpretation of mid- conditions (warm or dry or both) of this interval are Holocene conditions in the Santa Barbara Channel, in somewhat unclear, however, as regional sequences that it supports a positive relationship between sea are not concordant. This is especially true for the and terrestrial temperatures and aridity. In keeping central California coast, where the empirical record is with such an interpretation, Koerper et al. (1985) very limited. Nonetheless, the basic vegetative concluded that Little Ice Age climate had no communities present today were probably in place in detrimental effect on southern California hunter- Big Sur 6400 years ago, when the earliest site gatherers. Indeed, productivity of the south coast investigated for this study was occupied, and ocean terrestrial biome may have increased. water temperatures and terrestrial climate were in the The late Holocene paleoenvironmental record for midst of early-mid Holocene warming. A transition south-central California has recently been enhanced toward cooler sea temperatures ca. 3400 B.C. by a series of studies reported by Kennett (1998) and apparent in the Santa Barbara Channel (Pisias 1978; Kennett and Kennett (2000). This work combines Glassow et al. 1994) corresponds with an increase in oxygen isotope findings from archaeological mussel redwoods and grasses in the Elkhorn Slough pollen shells with isotope data from cores taken from the column within Monterey Bay, as well as the maximal Santa Barbara Channel. This study, more fine- occurrence of sunflower pollen in the Channel. grained than the Pisias sequence, shows results that Alternatively these signals indicate a cool/wet are strongly at odds with the earlier research. -Seas off (Glassow et al. 1988), warm/dry (Heusser 1978), the Santa Barbara coast appear to have been cool/dry, or warm/wet climate, but the persistence of relatively cool between A.D. 450 and 1300, and there redwoods suggests this was not a period of extended is no evidence for unusually warm seas or reduced drought. marine productivity during this time. Rather, A more substantial paleoenvironmental record is intervals of unusually low sea temperature correlate available for the late Holocene, although still fairly well with intervals of low precipitation, comprised largely of data from adjoining regions. A including Stine's (1994) droughts of the Medieval variety of records from the interior (Graumlich 1993; Climatic Anomaly. Findings for the Little Ice Age LaMarche 1974; Stine 1994) and Transverse (Larson also conflict with previous characterizations, and Michaelson 1989) ranges shows evidence for suggesting warm seas and low precipitation, with a prolonged droughts between A.D. 800 and 1350. The particularly dry interval between A.D. 1650 and most recent sea temperature reconstructions suggest 1750. cool, productive seas during the and some hints of contemporaneous elevated sea surface temperatures. Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 25 These broad-scale trends in climate and sea Holocene. Oxygen isotope results from shells dating temperatures are very different from the variability A.D. 1-1300 suggested fairly stable conditions, with associated with the ENSO cycle. During very strong seas slightly cooler than present. Between A.D. 1300 El Nifio events, warm seas reflect decreased and 1500, the transition from the Medieval Climatic upwelling and low marine productivity. Precipitation Period to the Little Ice Age, temperatures reached tends to be high. On a latitudinal basis, California peaks higher than present and also show an unusually climate generally shows a correlation between warm wide seasonal range. Mussel shells dating from A.D. seas, warm temperatures and low rainfall (in the 1500 to 1700 (the Little Ice Age) showed colder, less south), with cooler ocean temperatures, more rainfall, variable sea-surface temperatures, consistent with and cooler climate in the north. If broad-scale previous isotopic studies (Dunbarl983; Koerper et al. changes in climate reflect latitudinal shifting of 1985). Compared with historic sea-temperature weather patterns, then declining seas temperatures records, the oxygen isotopic profiles from the late should reflect cooler/wetter conditions on land. Medieval Period are unusual in their suggestion of Kennett and Kennett's (2000) findings from the Santa large-scale seasonal fluctuations in water Barbara Channel, however, show an association temperature, with a range greater than any recorded between cool seas and drought-like conditions during historically. Single specimens from this interval, the late Holocene which could reflect changes in representing one to two years of temperature cycles global weather patterns more complex than simple each, showed seasonal flux of 8-9?C, while the latitudinal shifts. In either case, the co-occurrence of modern range represented in a 20-year-period spans warm seas and high rainfall that marks very strong El only 5.95 C. Although sea-surface temperatures Niuo events differs from the longer duration/lower during the A.D. 1500-1700 period were, on average, intensity climatic phenomena. In contrast with short- lower than modern conditions, the seasonal range term increases in sea temperature caused by ENSO was similar to the present, fluctuating 4-5 ?C. The events, a long-term, gradual change in sea surface seasonal range in temperatures between A.D. 1300 temperatures would not necessarily alter overall and 1500 is inconsistent with very strong El Nifios, marine productivity, but rather would promote which show warm temperatures throughout the gradual latitudinal shifting of habitats and movement seasonal cycle. As in Peru, very strong ENSO events of species (Barry et al. 1995; Davenport et al. 1993). off California are commonly "years of abundance" This would alter the mix of species available to hunter-gatherers but would not cause major problems a A0949D 4 in the availability of food. Late Holocene Sea Temperatures off the Big Sur i T Coast Inferred from Oxygen Isotope iL T14 To obtain a direct measure of sea conditions off j a. the Big Sur coast during the late Holocene, a pilot 10 2.0- study was conducted by Douglas J. Kennett to reconstruct sea temperatures via oxygen isotope readings obtained from archaeological-mussel shells. Results of this study incorporating additional data b Ax1- 43 iS00;4oo &Otnoo D from other investigations on the central coast were reported by Jones and Kennett (1999). Oxygen T U isotope readings were also used to evaluate the a IJ seasonality of shellfish collection. Details of these XM4 studies are presented in Appendix I. For the purpose 514 T I T of paleoenvironmental reconstruction, 169 oxygen it isotopic measurements were obtained from 12 _ ' archaeological Mytilus californianus shells. Once 4 isotope samples were taken the shells were radiocarbon dated. When placed in temporal order, results from the shells show fairly strong patterning Figure 3 Range and Midpoint of 180 Values and (Figure 3). Comparison of historic sea- surface Inferred Temperatures for 12 Archaeological temperatures with those inferred from oxygen Specimens of Mytilus californianus Compared isotopic profiles of prehistoric shells indicates with Historic Ranges and Midpoints for the Big variation in oceanographic conditions during the late Sur Coast. 26 Environmental Context in the terrestrial environment due to high rainfall. The YEARS SANTA BARBARA BIG SUR GLOBAL period between A.D. 1300 and 1500 off the Big Sur CHANNEL COAST EVENTS coast was a time of warm seas, but it was also one of SEA PRECPIAT SEA prolonged drought in central California, as indicated TEMPS. KM TEMPS. by tree rings (Graumlich 1993) and drowned stumps A.D.2000 (Stine 1994) in the interior. Low incidence and low intensity of El Nifios may partially explain the extended warm, dry conditions in central California HISTORIC (Anderson 1994), but the range of variation in sea rPERIOD ITil temperatures between A.D. 1300 and 1500 suggests te conditions not wholly accounted for by the ENSO Age cycle, and which may contribute to Stine's (1994) AD.1500 characterization of the Medieval Period as somewhat anomalous relative to the rest of the Holocene. It is s Trunhlon important to acknowledge that the central coast findings are not concordant with the Santa Barbara Channel study reported by Kennett and Kennett . . ..-.. (2000). This discrepancy may be related to 0 differences in chronological resolution between the .... . . two studies and possibly the division of readings into ..... A.D 1000 different temporal periods, but it may also reflect I1l more significant variation. Kennett and Kennett .. -1 (2000:384-385) characterize the Little Ice Age as a period of warm and stable sea temperatures in the Santa Barbara Channel, which conflicts directly with the Big Sur record that suggests seas colder than present (Figure 4). The Little Ice Age is commonly I interpreted as a period of cold terrestrial climate and AD50 wetter conditions which precipitated the brief advance of glaciers in the Sierra Nevada (Moratto 1984:548). While the formation of glaciers would ar certainly require high preciptation which is suggested in the Santa Barbara Channel, it would also require cL cool temperatures. On a north-south gradient in California, cool seas are correlated with cool temperatures on land, and it is not unreasonable to tAD. envision the Little Ice Age as a period when climatic regies mved lighly outhard,brining old Figure 4 Comparison between Paleoclimatic regimes moved slightly southward, bringing cold Findings from the Santa Barbara Channel seas, greater rainfall, and cooler land temperatures to central California. It is distinctly possible that the (Kennett and Kennett 2000) and the Big Sur Coast climatic reconstructions generated from the Santa (Jones and Kennett 1999) Barbara Channel, particularly the islands, have limited applicability to the mainland. The islands are DISCUSSION heavily influenced by the northward-flowing California counter current which does not affect lands The Big Sur coast is best considered relatively north of Point Conception. The islands seem to complacent in its response to low intensity/long experience much greater swings in sea temperature, and are generally more climatically variable than the durat micr chag Asvrelty preset-a mainland. Both regions, however, show evidence for flrpa, icotopog ph ic d r ven esthe significant ~ clmai chnefcsd,tAD 30 perpetuation of a complex mosaic of vegetation. signiin cAbsolute frequencies have no doubt varied, and some during the latter of Stine's (1994) two Medieval change in the expanse and elevation of certain droughts. communities probably took place, but wholesale vegetation replacements are not evident for the last 7,000-8,000 years. Given the radii in which hunter- gatherers forage in a day (ca. 10 kin), vegetation Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 27 changes over the last 6400 years were probably of little consequence due to the unchanging concentration of multiple habitats. While this environment should not be considered stagnant--it is anything but--diachronic variability during the Holocene was probably on a scale that would not have demanded major response by resident human populations. In contrast, short-term fluctuations in water temperature during very strong ENSO events cause a decline in marine productivity, but coincident high rainfall stimulates terrestrial habitats. Drought between ENSOs (La Nifia) reduces the vitality of terrestrial habitats. Neither of these situations would have been catastrophic for prehistoric hunter- gatherers, but a more extended drought or deteriora- tion of marine habitats could have had significant impacts. There is growing evidence for environ- mental oscillations focusing on A.D. 1300 that included changing sea temperatures and drought. These certainly could have been of sufficient magnitude and duration to cause resource stress and invoke human cultural responses. CHAPTER 3: ETHNOHISTORIC INVESTIGATION Ethnohistoric investigations were under- 20th century with early historic accounts, and taken to try to reconstruct systems of settlement, generalized observations about central California mobility, diet, social organization, and exchange aboriginal culture developed by early California at the time of contact with the Spanish in 1769-- anthropologists. using ethnographic information that was Immediately prior to European contact, the collected over 100 years later. The difficulties central California coast seems to have been and potential shortcomings of such effort are not occupied by a substantial number of relatively insubstantial (see Wilmsen 1989) in that the small, autonomous, native communities, each ethnographic record consists mostly of the associated with a clearly defined territory. recorded memories of individuals who were Recent research suggests that the coast between several generations removed from the pre- Point Sur and San Carpoforo Creek was contact era. While inhabitants of the Santa Lucia occupied by four such communities (Milliken Range were still speaking Native Salinan (in 1990): Sargenta-Ruc in the north including the addition to Spanish and English) when mouth of the Big Sur River, Ekheahan, in the ethnographic research was initiated, they were no vicinity of Partington Point, Quiquilit, in the longer pursuing a traditional hunting and vicinity of Big Creek and Lopez Point, and gathering lifeway. They provided the early Lamaca in the area of Willow Creek (Figure 1). ethnographers with precious few insights into the The area south of San Carpoforo Creek was mechanics of local settlement and subsistence. In apparently occupied by Chumash speakers light of this, the ethnohistoric- research was (Gibson 1983), although more recent, ongoing particularly focused on ethnogeography with the studies may push this boundary further south idea that place names identified by Native (Randall Milliken, personal communication speakers and listed in Mission records could be 2002). correlated with archaeological deposits. Contact between the inhabitants of the Big Investigation of these deposits could in turn Sur districts and Spanish explorers in 1769 was illuminate patterns of contact and pre-contact soon followed by the establishment of Mission culture. That is, a direct archaeological approach San Carlos de Borromeo in 1770, Mission San was to be used to enhance the limited Antonio de Padua in 1771, Mission Nuestra ethnohistoric record. Senora de la Soledad in 1791, and fmally Study of Native culture in this region is Mission San Miguel Arcangel in 1797 (Figure reliant on a host of primary and secondary 1). Knowledge of contact-era lifeways comes sources which vary widely in their precision and from three major sources. The first are applicability to the contact-era. The portrait of observations made by European expeditions Big Sur ethnohistory presented below combines prior to the establishment of the missions. fmne-grained ethnogeographic data collected by Unfortunately, only the expedition of Gaspar de the late John Peabody Harrington in the early Portola passed through the territory of a coastal 30 Ethnohistoric Investigation tribelet. Explorers after Portola took inland rington's ethnographic field notes, and the results routes to avoid the rugged terrain of Big Sur. As of mission record studies. Most of these data a consequence, there are no first-hand accounts emphasize speakers of Salinan languages, of the Sargenta-Ruc, Ekheahan, or Quiquilit specifically the Quiquilit community. The tribelets for the contact period. Indeed, the names majority of investigated archaeological sites are and locations of these communities have only in this district. been established through detailed analysis of mission records (Cook 1974; Gibson 1983, 1985; THE PORTOLA EXPEDITION OF 1769 Milliken 1990), which constitute the second body of information on contact-era culture. Members of the 1769 expedition of Gaspar These are valuable for their ethnogeographic de Portola--including Juan Crespi, Miguel insights, but are woefully lacking in accounts of Costanso, and Pedro Fages--were the first non-mission settlement and subsistence. In some Europeans known to have made contact with the instances, particularly in the Monterey and Native inhabitants of the Santa Lucias. Traveling Carmel area, mission records can be by mount northward from San Diego to supplemented with descriptions recorded by Monterey, this entourage reached the southern early travelers, such as the account published by portion of the Big Sur coast on September 16, the French scientific expedition of 1787. Finally, when they turned inland from what had until there are accounts written by ethnographers who then been a coastal route. The group eventually conducted interviews among surviving reached their destination later that year, and descendants during the early 20th century, passed through the Santa Lucias again during the recording language, placenames, and memories return trip to the south in December. The of past lifeways. A. L. Kroeber and C. Hart translated diaries of the expedition include brief Merriam interviewed Costanoan-speaking descriptions of encounters with native peoples in the Carmel Valley; Merriam and inhabitants. The available documents include Harrington recorded some Esselen vocabulary translations of the Crespi (Piette 1947), Costanso (Beeler 1978); and Merriam, J. A. Mason (1912, (Teggart 1911), and Portola (Boneu y Companys 1918), and J. P. Harrington worked with Salinan 1983) diaries, as well as a previously untrans- speaking peoples in the San Antonio Valley lated version of Crespi recently translated from between 1902 and 1935. Merriam's research is the original and made available by Alan Brown only partially published (Merriam 1955, 1968), (personal communication 1991). Also important while Kroeber (1904) and Mason gathered is the transcript of the official report of the important linguistic information, but precious expedition completed by Fages in 1775 little else of substance. Harrington's ethnographic (Priestley 1972). interviews among the Salinan, while never The Portola expedition was probably near synthesized, have been recently made available the southwestern edge of the district of Lamaca in their original format on microfilm (Harrington when they decided to turn inland on September 1985). Like Kroeber, Merriam, and Mason, 16th. The route and the location of the Harrington was dealing with people who had expedition's camping places have been been divorced from pre-European lifeways for reconstructed by Bolton (1927), Gibson (1983), several generations, but his information is and most recently by Brown (personal valuable because he spent more time in the field communication 1991), who traced the route on with his consultants and recorded more accurate foot and correlated diary entries with on-the- and extensive ethnogeographic and ground locations. Initial passage inland was up ethnobotanical data. The general accuracy of San Carpoforo Creek (Figure 5). From the 17th these accounts is testified to by their correlation to the 20th the entourage laid over at a location with the archaeological record (Rivers and Jones they called "La Hoya de la Sierra de Santa 1993; Jones et al. 2000). Lucia," which Brown correlates with the upper Accounts by the first Spanish expedition end of Dutra Creek Flat (Figure 7). It was at this through the Santa Lucia Range are an point that the first reference to Indians was unparalleled source of information on contact-era made: culture. The ethnohistoric summary developed below begins with a review of these accounts We have a village of very and settlement inferences that can be drawn from good, poor heathens (there them. This information was supplemented with must be some eighty of them) early historic descriptions, data from Har- Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 31 Point Sur., Ventana Double Cone 0 Salinan placename e.. O Salinan placename with t \f o possible archaeological 4J,, confirmation (surface data) v EKHEAHAN 4 Route of Portola expedition '- 4 U Expedition encampment ,, Junipero Serra 1 Camp of September 16,1769 Peak 2 La Hoya de Santa Lucia ,.c9 3 Los Plniones cn '-; "x . 4 September 24, 1789 . - 5 September 25-26, 1769 SlateS HotSprni; O*The indians 6 Mission San Antonio Big Creek QUILIT (current location) Devils Canyon -..-, e ( t Mlssion San Antonio Cone (first location 1771-1773) t Peak Reserve Boundaries Lopez Point L Cre k 4, 0 ? i k * Contemporary Placename CA * ~~~~~ 5~~-MNT 0OO Joilon -5 LAMACA. 4 Cape San Martin iO g = | 0~~~~~~~~~~~~8 Dutra 1 Crek 2 blMONTEREY COUNT O 10 ? 11,. SAN LUIS OBISPO CO. 1] ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~"5~~~~~~Creek 0 10 kilometers N Ragged Point Carpoforo Creek Figure 5 Approximate Locations of Tribelets on the Big Sur Coast after Milliken (1990), with Route of the Portola Expedition of 1769 after Bolton (1927) and Smith (1932) who, though not settled here approximately two leagues (5.2 miles) to a small, but belonging a bit further narrow valley they named Camp of Piniones, away, came over as soon as after gifts of pine nuts brought to them by they saw our scouts and that natives: we were on the way to stopping here, and brought all Six or seven big villages with of their gear and women and their chiefs resorted to this children, in order to make the spot, all of them so they said march with us when we start belonging to this vicinity, all toward their village, which very well behaved and friendly they say lies along the way we and bearing no weapons; at are to take. (Crespi translated least six hundred souls of all by Brown 1991). descriptions must have gathered here. They presented Bolton's (1927:192) translation of the diary also us with a great many pine nuts stated that... a village of heathen who numbered like those in Spain, and good perhaps sixty souls, but without a single house. well flavored gruels. (Crespi They are very gentle and friendly. (Juan Crespi translated by Brown 1991) translated by Bolton, 1927:192). Bolton's (1927:193) translation stated: "We On the 20th of September the party left this found there three villages of heathen, who were camp and traveled in a northerly direction for 32 Ethnohistoric Investigation bread. On the margin of this harvesting pine nuts. They had their houses not stream there was a village of far from camp, from what they said." The Fages very poor, wandering Indians, description of this location adds some details: but they showed themselves friendly and obsequious. There were in the vicinity three (Bolton 1927:196) bands of Indians, wanderers like those of the preceding On the following day the party moved on to group, without house or home. what Bolton (1927:197) believes was the upper They were at this time engaged Jolon Valley. The group then departed the Santa in harvesting pine nuts, of Lucias and descended into the Salinas River which there is an abundance Valley. On September 26th they encountered yet throughout the entire range. another village. Crespi noted that: The camp was called Real de los Pinones. (Priestley At the foot of the declivity we 1972:54) found a village of wandering Indians numbering more than While there are clear inconsistencies in these two hundred souls, who were accounts, it is apparent that a large number of camped beneath a fallen live people, comprising 3-6 groups, were present in oak. They gave us a quantity of this vicinity harvesting pine nuts. They were not seeds and pine nuts, to which all inhabitants of local villages, however. Bolton we responded with some (1927:194) locates the Pine Nuts Camp near Los beads. ( Bolton 1927:197) Burros Creek, west of the Nacimiento River (Figure 5). From here the party headed north Passing this village, the entourage camped traveling one league (2.6 miles) to a large arroyo along the river near the present day community where they camped until the 24th. According to of King City; the river was named San Elizario, Crespi, here they were visited by natives from and the camping place, "El Real del Chocolate." several nearby settlements: From this location, the party continued north to San Francisco Bay, and after a sequence of One or two villages are close unplanned exploring caused by their inability to to this spot; and shortly after find the port of Monterey, eventually returned our reaching here some south, again reaching the Real del Chocolate on heathens belonging to them December 15th. Leaving the Salinas Valley they came to the camp, presenting again encountered the village of Palo Caido us with bowls of gruel and (fallen stick or tree), the same one noted on pine nuts. (Brown 1991) September 26th. By December 18dI, they made their way back to the place referred to as Los Gibson (1983:203) places this encampment Pifnones. Crespi's commentary at this location is along the Nacimiento River (Figure 5). Upon significant: starting out again on the 24th, the party apparently traversed the divide between the We halted at this spot, not Nacimiento and San Antonio rivers, then having seen a single heathen followed the latter northward. On the edge of the out of the great many who stream they encountered a group of natives and gathered at this place on the Crespi commented: way coming and presented us with a great many pine nuts (it All the trees were loaded with being a place that has them). acorns, as yet unripe, and the (Brown 1991) crop would be so large that many herds of swine could be On the following day the party continued to maintained. The Indians use retrace their steps, returning to the location them in making their atole - of named La Hoya de Santa Lucia. Here, Crespi which we have partaken in noted that: various places - and they also roast them and eat them as Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 33 We made camp at the same spot villages, without counting as on the way coming, which those in the direction of the was close to a good sized village presidio of Monterey, some of that was here, and there were them right on the road. some heathens at it now as well. (Priestley 1972:57) (Brown 1991) Settlement Inferences By the 20th of December the party reached the vicinity of the mouth of San Carpoforo Passages through the Santa Lucia Range at Creek, where they commented on what Gibson different times of year by the Portola team (1983:200) believes was a Chumash village, represent a seasonal and geographical transect of indicated by a passage describing: "a good sized the native settlement system, from which several village of heathens who were already here on the inferences can be drawn. A significant amount of way coming up." (Brown 1991). seasonal movement is evident, based on the A return trip was made the following spring repeated description of these peoples as along the same route. Reaching the foot of the "wandering" and from the presence of large Santa Lucias on May 16, 1770, the entourage numbers of people engaged in pine nut collection headed up San Carpoforo Creek on the 17th, in September who were absent from that location arriving once more at La Hoya de Santa Lucia, in the winter and spring. A non-permanent where Crespi commented: settlement/subsistence system is further suggested by a description of Indians in the We saw, on coming down to vicinity of Mission San Carlos by Pedro Fages: this spot, two houses belonging "They do not have fixed places for their villages, to the village of very fine folk but wander here and there wherever they can that exist throughout these find provisions at hand. Their houses are badly mountains; we did not see a constructed, consisting solely of a few boughs single heathen, because, it placed in a circular arrangement" (Priestley must be, they are gathering 1972:67). their seeds. (Brown 1991) Since Spanish passage through the region in the fall was in advance of the ripening of acorns, On May 18th the party passed through, for the it can be inferred that use of task-specific pine- third time, the spot of the pine nuts, Los Pinmones, nut collection sites preceded the acorn harvest. where their comments are virtually the same as Since acorn exploitation generally requires those made in December: storage, most likely at a residential base, the absence of natives along the Portola route during .... villages who gathered at the winter and spring probably reflects this spot during the first movement to winter villages soon after the initial voyage and at that time pre- departure of the Spanish. Throughout central sented us with a great amount California, acorns were harvested near the of pine nuts, very fine well village sites, and put into storage in the fall and behaved folk all of them; but early winter, and subsistence through the spring we have not as yet seen a included use of these stored commodities. The single heathen since we have repeated sightings of natives near the location been here this time. (Brown named La Hoya de Santa Lucia during all three 1991) passes along this route, as well as the mention of houses at this site, suggests strongly this was the No further observations of natives were location of a residential base or village, occupied made during the ensuing days. Passage through for most of the year. It can be further surmised the Santa Lucias was completed by May 20, that the population of this village was between 1770 when the lack of sightings was noted. The 60 and 80 individuals. When acorn stores were supplemental report by Fages in 1775 confirms exhausted during the spring, movement to and summarizes the diary accounts. Describing exploit other types of resources, including pine the area of Mission San Antonio he stated: nuts, was probably initiated. It is said that within a radius of seven leagues there must be 20 34 Ethnohistoric Investigation MISSION REGISTER CONTRIBUTIONS HARRINGTON'S SALINAN TO LOCAL ETHNOGEOGRAPHY ETHNOGRAPHY As recently as the 1970s, anthropological Under the aegis of the Smithsonian Institute, reports on the ethnogeography of the central John Peabody Harrington made a series of field California coast consisted largely of vague, if not trips to the San Antonio Valley between 1922 incorrect, generalizations. Beginning with and 1932 to conduct ethnographic interviews Milliken's (1981) report on records from Mission with elderly Salinan speakers. The field notes San Carlos in Carmel, an increasingly fine- and maps compiled by Harrington, available on grained portrait of regional ethnogeography has microfilm (Mills 1985), have been used to emerged, one in which tribelets names are identify places in the Santa Lucia Range and the identified, and their constituent villages located. interior of the South Coast Range that were In 1981, Milliken defined tentative boundaries significant to Salinan-speaking peoples (Rivers for the Costanoan-speaking community of and Jones 1993; Jones et al. 2000). Harrington's Sargenta-Ruc on the northern Big Sur coast. In primary consultants were five elderly Salinan 1990, working with records from Mission San speakers: Dave Mora, Maria de Los Angeles Carlos, Mission San Antonio, and Mission Baylon Ocarpia Encinales, Maria Jesusa Nuestra de Soledad he plotted the location of the Encinales, Felipe Encinales, and Tito Encinales Esselen-speaking community of Ekheahan. (Plate 6). Brief biographies of these individuals Precise location of the actual boundaries between were presented by Rivers and Jones (1993). Six these two tribelets remains speculative, however. locations identified by Rivers and Jones (1993) Sargenta-Ruc included the mouth of the Big Sur are particularly relevant to reconstructions of River, and the village of Jojopan was apparently settlement. In the vicinity of the Spanish situated somewhere along the lower course of the encampment of Los Pinlones, the Salinan place river. Another village, pichi or pis was situated name K'e' meaning pine, was identified. to the north of Jojopan. The Ekheahan Harrington's informants associated this place community, while clearly situated south of with El Piojo Creek. A profusion of bedrock Sargenta-Ruc and north of Quiquilit, is more mortars occur in this drainage, and it is not poorly known. Milliken (1990) ascribes a series unreasonable to conclude that the mortars of villages to this community, including Ekhea- han, Etsmal or Zmaal,, Gessine, Chipicatan, and Mm iiu *- . Majjanichul. Location of these settlements is known only as in the mountains adjacent the beach. Milliken (1990) further speculated that the Salinan-speaking communities of Quiquilit and Lamaca were located on the coast south of Ekheahan and that Lima was in the interior. Gibson (1983; 1985), working with records from Mission San Antonio, established names and locations for over 100 villages in Salinan territory, although his village locations are highly approximate. He did define patterns of marriage relationships between coastal and inland villages in the northern Salinan area. Milliken (1990) developed a complete map of Big Sur tribelets. As a result of these studies, . _ ...- five tribelets can be ascribed to the area covered -o by this study: the Costanoan-speaking community of Sargenta-Ruc on the norther Big . . . .... X.i Sur coast, the Esselen-speaking community of ...X...i.. Ekheahan, the Salinan-speaking communities of ..... .. ..j Quiuilt and Lh amaca, commnithe souiamtherBiSu t and aa ont o m i Plate 6 Tito Encinales in 1931 (Photograph by interior (Figure 1). J. P. Harrington, courtesy of the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History) Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 35 were associated with the large pine nut harvest deer were killed and their meat dried. This place observed by the Spanish. If this gathering indeed could not be linked to an on-the-ground location. included as many as 600 people, multiple lineages were probably involved, from several SOCIAL AND POLITICAL communities. Furthermore, these mortars may ORGANIZATION have been used primarily, if not exclusively, for this one seasonal activity. It is impossible to Kroeber (1955b) defmed two types of socio- determine whether the pine nuts were intended political organizations in central California: for immediate consumption or whether they were maximal patrilineages and tribelets. Unlike the stored for winter, but presentation to the Spanish lineage group, which was organized along explorers of bowls of gruel and nuts suggests at kinship lines, the tribelet was "a sovereign least some immediate consumption. In terms of though miniature political unit, which was land- overall subsistence, the bedrock mortars at Ke' owning and maintained its frontiers against reflect seasonal, task-specific resource exploit- unauthorized trespass" (Kroeber 1955b:307). ation, not by small task groups, but rather by Kroeber (1962:33) further stated that a tribelet large social aggregations drawn from a wide area consisted of: focused on one seasonally concentrated resource. The specific intent of the gathering observed by ... several settlements -- there the Spanish at Ke' seems to have been a seasonal might be three or four or five feast of them --sometimes more or At least five Salinan villages were identified less the same size, but more by Harrington's informants. One, Tc'6tJmahk, often one was dominant or near the present-day town of Jolon (Figure 5), permanent, the other more like was in the vicinity of the Spanish encampment of suburbs of it. They might be September 23-24, 1769. A large midden with situated some miles away. The house depressions (CA-MNT-249) is present in smaller settlements were likely that vicinity. The other four, Holl6m, Sk'eyem, to be inhabited seasonally, or Matalce, and Ts'alhk'ak'a' are within the by certain families only Quiquilit district. The first two are situated perhaps for a stretch of years, inland and the others are on the coast (Figure 6). after which their population Both Ts'aldktaka' and Matalce are represented might drift back to the main by archaeological sites that have been settlement (Kroeber 1962:33). investigated, Ts'alk'akVa' (CA-MNT-480/H) by Howard (1973) and Matalce (CA-MNT- Tribelets could contain more than one lineage, 1277/H) for the present study. The settings of and Kroeber (1955b:308) felt that in rich these two sites are similar. CA-MNT-1277/H, a environments, like the Santa Barbara Channel, large midden, occurs at an elevation of 566 m, 2 multiple lineages coalesced into permanent km inland. CA-MNT-480/H was found at 595 m, villages. 1.6 km inland. Both village names appear in the Kroeber (1955b:3 11) specifically stated that records of Mission San Antonio- (Merriam the type of land ownership and social 1968:78, 79; Gibson 1983:115). organization employed by speakers of Salinan Several middens were recorded in the and Costanoan languages was either of the vicinity of La Hoya de Santa Lucia, and one or lineage or tribelet type, but that no definitive more of these must surely correlate with the determination could be made. The same village described by the Spanish. Unfortunately, uncertainty, of course, holds for Esselen Harrington's consultants were unfamiliar with speakers, as all aspects of their culture are poorly that area. known. Two other types of settlements were located More information on central coast social and by Harrington's informants. TraktJn, identified political structure comes from Harrington's as a hunting camp, was marked by a small shell (1942) contribution to Kroeber's Culture Element midden with an associated outcrop of bedrock Distribution project, in which cultural traits of mortars. Found with the help of Harrington's Salinan, Costanoan, and Chumash speaking maps, this site was recorded as CA-MNT- peoples were summarized. While data are far 1571/H at an elevation of 845 m, 4.2 km inland from complete, particularly for the Costanoan Ts'dpale'kwel' was identified as a place where speakers, they suggest these people were 36 Ethnohistoric Investigation I R S alnan placenamend archaeobogically conf lrmed . < ,rus Salonan placename with O vrstrom possible archaeologlcal HomesteadJ Ip , confirmation (surface data) - CA-MkNT-15721H,,--__j kta in , / Historic landmark Slat^H"S \ ' JCATMNT-1571/Hrail | g Route of Harrington and w , S InformantsseglsSnts am Boroa ta Hom dMNT1226l - > ~~~~~~~~~Branding Corra- A_/ 8rbue lmeta < DiZ 5 GJJ ~~~~~~~CA-MINT 7591Hr vs N4 (CA-MNrt.2771H) V O4 OkIlometer. Figure 6 Coastal Segment of Quiquilit Showing the Approximate Route of J. P. Harrington with Salmnan Consultants in 1932, Archaeological Sites correlated with Salinan Place Names, and Historic Landmarks noted by Harrington organized into patrilocal lineages, and that those near the mission and multiple lineages were aggregated into tribelets, those who are more remote which were the largest political group within the territory mentioned. (Harrington 1942:32) conforming with Kroeber's They are warlike, as are the definition of a tribelet. Harrington (1942:32) also Indians everywhere else. suggested that many villages contained only a (Priestley 1972:66, 67) single lineage, although multiple-lineage villages also existed. Each village had a single chief, Intergroup hostilities wereagain notedbyLa whose authority was hereditary and was most Perouse, of the French scientific expedition, who commonly passed to the first son. Customs of observed in the Monterey/Carmel area in 1787 marriage are not well documented. Bride price that "the independent savages are frequently at was not formally negotiated, but presents were war, but fear of the Spaniards causes them to exchanged for brides (Harrington 1942:30). respect the missions" (Margolin 1989:93). At The character of contact-era inter-group Mission San Carlos, Father Juan Amoros in 1814 relationships is suggested by early historic summarized prominent traits of the native accounts. Fages stated that the natives were speakersgof Esseleniand Costanoan: "continually at war with their neighbors" (Priestley 1972:58). Accounts from the Mission the captains or kings. There is San Antonio area suggest this characterization one for each tribe. They was accurate for that area, and that relations were command obedience and no better among Salinan-speakers than between respect during their lifetime. Salinan-speakers and others. Fages noted: This office is hereditary, or in default of an heir by direct They are governed by descent, it goest tothe closest independent captains, both Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 37 relative..(Engelhardt 1972:121, SUMMARY 131) Combining descriptions by the earliest Spanish SUBSISTENCE explorers with ethnogeographic insights provided by Harrington's consultants, and the Kroeber (1925:547) described Salinan- surface archaeological record makes it possible speaking peoples as "completely omnivorous," to develop a preliminary portrait of mobility, and all available data support this observation. diet, exchange, political, and social organization Members of the Portola expedition make explicit for the Big Sur area. Based on Harrington's reference to seed, pine nut, and acorn (1942) conclusions, the small autonomous exploitation, hunting, and fishing by inhabitants communities of the Santa Lucia Range (tribelets) of the Santa Lucia Range. Ethnobotanical data were organized into patrilineages. Each tribelet recorded by Harrington for the Salinan peoples contained multiple lineages, and there is some are long and detailed, indicating use of hundreds evidence for the existence of multiple lineages of plant foods for a myriad of purposes. within single villages. Each village had a While diet cannot be quantified from the headman, whose position was inherited. These historical record, it seems that, while the communities were often at odds with one inhabitants of Big Sur resided along the Pacific another, and as Milliken (1990) noted, there is no shore and exploited all of the available marine evidence that territorial friction was restricted to resources, they were not highly marine-focused. boundaries between different language groups. Nut processing and hunting are more frequently Rather, there were probably shifting alliances mentioned in the historic accounts, although among tribelets and communities. most of the direct observations were made in Descriptions recorded by the Spanish during interior settings where an emphasis on marine their passages through the Santa Lucias in 1769 foods would seem unlikely. and 1770 indicate that the Salinan-speaking inhabitants of this area employed a DIVISION OF LABOR settlement/subsistence system that involved periodic movement within bounded territories. Division of labor for the pre-contact study At a minimum, migrations were made between area can only be approximated from the meager between major residential bases, occupied during ethnohistoric record based on generalizations the fall through spring, and smaller residential made for the broader province of central sites. Movement away from villages probably California. Native populations of this region took place in the spring and summer when acorn seem to have conformed with worldwide patterns reserves would be exhausted. The location re- of gender-specific task appropriation (Lee and ferred to by the Spanish as Los Pifiones seems to Devore 1968:7): men hunted, fished, and manu- reflect a temporary residential encampment, factured fishing paraphernalia, while women focused on the intensive exploitation of one gathered, processed, and manufactured carrying resource by a large number of people for a feast. and storage implements (Kroeber and Barrett A profusion of bedrock mortars in this location 1960:95; Willoughby 1963). One important apparently marks the temporary encampment. gathered commodity, shellfish, was collected by These mortars were probably used to process both men and women (Greengo 1948:20) but some pine nuts and other vegetable foods during was more commonly gathered by females the brief use of this location. Bedrock mortars, in (Willoughby 1963:21). the absence of other cultural deposits, are often Fishing is also intriguing with respect to regarded as task-specific/logistical sites, division of labor along gender lines. As reflecting a "collector" (Binford 1980) type of Willoughby, Wallace, and Kroeber and Barrett settlement strategy. In this instance, mortars documented, fishing was predominantly men's may have been used for a limited array of tasks, work in Native California, but fish processing but they reflect a large temporary residential was done by women. Fishing equipment was association of people, taking advantage of a made by men including the weaving of nets, seasonally restricted resource. which was an exception to the general The shell midden associated with the site of participation of women in weaving tasks. Tr'akte~n, identified as a hunting camp by Hamrington's informants, suggests another type of residential base. The location referred to as Tsapalekwel, where meat was cut anld dried for 38 Ethnohistoric Investigation transport elsewhere, suggests the possibility of speakers of Costanoan (Milliken 1990:62; cf. yet another type of site. Breschini and Haversat 1993:7; Cook 1974). The surface archaeological record provides Costanoan languages were spoken from the Big additional insights into this system. Individual Sur River north into the San Francisco Bay area, tribelets apparently contained semi-permanent and together with Miwok, constitute the Utian villages in both inland and coastal settings, family. Formerly, Utian was considered part of although neither of the two coastal villages, the Penutian stock, defined by Dixon and Ts'aldk'ak'a' (CA-MNT-480/H) or Matalce (CA- Kroeber (1913), which also included the Yokut MNT-1277/H) is situated on the shoreline. and Maidu languages. It has long been assumed Instead, they are situated in oak-woodland that speakers of Costanoan intruded into the Big settings, ca. 1.8 km inland at elevations ca. 580 Sur coast from the north (Kroeber 1925; m. Both sites are fairly large and are marked by Breschini 1983; Moratto 1984). The Esselen shell middens. The midden at CA-MNT-1277/H language, while poorly known, is most was particularly large (63,000 mi2). The commonly affiliated with the Hokan stock identified hunting camp of Tr'akten is marked by (Beeler 1978:36), although J. P. Harrington a small shell midden with an associated outcrop suggested a Penutian affiliation (Beeler 1978:8). of bedrock mortars (CA-MNT-1580) at an Classification of the Salinan and Chumash elevation of 866 m. As bedrock mortars were languages has changed through time. Early most commonly used and controlled by women linguists alternatively classified Salinan and in Native California (Jackson 1991), the Chumash as genetically related in a provisional occurrence of this feature along with the shell Iskoman stock (Dixon and Kroeber 1913:652) or deposit suggests use not by all-male hunting as isolates within the Hokan stock (Powell 1891; parties, but instead by men and women, perhaps Sapir 1921). Salinan today is still considered a members of a family group or two. The small Hokan language, but recent analysis by Turner size of the deposit (2300 Mi2) and the absence of (1987) found little evidence for a genetic much level habitable ground at the site indicate relationship between Salinan and either of its the group had few members. The mortars and Hokan neighbors: the Esselen to the north or the shells further indicate use for tasks other than Chumash to the south (Turner 1987:3). Turner hunting. What can probably be inferred from the (1987:194) further identified more similarities archaeological features and ethnohistoric between Salinan and the unrelated Uto-Aztecan accounts is that in the spring, and possibly other stock, with whom the Salinan shared no common times of the year, villages broke up into smaller boundaries at the time of historic contact, than kin groups to exploit the rugged uplands of the with any other language group. Interestingly, Santa Lucia Range and the interior. While Kroeber (1917:379, 380) felt the system of hunting of upland game may have been a kinship reckoning employed by Salinan speakers primary focus at these high elevation was most similar to that employed by Uto- encampments, a full spectrum of subsistence Aztecan speakers of the Great Basin. Turner also tasks was pursued. The description of found evidence for long and extended contact Ts'6pale'kwel' as a place where deer were killed with Chumash speakers, contact with the Takic and their meat dried suggests that task-specific and Numic, and evidence for continuous and encampments may have been used to prepare and long-term occupation of the area inhabited at the transport hunted commodities back to the time of historic contact. villages. This site was not identified on-the- For Chumash languages, Klar (1977:156) ground, however, and may reflect an activity that concluded that Chumash is best considered an took place only after historic contact. isolate family not closely aligned with any other family or stock. At some level, Chumash might LINGUISTIC AFFILLITIONS be related to the Hokan languages, the rela- tionship was not a simple one, and probably A Salinan language was apparently spoken occurred at an ancient time depth (Klar by the inhabitants of the Quiquilit and Lamaca 1977:156). tribelets, while Ekheahan was occupied by speakers of an Esselen language. The language LINKING THE ETHNOHISTORIC AND spoken by the residents of Sargenta-Ruc ^is a ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORDS matter of question, but Milliken (1990), who completed the most thorough study of the issue, The ethnohistoric literature provides a concluded that Sargenta-Ruc was occupied by partial portrait of settlement, diet, exchange, and Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 39 social organization along the Big Sur coast for the contact and early historic periods. The archaeological record also has the potential to flesh out these descriptions and, moreover, to illuminate their developmental history. Two of the Native place names linked with archaeological deposits, CA-MNT-1277/H (the village of Matilce') and CA-MNT-1571/H/1580 (the hunting camp of Tr'akten) were investigated for this study. Another site, CA-MNT-480/H (the village of Tsalkak'a'), was investigated by Howard (1973). The archaeological data obtained from these sites have been combined with the ethnohistoric information to develop a model of diet, mobility, exchange, and social organization for the contact era and period immediately preceding it (Chapter 8). The ethnohistoric sites also provide general analogs for the interpretation of other deposits. CHAPTER 4: ARCHAEOLOGICAL METHODS Data from 30 sites were used in this study. Four sumed most of the Big Creek drainage, accelerating were investigated by other researchers (CA-MNT- the erosion. 281, -282, -480/H, and - 1942), and findings from two others (CA-MNT-1571/H and -1580) were limited to FIELD SAMPLING surface observations. The remaining 24 sites were investigated within a 14-year-period between 1986 Due to the ubiquity of shell fragments and and 2000. Twenty-two sites were middens; of which exorbitant amount of time that can be spent sorting the 18 located near the coast showed high these constituents, sampling shell-rich deposits concentrations of marine shell. Not surprising, the effectively is a challenge. Use of different mesh five middens in the interior had very low shell apertures can also cause significant disparities in the content. One site (CA-MNT-1580) was a bedrock characterizations of such sites. Historically, shell mortar outcrop; another (CA-MNT-361) was a deposits have been two approached in two ways in bedrock mortar with an associated subsurface hearth California. First, during the early part of this century, feature and scatter of ground stone; two sites (CA- shells themselves were generally not collected at all. MNT-504 and -507) were bedrock mortar outcrops This strategy was used at the famous investigations with flaked stone scatters; two sites (CA-MNT-861 of San Francisco Bay middens like the Emeryville and -1672) were scatters of flaked and ground stone; Shell Mound (Uhle 1907; Schenck 1926), and Ellis and two others (CA-MNT-1657 and -1754) were Landing (Nelson 1910). Unburdened by the labor scatters of flaked stone only. The deposits varied in required to collect and sort shell, investigators depth and stratigraphic complexity, but most were employing this strategy excavated large volumes, and shallow with little meaningful vertical stratigraphy. recovered substantial artifact collections with which The coastal middens all contained large quantities of they defined types and assemblages and developed sea mussel (Mytilus californianus) shells -- mostly cultural chronologies. Later in this century as broken -- within matrices of anthropogenic black soil, questions of ecology came into vogue, low volume, and fire-altered rock. Sea mussel shells also high-resolution sampling strategies were developed, dominated the invertebrate fauna from the interior focusing heavily on the recovery of microconstiuents middens. Most of the sites had been spared the (shell and fish bone), often at the expense of wide serious impacts common to more heavily populated cross-sections of sites and acquisition of large and areas of California, but they were all heavily affected statistically meaningful samples of formal artifacts. by ground burrowing rodents and erosion. Sites in My excavation strategy was essentially a hybrid the interior within Fort Hunter Liggett had all been of these two approaches, with an emphasis on impacted to some degree by military activities holding methods constant. Attempts were made to although in most cases these were limited to develop meaningful samples of both macro- and relatively minor surface disturbances. On the coast, micro-constituents through use of a mixed excavation many sites in the Big Creek drainage were impacted strategy, involving moderate-sized excavation by wildfires, and disturbances caused by fire suppres- samples and column samples. In most instances, the sion activities. Most recently, a fire in 1985 con- ultimate size of the sample recovered from any given site was dictated by the regulatory context of the 42 Archaeological Methods investigation. To generate samples of artifacts and 10-cm levels into the sidewalls of completed units. identifiable mammal remains, 1 x 2 m and 2 x 2 m Once retrieved from the field, these samples were units were excavated at each site. Most of the coastal water-processed through nested 6-mm (1/4"), 3-mm excavations involved salvage from eroding sites (see (1/8") mesh, and 1.5-mm (1/16") mesh. In most Jones 1988, 1994; Jones and Haney 1992), and unit instances, two columns were excavated at each site. location and sample size were dictated by the need to Shell residues obtained from column samples were focus on the most badly eroding portions of deposits. used to evaluate relative species abundance and to Salvage recovery volumes, dictated by severity of reconstruct diet. Second, whole and nearly-whole erosion and available funding, ranged from 2.4 m3 at (30% or more) shells were saved from all excavation CA-MNT-1235 to 20.9 m3 at CA-MNT-73 (Table 2). units for use as dating samples and to evaluate the Excavations at CA-MNT-759/H, and CA-MNT-1236 mean size/age of exploited shellfish, as an index of were not erosion-related, but were intended as harvest intensity and possible overexploitation. preliminary evaluations. Samples obtained from these Evaluation of shellfish from columns was based locations were small. on residues processed through 6-mm and 3-mm mesh The context of work completed in the interior only. Because some fish (e.g., anchovies and herring) was different in that it was undertaken as part of are so small that their bones are not retained with 3 compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic mm or larger mesh, some column samples were Preservation Act within Fort Hunter-Liggett Military processed with 1.5 mm mesh to recover fish bone. Reservation. Work at eight sites (CA-MNT-332, - Sorting 1.5 mm samples is extremely time- 361, -504, -507, -861, -1657, -1672, and -1754) was consuming, and as a result, subsamples of various limited to small-scale testing, with recovery volumes sizes were used. In one case, the large excavation at between 2.1 and 7.3 m3 (Table 2). Toaccomplish CA-SLO-267, residues from an entire 1 x 1 m unit these tests, an additional type of excavation unit was were processed with 1.5 mm mesh and fully sorted. used in sampling flaked and ground stone scatters. In most other cases, the volume processed with 1.5 Shallow 1 x 2 m units were excavated along mm mesh was very small. Total recovery from the 23 horizontal transects (surface transect units or STUs) investigated sites was 296.8 m3, with 204.6 m3 to define concentrations of materials that could (68.9%) processed through 6-mm mesh, 90.8 mi3 subsequently be sampled with more traditional (30.6%) through 3-mm mesh, and 1.414 m3 (0.5%) vertical units. Shovel tests (25 x 25 cm test probes) processed through 1.5 mm mesh (Table 2). were also used at interior sites for the same purposes. Larger recovery volumes were obtained as part of LABORATORY PROCESSING large-scale testing at CA-MNT-521 and data recovery at CA-MNT-569. Additional details of Cultural materials recovered from the field were investigations completed at the interior sites can be placed in labeled bags and transferred daily to a field found in the original site reports (see Table 1). One laboratory. Upon arrival, materials were washed, coastal site was also investigated in compliance with sorted into analytical classes and cataloged. Section 106. A large data recovery was completed at Cataloging prefixes were provided by the California CA-SLO-267 in 1996 in anticipation of a widening of Department of Parks and Recreation for sites CA- Highway 1. MNT-63, CA-MNT-376, and CA-MNT-73, by U.C. Soils from units were dry-screened through 3 Santa Cruz for CA-MNT-759/H, -1223, -1227, - mm (1/8") mesh or 6-mm (1/4") mesh. Some use of 1228, 1232/H, 1233, -1235, -1236, and -1277/H, and larger mesh (6 mm) allows for more rapid soil U. C. Santa Barbara for CA-SLO-267. The remaining processing, which, in turn, can increase excavation sites were cataloged according to specifications of the volumes and enlarge samples of formal artifacts. In Fort Hunter Liggett Military Reservation. cases where 6-mm screen was employed, samples obtained from 3-mm mesh were also collected as ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES controls, particularly for the consideration of fish bone and debitage profiles. All units were excavated Once materials were recovered, washed, and in 10-cm increments. Wall profiles were drawn for all cataloged, they were divided into discrete analytical sites. Features, including burials, were exposed and classes. Each set of items was then subjected to drawn. Fire-altered rock was weighed and discarded. specific analyses discussed below. The objective in the use of different screen sizes was to efficiently sample artifact and faunal constituents without incurring excessive processing time. Shellfish remains were sampled by two methods. First, 20 x 20 cm column samples were excavated in Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 43 Table 2 Summary of Subsurface Investigations Site Total excavation Volume (m3) Volume (m3) Volume (m3) screened volume (m3) screened through screened through through 6 mm (1/4 in) mesh 3 mm (1/8 in) mesh 1.5 mm (1/16 in) mesh COASTAL SITES CA-MNT-63 4.6 1.4 3.2 0.0040 CA-MNT-73 20.9 0.0 20.9 0.0480 CA-MNT-759/H 2.9 0.0 2.9 0.0023 CA-MNT-1223 13.4 0.0 13.4 0.0120 CA-MNT-1227 9.0 5.2 3.8 0.0061 CA-MNT-1228 14.7 13.1 1.6 0.0027 CA-MNT-1232/H Stratum II 5.4 2.8 2.6 0.0035 CA-MNT-1232/H Stratum I 9.1 7.2 1.9 0.0018 CA-MNT-1233 10.0 6.6 3.4 0.0187 CA-MNT-1235 2.4 0.0 2.4 0.0000 CA-MNT-1236 2.0 0.0 2.0 0.0000 CA-MNT-1277/H 8.5 3.5 5.0 0.0067 CA-SLO-267 70.3 61.0 8.4 0.8600 Sub total 173.2 100.8 71.5 0.9658 INLAND SITES CA-MNT-332 6.5 5.8 0.7 0.0000 CA-MNT-361 2.1 2.1 0.0 0.0000 CA-MNT-504 3.9 3.9 0.0 0.0000 CA-MNT-507 6.2 6.2 0.0 0.0000 CA-MNT-519 10.5 9.0 1.3 0.2250 CA-MNT-521 24.9 21.6 3.2 0.0760 CA-MNT-569 Midden A 30.1-- 28.2 1.9 0.0300 CA-MNT-569 Midden B 2.9 0.8 2.1 0.0280 CA-MNT-861 5.1 5.1 0.0 0.0000 CA-MNT-879 14.7 5.1 9.5 0.0960 CA-MNT-1657 4.4 4.4 0.0 0.0000 CA-MNT-1672 7.3 6.7 0.6 0.0000 CA-MNT-1754 4.9 4.9 0.0 0.0000 Sub total 123.5 103.8 19.3 0.4550 Grand total 296.8 204.6 90.8 1.4140 Adiira 8.24 m3 recovered from CA-MNT-1942 (7.9 m3 3 mm mesh and 0.3386 m3 1.5 mm mesh ) (Wolgemuth et al. 2002) 44 Archaeological Methods Chronology ling value of 325+35 was needed to correct the date to the historic age indicated by the associated glass Dating was accomplished with 14C, obsidian beads. Based on this finding, all shell-derived hydration and source analysis, and typological radiocarbon dates were corrected using the Stuiver analysis of temporally sensitive shell beads. In and Reimer computer program with an upwelling addition to the simple, yet critical, objective of correction factor of 325+35 years. This value is very defining the temporal parameters of habitation, similar to a correction factor of 290+35 years chronometric analyses were directed toward developed independently by Ingram and Southon distinguishing temporally discrete components within (1996). overall spans of occupation. Specifics of these analyses are presented below. Obsidian Hydration and Source Analyses Radiocarbon Obsidian hydration is used as a dating method in many parts of California particularly in areas where A total of 131 radiocarbon dates was available organic preservation is poor and radiocarbon samples from the investigated sites. Seventy-four of these are hard to come by. Obsidian does not occur were obtained as part of this study, and 57 were naturally in the South Coast Ranges, and it appears in secured by other researchers. Most of the dates in the Big Sur as a trade commodity that was imported from study came from samples of marine shells that were distant sources in the North Coast Range and the collected from multiple site proveniences. Because eastern Sierra Nevada. A total of 295 pieces of fires occur naturally in this region, charcoal not obsidian was recovered from the excavated sites. All associated with features was generally avoided for of these were first submitted for XRF analysis to dating samples although 17 charcoal dates were determine source, and then hydration measurements obtained from CA-MNT-1942 by Wolgemuth et al. were made. Source determinations for the coastal (2002). All but one of the shell samples (from CA- sites were made by Dr. Paul Bouey while specimens MNT-1236) that I submitted consisted of single from the interior sites were analyzed by Biosystems pieces of shell. Three samples obtained by earlier Analysis and Northwest Obsidian Laboratories. researchers from CA-SLO-267 were made up of Hydration measurements were made by Thomas multiple fragments. Because all deposits in the study Origer, Biosystems, and Northwest Obsidian area show signs of bioturbation, samples composed Laboratories. Many pieces were too small for XRF of multiple fragments are likely to contain pieces analyses, while others produced either diffuse or no from different time periods and were therefore hydration. The total number of specimens for which considered potentially misleading. both hydration and source were secured was 236. Two dates obtained from CA-MNT-63 were The challenge in using obsidian as a dating tool used to establish a marine upwelling correction factor is to determine the correlation between hydration rim for the Big Sur coast. Recovery context is discussed thicknesses and absolute time. Prior to the current in more detail in Chapter 5, but the dates were study, no obsidian data were available from the Big obtained from a historic feature dated, based on Sur coast, but some comparison between hydration associated glass and shell beads,-to A.D. 1800-1816. band thickness and radiocarbon profiles had been Radiocarbon analysis of an abalone shell taken from reported from areas to the north and south. Findings this feature yielded an uncorrected date of 440+80 from CA-MNT-229 (Dietz et al. 1988; Jones and years B.P. (WSU-4053). Charcoal, taken from inside Jones 1992), where a well-delineated Middle Period the abalone shell, yielded an essentially modern date component was identified were particularly important of 105.6+0.70 years B.P. (WSU-4054). Sample- because of a large hydration sample and coherent specific isotope fractionation analysis was not radiocarbon results (Figure 7). Another site in- completed for the shell sample, but the figure of +410 vestigated for the current project, CA-MNT-73, years reported by Stuiver and Polach (1977) was used produced cohesive radiocarbon results and a large as a reliable substitute, yielding a date of 850+80 hydration sample from an Early Period component years. The Stuiver and Reimer (1993) computer (Figure 8). Radiocarbon and hydration results from program, which incorporates a general marine/ these two sites facilitated development of a relative terrestrial carbon correction that must be sup- time scale for the two most abundant obsidians: Casa plemented with a regional upwelling correction, was Diablo and Napa obsidian. Data from CA-MNT-229 used to convert this value into a calendric age. The suggested that readings of 2.0-4.3 microns on Napa local upwelling value developed by Stuiver et al. obsidian and 2.0-4.6 microns on Casa Diablo (1986) of 225?35 years, however, did not bring this obsidian date to the Middle Period (1000 B.C.-A.D. date into line with its known age. Rather, an upwel- 1250). Data from CA-MNT-73 demonstrate that Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 45 readings of 3.8-5.1 microns on Napa obsidian and provinces of California and the Great Basin. 3.5-5.2 on Casa Diablo obsidian date to part of the Accordingly, shell beads were classified with Early Period (1500-2500 B.C.). Because the Napa reference to the Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) readings were considerably fewer than those for typology, with some use of Bennyhoff and Fred- Casa Diablo, it was assumed that a larger sample rickson (1967) and C. King (1982, 1990). Dating would bring Napa into alignment with Casa Diablo. suggested in Bennyhoff and Hughes (scheme B 1) and Readings from the two sites also show significant King (1990) was compared with the contexts of the overlap which seems to reflect the general Big Sur finds to define the dating most applicable to imprecision of hydration dating. An idealized the local situation. Glass beads, found at only two hydration time scale, incorporating significant sites, were classified according to the Kidd and Kidd overlap, was developed based on these findings (1970) typology. (Table 3). During the course of the investigations, my Flaked Stone Analysis opinion on the value of obsidian hydration dating changed. At the onset of the project it was envisioned Flaked stone residues, whether indicative of that obsidian could provide an important source of settlement strategies and mobility or not (Bamforth chronological information. After working with the 1991), are inevitably influenced by technology, and hydration data for a decade, however, it became type and distribution of raw materials. Accordingly, apparent to me that obsidian is a very imprecise analysis of the Big Sur flaked stone assemblages dating tool and that there is little reason to rely on it included attempts to identify sources of raw material in the face of abundant, and more precise radiocarbon and understand local stone tool technologies through results. Because obsidian is important as an index of experimental replication. inter-regional trade relationships, however, there is some reason to attempt to control its temporal Sources of Raw Material dimension, but it was not to be relied upon as a primary chronometric datum in this study. Other than obsidian that was traded to Big Sur in the form of complete bifaces, the most common tool Table 3 Obsidian Hydration Time Scale for the stones in this area are Franciscan and Monterey Big Sur Coast cherts which occur as products of discrete geological formations. The Franciscan Formation, a melange of volcanics, metavolcanics, sandstone, shales, shists, Period Dating Napa, Casa and occasional chert, occurs along the western flank Diablo, of the Santa Lucia Range, at Big Creek, and the uncorrected mouth of the Big Sur River, where it extends from hydration shoreline to 2-3 km inland (Figure 9). Cherts readings commonly associated with this formation are green, (microns) red, orange, yellow, brown, and tan, with frequent Late- mottling of multiple colors. Franciscan chert occurs Protohistoric A.D. 1250-1769 0.9-2.4 in cobble form in many coastal drainages. Two sites Middle- 1000 B.C.-A.D. 2.0-4.6 investigated for this study (CA-MNT-63 and -73) Middle/Late 1250 were associated with a source of cobbles in the Big Transition Sur River. An abundance of flaked stone at the mouth of Kirk Creek (Gibson et al. 1976), south of Early 3500-1000 4.2-6.2 Big Creek, suggests that Franciscan chert cobbles B.C. may occur at that location. The Monterey Formation was named in 1914 for Millingstone Pre 3500 B.C. Pre - 5.6 extensive beds of siliceous shales near the town of Monterey (Parsons 1990:28). The formation is found in the coast ranges of central and southern California Beads and Temporally Sensitive Ornaments between San Diego Bay in the south and Point Arena in the north. It generally occurs in a band 20-50 km While the shell bead types found in the Big Sur - wide, although in the center of its range, there are area had never been documented before this study, two parallel bands with the interior one 80-90 km there was little reason to suspect that types would fall wide (Parsons 1990:39). Dating to the middle outside of the established typologies for the greater Miocene, this formation contains sandstone, shales, and other sedimentary rocks, with occasional cherts 46 Archaeological Methods () C.) .... ........ ...... ............. ........................... ............I .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . M . . ............ ....................... .......o......z.. z 0.......... . .. ....... . o .......... . ... .. .. ........... .............. ................ . ... ...... . ......... .. .. . ... .. . ... .. . .. ... . .. . .. . .. . .. ... . I.. .. . . .. . . o ......................... ....... .................. ................ .................... ...........0. ........... .....................~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:.' .......................0.=............... ....... .............. .............. .... ....... I.. ... .... ... .... ... .... . . .. . ... ........... ... ... .. .. . ... ... .. . v.... .. ... . ..... . ... .. . .. .. . .. ... . ... .. . .. . .. .. .... ..... . ..... . .. .. ... .... .. . .. . ... ....................... ............... ................................................................ ........................... ~~~~ ~ ~ 1. .......... .............. .............. .................. ......... ....I......... ...............4 ..1-,,,...-:... ................. ............ ........_...... ......................... . ................~ ......... .. .. ... ....I.... .. . ._......_ _ _ __.... ............ ...0.. .................... .................................... ............. ............ .......... ........0 ..... ................. I'l......... ..........0.... 0 0~~~~~~................&... ............... . ......... 0.... Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 47 0 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ro 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ a) 0 0~ cl)~~~~~~~~~l < cl~~~~~~~~~~~ ~0 z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C 0~~~~~~~~~~~~ co 0~~~~~~~~~~~~ ui~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C 48 Archaeological Methods 03~~~~~~~ 00.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. co~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~c z~~~~~~~~~ C.) Z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ C)~~~W cx~~vvc zWa CO *EJINI~~~~~~~P Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 49 that tend to be banded in appearance, with alternate in diameter; and larger, more angular, irregular slabs, layers of white, black, brown, or gray. Heat was generally 15-20 cm in length and 4-7 cm in thickness. frequently applied to these cherts to render them Initial reduction of cobbles and slabs was essentially more workable (Parsons 1987, 1990). In the study an attempt to generate flake blanks or other pieces area, the Monterey Formation occurs inland along the large and flat enough to serve as cores that could be headwaters of Arroyo Seco, and the San Antonio and reduced into bifacial preforms. The most effective Nacimiento rivers. At least four significant Monterey technique for producing suitable cores was bipolar chert quarries have been recorded, three inland within reduction of cobbles. Direct freehand percussion of the San Antonio River drainage (CA-MNT-779, CA- slabs also yielded usable flakes, but attempts to MNT- 1811, and CA-MNT- 1340) (Figure 9), and one reduce slabs bifacially into blanks resulted in failures. at Point Piedras Blancas. Many other sources Flat Franciscan chert cobbles were effectively split probably occur, as little archaeological survey has into large, flat, useful cores and flakes using the been completed in the rugged uplands where the bipolar technique. In many instances, bipolar formation outcrops. Conversations with locals percussion seemed to be the only way to obtain suggest that several large quarries are present in the useful flakes from these sources. Experimentation hills east of the community of Lockwood (Figure 9). further showed that the quality of the stone was Other types of workable stone also occur in the improved by application of heat (Jones and Waugh alluvial deposits of the Big Sur, Nacimiento, and San 1995). Antonio rivers and Big Creek including quartzite, The Monterey chert samples obtained from CA- meta-chert, siltstone, and some igneous rock, but MNT-779 and -1813 consisted of large, semi- these were used only minimally. Overall, sites at the angular, irregular chunks, generally 10-15 cm in Big Sur River (CA-MNT-63 and CA-MNT-73) were diameter. As with the Franciscan cobble, reduction of located in a setting rich with Franciscan chert, sites in these chunks involved generating a flake blank, large the Big Creek area were situated some distance (at and flat enough to serve as a core to reduce into a least 15 km) from good sources of tool stone, and bifacial preform. In contrast, however, the Monterey sites in the interior (Fort Hunter Liggett) were located chunks proved to be extremely weathered and near several Monterey chert quarries. CA-SLO-267 crumbly, and large quantities of shatter, decortication was located adjacent to a source of Monterey chert flakes, and other debris were produced as byproducts cobbles and boulders. Of the 22 sites investigated for of the reduction. Flake blanks were reduced into this study, Monterey chert dominated the flaked stone Stage 3 bifaces that were heat-treated and then assemblages at 20. pressure-flaked into projectile points. All of the debitage associated with reduction of Replication single cobbles of each material type was saved, sifted through 3-mm mesh and classified according to the Analysis of the stone tools and debitage from the flake types described below. With the Franciscan study sites combined a reduction stage-based classifi- experiment, only diagnostic flakes were saved and cation with replicative work with Franciscan and tabulated. For the Monterey chert experiment, a total Monterey cherts. Results of the Franciscan chert of 1659 flakes was generated in the creation of a study were first reported by Jones and Waugh (1995), single projectile point. Most of the flakes (N=1056) as part of the investigation of CA-SLO-175, at Little were non-diagnostic. Using the combined sample of Pico Creek, just south of the Big Sur coast, where a diagnostic and non-diagnostic flakes, ratios of flakes source of Franciscan chert cobbles, identical to those to bifaces were developed as useful indices for at the Big Sur River, was identified. Samples of evaluating the archaeological collections (Table 4). Monterey chert were obtained from CA-MNT-779 Debitage obtained from both replication and -1813, and specifics of the replication were experiments showed proportional changes in intially reported by Haney and Jones (1997). Samples frequency of flake types through the reduction of both materials were knapped in an attempt to sequence. The 327 diagnostic flakes obtained in replicate large bifaces and projectile point types reduction of the Franciscan chert cobble showed that commonly found along the central coast. While there no single type is exclusively representative of any is no way to be certain that the techniques employed one stage of reduction, but that core/flake debitage were the same as those used by prehistoric stone dominates the collection early and gradually gives workers, it was possible to replicate the most way to biface-derived debitage (Table 5). Overall, the commonly occurring types fairly easily. collection is dominated by biface-derived debitage Franciscan chert from Pico Creek and the Big (59.5%). Preform production (i.e., reduction of a Sur River occurs in two forms: flat, strongly rounded cobble to obtain a flake blank, in turn, reduced into a cobbles and pebbles generally no greater than 10 cm Stage 1 biface) shows 73.1% core/flake debitage, 50 Archaeological Methods whereas reduction of a Stage 1 biface into a Stage 5 working. These included assayed cobbles, large flake tool produces debitage dominated (73.5%) by biface blanks, split cobbles, and large pieces of shatter, all debris (Table 6). The diagnostic debris from of which result from the initial reduction of chert Monterey chert showed a different pattern, however, cobbles and slabs. as the reduction was dominated by core/flake debris (N=535; 88.7%) (Table 6). This discrepancy reflects Core Tools variation in the form in which these materials occur at sources, as the larger Monterey chert chunks Core tools are products of a simple core/flake produced a greater quantity of non-useable core/flake reduction strategy. They are generally cobbles or debris. Debitage profiles obtained from the chunks exhibiting removal of flakes to form a archaeological sites were compared with the working edge. Many of these could be classified experimental profiles for the appropriate material to functionally as "choppers," while still others appear assess stages of reduction represented in components. to be multi-functional, based on the presence of cutting edges and extensive battering on remaining Table 4 Flake:Biface Ratios from Experimental cortical surfaces. They were uncommon in the Reduction of Monterey Chert assemblages from Big Sur. Bifaces Reduction stage 3 mm and 6 mm 6 mm mesh mesh Building on the earlier work of Muto (1971), Callahan's (1979) replicative analysis of bifacial tool production provides the most widely accepted system Flake blank production 760:0 436:0 for biface classification in North America. Developed Reduction of cobble to 1659:1 708:1 on the basis of an analysis of fluted projectile points Stage 5 biface from the East Coast of North America, Callahan Reduction of cobble to 1215:1 595:1 (1979:9) divided biface production into eight stages, Stage 1 biface of which only the first five are relevant to non-fluted Reduction of flake 899:1 272:1 points: blank to Stage 5 biface Stage 1-5 reduction 444:1 113:1 Stage 1 Obtaining the blank Stage 2-5 reduction 236:1 53:1 Stage 2 Initial edging Stage 3-5 reduction 75:1 4:1 Stage 3 Primary thinning Stage 4 Secondary thinning Stage 5 Shaping Analytical Definitions and Methods The primary criteria used to define stages in the Flaked stone was classified on the basis of Callahan system are width/thickness ratios, which are macroscopic observation into six morphological and considered indices of cross section (Callahan functional categories: cores, core tools, bifaces, 1979:18): projectile points, drills, debitage, and flake tools. The Stage 2 2.00-3.00 length, width, thickness, and weight of all cores, core Stage 3 3.01-4.00 tools, bifaces, points, and drills were recorded. Stage 4 4.01-5.00 Additional attributes recorded for cores included type Stage 5 4.01-6.00+ and morphology. Bifaces were classified according to stage of manufacture, following a variation of the Callahan (1979) reduction sequence developed by Gilreath (1989) and Skinner (1986; 1990). Debitage was classified according to twelve flake types defined below. Cores Based on the results of the chert replication experiments, cores were defined as any large piece of workable stone, other than a biface or tool, that exhibited at least one exposed scar indicative of Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 51 Table 5 Experimentally Derived Debitage Frequencies from Bipolar Reduction of Franciscan Chert Cobble (blank production) and Resulting Cortical Flake Blank (blank reduction) into a Stemmed Projectile Point (preform reduction) Blank Blank Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3_ Stage 4 Production Reduction Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Total FlakeType N % N % N % N % N % N % N % Primary decort. 2 9.5 4 7.0 2 4.3 4 6.3 1 1.4 0 0.0 13 4.3 Secondary decort. 2 9.5 2 3.5 1 2.1 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 5 1.6 Bipolar 3 14.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 1.0 Simple interior 9 42.9 23 40.4 9 19.1 13 20.6 13 17.7 2 4.5 69 22.6 Complex interior 4 19.0 8 14.0 8 17.0 6 9.6 1 1.4 0 0.0 27 8.8 Subtotal 20 95.2 37 64.9 20 42.5 23 36.5 15 20.5 2 4.5 117 38.3 Early biface thinning 0 0.0 5 8.8 4 8.5 4 6.3 6 8.2 1 2.3 20 6.6 Late biface thinning 0 0.0 5 8.8 13 27.7 4 6.3 15 20.5 6 13.6 43 14.1 Edge prep./pressure 1 4.8 10 17.5 10 21.3 32 50.8 37 50.7 35 79.5 125 41.0 Subtotal 1 4.8 20 35.1 27 57.4 40 63.5 58 79.5 42 95.5 188 61.7 Grand total 21 100.0 57 100.0 47 100.0 63 100.0 73 100.0 44 100.0 305 100.0 SUMMARY Preform Stage 1-5 Production Reduction Flake Type N % N % Primary decortication 6 7.7 7 3.2 Secondary decortication 4 5.1 1 0.4 Bipolar 3 3.9 0 0.0 Simple interior 32 41.0 37 16.3 Complex interior 12 15.4 15 6.6 Subtotal 57 73.1 60 26.5 Early biface thinning 5 6.4 15 6.6 Late biface thinning 5 6.4 38 16.7 Edge preparation/pressure 11 14.1 114 50.2 Subtotal 21 26.9 167 73.5 Grand total 78 100.0 227 100.0 Decort. = Decortication; Prep. = Preparation. 52 Archaeological Methods Table 6 Experimentally Derived Debitage Frequencies from Reduction of Monterey Chert Chunk (blank production) and Resulting Cortical Flake Blank (blank reduction) into a Stemmed Projectile Point (preform reduction) Blank Blank Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3_ Production Reduction Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 5 Total FlakeType N % N % N % N % N % N % Primary decort. 12 5.2 18 11.5 3 3.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 33 5.5 Secondary decort. 6 2.6 13 8.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 19 3.2 Simple interior 78 33.6 81 51.9 34 34.0 11 21.2 1 1.7 205 34.3 Complex interior 132 56.9 39 25.0 52 52.0 35 67.3 20 35.1 278 46.6 Subtotal 228 98.3 151 96.8 89 89.0 46 88.5 21 36.8 535 89.6 Early biface thinning 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Late biface thinning 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 4.0 2 3.8 0 0.0 6 1.0 Edge prep./pressure 4 1.7 5 3.2 7 7.0 4 7.7 36 63.2 56 9.4 Subtotal 4 1.7 5 3.2 11 11.0 6 11.5 36 63.2 62 10.4 Grand total 232 100.0 156 100.0 100 100.0 52 100.0 57 100.0 597 100.0 Non-identifiable 522 299 108 109 18 1056 SUMMARY Preform Stage 1-5 Production Reduction FlakeType N % N % Primary decortication 30 7.7 3 1.4 Secondary decortication 19 4.9 0 0.0 Simple interior 159 40.9 46 22.0 Complex interior 171 44.1 107 51.2 Subtotal 379 97.6 156 74.5 Early biface thinning 0 0.0 0 0.0 Late biface thinning 0 0.0 6 2.9 Edge preparation/pressure 9 2.4 47 22.6 Subtotal 9 2.4 53 25.5 Grand total 388 100.0 209 100.0 Decort. = Decortication; Prep. = Preparation. Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 53 Callahan's system is often employed with Projectile Points and Drills modification in California due to problems with width-thickness ratios. On the central coast, for Earlier work in the Big Sur area (e.g., Gibson et example, many complete projectile points yield ratios al. 1976; Pohorecky 1976; Swernoff 1982) that are less than 3.00. As a consequence, a biface illuminated some of the projectile point types that reduction classification employing more qualitative occur in the area, but no formal synthetic typologies technological criteria was adopted. In this system, were developed before this study was initiated. As applied to California biface industries elsewhere with the obsidian hydration and shell beads, some (e.g., Bouey and Basgall 1991; Gilreath 1989; Jones typological research had been completed in areas to and Waugh 1995; Skinner 1986, 1990) flake or the north (Dietz and Jackson 1981; Dietz et al. 1988; bipolar core blanks, produced from cobbles, are seen Jones and Hylkema 1988) and south of Big Sur as having been reduced through a series of reduction (Abrams 1968a, 1968b, 1968c; Greenwood 1972). stages, culminating in finished, pressure-flaked Building on this research, a typology was developed bifacial implements (Figure 10). Definition of stages during the initial phases of the Big Sur study as part is as follows: of the broader effort to construct a regional culture Stage 1 bifaces are thick, crude, bifacial cores. history. Published in 1993 (Jones 1993), this With the locally available Franciscan chert, these typology includes the following types: Desert Side- bifaces were created by bifacially reducing large notched (Figure 12), Canalino/Coastal Cottonwood heat-treated flakes or small thin slabs. They are (Figure 13), small leaf-shaped and lanceolates generally lenticular or irregular in cross section, with (Figure 14), contracting-stemmed (Figures 15, 16), sinuous margins and rough bifacial edges. Less than Rossi Square-stemmed (Figure 17), Large side- 50% of the perimeter edge is shaped, except at the notched (Figure 18). The temporal placement of these ends, and they are irregular in outline. types will be discussed in Chapter 6. Stage 2 bifaces, shaped strictly by percussion, Drills were another distinct type of stage 5 are often semi-rectangular in outline. They are biface. Implements that exhibited elongated, pointed generally lenticular in cross section, with closely to blades were classified functionally as drills (Figure semi-regularly spaced flake scars, and exhibit a 19). moderate degree of variability in flake scar morphology. Flake Tools Stage 3 preforms are percussion-thinned, flattened in cross section, and show relatively Flake tools are defined as flakes which exhibit regularly spaced flake scars, and a low degree of patterned macroscopic edge modification (i.e., variability in flake scar morphology. They tend to be continuous along a portion of the flake edge). In regular in outline. some instances flake tools reflect a simple core/flake Stage 4 Preforms are thin and partially pressure- technology, however flake tools could be generated flaked. Unlike earlier stages these bifaces reflect at any stage in either core or biface reduction. Most intentional shaping to conform with a predetermined of the flake tools found at Big Sur were expedient outline (Skinner 1990:220). (Figure 20). A few showed intentional shaping, Stage 5 bifaces are finished, pressure-flaked characteristic of formal implements (Figure 21). tools--either a large projectile points- or drills, complete with notches, serrations-- or basal Debitage modifications to accommodate hafting (Skinner 1990:220). This class was most useful for Debitage was classified according to twelve characterizing large projectile points that were morphological flake types, which result from probably used as atlatl darts or spear tips. Arrow reduction of cobbles into bifacial tools and the points, which are markedly smaller, were produced production of arrow point flake blanks from cores. via a different reduction sequence in which small Six flake types are most commonly associated flakes were simply pressure-flaked into desired with blank production from cobbles and the early shapes (Figure 11). To adopt it to arrow point stages of biface reduction. Primary decortication industries of the Late Period, arrow point flake flakes are characterized by dorsal surfaces with at blanks, exhibiting pressure flaking, were considered least 75% cortex, while the dorsal surfaces of Stage 4 bifaces. secondary decortication flakes retain from 25-75% cortex. Cortical shatter is angular shatter with 10- 75%/ cortex. Bipolar flakes retain the traits defined by Flenniken (1980), including a sheared bulb of percussion, steep platform angle, and pronounced 54 Archaeological Methods 0?a mu ~~~~ C~ ! O~~~ W Ai Ul~~~~~~~ a el~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a 0~~~~~~~~ z . IL)- A~~A o~~~~~~~~~~r 0I A6 z~~~~~~~~~~ 4 Is o~~~~~~~~~~~~~i z CL~~ Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 55 0~~~~~~~ A& 0~~~~~ -? c o ~~~~~~~C : AkL Lu 0 z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0 r /8 ;-o, AkL AkL- ~1 P 2JU8 56 Archaeological Methods o . q U ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C t^ .0 0-4 cz' IQ- F5S 'I - g 2 ~~A Gf3 o; AI7~~~~~~~~~]-~~tC ~~~~~~~0 ~ ~ ~ ~ N Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 57 o~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'- 3 3 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~00e *2EB 0% < - g!.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f 0a f3 iX~~~~~~~~~~~ 58 Archaeological Methods 't =~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a ~~~~'0 E CD~~~~~~~C - ~ ~ ~ ~ I 4 41 C)~~~~~~~~P E o 0 X = ~~~~~7 1 ~~~NL ~~~~~* X. : Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 59 .;, , . . . q 3' ' '' ' at 4V 7 E& R R :0*E ? - H - a 0 ' tn c~~~~~~~~~. ~ nt tn 3- 60 Archaeological Methods 0 3 "~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,) 'IJ, ~==ZC E % n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r 4:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 ,, I X _ CZ) B a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~h Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 61 0% UI)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f E - 3 tE' #~~~~~ . _ e H~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e PC 355-7' e., 7. 4i k In 62 Archaeological Methods CD U~~~~~~~~~~~_U PE - 0 E)Po ** Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 63 EQ. .t. 00 co~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.o -0 0~~~~~~~~ r'- I -< ,"4 a X : ' < i"~~ m 64 Archaeological Methods 00, CD~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~PC=a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~E o 0E \ o S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P Cd~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 , Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 65 co~~~~~~~~a C CD Ncr~~~J co : . $ \;<3 Res =DB~~~~~~~~~ e : 9 of Rf~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" G<>---, ,= ;,a9 LJ M~~~~~ e v 3 - q S0~~~~~~ , . 66 Archaeological Methods compression rings. Bipolar reduction also produces Shell Artifacts angular and cortical shatter indistinguishable from that generated by direct freehand percussion. Simple All of the shell artifacts were classified interior flakes have less than three dorsal flake scars, according to a descriptive/functional typology. Other and complex interior flakes have three or more. Three than beads, the most abundant shell artifacts were flake types are mostly associated with bifacial fishhooks (Figure 28), and fishhook blanks (Figure reduction of blanks into preforms, and preforms into 29). Less abundant were shells used for asphaltum finished tools. Early biface thinning flakes exhibit application (Figure 30), miscellaneous cut and dorsal complexity, are large, thick and irregular in worked pieces, pendant blanks, and pendants shape and cross section, and show a great deal of (Figures 31 and 32). curvature. Late biface thinning flakes are thin and flat, and dorsally complex. Pressure flakes result Faunal Remains from the reduction of Stage 3 bifaces to partially pressure-flaked Stage 4 preforms, as well as the The primary objectives of the faunal analysis reduction of the preform to a finished bifacial tool were to determine the species exploited and their (Stage 5 biface). Unfortunately, pressure flakes relative frequencies. Once documented, patterns in overlap morphologically with edge preparation the faunal assemblages were evaluated with respect flakes, and these are combined into a single class: to (1) diet; (2) taxonomic diversity; (3) the intensity edge preparation/pressure. of human exploitation and the possibility of Angular shatter and indeterminate percussion overexploitation; (4) site function; and (5) season- flakes can be generated during any stage in the ality. reduction and are considered technologically non- diagnostic. Mammals and Birds Two additional flake types were needed to describe core-flake industries represented at several All bird and mammal remains were collected sites. Blade flakes exhibit parallel or sub-parallel from screens in the field. After washing and lateral edges and are at least twice as long as they are cataloging, non-identifiable remains were segregated wide (Crabtree 1972:42). Blade flakes result from from those judged identifiable to the genus level or core reduction and may be incidental byproducts of better. Taxonomic assignments were made and core trimming. The other ancillary type is a flake skeletal elements were determined for identifiable exhibiting a few pressure-flaking scars. These reflect specimens by Dr. Carol Cope using reference the experimental pressure flaking of arrow point flake collections at the California Academy of Science and blanks. the San Diego Museum of Man. Remains from CA- MNT-519, CA-MNT-879, and CA-SLO-267 were Ground and Battered Stone identified by Judy Porcasi and Krislyn Taite using reference collections at the UCLA Faunal Laboratory Ground and battered stone implements were and Sonoma State University Anthropological classified according to conventional Studies Center. All of the investigated sites showed morphological/functional types including mortars, clear evidence of recent occupation by ground pestles, milling slabs, handstofies, hammerstones burrowing rodents, and rodent bones were abundant (Figure 22), and notched stones or net weights in the deposits. These elements were identified, and (Figure 23). In addition to these utilitarian items, then excluded from further consideration, because locally produced pendants of steatite or talc schist there is no way to distinguish intrusive from non- were recovered from many of the sites (Figure 24), as intrusive bones. A total of 1621 non-intrusive well as natural stone spheres (Figure 25), probably elements was identified for the project, summarized used as gaming pieces. as numbers of identifiable specimens per species (NISP) per component. Complete faunal catalogs for Bone Tools the investigated sites are included in the original site reports (see Table 1). For the purpose of Bone tools were also classified according to a reconstructing diet, minimum numbers of individuals simple morphological/functional typology with some (MNIs) were calculated for each 1 x 2 m x 10 cm reference to Gifford's (1940) descriptive typology. level. MNIs are highly problematic quantitative units Uncommon in the assemblages, bone tools were (Lyman 1979; Brewer 1992), of course. They were often highly fragmented, and many classifications used in this study only as a means of comparing the were tenuous. Most abundant were awls (Figure 26), edible flesh values of mammals versus shellfish and gorge hooks, needles, and pendants (Figure 27). fish, in order to emphasize the direction of dietary Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 67 Table 7 Meat Weights for Birds and Mammals Represented in Faunal Assemblages Taxon Common Name Reference Mean meat weight (kg) MARINE MAMMMALS Phoca vitulina Harbor seal Hildebrandt (1981:53) 70.00 Zalophus californianus California sea lion Hildebrandt (1981:53) 142.00 Arctocephalus townsendi Southern fur seal Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 72.00 Callorhinus ursinus Northern fur seal Hildebrandt (1981:53) 72.00 Enhydra lutris Sea otter Hildebrandt (1981:53) 24.00 Eumetopiasjubata Steller sea lion Hildebrandt (1981:53) 392.00 Delphinus sp. Dolphin Mitchell (1988:255) 78.75 TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS Cervus elaphus Tule elk Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 162.20 Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer Simms (1984:89) 34.00 Canis sp. Dog/coyote Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 6.00 Lepus californicus Hare Simms (1984:89) 1.00 Mustelafrenata Weasel Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 1.00 Sylvilagus bachmani Brush rabbit Simms (1984:89) 0.60 Taxidea taxus Badger Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 4.00 Urocyon cinereoargenteus Gray fox Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 5.50 Taxidea taxus Badger Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 4.00 Mephitus mephitus Skunk Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 2.00 Ursus americanus Black bear Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 90.00 Procyon lotor Racoon Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 3.00 Lynx rufus Bobcat Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 2.40 Felis concolor Mountain lion Cope (1985) 67.00 BIRDS Pelicanus spp. Pelican Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 2.80 AnaslAytha/Melanitta sp. Duck Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 0.53 Branta/Anser/Chen sp. Goose Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 2.10 Gavia sp. Loon Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 2.80 Larus sp. Seagull Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 0.33 Uria aalge sp. Murre Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 0.34 Phalacrocorax sp. Cormorant Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 1.41 Buteo sp. Hawk Dietz et al. (1988:344, 348) 1.07 Lophortyx californica Quail Estimate 0.20 Strigiformes Owl Mitchell (1988:256) 1.59 INTRUSIVE Thomomys bottae Pocket gopher Microtus californicus Vole Spermophilus beecheyi Ground squirrel Perognathus sp. Pocket mouse 68 Archaeological Methods 00 00 PC .000, ~ 0 \0 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4X S * 1~~~~~~e e~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 69 'A-V 70 Archaeological Methods a b c d e W:0::1 > e 01 a f g h I - .- k I m n o p q r s 0 5cm l I I 1 I I Figure 24 Steatite Artifacts from Study Sites: a) P894-7-029, b) 34-3-37, c) 42-2-42, d) 42-3-08, e) 42-4-17, f) 47-18, g) 47-1-7, h) 47-7-43, i) 47-4-26, j) 47-4-36, k) 47-4-37,1) 47-5-22 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 71 PC) * X 9: C 41,~~~~~~~I U,. 72 Archaeological Methods o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Q~~~~~~~~~~4, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ " C ~~~~~~~~~~~C PC pon 0 #J~~~~~~~~~1 . q' .0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A0 0 0 o O' q3!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. -- a E Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 73 * __ 2 0 -_ t~~~~~~~~~~I a) @~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e u * X - . _ c- _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~'S , .' . . :(".0..''''- ' ' 00 '0' i =^S'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3' o f..' - - '.' f" t: vS -': ~~~~~~~~~~. . . S&\\W ' . ;! t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 m~= \o CU ~~~ ~, 74 Archaeological Methods 0~~ CD CD~~~~~~~~~~~~ C. 10~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 o o ' ?b P it Cpi cis t PC . . . ~~cus Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 75 04 0)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . . 0f.. . . .- :- ' ?nZ .~~~~~~~~C: - .** . --? 9 i i . . 1 . 0F 76 Archaeological Methods '~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I) ' N.~~~~~~~~~~~ "4 _ 4 E % _0. L: ?d i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~U Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 77 L o o ,4P ,#X FOREUMB < .w HINOLIMS z Cd C) ~ a N 0^ 0 EON1)INVUI l:1VOIO1OYHOUY Figure 33 Idealized Skeletal Segment Rankings Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 81 according to skeletal segment, and these values were the mean of the most commonly represented local multiplied by the numerical body part indices. species (Jones and Haney 1992:157). Resulting values were ranked in numerical order. To evaluate which forces appeared most responsible for Mussel Collection Strategies the structure of the assemblages, rankings were also evaluated statistically against the idealized rankings Interpretation of shellfish remains was also using the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient. aided by experimentation in the collection of mussels, undertaken to supplement seminal studies Fish by White (1989) on prehistoric mussel harvesting strategies at MacKericker State Park on the Fish remains were treated much the same as bird Mendocino County coast. White suggested that there and mammal bones. Body part and taxonomic are two alternative techniques for collecting mussels: identifications were made for each element by Dr. a "plucking" strategy in which larger individuals are Ken Gobalet using comparative materials at the selectively gathered, and a "stripping" strategy in Department of Biology, California State University which entire mussel beds are removed en masse with Bakersfield. MNI were calculated for each unit/level. little if any selectivity or culling. Following the work Because mesh size can drastically influence of mussel biologists (Suchanek 1981), White used assessments of prehistoric fisheries (see Gordon hypothetical cumulative proportion curves to portray 1993), subsamples of column residues processed the size frequencies associated with these different through 1.5 mm (1/16") were examined for fish bone. collection strategies. Comparing curves generated Proportional samples from one or more column levels from archaeological specimens with hypothetical were submitted to the fish bone analyst who sorted stripping and plucking curves he further suggested through the residues for fish remains. Recovered that the MacKericker sequence reflected a transition elements were identified, and the volume of midden from plucking to stripping, and that plucking was a subjected to microanalysis was recorded for each more efficient strategy than stripping. component. A total of 1.414 m3 of midden from ten Subsequently, Bouey and Basgall (1991) sites was evaluated in this manner. Interpretation of questioned White's hypothetical cumulative propor- the ichthyofaunal remains was guided by strict tion curves, and the relative efficiency of alternative attention to mode of recovery. Fish data are techniques. They argued that mussel shells collected summarized by NISP/component both with and from archaeological sites at Piedras Blancas on the without extrapolating the results of the 1.5 mm mesh San Luis Obispo County coast showed a continuous microsamples to the excavation volumes. Dietary plucking strategy through time. Since the evaluations values of the fish were calculated through the use of of alternative strategies by both White and Bouey and mean meat weights for each represented species Basgall were largely hypothetical, it seemed plausible (Table 8) reported by Dietz et al. (1988), Jones and that these conflicting perceptions could be reconciled Haney (1992), and Mitchell (1988). by experimenting with different collection techniques in contemporary mussel beds and evaluating yields Shellfish quantitatively. To identify cumulative frequency curves Shellfish remains, collected fromi 20 x 20 cm associated with different strategies, and to evaluate column samples, were identified to species using a their relative efficiency, two mussel collection personal reference collection. After column samples experiments were undertaken in different locations, were water-screened over 6 mm (1/4") and 3 mm employing identical procedures (Jones and Richman (1/8") mesh, non-cultural materials (small rocks and 1995; Richman 1993). The first was in at Landels- organic debris) were removed. All of the shell Hill Big Creek Reserve in Big Sur, where mussel fragments remaining in the 6-mm residues were beds have not been subject to human predation for at identified to species, and a 25% sample of the 3-mm least 15 years. The second was at Davenport in Santa residues was analyzed. Totals of shell recovered from Cruz County, where mussel beds are regularly the column samples include extrapolations from the subject to harvest by the public. At each location, 25% samples to full column volumes. Dietary mussels were collected by a single individual for 20 implications of the remains were assessed by minutes by stripping and again by plucking. The conversion of shell weights into edible meat values collected mussels were then transported to base camp through the use of meat/shell ratios (Table 9). Taxa ~ where they were boiled, the meats removed, meats for which exact values are not available were and shells weighed and measured (Table 10). Results evaluated through use of a value of 0.952, which is show distinctive cumulative proportion curves 82 Archaeological Methods Table 8 Mean Meat Values for Fish Identified at Study Sites Taxon Common name Reference Mean meat weight (kg) Raja spp. Skates Mitchell (1988:256) 6.50 Carcharhinidae Requiem sharks Gobalet, personal communication 24.00 Elasmobranchii Sharks, skates, rays Gobalet, personal communication 5.00 Rhinobatus productus Shovelnose guitarfish Gobalet, personal communication 13.80 Clupeidae Herring and sardine Mitchell (1988:256) 0.14 Sardinops caeruleus Pacific sardine Gobalet, personal communication 0.30 Engraulis mordax Northern anchovy Mitchell (1988:256) 0.10 Osmeridae Smelts Gobalet, personal communication 0.3 Atherinidae Silversides Gobalet, personal communication 1.9 Oncorhynchus mykiss Steelhead Mitchell (1988:256) 4.77 Merluccius productus Pacific hake Mitchell (1988:256) 1.23 Atherinidae Topsmelt or jacksmelt Gobalet, personal communication 0.30 Embiotocidae Surfperches Mitchell (1988:256) 0.52 Amphistichus sp. Barred surfperch Gobalet, personal communication 1.50 Embiotica sp. Black or striped surfperch Gobalet, personal communication 0.50 Damalichthys vacca Pile perch Gobalet, personal communication 0.20 Oxyjulus californica Sefnorita Gobalet, personal communication Gibosonia metzi Striped kelpfish Gobalet, personal communication 1.50 Stichaeidae Prickleback Gobalet, personal communication 0.80 Cebibidichthys violaceus Monkeyface prickleback Gobalet, personal communication 1.10 Xiphister mucosus Rock prickleback Gobalet, personal communication 0.80 Scomberjaponicus Chub mackeral Gobalet, personal communication 0.70 Sebastes sp. Rockfish Mitchell (1988:256) 1.24 Hexagrammos spp. Greenling Mitchell (1988:256) 0.31 Ophiodon elongatus Lingcod Mitchell (1988:256) 4.11 Scorpaenichthys marmorai Cabezon Mitchell (1988:256) 0.50 Gasterosteus aculeatus Threespine stickleback Gobalet, personal communication 0.01 Gobidae Gobies Gobalet, personal communication 0.10 Gobiesox maeandricus Northern clingfish Gobalet, personal communication 0.10 Cottidae Sculpins Gobalet, personal communication 0.10 Table 9 Meat:Shell Ratios for Slellfish Identified at Study Sites Taxon Common name Reference Meat/Shell Ratio Acanthina sp. Unicorn Tartaglia (1976:170) 0.667 Collisella spp. Limpet Jones and Haney (1992:157) 0.780 Cryptochiton stelleri Gumshoe chiton from related 1.159 Nuttalina californica Haliotis spp. Abalone Koloseike (1969) 1.363 Lottia gigantea Owl limpet Tartaglia (1976:170) 1.360 Mytilus californianus California mussel Erlandson (1988a:445) 0.298 Nuttalina californica Nuttal's chiton Erlandson (1988a:445) 1.159 Protothaca staminea Littleneck clam Dietz et al. (1988:350) 0.527 Strongylocentrotus purpuratus Purple sea urchin Jones and Haney (1992:157) 0.426 Tegulafunebralis Turban snail Erlandson (1988a:445) 0.37 1 Unidentified Jones and Haney (1992: 157) 0.952 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 83 Table 10 Experimental Mussel Collection Results Location Collection Collection Total load Meat No. of 0/0> Processing Meat/ Kcall/ strategy time weight Weight (g) mussels 4.0 cm time hour (g) hour (minutes) (g) (minutes) Big Creek Plucking 20 5954.3 470.7 424 66.5 40.00 470.7 543.2 Reserve Big Creek Stripping 20 5506.0 343.5 1298 30.1 90.87 185.6 214.2 Reserve Davenport Plucking 20 4863.0 564.0 746 64.6 48.00 497.6 574.2 Landing Davenport Stripping 20 10,227.2 750.2 1478 32.2 116.57 386.4 445.9 Landing IBased on energy values reported by Gilliland (1985:62). marking plucking versus stripping strategies (Figure 34). More significant is that, in terms of net rate of Dietary Reconstruction return, a selective strategy is always superior to stripping; in both settings plucking produced over Dietary calculations generated from faunal 500 kilocalories/hour (Table 10). This finding is remains are relative indices that do not necessarily supported by the practices used by commercial reflect diet in absolute terms, but they are nonetheless harvesters of California mussel who, under pressure useful for determining the direction of change from contemporary markets, suggest that a selective through time. The technique for dietary recon- gathering of large individuals is the only way to struction employed here follows Mitchell (1988), and sustain substantial yields (Yamada and Peters 1988). involves conversion of all bone and shell values into As White (1989) noted, this optimal strategy could edible flesh totals. Conversions for shell were done only be maintained by groups who were not with meat:shell ratios, while conversion of vertebrate exploiting the same mussel beds too frequently (e.g., remains was accomplished by multiplying MNIs by mobile groups), since it takes at least two years for a taxon-specific mean edible flesh values. The manner mussel to reach a length of 12 cm (Coe and Fox in which MNIs were calculated for this project (i.e., 1942:2). A stripping strategy produces the greatest for each 1 m x 2 m x 10 cm level) was intended to number of total kilocalories, but only with the input control the MNI factor specifically for this analysis. of greater processing labor. In a regularly foraged Most analysts calculate MNIs either for an entire setting, the absence of large individuals makes the collection or per excavation unit. No matter how they differences between stripping and plucking less are calculated MNIs are problematic (Brewer 1992) extreme, both with regard to cumulative proportion and any values obtained through the manipulation of curves and net efficiency. MNIs must be regarded with caution. For that reason, Whole and nearly whole mussel shells collected reconstructions of diet based on meat values were from the study sites were measured to develop compared with results of stable isotope analyses on cumulative proportion curves that could be compared human bone. with the experimentally derived curves. Maximum Reconstruction of diet was enhanced by the lengths of fragmentary specimens were obtained mussel collection experiments, in that an unantici- through the use of a mussel size template developed pated result of that work was identification of by White (1989). This template insured that a intertidal taxa that occur as "riders" when mussels are representative sample of mussel shells present in the collected. Many researchers have recognized that midden was used to develop the curves, and that barnacles attach themselves to mussel shells, and that results were not skewed by breakage of shells theiroccurrence in middens is probably not the result Comparison of the archaeological size proportion of intentional harvest. Our experiments found nine curves and the experimental curves indicated which additional species that occur as riders, eight of which strategy was employed by site inhabitants. 84 Archaeological Methods 0 0 0 > a Lu~~~~~~~~~i z Ow Li 4. - 0 L-A~~~~~~ z C44 w~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ w~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Lu~~~~~~~~~I z S~~~~~~~~m z co~~I Lu- coU"I am~~~~~~~~~~~~4 Lu~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i Aft ~ ~ ~ Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 85 are represented archaeologically (Table 11). Fur- evenness and richness, was calculated in earlier thermore, the proportional frequencies associated versions of the study (Jones 1995). Margalef scores with unintentional collection were identified through were calculated for mammalian NISP and fish NISP. the experiments. With respect to dietary reconstructions, when percentages of potential Seasonality "riders" are similar to those identified in the experiments, they were considered non-dietary. In Three methods of seasonal inference were other cases where the percentages of "riders" are employed. The first, and perhaps most accurate was significantly higher than those associated with oxygen isotope analysis of samples taken from unintentional collection in the experiments, it was mussel shells. This study, completed by Douglas J. assumed that the species was collected for food. Kennett and described in more detail in Appendix I, Dietary indices were calculated for all temporal was undertaken primarily for paleoenvironmental components. Shellfish values obtained from 20 x 20 purposes, but readings from the terminal edge of cm columns were extrapolated to the full volume of shells also indicate water temperature at the time of each component. Shellfish values are based on the animal's death. Comparison of such findings with materials retained in 3-mm screens. Screen size is not historic records allows for seasonal inference. considered a problem for mammals and birds, and all Temperature at death can be compared with those identifiable elements were applied to the calculations, preceding it to determine within a three-four month regardless of recovery context. Screen size is a major range when the shell was collected. These problem with fish bone, as many taxa are not well determinations were made for five sites. represented even in residues derived from 3-mm The second method involved examination of mesh. The fish component of the diet was based on annuli in cross-sections of teeth from black-tailed findings from units screened through 3-mm mesh deer (Appendix II by Steven A. Moffitt). Discovered combined with extrapolations from the 1.5-mm mesh by biologists attempting to age deer remains samples. (Klevezal and Kleinenberg 1967; Mitchell 1969), this technique was employed successfully by Quintero Diversity (1987) in southern California to establish seasonality of deer hunting and site use. Growth of a deer's teeth Understanding diversity is critical to developing is incremental and directly tied to seasonality in realistic portraits of diet and mobility. Diversity must growth of the animal. Roots of the teeth grow be evaluated quantitatively, but this is not through an additive process in which layers of accomplished easily. A variety of diversity measures varying thickness and composition are added to the treat the two components of diversity, richness and outside of the tooth. Two layers are added each year, evenness, differently. Richness, the number of a thick layer deposited during the season of active species present, is a critical component of diet growth (late spring to early fall), and a thin layer breadth, but is directly related to sample size (Jones during the period of attenuated growth (late winter to et al. 1983; Magurran 1988). Evenness, the relative early spring) (Quintero 1987:66). A cross section of abundance of each species in a sample, reflects the a tooth through the root reveals the growth bands. degree of reliance on a particular species, group of Counting the bands determines the age of the animal, species, or more equal use of a suite of-species. Many while the relative thickness of the terminal band statistical indices have been developed to calculate indicates the season of death. Fifty-five teeth from 11 richness, evenness or combinations of the two. None sites were subjected to this analysis. are without problems. Most are overly sensitive to Seasonal inferences were also drawn from the sample size, particularly in their treatment of small remains of migratory animals, although these are not samples (Magurran 1988:79). entirely reliable, and were evaluated relative to the To cope with these problems, I first tried to other seasonality data. California sea lions breed in obtain reasonably even and representative field June and July on the Channel Islands, and then move samples. Nonetheless, NISP values are considerably northward in pursuit of food. They use Big Sur and lower from some sites than others. Statistics were other points along the central coast as rest stops, and calculated from NISP from temporal components are most common during September and October, focused on richness as an index of diet breadth. To although they haul-out in reduced numbers during the evaluate richness, the Margalef index was used. return trip in April and May (LeBoeuf 1981:314- Because it is sample sensitive (Magurran 1988:79), - 317). While the southernmost breeding colony of sites that produced small NISP were not used in this Steller sea lions is now located on Aino Nuevo Island, analysis. The Shannon Index, frequently used by archaeologists and ecologists as a combined index of 86 Archaeological Methods Table 11 Total Recovery from Mussel Collection Experiments Taxon Stripping % Plucking % Weight (g) Weight (g) Mytilus californianus 4611.7 90.21 5079.3 91.95 Balanus glandula 360.0 7.04 348.6 6.31 Lepuspacifica 110.8 2.17 80.4 1.46 Katharina tunicata 8.5 0.17 9.8 0.18 Collisella scabra 6.7 0.13 3.2 0.06 Collisella pelta 3.8 0.07 1.4 0.03 Pisaster ochraceus* 3.7 0.07 0.0 0.00 Cancer antennaris 1.6 0.03 0.0 0.00 Tegulafunebralis 1.1 0.02 0.0 0.00 Tellina modesta 0.1 ** 0.0 0.00 Total 5112.0 100.00 5524.1 100.00 *Not represented archaeologically. **Trace. these animals formerly established rookeries on the from these features were subjected to flotation analy- Channel Islands. After breeding in June and July, sis, and recovered floral specimens were identified to males of this species also head north, and presumably fragment type and species. Some of the technical were once present in Big Sur waters from September reports completed for the inland study sites include to January. Northern fur seals breed in the Bering Sea analyses of botanical remains obtained from non- in the summer, and migrate southward in the winter. feature column samples. These studies develop The prehistoric migratory patterns of southern fur conclusions about diet and seasonality, but they seals are not known. Some fish represented in the should be considered highly suspect because there is Big Sur collections also have seasonal significance, no reason to believe that the charred seed remains are although the confidence with which seasonal cultural in origin. Charred grass seeds and nut inferences can be drawn is variable. Northern fragments can easily make their way into the soil in anchovies move offshore during the fall and winter, oak grassland settings such as those of Fort Hunter- returning inshore during the spring (Baxter 1967:11). Liggett. Lingcod move into shallows to spawn between August and January. Cabezon are present year-round, Component Function, Settlement Structure, and but can literally be taken by hand in the winter, when Assemblage Diversity they spawn in shallow tide pools (Salls 1989:28). Pile surfperch move inshore in large schools in October Component function was first evaluated by and November (Salls 1988:590). Steelhead enter straight-forward assessment of the types of artifacts central coast streams to spawn in the winter. and features present, and the activities they represent. Seasonality inferences derived from the fish bone From this perspective, all of the midden sites were were weighed less heavily than those derived from readily interpreted as residential bases, since they all deer teeth. retained fire-altered rock, abundant shell, flaked and ground stone tools, shell beads, and vertebrate Floral Remains remains. Nearly all of the middens also yielded human remains. Variability in the size and location Charred floral remains were collected only from of these residential deposits suggests some level of discrete features, as the ubiquity of fire and functional differences between sites. Interpretations bioturbation render all other vegetative material of of this variability were partially based on carcass uncertain origin. Only five discrete features were utilization strategies and seasonality. Particularly encountered that contained floral remains. Samples important were patterns in these signatures identified Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 87 at CA-MNT-1277/H, the Salinan village of matilce, since these distinguish a deposit of known residential function. Tool assemblages were also evaluated quantitatively through use of the same diversity indices applied to faunal remains. For this analysis, tools were considered strictly from a functional perspective, ignoring stylistic types. Human Remains All treatment of human remains was undertaken in consultation with the project's Native American consultants. Analysis was conditioned by the type of discovery. One human interment at CA-MNT-1223 was removed for osteological analysis due to threats of erosion, while another burial at CA-MNT-1277/H, unthreatened by erosion, was exposed and left in place without further study. Six small fragments of human bone, found during post-field laboratory processing, were subjected to stable isotope analysis (13C apatite, 13C gelatin, 15N gelatin) by Harold Krueger. Isotope analysis has been shown repeatedly to be valuable for determining the relative proportion of marine versus non-marine foods in prehistoric diets (Ericson et al. 1989; Krueger 1985; Price 1989; Sealy and Van der Merwe 1986; Walker and DeNiro 1986). Results were interpreted with reference to data developed by Ericson et al. (1989), Krueger (1985), and Walker and DeNiro (1986). Non-destructive analyses of all recovered human bones included inventory of elements, calculation of minimum number of individuals, recording of metric and non- metric morphology. Details of these analyses are presented in Jones (1994; 1995) and Jones and Haney (1992). CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS FROM THE COAST Findings from archaeological investigation of 18 the other deposits. Because of this, investigations coastal sites are briefly summarized in this chapter. were limited to two test units (units 1 and 3) (Figure Investigations at two sites (CA-MNT-1571/H and 35) for a total recovery volume of 4.6 m3. CA-MNT-1580) were limited to surface observations This was one of the few sites to produce multiple while data from four others (CA-MNT-281, -282, - stratified components. The bulk of deposit consisted 480/H, and -1942) were recovered by other of a fairly homogeneous concentration of black investigators. Thirteen of these sites were single- midden soil, shell fragments, fire-altered rock, component, two were stratified with multiple vertebrate remains, and artifacts, but a. distinctive components, and one was multi-component and feature was identified in Unit 3 between 20 and 55 mixed (see Table 1 for a summary of site cm below surface. It consisted of a dense characteristics). The site components represent concentration of cobbles, fire-altered rock, whole occupations spanning from 4400 B.C. to A.D. 1830. abalone and mussel shells, bone, chunks of charcoal Four sites were associated with ethnohistoric place and unburned pieces of redwood, a dense mass of names (CA-MNT-480/H, -1277/H, -1571/H, and - ash, glass beads, shell beads, and other artifacts 1580). Sites are discussed relative to a regional (Figure 36). The glass beads clearly indicated that temporal framework that reflects a compromise this feature dated to the post-contact era. Soil above between the cultural historical schema of the North the feature, a very loose, dark brown (lOYR 2/2) Coast Range (Fredrickson 1974), the Santa Barbara shell midden with fine roots and a low frequency of Channel (King 1990), and the Sacramento Valley fire-altered rock, was designated Stratum I. Stratum (Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) (Table 12). II was the primary cultural deposit beneath Feature 1 (Figure 37). It was a black (10 YR 3/2), relatively CA-MNT-63 homogeneous midden with a fairly heavy concentration of shell fragments and fire-altered rock. CA-MNT-63 was excavated in 1989 by a small A subvariant of this layer, Stratum IIa was detected crew of volunteers, under contract from the in the bottom of Unit 1 where midden was intermixed California Department of Parks and Recreation. The with sterile substrate. site is located 40 km south of Carmel in Andrew The glass beads were variants of the drawn or Molera State Park at the mouth of the Big Sur River "tube" type (Kidd and Kidd 1970). Twenty-three (Figure 1). Originally recorded as Mound #14 by E. examples were simple monochromes (Class I) W. Gifford in 1913, the deposit was later re-recorded without embellishment. The other seven were by Arnold Pilling in 1948, who described it as "an compound monochromes manufactured from a two- occupation site" situated on a bluff, just east of the layered gathering of glass. They all were tumbled or mouth of the Big Sur River. He suggested it would reheated (Class IV). They included examples of be "an excellent place to dig at least one test pit," DIalS (N=1), DIa22 (N=1), DIIa7 (N=1), DIIal4 since it probably contained, "more than one horizon" (N=1), DIIa27 (N=4), DIIa28 (N=4), DIIa4l (N=4), (Pilling 1948). It is a dense shell midden situated on DIIa51 (N=5), DIIa61 (N=1), DIVa21 (N=8). Based the edge of a bluff that is bisected by the Big Sur on a zone of temporal overlap common to all of these River. Pilling's characterization proved to be fairly types, the feature must have been deposited between accurate, in that excavation showed the site to be A.D. 1800 and 1816. In addition to the glass beads, somewhat richer, and deeper (210 cm), than many of the feature produced 11 Olivella Hlb, one Olivella 90 Findings from the Coast E2a, one Olivella H2, and three Haliotis epidermis alignment with the chronology indicated by the glass disk beads, three Desert Side-notched (one made beads. from bottle glass) and three Canalifio/Coastal Cot- Mammal remains were dominated by sea otter, tonwood projectile points, one hammerstone, one deer, and rabbit. Fish were not abundant, but included milling slab fragment, one bowl mortar fragment, and cabezon, monkeyface prickleback, and rockfish. one pestle. Shellfish were dominated by mussels, with lesser Two radiocarbon dates were also obtained from amounts of turban snail and black abalone. The diet the feature. These were important, not only for dating seems to have been focused on marine mammals, of the feature itse.lf, but for the information they terrestrial mammals, and shellfish. The high provided on the magnitude of upwelling on the Big frequency of sea otter bones was unique among the Sur coast. The dates were run from a black abalone sites investigated, and probably reflects acquisition of shell and charcoal that was contained within the shell. otters for exchange in the burgeoning market in otter The shell yielded an uncorrected date of 440+80 pelts. The presence of trade beads and a glass years B.P. (WSU-4053) and the charcoal dated projectile point indicates that site inhabitants were 105.6+0.70 years B.P. (WSU-4054), which is somehow in contact with non-Native cultures. Site essentially modem (Table 13). Corrected for isotopic occupation occurred during a period of intensive fractionation, the shell date becomes 850+80. As pursuit of otters for pelts associated with the discussed in Chapter 3, an upwelling correction establishment of Fort Ross in 1812. Indeed, several factor of -325 years was needed to bring this date into of the glass beads are types that have been found at the fort (Ross 1976). Table 12 Cultural Periods of the Central California Coast Period Dating Fredrickson (1974) King (1990) Bennyhoff and Equivalence North Equivalence Hughes (1987) Coast Range Santa Equivalence Barbara Sacramento Channel Valley PaleoIndian 9000-6500 B.C. Paleolndian Millingstone 6500-3500 B.C. Lower Archaic Ex, Eya Early 3500-600 B.C. Middle Archaic Eyb Early Early/Middle Transition 1000-600 B.C. Ez Middle 600 B.C.-A.D.1000 Upper Archaic Ml-M5a E/M Transition, Middle, Middle/Late Transition Middle/Late Transition A.D. 1000-1250 M5b, M5c Late A.D.1250-A.D.1500 Emergent, Phase 1 LI LI Protohistoric A.D.1500-A.D.1769 Emergent, Phase 2 L2 L2 Historic Post-A.D. 1769 L3 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 91 LEGEND l- u cwolgcolslts Emits < \l | O primay datum (b) ( < 7 \ - A socondwyda lx2m neutxcavation uwit undt notexcavated d s bu \ - - - - L ~~~~~~~~~~PACIFIC OCEANI Figure 35 Site Map, CA-MNT-63 -Cobbles In level 4 --Cobbles In level 3 - -N Antler 200 \ 100 * . , o~~-y',10 Antler with part of cranlum LEGEND) ~ - Crushed Hallotls shell underneath FW7=EDl Mytilus Wood Fragments -E ?-> Area with broken shell fragments - = 1E AssuJmed outline 0 10 20 E fI f N Rock cm Figure 36 Feature 1, Unit 3, CA-MNT-63 92 Findings from the Coast 200 100 II.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. r, Haliotis~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o 40 'LEGEND =.7. N :Dense shell lense Feature 1 I3 -I Orange soil Feature 2 ~DRock E ZIRodent :Dark Friable Pc%cket of Midden I Dark, bronm shell midden, fine roots, loose (1OYR 212). Il Black shell midden, homogeneous, (1OYR 3/2). - . ~~~~o 10 20. cm Figure 37 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-63 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 93 A bulk sample from the feature yielded 211 of charcoal from a small ash concentration 133 cm fragmentary floral elements, including 78 pieces of below surface produced a corrected date of A.D. oak nutshell, 32 pieces of tanbark oak nutshell, 21 410. Two G2 Olivella saucer beads supported the California bay nutshell pieces, 73 pieces of either dating indicated by radiocarbon. Obsidian hydration tanbark oak or oak, three wild heliotrope seeds, one results on Casa Diablo (N=8), Coso (N=9), and Napa bedstraw seed, and three unknown fragments. Wild (N=4) also generally supported Middle Period dating heliotrope blooms between March and June, while (Figures 38-40). The vertical distribution of obsidian acorns are available only in the fall, and bay nuts in was revealing with respect to the structure of the the late spring. The nuts and acorns were commonly deposit. No obsidian was associated with the historic stored; their co-occurrence with wild heliotrope seeds feature, but 14 pieces were recovered from the levels confirms storage of plant foods. While either the above the feature. Among these were specimens that seeds or nuts could represent stored commodities produced the thickest hydration rims. This collected elsewhere and brought in, the array of distribution suggests that Feature 1 was intrusive into species more likely represents use of this site for an an older Middle Period deposit. Excavation of the extended portion of the year, if not for the entire year. rock oven represented by Feature 1 apparently This estimate is consistent with the seasonality displaced midden and obsidian upward. readings obtained from the deer teeth (Appendix II). The tool assemblage associated with the Middle The feature also yielded 60 abalone shells Period component was dominated by remnants of the including 7 red (Haliotis rufescens), and 53 black exploitation of locally-occurring Franciscan chert (Haliotis cracherodii), 221 individual mussel shells, cobbles. These included four cores, 301 pieces of 520 mammal and bird bones, and 79 fish bones. The debitage, two bifaces, one drill, one flake tool, and fauna and artifacts allowed for fairly secure four projectile points. Among the latter, were a conclusions about dating and function. The recovery Monterey chert large side-notched example, and a re- of apparently uneaten mussels (both halves of the worked contracting-stemmed. The debitage density shell articulated and still closed together) among a was 145 flakes/m3. Similarity between the dense concentration of ash, shell, and fire-altered experimentally-derived proportions associated with rock indicates that the feature must have represented the total reduction sequence (38% core/flake debris a subsurface rock oven used for cooking mussels and and 62% biface debris) and the proportions indicated possibly other foods. The large number of whole by this assemblage (35% core/flake debris and 65% abalone shells, however, suggests that this feature biface debris) suggests the debitage reflected a full was used for more than one purpose, as these shells reduction sequence (cobble to flake blank to bifacial probably represent debris from food that was cooked preform to bifacial tool). In contrast, Monterey chert and consumed, not cooked and forgotten. These does not seem to have been available locally, and shells, and the dense concentration of mammal and apparently arrived on-site in the form of bifaces and bird bone suggest this pit feature was re-used to finished implements. A total of 83.2% of the dispose of a wide variety of household debris, Monterey chert debitage represented some form of including some item(s) to which were attached shell biface reduction. Dominance of Monterey chert and glass beads. among the projectile points complimented this A passage from Culleton's (1950) history of pattern. The flake:biface ratios were 13.1:1 for Mission San Carlos suggests a possible historical Monterey chert and 232:1 for Franciscan chert. association for the feature. In 1786, Chilichon, chief The rest of the formal tool assemblage included of Jojopan, a village at the mouth ofthe Big Sur two hammerstones, one pestle, three milling slab River, defected from the mission and -returned with fragments, one bowl mortar fragment, one handstone, his followers to their native territory. Recruits from one cobble smeared with asphaltum, one awl Jojopan did not appear at the Mission again until fragment (Figure 26), one strigil fragment (Figure 1806. The feature's dating and the array of 27), one indeterminate piece of polished bone, one implements are consistent with the kind of residential fishhook fragment (Figure 28), one perforated base such a group might have have used. Year-round fishhook blank fragment (Figure 29), one edge- site use, indicated by the deer teeth and floral modified whole red abalone shell that apparently remains, is consistent with a refugee group whose served as a scraping tool (Figure 41), and one piece movements were constrained by the encroachment of of red abalone shell smeared with asphaltum (Figure a foreign civilization. 30). Two radiocarbon assays from the deposit The faunal assemblage showed a preponderance beneath the feature indicated a late Middle Period of rabbit (NISP=52; 33.3%), black-tailed deer occupation. An abalone shell from 100-110 cm (NISP=38; 24.4%), northern fur seal (NISP= 15; yielded a corrected date of A.D. 1220, while a sample 9.6%), and sea otter (NISP=14; 8.9%). Fish remains 94 Findings from the Coast LATE A.D. 1000 MIDDLE 1000 B.C. EARLY 3500 B.C. 1 3 ~~~~CA-SLO.267 4 6 5 1 ~ ~ C -N123 2 4 5 6 1 rj 3 ~~~CA-MNT-12278 4 . 5 R ~~~~~~~~~~~..J~~~~~~~~~.. .. , 3 CA-MNT-1232 4 5.. 2.| 3 CA-MNT19 .4 6 . 1 23~ CA-MNT563 4 .......... . 5 1 2fi CA-MNTw33 4 5 m 6 Figure138 Hydration 2 7 3 4 . . 6 CA-MNT 51977/ 1 2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 4 56 CA-MNT 3232 3 gf73 4 1 2 ~~~~ii~~~: 23 4 ... 5 microns1.11.. CA-MNT-123 g .. ,K"K- Figure 38 Hydration Results from Study Sites: Casa Diablo Obsidian~~~~~~~~~~~~. ...... Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 95 LATE EARLY MIDDLE .AEA CA-MNT-1228 6... 5 X CA-MNT-1223 . ..5.. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ...... 1 2 3 CA-MNT-379 4 ~ 5 6. 1 2 3 CA-MNT 569 4 6 1 2 3CA-MNT-521 8 6 I~ ~ 2 CA-MNT-519 w 5 5 S ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .....-.. . . .; I 2x- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I~ 1 2 CA-MNT-332 5 6 1 m - 3 CA-MNT-73 .. 1 2 3CA-MNT-63 4 5 6 mcros Figure 39 Hydration Results from Study Sites: Napa Obsidian 96 Findings from the Coast 1 2 3 CA-SLO.267 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 CA-MNT-1277/H 1 2 3 CA-MNT 1232 4 5 6 1 2 3 CA-MNT-1228 5 6 1 2 CA-MNT-12;33 4 5 6 CA-MNT-1223 1 2 3 CA-MNT-879 4 5 6 1 ~ ~ ~~~2 3 CA-MNT-569 4 5 6 1 ~~~~~2 3 4 5 6 1 2 CA-MNT-521 5 6 2 3 CA-MNT519 4 1 2 3 CA-MNT-519 4 5 6 1 2 3 CA-MNT-73 4 5 6 1 2 3 ANT7 4 5 6 1 2 3 CA-MNT-63 4 5 6 Figure 40 Hydration Results from Study Sites. Coso Obsidian Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 97 u*- z ol~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C5 98 Findings from the Coast were also abundant. Without considering sample or cultural stratum capped by sterile, post-occupational screen size, this component was dominated by dune sand. The vertical distribution of materials rockfish (NISP=299; 50.8%), cabezon (NISP=1 17; within Stratum hIa is likely a reflection of dune 19.9%), and monkeyface prickleback (NISP=65; deflation and mixture from rodent disturbance. 11.1%). The 1.5 mm control sample showed higher Seven radiocarbon dates taken from a full range frequencies of northern anchovy and herring. The of statigraphic proveniences (between 30 and 160 shellfish assemblage was dominated by mussel cm) showed that the deposit was a single temporal (79.1%), gumboot chiton (9.5%) and turban snail component dating ca. 2300-1700 B.C. The artifact (6.1%). assemblage was typologically consistent with other Early Period sites on the central coast (e.g., CA- CA-MNT-73 MNT-391 [Cartier 1993a], CA- CA-SLO-175 [Jones and Waugh 1995]). It included contracting-stemmed CA-MNT-73 is situated across the Big Sur River (5), square-stemmed (2), and large side-notched from CA-MNT-63 (Figure 42). It was excavated in projectile points (3), one drill, informal flake tools 1990 by the U.C. Davis archaeological field school (N=13), one Class L Rectangular Olivella bead, under contract from the California Department of handstones (8), milling slabs (6), and pestles (5), and Parks and Recreation. Situated within Andrew one bone awl. One of the unusual attributes of this Molera State Park, the site was originally recorded by component was the high frequency of obsidian; 138 Arnold Pilling in 1948. It consists of an extensive pieces were recovered, from which 134 usable shell midden with locally dense scatters of chert hydration readings were obtained. Constituting one of debitage, situated on a headland north of the river. the largest hydration samples on the central coast, the Cultural materials occur within a sand dune stabilized readings showed impressive clustering between 3.1 by coastal scrub. Portions of the deposit along the and 5.3 microns, on all nine represented sources. edge of the coastal bluff were eroding at an alarming Findings from Napa (N=30) and Casa Diablo (N=65) rate, and the 1990 investigation was intended to obsidian helped to define the local hydration salvage a sample from the eroding materials. Eight 1 timescale as discussed in Chapter 3. x 2 m units were excavated, for a total recovery of Like CA-MNT-63, this site also produced 20.9 m3. abundant evidence for the exploitation of local As is common for dune sites (see Milliken et al. Franciscan chert cobbles, including 101 cores, 11,232 1999), CA-MNT-73 showed distinct physical pieces of debitage, and 33 bifaces. Of the 33 bifaces stratigraphy (Figure 43) that proved to have little 26 were Franciscan chert, 5 were Monterey chert, and cultural meaning. Three physical strata were revealed 2 were obsidian fragments. The Franciscan chert during excavation: Stratum I, extending from the specimens represented all stages of reduction, with surface to depths between 15 and 40 cm below thirteen Stage 1, five Stage 2, three Stage 3, four surface was a brown (10 YR 3/2) sand. Although Stage 4, and one Stage 5. The Monterey chert some shell and cultural discoloration were apparent specimens were limited to two Stage 1 examples and in this layer, it was essentially a sterile cap over the three Stage 5. The obsidian examples were primary cultural layer, Stratum II that was directly fragments of completed tools (Stage 5). The cores beneath it. Three subvariants of Stratum II were and bifaces suggest that Franciscan chert cobbles identified. The uppermost portion of the layer, were reduced first into flake blanks and then into Stratum Ila, between 15 and 40-90 cm below surface, Stage 1 bifacial preforms, which were, in turn, was characterized by a very dark grayish brown (10 reduced into finished tools. In short, a full range of YR 3/2) sandy midden with a low shell content. In reduction activities is suggested. Among the some units the lowest portion of this stratum showed debitage, 56% of the Franciscan chert represented discontinuous concentrations of shell, designated core/flake debris, while the majority of the Monterey Stratum Ilb. In all units, a transitional zone was chert specimens (70%) reflected biface reduction. identified between the dense midden of Strata Ila and These figures also suggest all stages of reduction for Ilb, and the sterile submidden. Designated Stratum Franciscan stone, while working of Monterey chert lIc, the transition was characterized by a light brown was limited to reduction of bifacial preforms and re- (10 YR 5/3) sandy midden. The natural dune soil working of Stage S bifaces. underlying the cultural materials, Stratum III, was a Some attributes of this assemblage contrast with very pale brown (10 Yr 8/4) compact sand. Evidence nearby CA-MNT-63, which was primarily occupied of rodent activity was profuse (Figure 43). While during the Middle Period, and briefly during the discrete layers are visible at CA-MNT-73, they are of Historic Period. Core/flake debitage represents a minimal cultural significance, as the portion of the significantly higher proportion (55.9%) of the deposit excavated in 1990 is essentially a single diagnostic Franciscan chert flakes than at CA-MNT Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 99 Q0~ 0 z I. ol~ ~ ~~i 4i~~~~ I .1:.....~~~ kq _4t~~~- 100 Findings from the Coast 0 100. 200 LEGEND 01020 cm I Brown (10OYR 3/2) sand, nearly sterile with minor shell and debitage content. Ila Very dark greyish brown (10OYR 3/2) sandy shell midden with low shell content. Ilb Shell concentration zone at base of midden. Ilc Transition zone between shell midden and sterile substrate. Light browvn (1lOYR 5/3) sandy midden. 1ll Light tan sandy sujbsoil. LIOIi Rodent activity IZn Fire-altered rock Figure 43 Sidewall Proffle, CA-MNT-73 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 101 63. The Franciscan assemblage also does not subsequently showed that the deposit dated only to conform nearly as well with the experimental totals the Middle Period. In keeping with the excavation associated with full reduction, but rather shows a strategies of the 1950s, a large volume was recovered greater representation of core/flake debris. The from the deposit, and the resulting collection remains Franciscan stone also showed a much higher among the largest available from the area today. flake:tool ratio of 296: 1. Together these findings Soils were not screened (David Fredrickson, personal suggest that use of the mouth of the Big Sur River communication 1990), however, and many small during the Early Period included more complete constituents are under-represented. Shell beads, for reduction than during the Middle Period, when example, were not reported from either midden, nor preforms were often transported elsewhere for final was fish bone. The artifact-rich collections, generated reduction. from temporally discrete contexts retain cultural The faunal remains were dominated by deer historical significance, however, and have been used (NISP = 28; 60.9%) and rabbit (NISP = 8; 17.4%) for to define the Middle Period in this district. The the mammals, and rock prickleback (78.6%), rockfish assemblage was highlighted by large contracting- (13.0%), and cabezon (2.5%) for the fish. The stemmed points, notched net sinkers, circular mussel molluscan assemblage was dominated by mussel and abalone shell fishhooks. A series of burials was (61.5%), red abalone (18.9%), and black abalone recovered, all in the flexed position with no (18.6%). accompaniments. CA-MNT-281 CA-MNT480/H CA-MNT-281 and -282 were investigated by CA-MNT-480/H, situated 200 m south of CA- U.C. Berkeley in the early 1950s and were reported MNT-1233 on Gamboa Ridge, was investigated by later by Pohorecky (1964, 1976). For several Howard (1973), who incorrectly identified it as an decades, the findings from these sites constituted the Esselen village. J. P. Harrington's consultants only excavation data available from Big Sur. Located associated this location with the Salinan village of at the mouth of Willow Creek on the southern Sur ts'ala'kak'a' (Jones et al. 1989; Rivers and Jones coast (Figure 1), the site attracted the attention of 1993). Howard (1973:9) reported a corrected Robert Heizer because of the presence of two radiocarbon date of A.D. 1300 from charcoal taken stratigraphically discrete midden deposits: CA-MNT- from the base of the deposit (Table 13). While site 281 at the surface and CA-MNT-282 below it. The findings are poorly reported, an apparent Olivella two layers were separated from one another by a lipped bead as well as Desert Side-notched and thick layer of sterile gravel. CA-MNT-281, the upper Canalifio/Coastal Cottonwood projectile points stratum, was not dated by radiocarbon or obsidian support occupation during the Late Period and seem hydration, but it is certainly younger than the to corroborate this as the remains of a village. underlying CA-MNT-282, which was dated to the Hopper mortars were also found on the site surface Middle Period. An asphaltum-stained rock with a when it was re-recorded in 1983 (Jones et al. cloth textile impression indicated some occupation 1989:101). during the early Historic Period (Moratto 1984:240), but absence of arrow points and glass beads is consistent with occupation before the Late Period. The site shows retention of many older artifact types, including large contracting-stemmed projectile points, notched net weights, and circular shell fishhooks. Innovations included the hopper mortar and perforated stone disks. Slate tablets with incised chevron designs were abundant but were lacking from the older stratum below. Burial mode was flexed. Substantive faunal data are not available. CA-MNT-282 Because it was thought that it might shcfw significant antiquity, the lower stratum at Willow Creek was heavily sampled in the 1 950s. Two radiocarbon dates of A.D. 80 and 130 (Table 13) 102 Findingsfrom the Coast U . . . . .00 c . - 0 N0000 " . bo + 11- m mm m% O "- on ^ ? Om -r s + t o o0 -c o^Of Oo 00 tncn W 'r00000O0 a r )00 00 G -- 00 O N 1%0 cn _ e n cn. Ca C%4o ~ N cn N bO ^ o o' o ~ II ss&s '-m- la C-4 00 r- en. C> C040 000 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ' o ~~~~~~ ,-~~~~~0 080800C 0 00 0 C ~O00( 0 -00000I0o X o 0 0 **?00 o U2 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t '0 IL) 00 + ~~~4)4) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ +o~~~~~~~~~t*0030 0 | t t G ; G ; t m G 4 u tl Q u PQ iS u P q 0~~~~~~~~~~~0O O000O0~0VV0 a0 Cf C 4) d~~~~~~~~~~)O ~ 0 8 O C) 'r)'r C) 00 C)\ 0 V" G V--4 0 1+, c0000000000-- 0 ? 8 0 l (1$ 1 +1$ o1 og +1li1 +1 +: c 0 0O ) ) O-? 00040 M C00 O0 +I c \ O O n 0 o t 4)u- 0 r 0 c 0~ w-'roeN40O\ 00 nC "I-0 000) v 0 C a 0000N n-4 n >ll o - ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- U0 Q\ P:i~~~~~~~~e * _q 0) tn VI ssce r tn v-4 Dc\Wee (O sO\ 00 e \{) | cs ine W) t Nn 3O S t \0 \O \- N It 00 00 1t N 00N0 0 \ \ s \ \ \ \ 0o W N s oo o o .0 I ) t M I D D D M 0 \0 \0 \0 o X - 0 O 0 0 0 0 00, 0 00 k Q ~ ^ n ^ F 00 | | ffi m N > O t O o > PPO P a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ P- >Or"0OOC 0 0 e OcO X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~( I> I O?d o V-4~~~~~~~~ ~~c -.4 t- tooCa4 -4 ^ ? ? ? W F F F F F F F > oi X ^ ^ ^ m m m m m m m m m~~~~~~~~C1 n | S I E t S S S S t S S t t S S E S S i E t t t S X E i S~~~~~~~~O u Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 103 *~~~U * A0 0 % - Cl) C^ | m m 1 ?> - _^ _t S; 8 xo _ _ Wto m mm ai + 00 ? -. ? ', -o- - ?^--^?-?--??? - c --- N??E 'o bO 4) 00 o * C t c.000Ct t \c) CS xO D NO W. .0 00 t ^ > 000I 0 en00 0001,~ - 0 en 00000 3~~~ S ~ ~ +o +I +It +l' +I+1I+h + g? +1+? ?? +oo1+ o 1 o '4 }o?O~ 0 :: + Xm Ct I*U "4 * * 4 * >z | :E :E m S : tStitCE i tS:E :E :E titu tS:E tS~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'lq I 't~OC) nV)~ 4) Z )" 0 0 00 0 - 0 0t 0 00 o 0 0% 1 > fi ~~~~~~~~~~~"r cd n C n ^O cn 'I NT C, m 0 N 14 0 N I00 ' )00000to000t 0~~~~~~~17 ~O tl- 0'0 tot 0 0 00 0' ' C~~4) toto-O~~~~~~0%C 0 JO "*e I 0 m0 a . oo-ooooo~oo o 6?oo e _ 0.r 1I1oo6 ^666+ooooooo80000 U) a- 0OOO>t to 0% 0'>-eW 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .0. O~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- . R. -- -- ? 1 3 | x _ ^ W t _ _ _ _ _ ,, ,r, > Os s> ? - ? _ o~~~~~~~ ~M M ; ;t : ; 0 Cu '4"A40\0% , 0 o}~ C) C) t F 00 0%0%0 0 , +1I m m u 00 0 0 - 00 r0 l- _- _0 cN +1 +1 + nYI~~~~~~~~~~~~~)+ 1+ +1 +I IIu C+> ttl2'tI I I E;+1S1+1 ) ) C~~~1~~~0%0 \ O t~~~00O\ o C)C~ PCu 104 Findingsfrom the Coast co~~~~~~~~~~~ .~ - mmmm-_>,oo >-- -> 04 00 as ~ cn r- m tn as W - - -co ~~~~ 00000 ~~~~~~e 80' g: 0 00 o W env"M n -40000 w i 23; | oNX i$g?oo??o?8? {384?x = Z???o C: in cn en N otoo::ann : }:: m~~~~~~~ ene m0ni 00 i 0 0 cn?In+ 0 n+O .. . .~ . 0% 0 00 -0 e0n0% ~ 3 co c@ Q O% O O O0 e- OO O - o o - o - gc < ] > I olIo I +1 $ 11I cti $o I"", I o ottolllloll$ +1lE Si ? IT 'I O 0 00 cn 0 cn~%O N 0 C00q 0 = ~ ~ ~- ,~ . _ W W o ur- oo o 04 >O k on v) NO ". 00 N 0oo @~~~~~~~~c %n t- _O t "4 ". vq P4 00 oo4 W-4 oO--4 qt W~~xm ad-4 0- CII;;A > ; 0-- X ~~~~~~~~i CZ O ____ X 0 0 -- 00 00 -- 0 0 S I a E I ? ? ? ? ? O OI O O 1 10 00 ct (1 C- O0 Op O 1 r F FC S I n {) t ~~~~~~~~~F co tO (S- -o n _4 PC en Cn I0 tn0 0%WIC4e - -- tttt trt Vt U, eN ito^ 000 0 0N) _ _~~~~~~~~~~.4 _.O -4 _ _ 4 _ 4 W) _0 _ "- W) _t _ D ;____ __ 0 66S I tiitlklEtlululllllt tlluk ti0 o -~~~~~~~~N~ ' ~ o8o% oo 00 in ~~O 0 C14 N Ch - en N NOe - ------ ---- - ------ q;;;CTh" 0%0%0 N c -Atl-cn C 6 6 ( - - -- t- -4 - 4) S~~~~~~~~ 1 t -r en Iltt )W- nt -4 0 NIW W I V.- U,~~~~~nc n n1tW )Nmc e ne lrc 0 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 105 cn 00 N N %O WI oo 00 W) 00 1-4 '? & V-4 WI e 0 s o 00 00 t- C-4 cn m 00 - tn cn r- WI NO oo 00 00 %O %O 4 00 m tn 0? 00 ?O WI W) r- tn Vw T" V--d T..4 ".4 V-.4 V--d v-d V.-W ..w V.-* ".4 V" V.-W V.-O v" + Cq C14 8 0? a 98^9 9%n 00 r- N en WI 00 r- ?O tn r- in - tn Itt 00 I'll 00 C14 llqp r- "W ".4 "..4 ".4 W" V-* ".4 it .-, -., N-01 1014 0 in a 0 00 O en WI 0? 00 00 WI tn in 00 in cn 10 S 00 04 Nt %n It WI NO ?O ?D 110, ?O en %O 04 V, %O W) V--4 "i "i "i "i V--4 V--4 7-4 "-4 ".W ".4 W-4 ".O "O 17, to O < "..O 00 r. cn 00 C9 0 u M t- 04 00 M C-4 oo ON ON cn 10, W t',- WI W r- N 00 C14 0 0 0 0 :Z43 t3 ts 43 .0 P,% u u u u U:?::? u -'Z-U:z U:z u C) a co r- t'-- t--- 00 cn in 00 00 %n 0? qt en tn en tn 10, tn C14 en lwt C-4 W) m ?O V) m C14 ON 00 t- ?O W N M N M r- t- r- 00 t-. I r- r, W tn W tn "t tn S oo 00 S 00 I 00 S I S 00 W W No I ?Q so ?10 An m tn m tn en tn m tn in m tn m cn tn in In WI W) 10, 10,44, 1141,14, I'll I", I'd, Ift qt FE A A 41 ?a ?O 10 C14 eq N N tn In 00 W W) WI m en 00 00 cn cn 4n irl Nt 00 00 C14 N ON 00 00 cA A %A %A %A In I N Nb --b %A %A W) V) en en 7-4 ".4 C4 W) in r- N C14 N C14 C%4 Cd 0 9 W %n tn %n tn W) in tn tn kn W? E-4 eq eq Cq N cq N N N C14 C14 clq N C14 C14 N eq 04 eq eq 04 N eq 04 N N C14 "I I'll -,t I ON it a 9 a a IC, , 4s, 106 Findingsfrom the Coast kn aA r- 00 ?c Nt C14 V--4 V" u Z U U 4 04 I t--. C%4 00 8 ci %O en N cn It cn It eq 0 W-4 "" 04 V-W 0 a ?c W M 04 P-" V--4 "?t 1-11 N.W "%-e %.W, 00 kn o cn qlt M09 ...4 0? 0 ,.- ,O-W W) W) cn in m cn cn to ci 0 cen, CA, <' 0 0 lqt 0 r- r- tz r- r- W t- r- W r- + + > u 49 ct 0 a 0 0 c cn 0 t- N N It 0? m N t- m m r- o u ;3 ON N ---, ;9 W W m m C14 A A lqt r- r- N ?O tn u W) M M M N N C'4 0 tj c? 00 60 p., P P,% P U:t u u u 0 C) C) 0 Rt 0 r- ?c t? W r- co r- 00 + o+ o+ o+ + 0 a 0 0 0\ c\ 00 r- WI 00 00 M tn cn It In N tn en cn " 0\ A 0 tn 00 tn W N -.4 N - N --O N - tn 00 00 c\ tn \0 I-D Nr W) W W) W W 00 in t- A 0\ 0 - N cn Wt kn ?O C4 cn W) \0 r- W 00 ?O ?O 00 tl-- 00 co co co 00 00 WC'4 C-4 C-4 cl C14N ok 00 0 W) lqt tl- 00 t- t- r- V. r- v- t- 00 00 00 W W cn M en M M en en en M en cn m en en cn CA 0 4) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CD CD 0 0 0 0 CK 0 o-v C? en ?O NO en \-O cn cn c\ cn Q\ In cn Itt m cn It N cn en N in N N W N W lid, cn N en 04 m cn en en cn cn t-- ? Q 0 --4 a] - i? LU 0 0 ok O\ 0 M 00 V-* V--4 ".-f ?O M "-4 cn \0 0\ 0 C) Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z N N C14 N N N N N 04 C14 N C14 C14 (14 N N C14 N N N C14 N N N 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 107 9 ~~0 d tRo ?ngn00 '=e 4 + i|4Svo -D 0 0 ~ 0 *sa ~~~~~n cq en N e~~~~~c xeq m 4 N t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 a~~~~~ Q~~~~~~~~- .- ) 4~~~~~~~~~~% cn x_" _ ; o3 ? 4) 0 000 0 M % ') 00 108 Findings from the Coast scIttid Oaks Contow~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 11 1b hilstoric refuse 4.5 ?Sd~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I Figure 44 Site Map, CA-MNT-759/H LEGEND la Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2) shell midden. o,1t 20 lb Dark brown (lOYR 4/3) midden with lower shell density. cm c Very dark brown (1OYR 2/2) shell midden. 1 Vry dark brown (tOYR 2/2) Nam, no shell Rock E~Rodent dislurbance E fJ Roots Figure 45 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-759/H Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 109 Corrected radiocarbon dates of A.D. 1450 and 1470 indicated that this was a single component site CA-MNT-1223 occupied during the Late Period. Curiously, the artifact assemblage produced not arrow points but CA-MNT-1223, the Dolan I Site, was excavated rather examples of larger, generally older in 1986 by the U.C. Santa Cruz archaeological field contracting-stemmed (N=l) and large side-notched school, with grant funds from the Giles Mead side-notched (N=1) points. Olivella beads were Foundation. Located in Landels-Hill Big Creek consistent with the radiocarbon dates with one Reserve (Figure 1) on Dolan Ridge at an elevation of normal round thin lipped (Elal) and two normal full 370 m, the site (Figure 46) is a very small (1365 m2) lipped (E2al). Ground stone included three shell midden on the edge of a ridgetop overlooking handstones, a milling slab fragment, and a small the Pacific Ocean, 0.8 km from the shoreline. The pebble, approximately 5 cm in length, with a shaped site was originally recorded by members of a and polished end. Faunal remains showed a striking previous field class, who noted that the midden was emphasis on terrestrial resources, primarily deer, with actively eroding down the face of a steep slope. very minimal use of fish or shellfish. No marine Erosion was accelerated by a wildfire in 1985, and mammal remains were found. the goal of the 1986 excavation was to salvage as Stone working debris was not abundant. much as possible from the eroding deposit. Twelve 1 Debitage density was modest at 18.9 flakes/m3, and x 2 m units were excavated for a total recovery of the flake:biface ratio was 13.8:1. As elsewhere, the 13.4 m3. Stratigraphy was very uncomplicated, with a debitage was dominated by Monterey chert (89.1%). single cultural layer consisting of a very dark grayish Chert seems to have arrived on-site in a variety of brown (10 YR 3/2) silty sand shell midden (Stratum forms including Stage 2 and Stage 3 bifaces, finished I) that extended only to 40-50 cm below surface. A tools, and cores. A heavy representation of core/flake sterile yellow rocky clay soil (Stratum II) was present debitage suggests that arrow points were made here, beneath the midden (Figure 47). Artifactual materials even though they were unrepresented in the artifacts. were recovered from a depth of 90 cm in rodent Their absence is probably a product of small sample burrows, which were abundant. Two burials were size. also found; the first (Burial 1) was recovered from Among the fauna were the remains of a newly the eroding edge of the deposit. Fully exposed and born deer, which suggest the site was occupied in the removed, the interment was incomplete, but showed a spring. Annuli in the teeth from adult deer suggested tightly flexed position, with the head facing down late summer and fall occupation. Together, these (Figure 48). Post-field analysis showed the remains indicators constitute a small sample, but they suggest to represent a female of approximately 35 years old at occupation through at least half of the annual cycle. the time of death. No pathologies were evident This site certainly functioned as a residential base, except for lipping on the vertebrae which suggested given the diversity in its artifact assemblage. Its small arthritis. No artifacts were associated. size indicates that it could not have been occupied by Burial 2 was found 96-117 cm below surface in more than one or two families at any given time. The Unit 5. It consisted of a diffuse unarticulated scatter faunal inventory also shows a heavy focus on deer, of bones representing a 4-month-old infant. No grave suggesting the site may have had a function similar to posture or orientation could be defined. the ethnohistoric site of tractenr, the Salinan hunting Radiocarbon results indicated that the deposit camp, identified by Harrington's informants and represented a single Late Period component dating associated with archaeological sites CA-MNT-1571 A.D. 1200-1690. A single obsidian hydration reading and CA-MNT-1580. The small size and inland set- of 2.2 microns on a piece of Casa Diablo obsidian ting of CA-MNT-759 are also traits shared with the was consistent with the radiocarbon findings. A ethnohistorically identified hunting camp. The rela- substantial bead assemblage was also very consistent tive abundance of ground stone implements suggests with the radiocarbon dating. Eight classes and 13 that site inhabitants exploited seasonally available types were represented including 18 Al spire-lopped vegetable foods. While this may have been a hunting Olivella, 3 A4c, 1 A5c, 1 B3, 7 Ela, 4 Elb, 3 E2a, 3 site, it was used for perhaps half of the year by a E2b, 1 G2 (previously defined as G6; see Mikkelson small social group, who also undertook a variety of et al. 1999), 5 KI, 7 steatite or talc schist disks, 1 other tasks. Its tool assemblage is not very different Mytilus blank (M2b), and 1 clam shell disk. The or distinctive functionally in comparison with the absence of glass or historic (Class H) beads suggests other sites. that site use terminated prior to the onset of the historic era. Beads and radiocarbon, further suggest that most occupation was post A.D. 1500. 110 Findingsfrom the Coast F _igure 46 Site Ma,C\\T12 LEGEND~~LEED tan oyt O Dark brown loam. _ _ _ _ 0// 1 0_ 20 m\ AI R wodnftydmu Fiue4 i ewall Ple I Dar c brown loam. lo L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~nl "I in Rock 209 O~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o l Rden c Figure 46 SitewMallPrfl, CA-MNT-1223 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 111 0 10 20 L | | | |cm .,~~~~~~~~~~-.. ( Figure 48 Burial 1 CA-MNT-1223 The flaked stone assemblage was unique among the bifacial implements, was used only sparingly. The coastal sites in that it documents Late Period assemblage included 8 cores, 8 bifaces, 21 projectile production of arrow points and other small, well- points, 8 drills, 3 flake tools and 488 pieces of made tools. As illustrated by debitage and production debitage. The projectile points included 13 Desert rejects, the manner in which stone was worked here Side-notched, 3 Canaliino/Coastal Cottonwood, and 5 was different from the large biface industry employed fragments. One of the Desert Side-notched points duiri-ng earlier nperintds. Late Pterinod stone-workingr was was made from abalone shell. It has been discussed focse o asipl creflketehnloy,inwhch indeai esehee Joes198) flakes~~ ~~ weesrc rmcrsadpesr lkdTe aoiyo h eiaewsMnee hr ithefaeo tn sebaewsuiu mn h bifacial implements.Saereutooflge(=7;93% , wihas used orqunly sprngy Thre- 112 Findingsfrom the Coast derived debitage (80.8%). Nineteen small blade excavated by students from the U.C. Davis field flakes that appear to represent core trimming were school in 1990 (Figure 49). Total recovery volume also identified. This modest blade industry is mildly was 9.0 m3. The soil profile showed one cultural reminiscent of that found in the Santa Barbara stratum, with three relatively insignificant Channel, in that the blades distinguish themselves subvariants. The cultural layer (Stratum I) was a shell from the earlier biface industry, but these blades are midden extending from the surface to a maximal by no means as abundant or formalized as in the depth of 80 cm (Figure 50). The upper portion of the Channel. Together with the cores, the debitage midden (Stratum Ia) was characterized by a low shell generally reflects a core/flake industry devoted to content, little fire-altered rock, and dark brown (10 production of thin arrow point flake blanks, arrow YR 3/3) loamy soil. The low density of constituents points, and drills. The simple and complex interior in this substratum seems to reflect post-occupational flakes represent initial core reduction by percussion. sheet wash from the steep hillside east of the site, and Many flakes exhibit crushed, well-prepared mixture of non-cultural and cultural sediments. platforms, reflecting careful core reduction. One of Stratum lb consisted of a dense concentration of shell what appears to have been a rejected flake blank fragments and thermally-affected rock. This layer (Figure 11) shows a trapezoidal cross-section which represented the relatively undisturbed prehistoric may have been desirable for arrow points or drills. occupation. The soil matrix was a dark gray (10 YR Removal of blade flakes may have facilitated creation 4/1) loam. Stratum Ic was a transition between the of flakes with such a cross-section. midden and sterile substrate. Beneath the midden The remainder of the tool assemblage included was a sterile deposit (Stratum II), composed mostly three stone spheres (Figure 23), one handstone, one of angular, decomposing shale. Evidence for rodent hammerstone, one complete hopper mortar, one activity was abundant. Three features were identified: unusual elongate schist object of indeterminate a dense concentration of ash and burnt shell between function (Figure 23), and one talc schist/steatite 53 and 65 cm below datum in Unit 4 (Figure 50) that pendant (Figure 24), five awls (Figure 26), fourteen appeared to represent a fire pit or hearth, another fire indeterminate fragments of polished bone, eight cut pit found in the northeastern corner of Unit 5 between and ground, unperforated abalone shell pendant 84 and 100 cm, and a third fire pit beneath the second blanks, one small nacreous sphere or pearl of one in Unit 5. The latter two features were part of a abalone, one piece of cut abalone shell, one Mytilus distinctive lens (Ibl) of particularly dense shell and fishhook fragment (Figure 28), and one Cryptochiton ash (Figure 50) that appeared to represent a poorly fishhook blank (Figure 29). defined house floor in which Features 1 and 2 were The faunal assemblage shows a heavy emphasis centralized hearths. This was the only house floor on terrestrial taxa. Deer dominated the mammal identified during the project. remains (88.9%). Fish were not abundant and no Five radiocarbon dates, including one obtained identifiable elements were found in a 0.012 m3 from a sample of charcoal extracted from the upper sample of midden processed through 1.5 mm (1/16") hearth in Unit 5, indicated that CA-MNT-1227 was a mesh. Column samples show a prevalence of mussel single component Late Period site occupied between (94.2%), barnacle (2.5%), and turban snail (0.7%). A.D. 1300 and 1690 (Table 13). Two Olivella shell Oxygen isotope readings from one mussel shell beads, an oval thin-lipped (Elb) and a normal small suggest occupation during the time of peak ocean full-lipped (E2al), support that dating. Two other temperature, between August and October; a second Olivella beads, an Al spire-lopped and a GI tiny indicated collection in the winter/early spring. saucer, were non-diagnostic (Bennyhoff and Hughes Annuli from six deer teeth indicated fall/winter 1987:128). (November-February) kills, and one indicated late The artifact assemblage included 7 cores, 5 fall/early winter (December-February). Together, the bifaces, 16 flake tools, and 88 pieces of debitage. All data indicate occupation minimally between August but one flake was Monterey chert. The cores were all and March. quite small (< 37 mm in maximum length), and seemed to reflect the same core/flake arrow point CA-MNT-1227 industry identified at CA-MNT-1223 although no projectile points were recovered. The flake tools CA-MNT-1227, the Harlan Spring Site, is included 10 formal examples not seen elsewhere. located 0.6 km inland on a small mid-slope bench These specimens were all small and thick with small, overlooking the Pacific Ocean at an elevation of 1000 blunted beak-like projections (Figure 23). These ft (305 in). The site was marked by an extensive shell beaked tools may have been used as reamers or drills. midden with little debitage or formal artifacts. It The total of 88 flakes was very low, representing covered an area of 4135 m . Five 1 x 2 m units were only 9.8 flakes/in3. The flake:biface ratio was 17.6:1. Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 113 114 Findings from the Coast I N 0 100 20300 400 11~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1 UV Burned Oxddized Earth LEGEND I l, cm 1 a Mixed shell midden and natural sheetwash soil (IOYR 3/3) with low shell and fire-altered rock content. 1 b Dense shell midden with a noticable concentration of shell and fire-altered rock in a dark grey (1 OYR 4/1) soil matrix. 1 bi Particularly dense concentration of shell and ash evident only in units 5 and 6. 1 c Transition zone between shell midden and sterile substrate. Lighter shell midden deposit, brown (lOYR 4/3) loam with high shell content and admixture of llght yellowish brown (lOYR 6/4) sandy loam with clay and angular fragments of bedrock. 1I Sterile subsoil derived from bedrock. Brownish yellow (IOYR 6/6) sandy loam with some clay, angular rocks and occasional pockets of midden created by rodent activity. I J * Rock Unit 4 Feature 1: Fire pit. I a I Rodent disturbance Unit 5 Feature 1: Second, intrusive fire pit. Unit 5 Feature 2: Original fire pit. Figure 50 Sidewall Profile, CA-M:NT-1227 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 115 Debitage was dominated by core/flake debris a total recovery volume of 14.7 m3. Excavation Groundstone included one handstone, one hopper revealed a single cultural stratum, a very dark grey mortar, four pestles, one anvil, one hammerstone, one shell midden (Stratum la), overlain by a thin layer of unmodified cobble with some asphaltum on the redwood duff (Figure 52). The midden showed many surface, and an unusual plummet-shaped object signs of fire-related earth movement and rodent (Figure 23) that may have been used as a netsinker. disturbance, including apparent slumping of soils. The remainder of the tool inventory included three The deposit averaged 50 cm in depth, but pockets of awl fragments (Figure 26), a possible flaking tool, an gopher spoils extended as deep as 140 cm below sur- antler tine, two shell fishhooks (Figure 28), one hook face. The midden was underlain by a sterile blank (Figure 29), one chipped bipointed gorge hook decomposing brownish-yellow sandstone (Stratum (Figure 31), one pendant blank (Figure 31), and one Ila), with scattered pockets of yellowish-red clay cut fragment of abalone shell. The pendant blank is (Stratum IIb). A mixed zone of combined midden and an edge-ground teardrop-shaped piece of abalone sterile subsoil (Stratum Ib) was apparent in some shell. Lacking incisions, it is similar to types that date units (Figure 52). A.D. 1400-1500 in the Santa Barbara Channel (C. Three radiocarbon dates showed that the deposit King 1982:378). was single-component, occupied for a brief interval Faunal remains were dominated by deer between 3800 and 2900 B.C. Two obsidian (NISP=109; 87.2%) and rabbit (NISP= 14; 11.2%), specimens were in partial agreement with the reflecting a decidedly terrestrial focus. Ten taxa of radiocarbon dating. One specimen from the fish were identified among 513 elements, dominated Queen/Mt. Hicks source produced a hydration by striped surfperch (NISP=1480; 67.6%), rockfish reading of 6.8 microns. The other produced a reading (NISP=412; 18.8%), and cabezon (NISP=149; 6.8%). of only 3.8 microns on Coso obsidian, which is too Molluscan remains were dominated by mussel thin for the time span indicated by the radiocarbon. (88.5%), followed by leaf barnacle (2.9%), barnacle Olivella shell beads included two non-temporally (2.7%), and urchin (2.3%). Oxygen isotope readings diagnostic spire-lopped (Al), one medium barrel from a mussel shell suggested occupation (B3), and one small thick shelved rectangle (L2). The immediately after the period of warmest ocean latter is an early type, consistent with radiocarbon temperatures (between September and December). dating. Six seasonality estimates from deer teeth suggested The flaked stone inventory included 1 core, 23 late summer (August to October; N=3), and bifaces, 13 projectile points, 8 flake tools, and 337 fall/winter (November-February; N=3). Flotation pieces of debitage. The projectile points included samples taken from the hearths yielded acorn and bay eight contracting-stemmed, two Rossi Square- nut shells, grass and Chenopodium seeds. Acorns are stemmed (Figure 17), and three fragments. The bulk a fall/winter crop, and their occurrence is consistent of the debitage was Monterey chert (90%). The with the oxygen isotope and deer teeth data. Grass assemblage was dominated by biface-derived flakes seeds were harvested in the spring. Together, these (70.4% of the Monterey chert and 73.2% of the finds suggest plant storage was employed, and Franciscan chert). Debitage density was 22.9 corroborate the notion of a fall/winter occupation flakes/m3, and the flake:biface ratio was 9.4:1. The continuing into spring. Six isolated human bones, proportion of biface-related debris is similar to the representing at least two individuals, were also percentage associated with Stage 3-5 reduction in the recovered. experiment with Monterey chert. Chert apparently arrived on-site as preforms and finished tools that CA-MNT-1228 were subsequently reduced and reworked. The rest of the artifact inventory included four CA-MNT-1228, the Redwood Terrace Site, was milling slab fragments, one mortar, one pestle, two located 1.2 km inland on a small bench along the east handstones, two hammerstones, three unidentifiable fork of Brunnette Creek at an elevation of 245 m ground stone tools, two talc schist or steatite (Figure 1). A small shell midden (548 mi2) found pendants, one piece of worked steatite, one awl here in 1983 amidst a dense stand of redwoods was fragment (Figure 26), one antler tine, and two fish seriously damaged by the Rat Creek fire in 1985 gorges (Figure 27). The two talc schist pendants which burned intensely through the grove, destroying included one complete and one partially completed undergrowth and causing considerable erosional specimen indicating that some working of steatite damage. Excavation in 1990 by members of the U.C_ took place at this location. Davis field school was intended to salvage materials and attempt to stabilize the deposit. Ten 1 x 2 m units were excavated in a single large block (Figure 51) for 116 Findings from the Coast 04 y~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - - - - ---------- Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 117 The faunal collection included a total of 2510 zone of dissolved calcium carbonate, because of its bird and mammal bones, from which only 84 cemented quality, seems to have resisted admixture elements could be identified. These were dominated from upper components and therefore marks a highly by black-tailed deer (NISP = 76; 90.5%). One Steller discrete component. Furthermore, superposition of sea lion element was recovered. This species passes radiocarbon dates indicated vertical segregation of off the Big Sur coast from September to January. temporal components. A total of 14.5 m3 of midden Two elements from one individual deer represent a was excavated from the site as a whole, but only 5.4 neonate, suggesting a spring kill. One deer tooth m3 were from Stratum II. suggested occupation in the late summer (August- Radiocarbon results and diagnostic artifacts October). Only ten fish elements were recovered, indicated that CA-MNT-1232/H was witness to an dominated by cabezon (NISP=7; 70%). Molluscan unusually long occupation from ca. 4400 B.C. into remains were 98% mussel. Four isolated human the Late Period. Four radiocarbon assays dated elements were recovered, representing a minimum of Stratum II from 4400 to 3900 B.C. with the most one adult and one child. recent date marking the Stratum I/II interface. The vertical distribution of dates within Stratum I, CA-MNT-1232/H STRATUM II however, suggested significant mixing, so that only the materials from Stratum II were useful for The Interpretive Trail Site, CA-MNT-1232/H, is interpretive purposes. A total of 5.4 m.3 of deposit situated on a small bench along the Landels Hill Big was recovered from Stratum II. The Stratum II Creek Reserve Interpretive Trail at an elevation of assemblage included two Olivella barrel (B3) beads, 245 m (800 ft) (Figure 1). The site was marked by a a single complete lanceolate projectile point, a non- relatively small shell midden (3756 m2) and a diagnostic tip fragment, three cores, two bifaces, bedrock mortar outcrop with two cups. Excavation three informal flake tools, nineteen pieces of chert was completed by field class students in the summer debitage, five handstones, two milling slabs, two of 1990. The Reserve's interpretive trail which passes hammerstones, two antler tines, and a bone pendant through CA-MNT-1232/H was constructed along the fragment. Obsidian was absent although eight pieces remnants of a road built in the 1920s. This road was were recovered from Stratum I. Among the three intended to accommodate automobile travel, and its cores, specimen 47-3-211, an angular cobble of construction through the midden created a major Monterey chert, weighing 461.1 g was unusual. This erosional face along the northeastern edge of the was the largest piece of chert recovered from any of deposit (Figure 53). The work in 1990 was an effort the sites at Big Creek or the Big Sur River. This large to salvage and stabilize this portion of the deposit. piece must have been transported over the crest of the CA-MNT-1232/H was deeper and more complex Santa Lucias to the coast from an inland source. than any other investigated site. The deposit extended Other than this large specimen, Stratum II produced to a depth of 280 cm, with two discrete superimposed very little evidence for flaked stone manufacturing layers (Figure 54). The uppermost layer, Stratum I, activities. A flake:biface ratio of 4.8:1 indicated an was a remarkably homogeneous dark grayish-brown exceptionally high rate of curation. Tool stone in the (IOYR 3/2) loamy shell midden that extended from form of cores and flake blanks may have been cached the surface to a maximum depth of 170 cm in Unit 3 here for occasional use. Stone-working apparently and 150 cm in Unit 4 (Figure 54). Radiocarbon dates involved cores, flake blanks, and final reduction and obtained from this Stratum were earlier than 3500 re-working of Stage 3-5 bifaces. The occurrence of years B.C. Stratum II, immediately beneath Stratum biface thinning flakes as the most abundant form of I, was a light brownish-gray (10 YR 6/2) midden debitage probably reflects these later reduction with a distinctive precipitate of calcium carbonate stages, although this activity was not undertaken on a adhering to everything in the matrix. Similar frequent basis, based on the recovery of only a single deposits have been identified at the base of older sites edge preparation/pressure flake. on the Monterey peninsula, particularly CA-MNT- The Stratum II faunal assemblage was 391 (Cartier 1993a), occupied from 3000 B.C. to highlighted by a dense concentration of mollusc A.D. 1. This type of residue is caused by groundwater shells. Column samples showed heavy dominance of action, specifically the dissolution of calcium mussel (97.3%), with minor amounts of barnacle carbonate into the groundwater and subsequent (1.7%), and purple sea urchin (0.5%), Vertebrate redeposit of dissolved solids when groundwateTr remains included 40 identified specimens, dominated retreats and dissolved solids go out of solution. The by black-tailed deer (NISP=27; 75.0%), harbor seal transition between Stratum I and Stratum II is (NISP=3; 8.3%), and gray fox (NISP=3; 8.3%). A therefore post-depositional in origin, however the total of 77 fish bones was dominated by cabezon 118 Findings from the Coast 200 100 Unit 8 Ui LEGEND o, 2 cm la Very dark grey (1OYR 3/1) shell midden. lb Mixing zone. Very dark grey shell midden mixed with sterile substrate. Ila Sterile substrate. Brownish yellow (1OYR 6/6) decomposing sandstone. Ilb Sterile yellowish red (SYR 4/6) 1-01 Rodent disturbance IE*CI Rock I I Root Figure 52 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-1228 Figure 53 Unit Map,7CA-MNT-1232/H la Very dark grey (IOYR 3/1) shell mconierddenrdwoO lb Mixing zoe. Very darkgrey shell iddnmxdwt sterie subtrate.vI1 ee Figure 53 Sitewl MPrfl, CA-MNT-1228H Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 119 (NISP=33; 42.8%), rockfish (NISP=17; 22.0%), and scraping tool, two Haliotis pendants, and two lingcod (NISP=8; 10.3%). Four pieces of human Haliotis pendant blanks. The yield of debitage was bone were also recovered, of which two cranial fairly low with 171 pieces, of which 163 were fragments were associated with Stratum II. One of Monterey chert. Debitage density was 17.1 flakes/m3 these was subjected to isotopic analysis discussed in with a flake:biface ratio of 9:1. The flake type profile more detail below. showed a high frequency of core/flake debris and a stronger suggestion of full reduction. This may CA-MNT-1233 reflect an apparent arrow point industry reflected by the small leaf-shaped points. Recorded in 1983 by field school students, CA- The faunal assemblage included 259 non- MNT-1233 is a shell midden of moderate size (2413 intrusive mammal and bird elements dominated by m2) situated 1.6 km inland on the edge of a small deer (NISP=203; 78.4%) and rabbit (NISP=21; finger ridge. In a situation that was unusual for the 8.1%). Fish remains were dominated by northern investigated sites, most of the deposit was found on anchovy (57.4%), herring or sardine (19.1%), and steep slopes below the ridge top--not on its flat rockfish (14.8%). As elsewhere, California mussel surface. It appeared that cultural materials originally was the most heavily exploited shellfish taxon deposited on the flat surface were pushed downslope (93.1%), followed by barnacle (2.4%), and turban during fire suppression efforts sometime within the snail (2.2%). A total of fifteen human bone fragments last 50 years. Excavations were completed by was also recovered, from which a minimum of two students in 1990 with the goal of salvaging material adult individuals was inferred. Oxygen isotope values from the continually eroding deposit. Five 1 x 2 m from three shells suggested collection between April units were excavated (Figure 56) for a total recovery and October. Seasonal layering in a deer indicated a volume of lOmi3. As at most of the coastal sites, late summer/early fall kill (Appendix II). stratigraphy was fairly simple. A single cultural stratum (I) with two vertically discrete variants (Ia CA-MNT-1235 and Ib) was identified (Figure 57). The lower variant was distinguished by a slightly higher concentration CA-MNT-1235 was a very small (452 m2) site of shells and a dark brown (10 YR 3/3) color. Stra- tested by field students. It consisted of a shell midden tum Ia, in contrast, was a dark grayish-brown (10 perched precariously on the edge of a cliff YR 4/2). Seven radiocarbon dates indicated overlooking the mouth of Devil's Creek in Landels- occupation between A.D. 1030 and 1430. Hill Big Creek Reserve (Figure 1). With the intent of The bead assemblage recovered from the midden salvaging midden before it eroded downhill, seven 1 included seven Olivella tiny saucers (Gl), three x 2 m units were excavated in 1986 (Figure 57) for a normal Olivella saucers (G2), one cupped Olivella total recovery volume of only 2.4 mi3. The deposit bead (KI), four Olivella spire-lopped (Al), one end proved to be very shallow and was apparently ground Olivella (B2), two barrel Olivella beads displaced from a flat above it. Corrected radiocarbon (B3b). The Tiny Saucers (GI), Spire-lopped Olivella dates of A.D. 1120 and 1460 along with an El (Alb and Alc), and Medium Barrel (B3b) are Olivella lipped bead and a steatite disk bead temporally non-diagnostic. The collection was suggested this was a single-component Late Period consistent with the radiocarbon datidig, and together deposit. Two Desert Side-notched projectile points, the available data suggested a single Middle/Late one Canalinio/Coastal Cottonwood point, and one Transition component, with minor occupation during incipient arrow point of indeterminate type were the early Late Period (ca. A.D. 1000-1400). The rest consistent with Late Period dating. The rest of the of the artifact inventory included ten cores, eleven tool assemblage consisted of a hopper mortar, one bifaces, five contracting-stemmed projectile points, pitted stone, two pestles, two hammerstones, a bone one Rossi Square-stemmed point, two small leaf- awl, and two indeterminate bone tool fragments. shaped points, six flake tools, one handstone, one Only 30 flakes were recovered for a debitage density millingslab fragment, two pestles, one teardrop- of 10.4 flakes/mr3, and a flake:biface ratio of 6.3:1. shaped netsinker, one hopper mortar, one stone Only 106 bird/mammal bones were recovered sphere, one perforated netsinker, three awl fragments, and among these, only 11 were identified to species. an antler tine, the medial fragment of a mammal bone One was from a woodrat and the rest were black- with four notches along one edge, five Mytilus tailed deer. Twelve fish bones were recovered, of fishhook fragments (Figure 28), one Mytilus fishhook which six were identified as rockfish. Shellfish blank (Figure 29), one Haliotis fishhook blank fragments showed a preponderance of mussel shell (Figure 29), five worked and cut shell fragments, one (94.4%). 120 Findings from the Coast 400 300 200 t0 Unit 3 Unit 4 LEGEND o, 20 an I Homogeneous very dark greyish brown loamy shell midden (10oYR 3/2). Ila Light brownish grey (1OYR 6/2) and brown (lOYR 4/3) shell midden with caliche. Ilb Greyish brown shell midden with locally dense concentrations of shell and heavy caliche. 1ll Sterile substr&te mottled red/brown. EIIOIZl Rodent activity LZLII Rock Grey Brown Red/Brown _Grey-Brown L2I White Figure 54 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-12321H Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 121 (bas on 1983 surv) V / / / ..... . t : ./ / A swwdatn u -5m ? J: / E1x2rneWewreWunk W /_ 4I - O?grll=tebr "o_7n /1 .1 -9 05~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1j-t- metersK Figure 55 Site Map, CA-MNT-1233 122 Findingsfrom the Coast 400 300 200 10 ODatum 0 Unit 2 Unit I KEY AIa IOYR 4/2 Dark greyish brown loamy shell midden with modest shell content. lb IOYR 3/3 Dark brown loamy shell midden with higher shell content. I;:^-2J 11 10YR 6/4 Light yellowish brown sandy loam with gravel and decomposing granite. I O 3 Rodent activity _fI Rock 20cm Figure 56 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-1233 CA-MNT-1236 recovered from beneath the midden produced an earlier date of A.D. 790, but this applies to the sterile CA-MNT-1236, the Shakemaker Site, was tested substrate, not the cultural deposit. in 1989 in anticipation of proposed facility The artifact assemblage included one Desert development by Landels-Hill Big Creek Reserve. Side-notched, two Canalifio/Coastal Cottonwood, and The site was located further inland (3.3 km) and was two contracting-stemmed projectile points, a sixth higher in elevation (713 m) than any other coastal site point of unknown type, one biface, one flake tool, where subsurface work was completed. It was one fragmentary handstone, one millingslab marked by a very small shell midden (981 m3), above fragment, one faceted hammerstone, and one the south fork of Devil's Creek{Figure 1). A single 1 incipient pestle fragment. Only 30 pieces of debitage x 2 m test unit (Figure 58) showed a loose, grayish were recovered, 28 of Monterey chert. Most of the brown shell midden (Stratum Ia) that extended to a flakes (67%) were core/flake types. The flake:biface depth of 50 cm (Figure 59). Beneath that was a ratio was 4.3:1. reddish brown subsoil with an occasional shell From a total of 247 mammal bone fragments, 32 fragment and pieces of debitage. Two radiocarbon represented black-tailed deer. No fish bones were dates obtained from shells indicated occupation found. A single shell column showed a molluscan between A.D. 1480 and 1800. A sample of charcoal assemblage dominated by mussel (98%). Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 123 AO LEGEND AO~ ~~E \4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1zfmrecauiln .m Figure 57 Site Map, CA-MNT-1235 CA-MNT-1277/H represented a female who was approximately 18-20 years of age at the time of death. Discovered in 1984, CA-MNT-1277/H was an The majority of the chronometric data suggested unusually large, complex site associated with the Jose a single Late Period component, but some de los Santos Boronda homestead, established in the ambiguities were apparent as well. Three radiocarbon early 1870s (Jones et al. 1989:141). Located 2 km dates from 10-100 cm showed tight clustering inland at an elevation of 566 m (1840 ft), the between A.D. 1500 and 1640 (Table 13), but no prehistoric component was marked by an extensive superposition was evident, as the youngest date came shell midden covering an area of approximately from the 90-100 cm level. The bead assemblage 18,870 m2. The ethnographic field notes of J. P. showed an abundance of Late Period types, including Harrington clearly linked this site with the Salinan three punched spire-lopped Olivella (A4), two village of Matilce. A bedrock- mortar outcrop with medium end ground Olivella (B2b), one barrel two cups was recorded as a separate site (CA-MNT- Olivella (B3), the only split punched Olivella (Dl) 1284) adjacent to the midden. The site had suffered recovered during the study, three thin lipped Olivella modest impacts from erosion, and subsurface work (El), two thick lipped Olivella (E2), twenty-one was undertaken in 1990 to salvage and stabilize a cupped Olivella (KI), four bushing Olivella (K2), small portion of the deposit. Five 1 x 2 m units were one cupped/lipped Olivella (K/Elb), two Haliotis excavated (Figure 60) for a total recovery of 8.5 m3. epidermis disks (H5 [Bennyhoff and Fredrickson The deposit proved to extend to a maximal depth of 1967]), three clam shell disks, twelve small steatite 100 cm, with two simple layers: the culturally- disks, and a single simple drawn monochrome glass derived shell deposit (Stratum I) and the sterile bead (DIIa39). The split-punched bead marks the substrate (Stratum II) (Figure 61). A human burial Middle-Late Transition in central California, while was found between 93 and 120 cm in Units 2 and 3. the remainder of the assemblage was consistent with The remains were exposed, drawn, and the Late Period. Obsidian hydration results included photographed, but left in place. The intermentawas in five readings on Coso obsidian between 3.0 and 4.0 a tightly flexed position on its left side (Figure 62), microns. The Coso hydration rate is disputed on the oriented on a 190? axis. No artifacts were associated. central coast. The calendric conversions endorsed by A broad sciatic notch indicated that the remains 124 Findingsfrom the Coast LEGEND - / a/chaeological site lniits lgepCa v m eterrm !xbb excavation unit I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ pin T ~ ~ ~ lerge, legged ,~~~~lagla meaters Figure 58 Site Map, CA-MNT-1236 Mikkelsen et al. (1999) ascribe readings between 3.0 unusual corner-notched specimen. The square- and 4.0 microns to the late Middle Period. Jones and stemmed and large side-notched types are not part of Waugh (1995) suggest a slightly earlier Middle the Late Period assemblage as it was defined by Period dating. In either case, the hydration suggested single-component Late Period sites (e.g., CA-MNT- some limited occupation before the onset of the Late 1223). These types were more common during the Period. A single reading on Casa Diablo glass (3.3 Early Period. Their presence at CA-MNT-1277/H microns) was also more le niste witth Middle seems to reflect the remains from minor earlier Period. occupation mixed in with the predominantly Late The flaked stone inventory also included Period materials. The rest of the flaked stone specimens indicative of site use prior to the Late collection consisted of 12 cores, 87 bifaces, 57 flake Period. While the projectile point inventory was tools, and 1063 pieces of debitage. The profusion of dominated by Late types, in ng six Desert Side- bifaces is also more characteristic of earlier sites in notched and three Canalito/Coastal Cottonwood, the this region. The yield of debitage (N=81063) was site also produced three contracting-stemmed, one relatively high for the coastal portion of the study square-stemmed, two large side-notched, and an Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 125 100 290 20~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- LEGEND) la~ ~ ~ -o20 r~Z Rock la Loose, greylsh-brown midden with dense shell. O1OOX O h| Rodent lb Reddish-brown dense subsoil with light shell inclusion. cm | |i Root 11 Sterile, red clay . Figure 59 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-1236 area. Of this total, 922 (87%) were Monterey chert. Cross-sections of two deer teeth including one incisor Debitage density was 125/rn3. The technologically (which are the most reliable) indicate fall/winter kills diagnostic flakes showed an emphasis (60%) on (Appendix II). Among the fish remains (218 core/flake technology, consistent with arrow point elements), rockfish were the most abundant taxon production. The flake: biface ratios were 9.9:1 (NISP=144; 66.1%), followed by cabezon (NISP=48; Monterey chert and 12.3:1 for Franciscan chert. 22%), and greenling (NISP= 15; 6.9%). Column The remainder of the formal artifact collection sample showed California mussel to be the most consisted of one millingslab fragment, six heavily exploited shellfish species (90.5%/), followed handstones, ten pestles, one bowl mortar fragment, by barnacle (3.3%/), and turban snails (1.9%). One hopper mortar, two anvils, two notched stone net sinkers, three hammerstones, three awl fragments CA-MNT-1571 AND CA-MNT-1580 (Figure 26), one needle (Figure 27), one bone tube, one polished fragment, one Mytilus fishhook CA-MNT- 1571/H and CA-MNT- 1580 are fragment (Figure 28), one fragment of a fishhook associated with the location of Tr'acten, a Salmnan blank, and one apparent ornament blank. hunting camp. CA-MNT-157 1/H is a small shell The faunal assemblage included 2234 bird and midden at an elevation of 866 m. CA-MNT-1580 is mammal bones, of which 121 non-intrusive elements an associated outcrop with bedrock mortars were identified to species. This collection was (Huddleson and Jones 1992). While no precise dominated by black-tailed deer, (NISP=96; 79.3%), chronometric data are available, ethnographic dog or coyote (NISP= 13; 10.7%), and rabbit association and the bedrock mortars suggest late and (NISP=5; 4.1%). One northern fur seal bone contact period dating. The bedrock mortars, strongly represented an animal that was probably killed during associated with women in Native California (see its winter migration past this stretch of coast. A deer Jackson 1991), suggest this encampment was mandible with unerupted milk teeth represented a occupied by a multi-gender social group, not merely fetal/neonate that was probably killed in the spring. by task-specific male hunting parties. 126 Findings from the Coast Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 127 Datum 0 100 200 3004 Uniti1 Unit 2 la 1OYR 311 Very dark grey loamy shell midden. i&\O lb 10YR 4/2 Dark grayish brown interface between shell midden and sterile substrate. LZI:* f*l II 10YR 4/6 Dark yellowish brown sterile substrate. Compact silt underlain by siltstone. IEO I Gopher activity E *J Rock' 20cm Figure 61 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-1277/H oW~~~~~~~~~~~~4 Unitn 0idewal lagureR2 _____rial 1, Midden/ slitstone. ~ ~ ni Sdeal Figure 61 Figurel62PBurial CAMT1,277NT/27H 128 Findingsfrom the Coast CA-MNT-1942 significantly younger than those obtained from the base. CA-MNT-1942 is an extremely important Fortunately, radiocarbon results were extremely coastal site identified by the California Department of cohesive with regard to overall site dating so the Transportation (Caltrans) at the mouth of Big Creek apparent stratigraphic problems were mitigated by in 1998. The deposit is a shell midden that was the presence of a single temporal occupation. With 35 partially buried during construction of the Big Creek radiocarbon assays, this is the most heavily dated site Bridge in 1937. It is was situated adjacent to one of on the Big Sur coast. When calibrated and corrected, the bridge piers on the northern bank of Big Creek, 34 of these date intercepts fall between A.D. 1280 and 25 m inland from the creek mouth. The inland 1810 although several charcoal dates produced portion of the deposit was buried by natural alluvium multiple intercepts within the historic era (Table 13). so that the boundaries of this entirely subsurface A single calibrated date of A.D. 1150 is at odds with deposit could only be defined approximately. Back- the rest of the dating sample, and seems to be an hoe trenches suggested a small midden, roughly 1500 unreliable outlier. Excluding this single date and m 2in size (Wolgemuth et al. 2002:17). focusing on the remaining, densely clustered 14C A data recovery investigation was completed at results, the occupation of CA-MNT- 1942 appears to the site in the summer of 2000 by a crew of Caltrans span from A.D. 1260 to ca. 1810. archaeologists and consultants from Far Western The site produced a very small artifact assem- Anthropological Research Group (Wolgemuth et al. blage that included one Desert Side-notched pro- 2002). The recovery program included three jectile point, two bifaces, two drills, two flake tools, mechanically excavated trenches used to delineate two handstones, one hopper mortar fragment, five the deposit, and six hand-excavated units (1 x 1 m pestles (three shaped and two unshaped), three and 1 x 2 m in dimension) (Figure 63). Soils from the battered cobbles, one bone awl fragment, two shell latter were all processed with 3 mm mesh screen for a beads, and one piece of modified shell. The beads total hand recovery volume of 7.9 m3. A substantial were both non-diagnostic types: a Gi tiny saucer and effort was also made to recover microconstiuents in and an AIc spire-lopped Olivella. the form of eight column samples and nine bulk The faunal assemblage included remains of flotation samples. A total of 338.6 liters (0.3386 m3) mammals, birds, and fish. From a total of 1175 bird of soil was subjected to micro-processing: 183.1 and mammal remains, 91 elements were identified to liters floated to recover botanical remains and 153.5 species of non-burrowing, economically significant liters water-processed with 1/166hin mesh. taxa. This assemblage was dominated by deer Site stratigraphy was complicated by the (NISP=38; 41.8%), cottontail rabbit (NISP=36; presence of multiple construction related layers in the 39.6%), and sea otter (NISP=13; 3.3%). Three vicinity of trench 1 nearest the bridge pier (Figure pinniped bones of unknown species were also 63). Disturbance in the form of re-deposited midden recovered. A total of 1697 fish elements was was recorded as deep as 58 cm below surface and a recovered from the 7.9 m3 of sediments processed nearly modern radiocarbon date (1 10?50 years B.P. with 3-mm mesh. Of these, 277 elements were to Beta-145645) obtained from beneath older prehistoric family or genus level. This collection was dominated layers suggests disturbance as deep as 182 cm below by rockfish (NISP=168; 60.6%), cabezon (NISP=29; surface in this site area. In the vicinity of trench 1, an 10.5%) and rock or black prickleback (NISP=19; intact human burial (representing an adult male at 6.9%). Fish remains from the 1.5 mm mesh (1/16 least 21 years of age interred in a flexed position) inch) samples, not surprisingly, showed a higher indicated that the deposit was intact below 197 cm frequency of diminutive taxa. Among 138 identified beneath the surface although the act of interrment elements recovered from the fine mesh screening, 82 itself would likely disrupt stratigraphy. Away from (59.4%) represented northern anchovy or the anchovy trench 1, stratigraphy was considerably less complex, family. The rest of the assemblage was dominated by with a 40-50 cm thick midden layer (Stratum II) rock or black prickleback (NISP=12; 8.7%) and buried beneath 20-30 cm of natural alluvium (Figure surfperches (NISP=10; 7.2%). 64). Radiocarbon dates and stratigraphic profiles A substantial effort was also made to recover clearly indicate a single stratigraphic component botanical remains from the deposit through flotation. (Stratum II) that was severely compromised by the Processing of 183.1 liters of sediments yielded construction of the bridge pier in 1937. Away from impressive results in the form of 918 charred large the pier, the deposit was relatively intact, but it seed fragments (inedible nutshell and berry pits) and exhibited only modest evidence of internal 527 small seeds. The majority of the large specimens superposition of materials. Radiocarbon results from clearly represented food debris as the fragments were the top of the midden were, in most cases, not derived from plants with edible seeds or nuts that Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 129 40~ ~ ~~~0 % 4.0 ~ ~ ~ ~ * a 0~~~~~ 130 Findingsfrom the Coast 0 100 l l LEGEND = aJRock VI I Grayish brown sterile coarse sand. lV 11 Very dark gray coarse sand midden. IV Brown sterile loamy sand. VI Very dark gray disturbed coarse sterile sand. 100t 0 10 20 cm Figure 64 Representative Stratigraphic Profile from CA-MNT-1942 (Adapted from Wolgemuth et al. 2002) could not possibly have occurred naturally at this considered the southern limit of the Big Sur coast. location. Foremost among these were the remains of Indeed, coastal terrain south of San Carpoforo Creek acorns, bay nuts, buckeye nuts, manzanita berries, is noticeably less rugged than that to the north. While and pine nuts (Wolgemuth et al. 2002:52-53). The the site was slightly outside the official limits of Big smaller seeds can be attributed to diet with much less Sur, it was too close to exclude from the present confidence as some of these taxa (e.g., Rosa sp., study, particularly in light of artifact and faunal Rubus sp.) occur naturally in riparian settings like materials that showed many similarities with findings that adjacent to CA-MNT-1942. Implications of these from the north. The site was a complex of shell finds for site seasonality are somewhat ambiguous, midden loci and flaked stone scatters covering but the nut remains almost certainly were collected in approximately 37,200 m2, along two shallow drainages. the fall. None of the botanical remains represent In 1996, a substantial quantity of midden (70.3 mi3) winter, but few plants produce-seeds in the winter in was excavated for Caltrans in anticipation of a major central California. Either the nuts were harvested in re-alignment of Highway 1. The site was tested the fall and stored for later consumption in the winter previously Bouey and Basgall (1991) who defined nine or they were consumed immediately in the fall. Since separate areas within the overall site boundaries acorns and other nuts were so commonly stored in (Figure 65). The investigation in 1996 was limited to Native California, the former explanation seems most locus C2, a midden deposit on the southern fringe of likely. The small seeds suggest occupation from the the site. The deposit was fairly shallow, with one spring through summer. If they could be considered cultural stratum extending to a depth of 80 cm reliable cultural indicators, they would suggest the (Figure 66). Twenty-two radiocarbon dates were possibility of year-round occupation, however, ques- obtained from the site as a whole. These indicated an tions of natural versus cultural origin persist. overall span of occupation between approximately 1250 B.C. and A.D. 1700. All of the dates from site CA-SLO-267 area C2, however, were between 1250 B.C. and A.D. 1250. The more recent dates were all obtained from CA-SLO-267 is situated at Point Piedras Blancas Site Area E2. Site area C2, therefore, represented a in northern San Luis Obispo County, 13 km south of single Middle Period component that included both San Carpoforo Creek (Figure 1), which is generally the Early/Middle and Middle/Late transitions. Only Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 131 area C2 has been considered in the current Dominant taxa were pricklebacks (NISP=94; 25.6%), presentation. rockfishes (NISP=75; 20.4%), surfperches (NISP=41; The artifact assemblage associated with the C2 11.2%), and herring (NISP=3 1; 8.4%). Shellfish component was substantial and typologically remains were dominated by Califomia sea mussel cohesive. Olivella beads included drilled spire-lopped 84.9% and turban snail for 4.9%. Oxygen isotope A3 (n=l), end-ground B2 (n=4), barrels B3 (n=2), analyses suggested that mussels were collected from tiny saucers GU (n=2), normal saucers G2 (n=3), oval summer through fall. Deer teeth annuli suggested saucers G5 (n= l), cupped Kl (n=l), and three limpet hunting from fall through winter. The two data sets rings. Projectile points included 27 contracting- together showed a gap in occupation during the stemmed, two large concave base, one Rossi Square- spring. stemmed, one small leaf-shaped, two large concave Piedras Blancas was also important as a source base, one large side-notched, and one Desert Side- of Monterey chert and much of the material notched. The preponderance of contracting-stemmed recovered from the excavation reflected the reduction points was consistent with the Middle Period dating of Monterey chert boulders, cobbles, and pebbles. indicated by the radiocarbon results. The ground Large flakes probably obtained from the boulders stone assemblage consisted of 258 pitted stones, 40 provided blanks suitable for staged reduction while hammerstones, 15 pestles, 11 grooved stones, 5 small tabular pebbles and cobbles were used with a tarring stones, and a variety of drilled steatite objects distinct core-based reduction strategy. Many including 3 drilled pebbles, 2 barrels, 2 tubes, 1 pipe, characteristics of the flaked stone assemblage and 1 lenticular ornament. Also recovered were reflected heavy exploitation of chert in all of its twelve bone gorge hooks, eight one awl/gorges, three forms. Debitage density was inordinately high bone awls, three fishhook blanks, two bone (16,563 Monterey chert flakes/m3). Sheer numbers of awls/pins, and one shell fishhook. flaked stone items also support this trend: 265 cores, The mammal and bird assemblage was 4 core tools, 465 bifaces, 173,548 pieces of debitage, dominated by terrestrial taxa- particularly the and 24 flake tools. Debitage was dominated by mammals. Birds were generally insignificant with core/flake debris which was represented in a only 4 identified elements from a total NISP of 280. proportion higher than the figure associated with full The most numerous taxon was black-tailed deer reduction (89.6%) in the experiment with Monterey (NISP 93; 33.2%) followed closely by cottontail chert. The site's flake-to-biface ratio was 2297:1 rabbits (NISP 88; 31.4%). Dog/coyote remains were which is an extremely high figure, greater than the also represented in significant numbers (NISP=50; experimental value of 1659:1 associated with 17.9%). The most abundant marine taxon was reduction of a single block of toolstone to a bifacial California sea lion (NISP 13; 4.6%) followed by sea projectile point. This suggests that while a full otters (NISP 12; 4.3%). The fish bone collection from sequence of reduction was undertaken, a certain this site is significant in that the recovery volume fraction of bifaces was taken away for use elsewhere, from 1.5 mm mesh was considerably larger than from resulting in a greater representation of debitage. Of any other site. This sample produced 367 identifiable course, this is consistent with the behavior expected specimens for a density of 459 elements/m3. at a source location. 132 Findings from the Coast X XN ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~ E c C / o~~~c~~ LU \ U a co co cle)~~~~~~~~~~~e 04 z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ q.00~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ w~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 133 fO~~~fl 04~~~~~ii11 co~~~~~~~~~~~~~~fj z~~~~~~~~~iii iii I fi i CO a~~ a CHAPTER 6: FINDINGS FROM THE INTERIOR Subsurface data have been available from the depth of 80-90 cm. It corrected to 4230 B.C. with a interior of the South Coast Ranges for several two-sigma probability of 4348-4042 B.C., and clearly decades, (e.g., Meighan 1955; Swernoff 1982), but indicates movement between the coast and the the earlier studies were of such limited scope that interior as early as the Millingstone period. The rest they provide little insight into the patterns of interior of the materials from CA-MNT-521 are discussed in prehistory, and/or the manner in which the interior more detail below. CA-MNT-569 also was multi- articulated with the coast through time. Fortunately, component, but the occupations were spatially more substantive excavations have recently been discrete in the form of one midden representing the undertaken on land held by the Fort Hunter Liggett Early Period and another the Protohistoric/Historic Military Installation. Since 1992, more than 40 periods. The remaining sites were single-component. prehistoric sites have been investigated in the interior valleys of Fort Hunter Liggett (see Wickstrom and CA-MNT-332 Jackson 1994; Haney 1997a, 1997b; Haney and Jones 1997; Haney et al. 2001; Jones 2000). Because some CA-MNT-332 was a midden and flaked stone of the programs for which these studies were scatter situated on a knoll just west of Stony Creek undertaken emphasized low density/low visibility (Figure 67). A testing program completed in 1995, deposits that produced very little material involving 6.5 m3 of subsurface recovery, showed the (Wickstrom 1995; Haney and Jones 1997), not all midden to extend to a depth of only 50 cm (Figure research yields from the interior were substantial. 68). A deer bone from the deposit produced a Findings from 12 of the inland sites that produced corrected and calibrated radiocarbon date of A.D. meaningful information are discussed below. 650. Hydration readings from 13 pieces of obsidian In addition to filling in the interior portion of (Coso and Casa Diablo) were generally consistent coastal/interior settlement systems, these inves- with Middle Period dating, ca. 600 B.C. - A.D. tigations were important because they included some 1000. The artifact assemblage included 9 projectile scatters of flaked stone and/or bedrock milling points, 22 bifaces, 13 cores, 1 core tool, 2 flake features that were the only non-midden sites inves- tools, 10,082 pieces of debitage, 2 handstones, 1 tigated for the project. The limited materials at these milling slab fragment, 1 bowl mortar fragment, 1 locations reflect less intensive site use, and therefore pitted stone, 1 battered cobble, and 1 steatite pendant. provide an important dimension to settlement Faunal preservation was very poor, but a total of 164 variability not represented in the coastal data. Most of specimens was recovered. Most of these were small the interior sites - with two important exceptions- and highly fragmented, and only four could be represent single time periods. The earliest evidence identified to species. They represented black-tailed for occupation was provided by a single, deer, tule elk, a carnivore, and a mole. The diversity unassociated radiocarbon date from CA-MNT-52 1, a of tools indicated a residential base, where a site that was mostly occupied during the Middle complete range of stone reduction was undertaken, Period. This date of 6090+60 radiocarbon years was along with a variety of hunting obtained from a fragment of Haliotis shell from a 136 Findingsfrom the Interior 3 4~~~'4 /lrz x2m9brlwwwwv 8 wtm . I- -shuW m \\ IM /' L L I c e s t i S e t 1 \ \ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~0 5 1 0 i s / / TopoghmpkContoumsAppo 051015 Figure 67 Site Map, CA-MNT-332 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 137 300 200 100 0 LEGEND ?l 1p 20 cm I Coarse sandy loam midden, very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2). 11 C horizon: coarse sandy loam, sterile substrate with decomposing rock, brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6). I J Rock I O I Rodent Disturbance Figure 68 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-332 and collecting activities. Debitage frequencies, and could have been used when the expedition passed the range of flaked stone materials suggested the site through the El Piojo drainage in September of 1769. was also a significant flaked stone tool production locus, where implements were pro-duced for transport and use elsewhere. WsKv - u ac ftm_ i CA-MNT-361 _ ; o _P _E aou_ pwWwbsdrock Unexpectedly important data were recovered from to _ CA-MNT-361, situated in west central Piojo Valley, ?7 - where surface features were limited to a bedrock . C *__,._ mortar outcrop with two cups (Figure 69). Excavation of 2.1 m3 of soil adjacent to the outcrop '** revealed two subsurface concentrations of charcoal, ash, fire-affected rocks, and reddened soil that appeared uww to represent hearths (Figure 70). An informal cobble pestle was also found below the surface, along with 1 chert core and 47 pieces of debitage. Radiocarbon results from the hearths suggested the features were created early in the post-contact period. Flotation samples produced charred remains of gray pine, acorn, and buckeye nuts. The nut remains suggest the Figure 69 Site Map, CA-MNT-361 site was occupied in the fall. This site is situated in the immediate vicinity of the place referred to as Ke in the Harrington notes, and "Campo de los piniones" in the diaries of the PortolIa expedition of 1769. The recent dates returned from the subsurface features and the preponderance of pine nut remains suggest the feature 138 Findings from the Interior 5 | , , s 6p! i ' ' s ' 1? LEGENDi 1 -Dark Brown (I1YR 3/3)d, sandy loam, grass root organic layer with acorn 41= hulls, oak leaves, and twigs. 201 iII w!lliz ,, A Horizon: brown (10YR 4/3)d sandy loam. Stratum is compact and devoid of cultural materials. 40- ~~~~~~~~~~~~lif7 Grayish brown (IOYR 4/2)d slighly IV ~~compact sandy loam with some upward chunks of ~~~~~~~ ~~ mixingof charcoal from the hearthi. Several open rodent tunnels are present. 60 _ IV Feature Zone. Charcoal fragments, pockets and lenses of white (10OYR 8/1 )d ash, dark grayi1Sh brown (10OYR 4/2)d ashy soil, and fire affected sandstone 80- \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\rocks which are dispersed over and around a central area (roughly 60 cm diam.) of reddish brown (5YR 5/4)d thermally altered earth. V B Horizon: v'er dark grayish brown (I OYR 412)d sandy loam, lighly compacted, friable, cobbles of decomposing sandstone are dispersed 120- Z 5<\\\\\ throughout stratum. Soil color becomes lighter as depth increases below strata 6. VI Rock and Charcoal strata. Dispersed across a 20 cm thick zone of Stratum 5 is 140- ' concentration of angular, fire affected Vil l@\\ sandstone cobbles and large (up to 2 cm diam.) fragments of charcoal. VIl Decomposing sandstone bedrock and 0 10 20 yellowish brown compact sand. S Soil samples taken Distinct layer boundary - - -Indistinct layer boundary r EJ Rock e _O Rodent disturbance uDRoots Gray ash White ash concentration" Bumed soils Figure 70 Sidewail Profile, CA-MNT-361 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 139 4044 So,~~~~~ ~~~~~ 4~~~r P 0 ~ ~ 4 140 Findings from the Interior CA-MNT-504 pieces of debitage, and one informal cobble pestle. The projectile points included one Desert Side-notched, a CA-MNT-504, situated along a ridgetop in the tip, and a base fragment from a larger type. The biface northwest end of Nacimiento Valley (Figure 71), was was a broken arrow point preform. From 13 bone investigated in the fall of 1993. It included six bedrock fragments, only one could be identified to species: a milling features with a total of eight mortar cups deer calcaneus, used for the radiocarbon dating. A total outcrop and a scatter of chert debitage. A pocket of soil of 43.2 g of marine shell fragments was also recovered. containing ash and charcoal, possibly representing a California mussel was by far the dominant species. hearth, was found near the outcrop (Figure 72). A deer calcaneus from 10-20 cm yielded a modern date. If the CA-MNT-507 0 so01 Another Late Period site, CA-MNT-507, marked by a flaked stone scatter and 14 bedrock mortars (Figure 73) was investigated in 1993. It occupies an LEGEND o 10 20 17_ _^ iJ 1t20 W~~~~~~~~~~~ ). A4 Arm LEGEND LI.I. LEGEO cm - mmlum r=$*f *primay datum (MM)E I Organic layer: Brown (1OYR 4/3)d, * 'xim-ol silty loam mixed with dried grass _. o n and decomposing oak leaves. 11 A horizon: compact, brown (10YR 4/3)d, d 8 10 20 20 40 sandy loam with rounded cobbles and D i angular cobbles of coarse decomposing C dOw,mktP sandstone. Topogtaphk ontsAppxt Ill Decomposing sandstone bedrock. Pockets of reddish soil (burned) mixed Figure 73 Site Map, CA-MNT-507 with white ash and mussel shell. _ Zone of soil containing faint patches of area of 5,105 m2 on a small knoll in the Nacimiento white ash and small flecks of charcoal. Valley. Surface collection and excavation of 6.2 m3 Possibly scattered hearth remnants produced five bifaces, one projectile point fragment, or an incipient midden soil, three flake tools, 761 pieces of debitage, and six Distinct layer boundary unshaped cobble pestles. Cultural materials were - Indistinct layer boundary found in a sterile matrix of brown sandy loam which IE*J Rock showed three distinct soil horizons: an A horizon E J O iRodent disturbance marked by dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) sandy E Roots loam that extended from just below the surface to Figure 72 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-504 depths between 15 and 40 cm (Stratum I), a B horizon, d s a r ip it a brown (7.5 YR 4/3) sandy loam with a slight clay date iS not an intrusion into the prehistoric deposit, content (Stratum II), and decomposing bedrock suggests use of the site very late in the prehistoric era or (Stratum III) (Figure 74). Soil acidity tests produced pH early in the post-contact period. The assemblage recovered included two cores, one biface, three projectile point fragments, one hundred and thirty-two Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 141 0 50 t00 deposit with a piece of heavy equipment. A testing program was undertaken to determine whether the suftce ~~~~~~~~~~deposit was eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. The field program included a series of Surface Transect Units (STUs) measuring 2 x 0.5 x 0.2 m deep and vertical units (1 x 2 m) excavated to the base of the deposit. The STUs were excavated to define site boundaries, while the vertical units were completed to evaluate potential Z - - ::-.,,,, , ..research yields. Total excavation volume was 10 m3. The deposit proved to be fairly homogeneous. It consisted almost entirely of a midden with a high 60- frequency of debitage, some marine shell, animal bone fragments, fire-altered rock, flaked and ground LEGEND 0 10 20 stone artifacts. It showed a maximum depth of only 1 LEGEND. ;-- cm 'm (Figure 76), and stratigraphic profiles showed I Organic layer: dark yellowish brown unmistakable signs of disturbance from burrowing tOYR 4/4)d, sandy loam, slighly hard animals. The site's surface was clearly affected by with grass roots. tank traffic in the past, but the deposit was 11 A horizon: dark yellowish brown nonetheless in very good condition. Surface artifacts (10YR 4/4)d, sandy loam, hard, gravel were abundant and, in most cases, intact and content increases with depth. complete. Testing revealed two temporal 111 B horizon: browm (7.5YR 4/3)d, sandy components. Radiocarbon and obsidian hydration loam with a slight clay content containing findings from the large central midden (Locus 1) decomposing gravel and cobbles of sandstone bedrock. indicated occupation during the Middle Period through IV Decomposing sandstone bedrock. the Middle-Late Transition, ca. 1000 B.C. - A.D. D C)istinct layer boundary 1250. There was no evidence of occupation of this --- Indistinct layer boundary site area after ca. A.D. 1250. Locus 2, a small discrete pocket of midden and shells southwest of the Figure 74 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-507 main deposit produced a radiocarbon date of A.D. 1660, indicating occupation during the Protohistoric readings between 6.25 and 6.5, indicating some acidity Period which is consistent with the standard characterization Only Locus 1 produced a significant artifact of most local soils (Soil Conservation Service assemblage consisting of twenty contracting- 1978:68). A single obsidian flake from the Casa Diablo stemmed projectile points, seven square-stemmed source failed to produce a hydration rim, and the points, one shouldered lanceolate point, two large projectile point fragment was too incomplete to define side-notched points, five bone awls, five handstones, type. The debitage profile was consistent with arrow three milling slabs, and one steatite ornament. point reduction, however, and it is likely the site marks Whether the square-stemmed and side-notched a short-term residential location used during the Late specimens reflected an earlier, pre-Middle Penrod, component unrepresented in the hydration and radiocarbon results was unclear, but the rest of the CA-MNT-519 collection was generally consistent with other Middle Period assemblages (e.g., CA-MNT-63, CA-MNT- CA-MNT-519 was investigated in December 282, and CA-SLO-267). Notable by its absence was 1998 by Albion Environmental under contract to Fort the small leaf-shaped point type commonly Hunter-Liggett. The site is marked by an unusually represented in Middle/Late Transition components at large (170 x 115 m) central midden (Locus 1), two locations like CA-MNT-1233 on the coast. Locus 2, smaller peripheral midden areas (Loci 2 and 3), and a on the other hand, appeared to represent a more extensive scatter of flaked stone (Locus 4) Protohistoric Period occupation separate from the (Figure 75). These features occur on an alluvial Middle and Middle/Late occupation indicated at terrace above the Nacimiento River, 16 km inland - Locus 1. Unfortunately, no formal artifacts were from the Pacific Ocean. Locus 1 was damaged in the associated with the Locus 2 date. summer of 1998 when, as part of a small-scale fire A total of 1057 bird and mammal bones was suppression effort, a trench was excavated into the recovered from Locus 1, weighing 435.9 g. Only 44 142 Findings from the Interior 'I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ~~~~~~~~~~~~1 ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~0 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 143 O_ GmundStxfwe TN ~~~~~CA-MNT-521 In 1997, Jones and Haney reported the results of the two largest excavations yet undertaken at Fort Hunter Liggett. The first of these was at CA-MNT- 52 1, marked by two large middens (A and B), a 00 flaked stone scatter, and bedrock mortars (Figure 77). The site occupies a low knoll overlooking the Nacimiento River at an elevation of 373 m (1230 ft). Total recovery was 24.9 mi3. As was typical of sites 0E Nin the interior, excavation showed no culturally le RocE meaningful vertical stratigraphy and abundant StrAtum I: 10YR 2/2 Very dark brown sandy tm r*dd. evidence of rodent activity. Most excavation units showed gradual increases in gravel and cobbles with Stratum II: IOYR 3r3 Dark brown sandy sift similarto Stratum I except drk dedine i microconstltuentand crea In grvelsand depth. An upper zone of very dark grayash brown cobblesto 5040%. loamy midden, lacking gravel, was defined as Stratum II: 1OYR4/4Dark yellowlhbrownsandysinftanrtionzonetosandy Stratum I. At depths of 60-80 cm a distinctive sub-naW. Gravels and cobbles to 70 80% inrweolngly stFte. Beamm evsdent arratr dofwu. concentration of gravel and cobbles was detected representing the C soil horizon. This zone, which Figure 76 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-519 showed mottling of dark brown (10 YR 3/3) midden with underlying soil, was defined as Stratum III. of these could be identified to the family level. This Intermediate levels with some gravel, above the C low recovery was undoubtedly due to the horizon, were designated Stratum II. Beneath Stratum preservation characteristics of the deposit, as pH tests III was a culturally-sterile, dark yellowish brown (10 showed that site soils were fairly acidic. Elements YR 3/4) sandy loam with a high density of gravel and representing the squirrel family (Scuridae) (N = 14), cobbles. Tests of soil acidity produced pH values ground squirrel (N = 1), and pocket gopher (N = 4) between 6.25 and 8.5 with a site mean of 7.04 which accounted for nearly half of the total bones identified is essentally neutral. Nearly all (10 of 11) of the most to the family level or better. Pocket gophers, of alkaline readings (greater than 7.4) were obtained course, are notorious burrowers. Excluding the from the central portion of Area A. Two of the most remains of burrowing and otherwise intrusive acidic readings (6.25) came from the extreme animals, the excavation produced a total of only 23 southern and northern edges of the site, beyond the elements likely to represent the diet of prehistoric middens. A majority (7 of 11) of the most alkaline inhabitants. This collection was dominated by deer values were obtained from below 90 cm. Human (NISP = 12; 52.2%), followed by rabbit (NISP = 5; activities seem to have amplified the relatively 21.7%). Also represented were dog/coyote (NISP = neutral acidity of the natural soil to create an 4; 17.4%) and jack rabbit (NISP = 2; 8.7%). Only six environment favorable for bone preservation. With fish bones were recovered. They included one respect to soil acidity, the preservation climate here vertebra from an indeterminate ray-finned fish, four was superior to many other sites in the interior. vertebrae from rockfish, and one vertebra from a Two subsurface features were identified: a lingcod. No freshwater fish were identified, despite modest concentration of orange heat-affected soil, the proximity of the Nacimiento River. Remains of ash, charcoal flecks, and fire-altered rock, found marine shells were evident on the site's surface, but between 50 and 70 cm in Unit 1 (Feature 1), and a their density within the deposit was very low. A subsurface pit, found in the bottom of units 2, 11, and recovery volume of 2 m3 from Locus 1 yielded only 13 (Figure 78). Similar features are known from CA- 3.8 g of shell. This sample was dominated by MNT-229 in the Monterey Bay Area (Dietz et al. barnacle (2.4 g; 63%) and California mussel (1.1 g; 1988). Surface features included four groups of 28.9%). Slightly greater amounts were obtained from bedrock mortars on the southwest edge of Area A in an STU in Locus 2 which produced 102 g, dominated sandstone boulders. A total of 32 mortar cups was by California mussel (91 g; 89.2%) and barnacle (7.7 identified. The deposit was dated with 8 radiocarbon g; 7.5%). The low density of shell in Locus 1 was assays, and 44 obsidian hydration readings. A single consistent with the low soil pH. radiocarbon date from a fragment of abalone shell -provided modest evidence for occupation ca. 4300 B.C. When corrected and calibrated, the other seven 144 Findings from the Interior l LEGEND ' / / 111 2 10~6 -~~~~~~~~~ ' 9 rhaooie F oJdy \ n_n ~~ I ~~~Detail Inset - - nJ?soOiddendepoi M dden B | ^ * /a |~~~~~~~A 1 xmtrxcvtnnt| e F3 I 'V, uotr(mras \ \ a,, Figur77SteMa,CA-MNT-5 11~~~~~~~8% E2I~~ 0 10 20 30 - - archaeological site boundary - - IlhV~&ts of mldden deposit A secondaiy datum I x 2 meter excavation unit F3 ~~ lb.iturw (bedrock mortars) Figure 77 Site Map, CA-MNT-521 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 145 200, , Zl , , , , sX 1 NfC_dPJtoo 1; Q inhabitants returned from the coast with shellfish in spring or early summer. The flaked stone residues from CA-MNT-521 also provided a fairly coherent portrait of stone working. Monterey chert was the preferred raw material, and its relative abundance speaks to the existence of a source of this toolstone somewhere in the Monterey Formation probably within a few kilometers. Debitage frequency, while high (4478 flakes/m3), was lower than several other sites closer to the formation. The high proportion of biface-derived debitage (48.4%) LEGEND v__ 10suggested that, while an occasional core was cm transported to the site, the most common form in which I Mdb A loam (10YR 3t2) )wy dark greyish IOr stone arrived was as bifacial preforms. Primary H Mol~ OWahns ITOCION wis trown sutsa V.5M 4 s bm IN W soit loam (I OYR 4/6) da yowbwr reduction, involving decortication and production of oem * b . flake blanks was probably done at the stone source. E!J~iocic Correlation between the site flake:biface ratio (443:1), Figure 78 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-521 and an experimentally derived ratio associated with stage 1-5 reduction (444:1) supported the conclusion radiocarbon dates spanned between 1600 B.C. and that bifacial preforms were the most commonly worked A.D. 1060. Obsidian hydration results were internally form of stone. consistent, and generally corroborated the radiocarbon results. Very minor use of the site during CA-MNT-569 the Late Period was suggested by a single small thin steatite disk bead, and possibly the bedrock mortars. While CA-MNT-521 represented a single temporal A clam shell disk bead produced a corrected and component, CA-MNT-569, the subject of the second calibrated date of 1450 B.C. The rest of the artifact large-scale investigation in 1995, was more complex. assemblage included 45 cores, 151 bifaces, 83 Located in the Nacimiento River drainage, the site projectile points (contracting-stemmed [N=43], Rossi includes three discrete middens (each dating to a Square-stemmed [N=12], large side-notched (N=5), different period), an extensive flaked stone scatter, and and small leaf-shaped [N=l]), 28 flake tools, 2 core a series of bedrock mortars (Figure 79). The most tools, 2 drills, 37,847 pieces of debitage, 12 important findings came from Midden A (dating to the handstones, 8 millingslab fragments, 4 mortar late Early Period) and Midden B (dating to the fragments, 2 shaped thick, cylindrical pestles, 6 pitted Protohistoric/Contact Period). Midden C was not stones, 3 hammerstones, 1 stone sphere, 11 bone awl accurately dated; nor was the lithic scatter. A total of fragments, and 1 antler flaking tool. A total of 4456 36.4 m3 was excavated from the site as a whole, of pieces of mammal and bird bone was also recovered, which 30.1 m3 came from Midden A. weighing 1613.4 g. From this, 81 elements were Sidewall profiles from Midden A all showed a identified to the species level. These were comprised dark grayish brown (10 YR 4/2) silty loam midden mainly of deer (NISP=44; 54.3%), cottontail rabbit (Stratum Ia) underlain by decomposing sandstone (NISP=16; 19.8 %), jack rabbit (NISP=9;1 1.1%), and (Stratum III) (Figure 80). PH tests showed that bobcat (NISP=2; 2.5%). No remains of marine Midden A was slightly alkaline (pH=7.5), while the mammals were recovered. Among fifteen identifiable decomposing bedrock was slightly acidic (pH=6.75). fish elements were five herring bones and five from One subsurface feature was identified: a modest rockfish. Shell fragments were recovered from nearly cache of two large stage 3 bifacial preforms (Figure all levels in the units, albeit in very low densities. 81). Dating of Midden A was accomplished with Thirteen taxa, all derived from the rocky intertidal of radiocarbon and obsidian source and hydration the Big Sur coast, were represented in combined analysis. Unfortunately, due to the slightly acidic column and unit samples. Only four species, soil, Midden A lacked marine shell so potential California mussel, turban snail, barnacle, and sea dating samples were not abundant. Bone preservation urchin, were abundant enough to show up in the was also poor, and only two bones large enough for column. Analysis of cementum from seven black- AMS analysis were recovered. One from the base of tailed deer teeth indicated that deer hunting wasp the deposit was so small that collagen extraction was undertaken in the fall/winter (November-February). unsuccessful, and the dated sample was classified Isotope analysis of mussel shells indicated that site only as "organic material." It yielded a corrected date of 1770 B.C. Another sample from actual bone 146 Findings from the Interior Figure 79 Site Map, CA-MNT-56E Figue 7 SitMa, C-N-6 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 147 190 0 Midden B was a small, shallow deposit, 30 m 10 above Midden A on a low ridge, situated amidst five bedrock mortar outcrops with 45 cups. This deposit lawX was dated with a single radiocarbon assay, shell beads, and one glass bead. The date obtained from a _ 40 mussel shell was 370?80 years (uncorrected). When corrected and calibrated, this converted to A.D. 1955, with a two-sigma probability of A.D. 1670-1950. Seven diagnostic beads, included one glass type -.*+<111 ._* & ~DIIa27 (Kidd and Kidd 1970), one type Hla Olivella (most common during the early Mission Period A.D. 1770-1800), one type GI Olivella (temporally LEGEND 10 ubiquitous, but not found in any pre-A.D. 800 context la Dark ryh brw (I OYRM 42) mkc. on the coast), and one type B3 Olivella (also not a III Dacomosn berock (olOYR s). strong temporal marker), and three steatite small CM Rockt disks. The radiocarbon and beads suggested that S So s*am Midden B was occupied during the Protohistoric/ Figure 80 Sidewall Profile CA-MNT-569 Historic Periods (ca. A.D. 1500-1800). The rest of the assemblage from Midden B included seven cores, collagen yielded a corrected date of 1430 B.C. These three core tools, four bifaces, six projectile points dates suggested that the base of Midden A marked (four contracting-stemmed, one square-stemmed, and occupation from the late Early Period. The terminal one Desert Side-notched), one drill, three flake tools, date of the occupation could not be accurately 8679 pieces of debitage, one unshaped cobble pestle, determined since no dating samples were recovered one handstone, one milling slab, one pitted stone, one from the upper portion of the deposit, but it is most asphaltum-covered cobble, one notched stone, and likely that occupation continued into the early Middle two bone awl fragments. The projectile points Period. An obsidian hydration sample of 12 (including larger older types and one late type specimens showed clustering between 3.6 and 6.5 [DSN]) indicated mixing of earlier with later site microns which is generally consistent with the Early materials in Midden B. The Midden B fauna was Period. Single readings of 3.7 microns on flakes of dominated by deer (NISP=9; 43%) and rabbit (NISP= Casa Diablo and Coso obsidian suggested occupation 3; 14%). Three fish vertebrae were also recovered during the Middle Period. representing one each of rockfish, lingcod, and kelp The flaked stone assemblage from the site as a greenling. Unlike Midden A, Midden B produced whole included a total of 25,136 items, of which shell fragments in all levels of all units. Three taxa, 15,467 were collected from Midden A including 53 all derived from the rocky intertidal of the Big Sur cores, 77 bifaces, 77 projectile points (33 contracting- coast, dominated: California mussel, turban snail, and stemmed, 11 square-stemmed, 4 large side-notched, 1 purple sea urchin. concave base, 24 indeterminate), 14 flake tools, 4 drills, 4 core tools, and 15,252 pieces of debitage. In CA-MNT-861 addition to flaked stone, Midden A yielded nineteen handstones (mostly unshaped cobbles), one complete CA-MNT-861 covers an area of 6048 m2 on a shallow basin millingslab, one formal shaped small rise along Upper Milpitas Road at an-elevation cylindrical pestle, five pitted stones, one of 376 m (1240 ft) in the northern portion of Fort hammerstone, one steatite/talc schist pendant, and Hunter-Liggett (Figure 1). The site was originally eight small bone awl fragments. A total of 2981 recorded in 1978 as a sparse scatter of flakes and pieces of mammal and bird bone was recovered from ground stone. Field work was undertaken in the site as a whole, weighing 774.4 g. From this total, December 1993, when a systematic surface collection 42 elements were identified to the species level, and was completed, and a total of 5.1 m3 of soil was one (a bird bone) was identified only to class. The excavated from eight 1 x 1 m units and twenty-five Early Period occupation represented by Midden A shovel probes (Figure 82). Soils showed some was dominated by deer (NISP= 15; 65.2%) and rabbit variability but were generally characterized by a (combined NISP of cottontail and jack rabbit=6,- shallow organic layer (Stratum I) overlying an A 26.1%). No fish bone or shellfish remains were horizon of abrown(10OYR 4/3) sandy loam (Stratum recovered from Midden A, and the diet represented II) (Figure 83). A gradual transition was evident by the fauna was considered wholly terrestrial. horizon was a yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) loam. 148 Findingsfrom the Interior 0 5 L l I _1 1 1 cm Figure 81 Stage 3 Bifaces from Cache, Midden A, CA-MNT-569 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 149 The B horizon overlay a layer of very pale brown (10 0 50 100 YR 7/4) decomposing bedrock (Stratum IV) that was encountered between 10 and 100 cm. Both the brown Surfac sandy loam and the yellowish sandy loam yielded pH readings of 6.5, while the layer of decomposing bedrock was 7.0. 20 II The site yielded one core, one core tool, three -: bifaces, four projectile point fragments, two flake tools, 918 pieces of debitage, one handstone, and one ; battered stone. A large portion of the flaked stone" .4' ..,,., tools--including two biface fragments, two projectile . , . ' :. , '; point fragments, one core, and a flake tool--were -, - * ?. recovered from Unit 4. The projectile points included ,4-'.' two Rossi Square-stemmed examples. This type is -' 4^"'' commonly recovered from Early Period contexts on ' * ;:: " ,.+, - ,. the central California coast. These were the only .8o > '; 0'- temporal diagnostics found at this location, and they .. 4 * a suggest provisionally that the site dates accordingly. - .:- - f ^ The debitage profile was dominated by core reduction debris (76%). The ratio of flakes to bifaces LEGEND 0 10 20 was 131:1, which is close to the ratio associated with cm stage-5 preform reduction in the Monterey chert I Brown (10YR 4/3)d, sandy loam, loose biface replication experiment. with grass roots. 11 A Horizon: brown (10YR 4/3)d, sandy loam, loose, very little gravel. Ill B Horizon: brown (10YR 5/3)d, loamy /- "f,"' / /sand, very loose, some rounded cobbles ' /?' "' / .(app. 20 cm diam.) and some rounded / , and subangular gravel (<2 cm diam.). / 4? -2 / / |IV Decomposing sandstone bedrock. 7 , .f -/ / / | Distinct layer boundary , >> ,- / / -- -. Indistinct layer boundary 016 /, / i%#-~E Rodent disturbance - ,- s3>^ .--wA tb ^ ^& Figure 83 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-861 a ,. 0:2 0 o lo a1 o | CA-MNT-879 CA-MNT-879 is marked by a midden deposit covering 5,856.9 mn2 adjacent to the San Antonio River in the northern portion of Fort Hunter-Liggett. Field investigations in the summer of 2000 involved mapping, surface collection, and excavation of a series LECREEW of Surface Transect Units (STUs) and vertical 1 x 2 m _ _10x a aunits (Figure 84). Total excavation volume was 14.7 l sWonlMsurm) .r1: 29 s mn3. Subsurface excavations showed that the central 1x1n__ons logm portion of the site contained a fine, ashy gray midden shoW proW approximately 30 x 30 m in size with a maximum surkmaWad depth of 1.5 m. Stratigraphic profiles showed that this CZ" Jc gray midden was underlain by a less powdery brownish o dPe"'' midden (Figure 85). Like most of the other investigated . dOWIWIOPS TopocContoWtAR"XNWo* sites, especially those in the interior, this site showed Figure 82 Site Map, CA-MNT-861 unmistakable signs of disturbance from burrowing animals. 150 Findingsfrom the Interior LEGEND - _ archaeoloical site boundaiy limits of midden deposit prmary datum (oak tree) | a I x 2 meotr excavation unit - surface. transect unit 00 depression/ downshope / II ~~~7 rock AX6 oak~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ II D tra vehicle \ D2i~~~3 FigudisturbAnce 84 S stal Inc. ~~~~~~ r , mE vrn nV Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 151 o_ Unt 4 Unit 6 Ground Surface LEGEND 9I~3P"TN O Krotovina * Cobbles Stratum I: 1OYR 412 Dark grayish-brown fryable midden deposit. Fine particles with seashell and cobbles. Stratum 11: IOYR 5/3 Brown compact sediment deposit with less cobbles and cultural material. StratuJm A: IOYR 5/2 Grayish-brown base ashy material with charcoal. Associated with the feature in unit 6. Figure 85 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-879 The artifact assemblage from both the gray and = 104; 3 8.2%), deer (NISP = 61; 22.4%), and brownish middens was dominated by Late Period dog/coyote (NISP = 51; 18.75%). Also represented in markers, including eight Desert Side-notched and low numbers were wood rat (Neotoma sp.) (NISP=39; four Canalinlo/Coastal Cottonwood projectile points, 14.3%) and jack rabbit (Lepus californicus). A total of twenty-one steatite disk beads, eight Haliotis shell 71 fish bones was also recovered. Of these, 31 were disk beads, contracting-stemmed points, and one G2 identified to the family level or better. The collection Olivella saucer bead, suggesting- that a minor Middle of identified specimens was dominated by rockfish Period component is present. Minor occupation (Sebastes sp.) (NISP= 16; 51.6%), followed by during the Middle Period was also suggested by a cabezon (Scopaenichthys marmoratus), and hydration reading on Casa Diablo obsidian of 4.2 monkeyface prickleback (Cebidichthys violaceus). microns and another reading of 4.6 microns on an Remains of two freshwater fish: Sacramento perch unknown obsidian. (Archoplites interruptus) and Sacramento sucker A total of 2504 bird and mammal bones was (Catostomus occidentalis) were also recovered. recovered from which a total of 988 fragments was These were the only freshwater fish remains found at identified to species, genus, family, or order level, any of the investigated sites. A fossilized tooth from Excluding the remains of burrowing and otherwise a shortfin mako shark was also found, but this intrusive animals (which were abundant in the probably was of some ornamental value rather than collection), the excavation produced a total of 272 dietary. Column samples were dominated by the elements that were most likely of economic remains of California mussel (94.8%) followed by significance to prehistoric site inhabitants. lThis barnacles (2.9%), sea urchin (0.5%), and turban snail collection was dominated by cottontail rabbit (NISP (0.4%). 152 Findingsfrom the Interior NI . -~~* xi mgr.xcc wcionunfl I I o 1 I sov IS 11 1 1 Fiur 8 ite Mfap,oCA-MNT-1657 - road~ ~~~~~~~otco cz' oak ~~~~~~~~~~~gr.y pine~~~~~00 ~~~~~~~~~ -~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 TopograpNcContsusApproxlm14 Figure 86 Site ap, CA-MNT-115 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 153 CA-MNT-1657 Monterey chert replication experiment. This ratio, in CA-MNT-1657 was a light scatter of chert combination with the biface fragments and debitage and flaked stone tools covering an prevalence of biface reduction flakes, suggests that area of 2,356m2 in the El Piojo drainage. Field study only certain stages of reduction took place at this involved intensive surface collection and excavation location, and that these activities were dominated by of 4.4 m3 of soil from 12 shovel scrapes, 14 STUs, biface reduction. Some core reduction took place as and a series of 1 x 1 m units (Figure 86). Cultural well, however. Cores and bifacial preforms were materials were found in a sterile brown, sandy loam probably brought to the site where they were partially matrix. Most excavation units showed four distinct reduced. strata: a shallow organic layer (Stratum I) containing grass roots and oak leaves, an A horizon (Stratum II) CA-MNT-1672 that was a brown (7.5 YR 5/4) sandy loam between 20 and 50 cm., a brown (7.5 YR 4/3) sandy loam C Situated on a knoll at an elevation of 400 m Horizon (Stratum III) composed of decomposing (1320 ft) above Stony Creek, CA-MNT-1672 was a sandstone, and bedrock (Stratum IV), 30 to 50 cm sparse scatter of Monterey chert debitage and a single below the surface (Figure 87). Soil samples produced handstone. A trench (20 m in length, 1 m wide, 1 m pH readings between 5.5 and 7.0, indicating slightly deep) was cut through the deposit by the military acidic soil prior to its identification in 1993. Field investigation The deposit produced two cores, four bifaces, in 1995 included a systematic surface collection, and three projectile point fragments, one flake tool, and excavation of a series of surface transect units, shovel 1214 pieces of debitage. The only chronological probes, and two 1 x 2 m units (Figure 88). The test indicator was a single Rossi Square-stemmed projectile excavation revealed two horizons: an A horizon point which is a reasonably reliable marker of the Early composed of a medium brown (10 YR 4/3) coarse Period (ca. 3500 - 800 B.C.). The diagnostic debitage sandy loam between the surface and approximately was dominated by core (57%) over biface reduction 45 cm, and a C horizon between 45 and 80 cm, (43%). The flake:biface ratio is 173:1 which suggests consisting of brown (10 YR 4/6) sandy loam with a preform reduction, based on comparison with the high proportion of decomposing rock (Figure 89). No shell, bone or other prehistoric organic debris was 0 o 100 present. PH tests showed that the soil was slightly _ Surface I acidic. SurfacX _wSe 1 Recovered from the deposit were: four projectile points, five bifaces, one core tool, three cores, 709 pieces of debitage, and one handstone. Two of the projectile points that were complete enough to assign .; . ..... . ;** .S< . . . to type were Rossi Square-stemmed examples, A . i:......i suggesting that the deposit dates to the Early Period. ;- ; S .;v. i; %-- S --2;?; ...*.......... : . } The debitage was dominated by core-flake debris, 4?15 5's'+ Ps ' " T s 1ll sSs6 suggesting the site was associated with a nearby, but as yet unidentified, source of Monterey chert. This IV assemblage is obviously not very large, but the 60 ~~~~~~~~~~~~handstone and flaked stone materials suggest it LEGEND o to 20 functioned as some type of temporary residential base. cm I Organic Layer: dark yellowish brown (1 OYR 4/4)d, sandy loam. 11 A horizon: brown (7.5YR 5/4)d, sandy loam, friable. III C horizon: brown (7.5YR 5/4)d, sandy loam, decomposing sandstone bedrock. IV Brown (7.5YR 5/4)d, sandstone bedrock. Distinct layer boundary --Indistinct layer boundary r *[ Rock I o1 Rodent disturbance Figure 87 Sidewali Profile, CA-MNT-1657 154 Findingsfrom the Interior LOWER 3TONEY RESERYOIR ~~~~~.. .. .--.-. .. . F r S . ....Map, CA_MNT ,,...... - - ........... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... .. .._ 1................ 0 10 20 0 ~ LEGE 4** 1 (0adatonl un bo '^ Rock scar Figue 89 Sidwl Prfie CAMT167 o 0 9 0 I LEG;END L_- am - la A horizon: coaread kam, ffedium brown (IOYR 4J3). lb Le of flhMreSned eaehv Ic A hodzon: coarse sandy loam, mediumn dark brown (IOYR 4)3). Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 155 CA-MNT-1754 collagen. It yielded a corrected date of A.D. 1440. Because the sample's composition was not limited to Field work at CA-MNT-1754 was undertaken in collagen, there is reason to question its accuracy. In 1995 as part of a program sponsored by Fort Hunter- addition to this one date, the site produced two Liggett to investigate low density/low visibility sites. contracting-stemmed projectile points, one point The deposit was a light scatter of chert debitage from fragment, five biface fragments, four cores, one flake which a total of 4.9 m3 of soil was excavated (Figure tool, 1,157 pieces of debitage, and 67 bone 90). No midden was apparent, and cultural materials fragments. Four of the latter represented black-tailed were generally limited to flaked stone items which deer. Based on the contracting-stemmed point and were found in a matrix of very dark brown sandy lack of arrow points, the site was thought to be older loam (Figure 91). Organic preservation was very than what was suggested by the radiocarbon result, poor, but a fragment of deer bone was submitted for and was interpreted as a Middle/Late Transition radiocarbon analysis. The specimen was so small that component. organic residue used for dating was not restricted to Isew B 1 0 0 , / /- ~~~#1'~.1 Ts myctr / A ED> sbotauuritcprlT[ SW ~ mW . ~~~~~~TomNrwpicCon1an Appxiu ......... Figure 90 Site Map, CA-MNT-1754~~ I. 156 Findings from the Interior - - | , , ~~200i , , , 100 1 , . iool ~~~~~~~~0 0 10 20 LEGEND cm I A honzon: sandy loam, very dark brown (1 OYR 212). la Sandy loam, dark brown (10YR 3/3). 11 C horizon: decomposing granite, dark yellowish brown (IOYR 4/6). Mottled areas F v I Rock S Soil samples taken Figure 91 Sidewall Profile, CA-MNT-1754 CHAPTER 7: CULTURAL HISTORICAL SYNTHESIS Because so little research was previously information because it was occupied for only a completed in the Big Sur area, development of a relatively short period from approximately A.D. 800 basic temporal/cultural framework was a high to 1830. Most of the items recovered from that priority at the onset of the project. Most of the location reflected occupation between A.D. 1500 and cultural historical implications of the findings from 1769. On the interior, seven sites were dated the coast were summarized in 1993 (Jones 1993). chronometrically (with radiocarbon and/or obsidian Projectile point and bead types defined in that work hydration), while five others were cross-dated using were referred to in the presentation of site data in projectile point types. Of the seven interior sites that chapters 5 and 6. Excavation data from the interior, produced radiocarbon dates, six were essentially however, were unavailable at the time of the 1993 single component (CA-MNT-332, -361, -519, -521, - synthesis, and the following represents a slightly 879, and -1754), and one, CA-MNT-569 was multi- improved cultural chronology that incorporates component and horizontally stratified. In total, the findings from interior sites within Fort Hunter Liggett coastal sites represent 19 temporal components while obtained between 1994 and 2000. the interior produced 14. These components represent Sample sizes varied from the study sites, making occupations dating between 4400 B.C. and A.D. the findings from some locations considerably more 1810 both on the coast and in the interior. important than others. Chronological placement was also more certain for some sites (e.g., those with DEFINITIONS larger recovery volumes, good radiocarbon profiles, and bead assemblages), than for others. Virtually all A long history of varied usage in central investigated sites showed evidence -of disturbance California makes it necessary to define nomenclature from ground burrowing animals, and, as a before discussing the local chronological sequence. consequence, vertical stratigraphy (with a few Cultural historical taxonomy employed below is important exceptions) was unreliable for dis- essentially a compromise between systems employed tinguishing temporal components. Fortunately, many in adjacent regions. Two terms are emphasized: sites proved to be single-component while others Period and Phase. Period is employed exclusively as were horizontally stratified. Radiocarbon results and a temporal unit, following the definition developed shell beads indicated good component integrity at by Fredrickson (1973:112, 1994). Absolute dating of most locations. On the coast, all sites were dated with periods is both approximate and somewhat arbitrary, radiocarbon, and most also produced shell beads. Ten but the importance of this construct is that it allows coastal sites were single-component: CA-MNT-73, - for time to be held constant, facilitating inter-regional 759/H, -1223, -1227, -1228, -1233, -1235, -1236, - comparisons. Periods were identified in Table 12 in 1942, and CA-SLO-267); two were stratified with Chapter 5 and were used to structure the data multiple components (CA-MNT-63 and -1232/H); presented in chapters 5 and 6. Since no Paleoindian and one was multi-component and mixed (CA- occupation was identified, seven periods are MINT- 1277/H). The mixed deposit provided some represented so far in the Big Sur area. The local 158 Cultural Historical Synthesis sequence is composed of six phases framed against Millingstone Period: Interpretive Phase these periods. The definition of phase follows Willey and Phillips: This phase was provisionally defined on the basis of CA-MNT-1232/H Stratum II. A radiocarbon An archaeological unit possessing date of ca. 4300 B.C. from CA-MNT-521 probably traits sufficiently characteristic to distin- also marks this phase, but no artifacts were associated guish it from all other units so conceived, with the date, and no component was defined. While whether of the same or other cultures or the excavation volume from CA-MNT-1232/H was civilizations, spatially limited to the order small, the component was stratigraphically discrete. of magnitude of a locality or region and It was highlighted by the absence of mortar/pestles chronologically limited to a relatively brief and a paucity of flaked stone tools. Marked by interval of time (Willey and Phillips handstones, a millingslab, a lanceolate projectile 1958:22) point, and barrel Olivella (B3a and B3b) beads, the assemblage is consistent with those reported from As employed here, phases constitute locally contemporaneous contexts to the south (Figure 93). identified assemblages of artifact types that cluster The point and handstones correlate with Rogers' temporally. (1929) Oak Grove, while the beads are consistent with C. King's (1982, 1990) Early Period types. CULTURAL SEQUENCE None of the artifacts representing the Interpretive Phase are restricted to pre-3500 B.C. contexts; later The earliest occupations were represented at the phases simply add to the Millingstone inventory, base of CA-SLO-1232/H (Stratum II) and by a single albeit affecting major changes in the relative unassociated radiocarbon date from CA-MNT-521 frequency of certain classes (e.g. ratios of ground (Figure 92). Substantial Early Period components stone tools to flaked stone). were identified at CA-MNT-73, -569A, and -1228. The tools marking the Interpretive Phase are The Middle Period was represented at CA-MNT-63, - typical of the California Milling Stone Culture, first 332, -521, CA-SLO-267C, and by materials reported defined in the southern part of the state (Rogers 1929; from CA-MNT-282 (Pohorecky 1976). Middle/Late Wallace 1955) and long thought to be restricted to transition components were identified at CA-MNT- areas south of Point Conception. Findings from the last 1233 and -1754. Late Period sites included CA- decade, however, from sites like CA-SCL-65 MNT-759/H and CA-MNT-1235, occupied prior to (Fitzgerald 1993), CA-SCR-177 (Cartier 1993b), CA- A.D. 1500; CA-MNT-569B and 1236 occupied A.D. FRE-61 (McGuire 1995), CA-SLO-1756 (Fitzgerald 1500-1750 (the Protohistoric Period); and CA-MNT- 1997), CA-SLO-1797 (Fitzgerald 1998, 2000), and 1223 (A.D. 1250-1700), CA-MNT-1227 (A.D. 1300- CA-LAK-1682 (Rosenthal et al. 1995) show that the 1750), and CA-MNT-1942 (A.D.1280-1810). An Milling Culture was present throughout much of important Late-Protohistoric Period component was central and northern California during the early identified in the interior at CA-MNT-879. Late Holocene. The findings from CA-SLO-1797 at Cross Period materials were also recovered from CA-MNT- Creek further show that the Millingstone Culture was 1232/H (Stratum I), and CA-MNT-1277/H. Most present in central California by 8300 B.C. (Fitzgerald materials from CA-MNT-1277/H dated to the 2000; Jones et al. 2002). Protohistoric Period. The Historic Period was best represented by Feature 1 at CA-MNT-63, and at CA- MNT-361. Historic materials were also evident at CA-MNT- 1277/H in mixed context. Combined with the findings from Willow Creek, the data from Big Sur and Fort Hunter-Liggett have been used to define six local phases. A seventh phase (Arbuez) discussed in the preliminary synthesis (Jones 1993) has been relegated to provisional status. Throughout much of the early portion of the sequence, artifact change is largely additive in nature, as new technologies and types appeared, but older styles seem to have persisted. Typological continuity was particularly evident for the period between 3500 B.C. and A.D. 1250. Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 159 n 140 _ S m I I I ~~~~~ ~ ~~I I I II YI I; ,: 4'-, '' ' Ili#4E II z 1-1+ 9 'lli! rl .~~~ ~. .. .. .. .. . u~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ , .w . . ... I I I INI HIINVfV. * I I 1 11V* I I I I 0 et I I' l _ I ~~~I I II ng i-j.w-v': Ij I I, w Hltt i" I I FUWt1K 1 -I I I I . ~ ~I I I I I L r , i i ', II F-w~~~~i ^ . ,,,, ... , . . . ,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ...... I L : ebI ' I I~~ ~~~ Izz i I - 1 '' HILZ-JV4H ,ii I I I 1 1iI i-- t i ---9 I I 1' It co !LLMV I d 43 Q - o4 ILI 160 Cultural Historical Synthesis 0 (9 _6- . . CO CO)W II U w z 01 i {L1 UW-- l 1 ' 4 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I w Z H C_ , o MD _ . } } w } ~~~~~~I It | -----1- [ : 0-V R || | p | Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 163 Table 14 Assemblage Summaries: Millingstone and Early Periods CA-MNT-1232/H CA-MNT-1228 CA-MNT-73 CA-MNT-569 A Artifact 4400-3300 B.C. 3700-2900 B.C. 2300-1700 B.C. 1500 B.C.- A.D.1 Stratum II Redwood Phase Redwood Phase Redwood Phase Interpretive Phase Olivella Al 1 2 0 0 Olivella B3 2 1 0 0 Olivella L2 0 1 1 0 Subtotal 3 4 1 0 Contracting-stemmed 0 8 5 37 Square-stemmed 0 2 2 11 Side-notched 0 0 3 4 Lanceolate 1 0 0 0 Concave base 0 0 0 1 Indeterminant 1 2 1 26 Subtotal 2 12 11 79 Pestles 0 1 5 1 Hopper mortars 0 0 0 0 Bowl mortars 0 1 1 0 Handstones 5 2 8 19 Milling slabs 2 4 6 1 Pitted stones 0 0 12 5 Stone spheres 0 0 0 0 Net weights 0 0 1 0 Anvils 0 0 1 0 Hammerstones 2 2 5 1 Steatite pendants 0 2 0 0 Steatite pendant blanks 0 1 0 0 Subtotal 9 13 39 27 Bone awls 0 1 1 8 Bone gorges 0 2 0 0 Antler tines 2 1 0 0 Bone pendants 1 0 0 0 Subtotal 3 4 1 8 Grand total 17 33 52 114 164 Cultural Historical Synthesis Table 15 Assemblage Summaries: Middle Period Artifact CA-MNT- CA-MNT- CA-MNT-282 CA-SLO- CA-MNT- CA-MNT- Total 63 521 A.D. 1-1000 267C2 332 519 A.D.1-1200 1500 B.C.- Late Middle 1000 B.C. - 1000 B.C.- A.D. 1000 A.D. 1200 A.D.1000 Olivella A3 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Olivella A4 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Olivella B2 0 0 0 4 0 0 4 Olivella B3 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 Olivella K1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Olivella GI 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 Olivella G2 2 0 0 3 0 0 5 Olivella G5 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Haliotis cCA2j 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Steatite disks* 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Clamshell disks 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Limpet rings 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 Subtotal 5 2 0 17 0 0 24 Fishhooks 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 Fishhook blanks 1 0 0 3 0 0 4 Scrapers 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Shells w/asphaltum 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Subtotal 4 0 0 4 0 0 8 Contracting-stemmed 1 42 20 27 4 20 114 Square-stemmed 0 12 0 1 1 7 21 Concave base 0 0 1 2 0 0 3 Large side-notched 1 5 0 1 1 2 10 Leaf-shaped 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 Desert Side-notched 0 0 0 1** 0 0 1 Indeterminant 2 22 0 18 3 18 63 Subtotal 4 82 21 51 9 47 214 Pestles 1 1 2 15 0 0 19 Hopper mortars 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bowl mortars 0 4 0 2 1 0 6 Handstones 1 12 0 0 2 5 20 Milling slabs 3 8 0 0 1 3 15 Pitted stones 0 6 1 258 1 0 266 Stone spheres 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Stonedisks 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Netweights 0 - 0 6 11 0 0 17 Hammerstones 2 3 8 40 1 3 57 Steatite pendants 0 1 0 9 1 1 12 Abrading stones 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Tarring pebbles 0 0 1 5 0 0 6 Slate pencil 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Subtotal 7 37 17 341 7 12 421 Bone awls 1 11 0 3 0 5 20 Bone awl/gorges 0 0 0 8 0 0 8 Bone awl/pins 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 Bone whistles 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Bone strigils 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Bone gorge hooks 0 0 0 12 0 0 12 Antler tines 0 1 3 0 0 0 4 Subtotal 2 12 4 25 0 5 48 Grand total 22 133 42 438 16 47 698 *Formerly classified as talc-schist **Not temporally consistent with rest of component Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 165 Table 16 Assemblage Summaries: Middle/Late Transition Period Artifact CA-MNT-281 CA-MNT-1233 CA-MNT-1754 Total A.D. 1000-1400 A.D. 1000-1400 Olivella A3 4 0 0 4 Olivella B2 0 1 0 1 Olivella B3 0 2 0 2 Olivella K1 0 1 0 1 Olivella GI 0 6 0 6 Olivella G2 0 3 0 3 Haliotis EB3f 0 1 0 1 Haliotis EB3j 0 1 0 1 Subtotal 4 15 0 26 Fishhooks 1 5 0 6 Fishhook blanks 20 2 0 22 Scrapers 69 1 0 70 Cut shells 112 5 0 117 Subtotal 202 13 0 215 Contracting-stemmed 4 5 2 11 Square-stemmed 0 1 0 1 Leaf-shaped 0 2 0 2 Indeterminant 0 0 0 0 Subtotal 4 8 2 14 Pestles 15 2 0 17 Hopper mortars 4 1 0 5 Handstones 0 1 0 1 Milling slabs 0 1 0 1 Pitted stones 12 0 0 12 Stone spheres 0 1 0 1 Stone disks 4 1 0 5 Net weights 2 0 0 2 Hammerstones 129 0 0 129 Plummet-shaped weight - 0 1 0 1 Abrading stones 1 0 0 1 Tarring pebbles 9 0 0 9 Incised slate 21 0 0 21 Subtotal 197 8 0 205 Bone awls 5 3 0 8 Bone whistle 1 0 0 1 Antler tines 10 1 0 11 Subtotal 16 4 0 20 Grand total 423 48 2 473 166 Cultural Historical Synthesis their chronology in northern California (Fredrickson lipped (El), thick lipped (E2), tiny saucer (GI), 1974). There are, however, locations where hopper cupped (KI), cupped/lipped KI/El, bushing (K2) mortars seem earlier (e.g., the Saratoga Site Olivella beads, mussel shell disk beads, Haliotis [Fitzgerald 1993] and possibly the Santa Barbara nacreous disks, Haliotis epidermis disks, and steatite Channel). Their apparent restriction to later contexts or talc schist disk beads. The cupped and saucer at Big Sur could be a product of the limitations of the beads were hold-overs from the previous phase. present sample. Also marking the phase at both CA- Ground stone included the slab hopper mortar, and MNT-1233 and CA-MNT-281 were medium-sized apparently the bedrock mortar. The Arbuez Phase (4-7 cm diameter) ground, perforated disks of was based tentatively on materials from CA-MNT- serpentine or talc schist which probably served as net 759/H, the Arbuez Boronda Site, and CA-MNT- weights. 1227, the Harlan Spring Site. These sites suggested a Artifacts reported in substantial numbers from retention of older flaked and ground stone CA-MNT-281 but missing from CA-MNT-1233, technologies, and little, if any, adoption of arrow were small incised slate pieces, generally marked points. Two projectile points from CA-MNT-759/H, with a chevron pattern. Twenty-one were recovered a contracting-stemmed and large side-notched, from CA-MNT-281, but none from CA-MNT-282 represent larger types that are more common in (Pohorecky 1976:43, 226). A single example of this earlier contexts. Neither of these were found at CA- unusual artifact was also reported by Howard (1973) MNT-1223. Ground stone included handstones and from CA-MNT-480/H, only 150 m south of CA- milling slabs. Bead types represented at both MNT- MNT-1233. These objects have also been reported 759/H and CA-MNT-1227 were thin (El) and thick from the Vandenberg coast. (E2) variants of the Lipped Class (Bennyhoff and Bead types represented at CA-M:NT-1233 Hughes 1987:127). The Santos Phase was defined by include the barrel (3), tiny Saucer (GI), regular materials from CA-MNT-1277/H, where a process of saucer (G2), large end-ground (B2c), and cupped comparative subtraction was used to isolate a distinct (KI) (Bennyhoff and Hughes 1987). Types Al, B3, assemblage. Projectile points show ongoing emphasis GI, and G2 are all consistent with C. King's (1982, on the Desert Side-notched and Canalinlo types with 1990) Middle Period in the Santa Barbara Channel, possible ongoing use of the contracting-stemmed. while types B2c and KI are early Late Period types. Ground stone included mortars, pestles, hand stones, The transitional position of the Highland Phase is and milling slabs. Mortars include bowl, cobble, consistent with the dating of these beads. Although hopper, and bedrock types. Bead types were also not represented at CA-MNT-1233, a single Split difficult to isolate, but included mussel, abalone, Punched type (Dl) from CA-MNT-1277/H is clam, and steatite disks, Olivella thick lipped (E2), probably also a marker of the Middle/Late Transition. large lipped (E3), bushings (K2), and ground cupped CA-MNT-281 yielded four perforated and spire- (K4). lopped Olivella (A3). Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) Since 1993, re-evaluation of the Late Period data date this type to Phase 1 of the Late Period in the from several of these sites and new radiocarbon dates Sacramento Valley, and their occurrence at CA- from CA-MNT-1227 have necessitated rethinking of MNT-281 appears consistent with that dating. the Arbuez Phase and revision of the Santos Phase. The occurrence of large points dating ca. A.D. 1400 Late and Protohistoric Sites: Dolafi Phase at CA-MNT-759/H remains intriguing, particularly in comparison with the exclusive occurrence of arrow Fourteen sites yielded Late and/or Protohistoric points at contemporaneous CA-MNT-1223. The materials, eight on the coast (Table 17) and four from sample from CA-MNT-759/H is so small, however, the interior (Table 18). Discrete components were that the absence of arrow points cannot be assured. isolated at CA-MNT-504, -507, -759/H, -1223, - CA-MNT-759/H and -1227 were thought to represent 1227, -1235, -1236, and -1942. In an earlier non-arrow point assemblages, but the debitage from synthesis of Big Sur culture history, I proposed three both sites suggests arrow point manufacture. The phases to cover the A.D. 1250-1830 period: Dolan Santos Phase has been revised based on radiocarbon and Arbuez (both dating A.D. 1250-1650), and dates that indicate occupation of CA-MNT-1227 after Santos (dating A.D. 1650-1830) (Jones 1993). The A.D. 1650 (Table 13). Dolan Phase, established on the basis of materials A more conservative approach to Late Period from CA-MNT-879 and -1223, includes a suite of culture history posits a major cultural transition ca. well-made shell and stone artifacts, including Desert A.D. 1250, marked by the beginning of the Dolan Side-notched and Canalinlo/ Coastal Cottonwood Phase, and a subsequent transition to the Santos projectile points, punched spire-lopped (A4), Phase at the beginning of the Historic Period at A.D. applique spire-lopped (AS), end-ground (B2), thin 1769. Desert Side-notched and Canalinlo/Coastal Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 167 Table 17 Assemblage Summaries: Late, Protohistoric, and Historic Periods (coastal sites) CA- CA- CA- CA-MNT- CA- CA-MNT- CA-MNT-63 MNT- MNT- MNT- 1227 MNT- 1277/H Feature 1235 759/H 1223 A.D.1300- 1236 A.D.1500- A.D.1800- Artifact A.D.l100 A.D.1450 A.D.1250 1750 A.D.1500 1830 1816 Total -1500 -1500 -1700 -1750 Glass beads 0 0 0 0 0 1 30 31 Olivella A4 0 0 3 0 0 3 0 6 Olivella B2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 Olivella B3 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 Olivella E1 1 1 11 1 0 3 0 17 Olivella E2 0 2 6 1 0 2 1 12 Olivella H1 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 Olivella GI 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 Olivella G2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Olivella K1 0 0 5 0 0 21 0 26 Olivella K2 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 Olivella K/E 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Olivella K4 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Haliotis epidermis disk 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 Clam shell disk 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 4 Steatite disk 1 0 8 0 0 12 0 21 Mytilus bead blank 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Steatite spheroid 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 Subtotal 2 3 36 3 0 61 40 145 Fishhook 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 4 Fishhook blank 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 3 Worked shell 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 Pendant blank 0 0 12 0 0 1 0 13 Bipointed hook 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Subtotal 0 0 15 5 0 3 0 23 Corner-notched 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Desert Side-notched 2 0 13 0 1 6 3 25 Coastal Cottonwood 1 0 3 0 2 3 2 11 Contracting-stemmed 0 1 0 0 2 3 0 6 Square-stemmed 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Large side-notched 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 3 Subtotal 3 2 16 0 5 16 5 47 Pestle 2 0 0 4 1 10 1 18 Hopper mortar 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 4 Bowlmortar 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 Bedrock mortars 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 Handstone 0 3 1 1 1 6 0 12 Milling slab 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 4 Pitted stone 1 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Stone sphere 0 - 0 3 0 0 0 0 3 Notched net weight 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 Plummet net weight 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Anvil 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 Hammerstone 1 0 1 1 1 3 1 8 Notched hammerstone 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Polished pebble 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Elongate schist object 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Steatite pendant 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Cobble w/asphaltum 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 Subtotal 6 5 8 10 4 28 5 66 Bone awl 1 0 5 3 0 3 0 12 Antler tine 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Boneflaker 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Bone needle 0 0 0 A 0 0 1 0 1 Bone tube 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Subtotal 1 0 5 5 0 5 0 16 Grand total 12 10 80 23 9 113 50 297 168 Cultural Historical Synthesis Table 18 Assemblage Summaries: Late, Protohistoric, and Historic Periods (inland sites) CA-MNT- CA-MNT- CA-MNT-569B CA-MNT- CA-MNT-361 504 507 Protohistoric 879 A.D. Historic Artifact Late Period Late Period Period 1300-1650 Period Total Glass bead 0 0 1 0 0 1 Oltvella A5 0 0 0 1 0 1 Olivella Bl 0 0 0 1 0 1 Olivella B2 0 0 0 8 0 8 Olivella B3 0 0 1 0 0 1 Olivella E1 0 0 0 22 0 22 Olivella E2 0 0 0 6 0 6 Olivella E3 0 0 0 2 0 2 Olivella GI 0 0 1 1 0 2 Olivella G2 0 0 0 1 0 1 Olivella H1 0 0 1 0 0 1 Olivella K I 0 0 0 22 0 22 Olivella K2 0 0 0 1 0 1 Steatite disk 0 0 3 22 0 25 Haliotis epidermis disk 0 0 0 2 0 2 Haliotis nacreous disk 0 0 0 6 0 6 Clam shell disk 0 0 0 1 0 1 Mytilus disk 0 0 0 1 0 1 Bird bone bead 0 0 0 1 0 1 Subtotal 0 0 7 98 0 105 Drilled clam shell tube 0 0 0 1 0 1 or pipe Subtotal 0 0 0 1 0 1 Desert Side-notched 2 0 1 8 0 11 Coastal Cottonwood 1 0 3 4 0 8 Contracting-stemmed 0 1 4 4 0 9 Square-stemmed 0 0 1 0 0 1 Subtotal 3 1 9 16 0 29 Pestle 1 6 2 5 1 15 Bowlmortar 0 0 0 2 0 2 Bedrock mortars 8 14 58 0 4 84 Handstone 0 0 1 6 0 7 Milling slab 0 0 1 0 0 1 Pitted stone 0 0 1 0 0 1 Hammerstone 0 2 1 8 0 1 Notched stone 0 0 1 0 0 1 Cobble w/asphaltum 0 0 1 0 0 1 Subtotal 9 22 66 21 5 123 Boneawl 0 0 1 5 0 6 Bonegorge 0 0 0 1 0 1 Bone whistle 0 0 0 1 0 1 Antler tine 0 0 1 0 0 1 Subtotal 0 0 2 7 0 9 Grand total 12 23 84 143 5 267 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 169 Cottonwood arrow points mark the beginning of from the more formal types found in earlier the Dolan Phase, but the archaic stemmed types context at CA-MNT-521. Formal, well-made may have persisted in very low frequency, as cylindrical pestles were recovered from the demonstrated by an example found at Mission Dolan site, however. San Antonio (Hoover and Costello 1985:26), and others from CA-MNT-879 and -1236. The Historic Period: Santos Phase Dolan Phase, identified at CA-MNT-1223, and substantiated by findings from CA-MNT-759/H, The Historic Period was represented by -879, -1227, -1235, and -1236, is marked by a Feature 1 at CA-MNT-63 and CA-MNT-361. co-occurrence of items persisting from the The former, dated by glass trade beads to A.D. Middle/Late transition--large contracting- 1800-1816, was marked by Desert Side-notched stemmed points, the hopper mortar, handstone, (one made of bottle glass) and Canalino/Coastal and milling slab, circular shell fishhooks, Cottonwood projectile points, Haliotis epidermis Olivella B2, B3, GI, G2, and KI beads--with a disk and E2 Olivella beads (persisting from the series of new items: Desert Side-notched and Protohistoric Period), along with HI Olivella Canalino/Coastal Cottonwood projectile points, beads. Unfortunately, the bedrock mortar outcrop finely-made drills, El and E2 Olivella beads, at CA-MNT-361 and associated subsurface clam shell disk, steatite beads, and Haliotis features did not yield formal implements. An epidermis disk beads. Both C. King (1982:360) historic component at CA-MNT-1277/H was not and Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987:127) ascribe physically discrete. lipped Olivella beads (Class E) to post-A.D. 1500 contexts, but the possibility of their DISCUSSION occurrence earlier has been raised (Arnold 1987). Strict Protohistoric dating may eventually be While some consistency through time is confirmed, but this type was found at every site apparent in the local cultural sequence, major with a Late occupation, including two - CA- transitions are also evident ca. 3500 B.C. and MNT-759/H and CA-MNT-1235 - where A.D. 1250. The Redwood Phase (3500-600 B.C.) occupation apparently terminated at A.D. 1500. marks the first significant change in local For the time being, El beads are considered assemblages as stemmed points, bowl mortars reliable indicators of the Dolan Phase in Big Sur. and pestles appear for the first time along with CA-MNT-1277/H, although mixed, was milling slabs and handstones. The latter persist mostly occupied during the Protohistoric Period as hold-overs from the earlier Interpretive Phase, (i.e., post A.D. 1500). The assemblage is not which seems to be a local expression of the very different from that of the preceding period, California Milling Stone Horizon or Culture. although Olivella K2 and K4 beads appear, and Lanceolate points, marking the Interpretive B2 and G2 disappear. This assessment is Phase, disappear during the Redwood Phase. partially based on temporal assignments made by Little typological change is evident through the Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) for the Early and Middle periods, as projectile point and Sacramento Valley, however. Haliotis epidermis ground stone tool types show little if any change disks seem to also appear for the -first time. for 4,500 years. Stemmed points were used A small but important -Dolan Phase throughout this span, although contracting- component was identified at CA-MNT-1942 stemmed variants seem more common during the (Wolgemuth et al. 2002). The assemblage Middle Period, and square-stemmed types more included a Desert Side-notched point, informal abundant during the Early Period. Mortars and and cylindrical pestles, and a GI Olivella bead. pestles likewise occur throughout, along with The extensive dating program completed at this handstones and milling slabs. Only shell beads, site suggests that the Dolan Phase began between which change from rectangular (Class L) to A.D.1250 and 1300. saucer (Class G), and fishing implements, which The most important interior site was CA- show initial appearance of circular shell hooks MNT-879 which confimned and amplified the during the Middle Period, changed significantly Dolan assemblage. This site was not associated between 3500 B.C. and A.D. 1000. The with bedrock mortars, but these were well Highland Phase, dated to the Middle/Late represented at CA-M:NT-569B. This component Transition, also shows retention of many earlier also produced single examples of Gi and B3 flaked and ground stone types, although small beads. Several interior bedrock mortar sites leaf-shaped points, apparent markers of early produced crude, unshaped cobble pestles, distinct bow anld arrow technology, made their 170 Cultural Historical Synthesis appearance for the first time. Elsewhere (Jones 1993, 2000; Jones and Femeau 2002), I've used the term, Hunting Culture, as a blanket classification for the uniform assemblages that occur between 3500 B.C. and A.D. 1250 on the central coast. The Dolan Phase marks a more definitive typological and technological shift with some minor continuity suggested by persistence of handstones and milling slabs, circular shell hooks, and occasional contracting- stemmed points. CHAPTER 8: ARCHAEOLOGICAL/ETHNOHISTORIC FUSION The radiocarbon record makes it fairly clear that ASSEMBLAGE DIVERSITY, COMPONENT sites linked with ethnohistoric place names date back FUNCTION, AND SETTLEMENT little earlier than the Middle/Late Transition. Nearly all sites with Late Period components were initially While sites initially occupied after A.D. 1250 occupied sometime between A.D. 1250 and 1500 showed some variation in size, most were very (e.g., MNT-504, -507, -569B, -759/H, -879, -1223, - small, covering less than 2500 m2 (Table 19). The 1227, -1236, and -1942). Because of this larger deposits were associated with named villages chronological pattern, Late and Protohistoric (CA-MNT-480/H [18,000 M2] and -1277/H [18,870 components have been combined in this chapter with mi2]), both of which were located above 550 m ethnohistoric information to expand the portrait of elevation, 1.5 km inland. In the case of CA-MNT- settlement and diet introduced in Chapter 3. Historic 1277/H, large size was partially the result of the records, particularly the ethnographic field notes of J. presence of multiple temporal components. Based on P. Harrington, associate a portion of the size and presence/absence of constituents, three types archaeological record in the central portion of the of Late Period sites could be recognized among those study area with places known and used by speakers investigated: large middens (greater than 2500 m2) of Salinan languages. Most of the following associated with village names and/or with evidence discussion pertains directly to those people and that of residential structures (e.g. CA-MNT-1227, CA- ethnogeographic territory. Three archaeological sites MNT-1277/H, and CA-MNT-480/H), smaller were specifically associated with Salinan place middens (less than 2500 m2) (e.g., CA-MNT-569B, - names: CA-MNT-480/H, the village of TsalhkakV', 759/H, -879, -1223, -1235, -1236, and 1942), and CA-MNT-1277/H, the village of Matalce, and CA- bedrock mortar outcrops with associated debris MNT-1570, the hunting camp, Tr'ackten. A fourth, (flaked stone, ground stone, faunal or floral remains) CA-MNT-361, can be tentatively linked with the (e.g., CA-MNT-361, -504, -507). An additional site place known as Ke or Campo de los Pin-ones noted by type, the bedrock mortar without associated debris, the Portola expedition in the El Piojo drainage in was most likely also a Late Period phenomenon. The 1769. Excavation data suggest that CA-MNT-480/H largest single-component Late Period deposits were was initially occupied ca. A.D. 1300. CA-MNT- found at CA-MNT-1227 (4135 i2) and CA-MNT- 1277/H showed a more complex history of use but 480/H. The other coastal middens were found in a was mostly occupied after A.D. 1500. No excavation wider range of locations, between 1 and 866 m data are available from CA-MNT-1570, but elevation, and 0.0-4.2 km inland. In earlier associated bedrock mortars suggest a Late Period interpretations of the Late Period (e.g., Jones et al occupation. Radiocarbon dates indicate that CA- 1989, Jones 1995), I emphasized the apparent focus MNT-361 was occupied around the time of European on inland settings, but the recent investigations at contact. CA-M2NT-1592 (Hildebrandt and Jones 1998) and es- 172 Archeological/Ethnohistoric Fusion aS I ,~~~Q c h 0 en cn In r-m tn * 4-; E I | c, t? t llNnN *g~~~~~~~~~~ ON %0 X3 W) 0 2nc 0 S g 8 I ^ ? ovo 00w 00 so en C4 x N t B Y I ? ? >>tto cs t_e sC4 0 I X~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~ ON %O . ffi 00 ,1 14",N tn c q W }~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 v t 0 N 1-4 c\ c% ONg] ' 3~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4C d 39i 3to3 C4 s306 C5 C-i"- ci- %60 e I S ss I e I 8 ? W o. . t o. o. X w ^ > ^ o. c o . S I 0s,6 I ! o > S >>>oonwto S o"m > X I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~11. ~~~~0>>u Fl 10 W fO v O z I ! I i| | |W!kkiiM! i0| i s ! I~~~~~c Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 173 pecially CA-MNT-1942 (Wolgemuth et al. 2002) reflect two types of occupations: one where a greater show clearly that this early impression was mistaken. range of tasks was completed (longer-term residential Late Period sites do occur along the shoreline of the bases) and another where fewer tasks were Big Sur and northern San Luis Obispo coasts (see undertaken (shorter-term residential bases). The Hines 1986; Laurie and Jones 2001, among others) small middens probably represent occupations by one although another recent excavation at CA-MNT-1455 or two families (a small band) or a single extended produced a Dolan Phase component ca. 2 km inland. family. Clusters of these small middens may The most salient attributes of Late Period sites are represent village-like communities, in some cases their presence as discrete components away from satellites of slightly larger midden/villages where Middle Period sites, and their occurrence, in some larger groups congregated. In other words, these instances, far inland at high elevations. The Late middens conform with Kroeber's notion of the central Period sites on the coastal flank of the Santa Lucias California "tribelet" which consisted of: were the furthest inland and highest elevation (CA- MNT-1236 and CA-MNT-1571/H) of any of the ... several settlements -- there might be investigated deposits. No pattern could be discerned three or four or five of them --sometimes for Late sites in the interior. All five of the interior more or less the same size, but more often Late sites were situated on the edge of the one was dominant or permanent, the other Nacimiento Valley between 374 and 459 m elevation, more like suburbs of it. They might be but their locations did not seem different or unusual situated some miles away. The smaller relative to other sites in the area although they again settlements were likely to be inhabited tend to occur as discrete single components. All of seasonally, or by certain families only the interior sites were either small middens or perhaps for a stretch of years, after which bedrock mortars with associated scatters. Small sites their population might drift back to the main of various kinds in a wide range of settings, including settlement (Kroeber 1962:33). some high in the Santa Lucias, seem to be characteristic of the Late/Contact Period. Table 20 Functional Diversity Statistics for Determining the function of individual Protohistoric, Late and Contact-era Components components and the manner in which they articulated with one another was another matter. The simple assessment of features and constituents used to Component Total No. Margalef initially classify sites (Table 19) was supplemented Artifacts Class Index with a statistical evaluation of assemblage diversity to try to isolate possible functional variation. Assemblage diversity was evaluated using the CA-MNT-879 206 19 3.38 Margalef Index of (Tables 20 and 21) to measure the CA-MNT-569B 89 16 3.34 relative richness of assemblages (i.e., the number of CA-MNT-1942 22 11 3.25 different types of artifacts represented) with some CA-MNT-1227 44 13 3.17 (although not complete) control for sample size CA-MNT-1223 138 16 3.04 (Magurran 1988:11). The underlying assumption in this analysis is that the greater the range of tasks CA-MINT-1235 15 8 2.59 undertaken at a given location, the greater the number CA-MNT- 282 16 2.67 of types of tools represented. Higher Margalef scores 1277/H should reflect greater functional diversity. The Late CA-MNT-1236 11 6 2.09 Period components sorted themselves into three CA-MNT-759/H 12 6 2.01 ranges: < 2.00, 2.00-3.00, and > 3.00 (Table 21). Sites in the low range were all features with CA-MNT-507 29 6 1.20 associated scatters, and the low values are consistent CA-MNT-504 13 4 1.17 with the limited range of materials present. The highest diversity scores came from both large (CA- CA-MNT-63 50 8 1.78 MNT-1227) and small (CA-MNT-1223) middens, Feature 1 suggesting that midden size may not be a meaningful CA-MNT-361 5 2 0.62 index of function. Total 634 31* 4.68 Given the range of materials recovered from the middens, there can be little doubt that all of them *From table 20; not a total; each unique item represented residential bases of some type. The counted as one class. diversity scores suggest that the middens could______________________ 174 Archeological/Ethnohistoric Fusion o 4 c - kn V on C en _ w e x - - _ n s e en _ m W i - Iono "N0 00?000????0 ???0??0??? - oe.io I s oooo ooo-ooo-o ooooooooo n Zn0t00 00 W--0000-0-0'0000t_O-0-0 z I N I _ E0 |-|00-000oo0-oooooo.-o 00 ~~~~~~~y In t- -v ? n ?? . CD?- ? a - - ? ?- ? ?n ? ? 0 Q C U 41 1cr~0o r40r .00_eoooo 00000oooooooo oo z4 C0 00- U)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e U~~~~~~~~~~~~U .E F| -.O0 s 0%oo _ x o o oo o o o o o o o 'E~ 00 ooootooooooooooo 0 >2e>? 0000 ' ?0 ?????00????????ooo_o000 n 0 g XlEiSEZXa8giXU! Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 175 Some small middens with lower diversity scores were apparently collected, processed and consumed may reflect seasonal encampments by small but at this spot, rather than being transported to a central diverse social groups (e.g., extended families or village for later consumption. The historic description bands). CA-MNT-1570, identified as a hunting camp of a large number of people exploiting pine nuts at in the Harrington notes, may represent one such this location suggests this site may actually reflect a residential base. Some of the small middens with large aggregation of people for a very short-term mid-range diversity scores (CA-MNT-759/H, -1235, encampment. This suggests a more "ad hoc" and -1236) may likewise reflect seasonal exploitation of nut crops than is commonly surmised encampments by diverse groups. Even these apparent for central California. This less intensive exploitation encampments showed little, if any, sign of may reflect the extreme biodiversity of the South specialized subsistence activities--subsistence Coast Range, in that stands of oaks and pine trees residues, discussed in more detail below, showed expansive enough to support a large number of signs of acquisition of a broad range of resources. people through the winter are nearly non-existent. Low diversity scores for the non-midden sites Oaks in particular are spread out in small numbers support the inference that their functions were across the landscape, intermingled among many different from those marked by the middens. This is different plant communities. Some storage of acorns particularly true for the two components that and other nuts must have taken place, but in this consisted only of features (CA-MNT-63 and CA- setting, nut crops don't seem to have been MNT-361). The non-midden sites clearly were not concentrated enough to facilitate long-term occupied intensively or for long periods of time. aggregation of large groups. Nonetheless, most of them produced evidence for a In contrast, nut remains from CA-MNT-1942 variety of activities, suggesting they functioned as may reflect a more traditional use of acorns, buckeye briefly used residential bases. Only CA-MNT-361 nuts, and pine nuts. These remains, meticulously produced an assemblage so limited that it seems to extracted and identified by Wolgemuth et al. (2002), reflect non-residential occupation. indicate that inhabitants of this shoreline midden were traveling at least 5 km inland to harvest plant FLORAL REMAINS AND PLANT foods. Despite its coastal setting, the site seems to EXPLOITATION have been a base for resource exploitation that was focused inland. Nut crops harvested in the fall were Subsurface features from prehistoric contexts probably stored and used to extend occupation of this also yielded evidence for plant exploitation. A hearth site into the winter- at a minimum. from CA-MNT-1227 showed evidence for exploitation of acorns and bay nuts, while charred FAUNAL REMAINS, ANIMAL remains from CA-MNT-879 also showed acorn EXPLOITATION, AND DIET (Table 22). Botanical materials from CA-MNT-1942 were also highlighted by nut remains. The charred Mammal and bird remains from the Late Period remains from both the prehistoric and contact-era showed a decided emphasis on terrestrial taxa. From features showed a greater representation of nuts over a total of 507 identified elements from the coastal small seeds. From the four features, only seeds of sites, 487 (96.1%) represented terrestrial animals goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.) w6re at all abundant. (Table 23). The most important resources were deer These findings contrast with those reported by (399 elements 78.7%) on the coast and cottontail Wolgemuth (1996) from central California where a rabbits in the interior (36.4%). Sea otter remains were profusion of small seeds from Late Period contexts abundant only at CA-MNT-63 in post-contact was thought to represent an intensified proto- context, where they accounted for 25 of 63 (39.6%) agricultural subsistence mode. identified elements. Remarkably, the coastal sites The subsurface hearth features from CA-MNT- showed evidence for exploitation of only eight 361 which yielded evidence for processing and species while fourteen species were exploited in the probable on-site consumption of acorns and pine nuts interior. Not surprisingly, the Margalef diversity (Table 22) cannot be underestimated in terms of the score for the coast was very low at 1.16; the score for insights they provide into local settlement systems. the interior was only 2.29. The combined score for This site seems to correlate with the place name of the coast and interior together was 1.98 (Table 24). Ke or Campo de los Pin-ones, where the Spanish Fish remains showed some variability in observed a large aggregation of people exploifimg diversity and density. Many of the pre-contact sites pine nuts in September of 1769. The subsurface were marked by light accumulations of fish bone, but hearths adjacent to the bedrock mortar outcrop seem several, particularly CA-MNT-1942, produced to reflect a brief encampment, as pine nuts and acorns significant amounts of fish bone. The coastal Late 176 Archaeological/Ethnohistoric Fusion 00 1. C1 'oom so*e en t,- O cn ro o- Vo- caoo c 8 coI - I% . I C) S C o o O o Cl I> 00 C> 0o000 000000 04O 0O 0 0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0% - t -0% I -' 0 0 .. | 3 J] 4:cS1. Ia c I a Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 177 U)13 a FD oN - C O,D O Oq - - -- - C1( 0 O O 00~~~r C 0 ?y ~-0 '- "-m>cs_O _OO 0o_o000- - o c 000 0 W 00 S? I _nooooooooooooocoo oooo 0%~~0--0-000'-'-0- 0cc 00 0 0 cc a HE R-000000000^00000 0- 0000000-S en~ cc 4w 0-0 00 0 ~00 00 0 0 0 0 r cn 0'00 '- E - fE - - VI en ?~~~~~~~ 00 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 'a 0 N _, _ _ E0 f o o o-oo o ooo oo oooo 0co o oo o oo o 0 W g R X 0 Q i 000000000000000 00 00000000nm mrE>U2 I ~ 0% 000000 000000 00% 00 00000 178 Archaeological/Ethnohistoric Fusion Table 24 Margalef Index Scores for Late and Protohistoric Mammal and Bird Bone Assemblages Component NISP No. Margalef index species CA-MNT-759/H 9 1 0.00 CA-MNT-569B 18 9 2.77 CA-MNT-504 1 1 0.00 CA-MNT-879 272 10 1.61 CA-MNT-1223 118 5 0.83 CA-MNT-1227 125 4 0.62 CA-MNT-1235 10 1 0.00 CA-MNT-1236 33 2 0.28 CA-MNT-1942 91 6 1.10 CA-MNT-1277/H 121 7 1.27 Total 798 14 1.94 Table 25 Summary of Fish Bone from Late Period and Contact-era Components COASTAL SITES INTERIOR SITES Common name MNT- MNT MNT MNT MNT- MNT Sub- MNT- MNT Sub- Grand 759/H -1223 -1227 -1235 1277/H -1942 total 569B -879 total total MARINE TAXA Herring 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 Pacific hake 0 0 2 0 1 1 4 0 0 0 4 Surfperches 0 8 35 0 3 19 65 0 0 0 65 Pile perch 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 Black or striped surfperch 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 Prickleback 1 0 2 0 0 15 18 0 1 1 19 Monkeyface prickleback 0 8 4 0 0 4 16 0 5 5 21 Rock prickleback 0 2 16 0 5 20 43 0 1 1 43 Rockfish 0 94 303 6 144 168 715 1 16 17 731 Sculpins 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 Rock or kelp greenling 0 6 28 0 15 9 58 1 0 1 59 Lingcod 0 1 9 0 2 2 14 1 0 1 15 Cabezon 0 10 109 0 48 29 196 0 5 5 201 Clinids 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 6 Subtotal 1 129 513 6 218 277 1144 3 28 31 1175 FRESHWATER TAXA Sacramento perch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 Sacramento sucker 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 Subtotal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 Grand total 1 129 513 6 218 277 1144 3 30 33 1177 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 179 Period components produced a total of 1144 fish Table 26 Margalef Index Scores for Late and elements representing 13 taxonomic categories Protohistoric Fish Bone Assemblages (Table 25). The dominant taxa were rockfish (NISP=715; 62.5%) and cabezon (NISP=167; 17.1%). Some remains of marine fish were recovered Component NISP No. Margalef from interior sites but in very low numbers. Remains species Index of freshwater fish were limited to one bone each from a Sacramento sucker and Sacramento perch recovered in the interior. A total of 1177 bones was MNT-759/H 1 1 0.00 recovered from the interior and coastal sites MNT-569B 3 3 1.83 combined, representing 16 taxonomic categories. The MNT-879 30 7 1.76 historic feature at CA-MNT-63 produced a total of 77 MNT-1223 129 7 1.23 elements, dominated by cabezon (NISP-=37; 48.1%), MNT-1227 2188 10 1.17 with 11 taxonomic categories and a diversity score of MNT-1235 6 1 0.00 2.30. MNT-1236 0 0 0.00 At most sites, the fish bone yields were not MNT-1277/H 218 7 1.11 enhanced by micro-processing with 1.5 mm (1/16 MNT-1942 3506 21 2.45 inch) mesh, but fine screening did increase numbers Total 6081 23 2.52 significantly at CA-MNT-1277 and CA-MNT-1942. This increase was particularly marked at the latter. At CA-MNT-1227, the fish bone assemblage increased Most dietary estimates based on faunal remains to a total of 2188 elements when the micro-samples from the coastal sites showed an emphasis on were extrapolated to represent the full recovery terrestrial mammals, with less reliance on fish or volume and combined with other (3 mm) samples. shellfish, although a range of variation was also This enlarged sample was dominated by black or evident (Table 27). Fish bones from the large midden striped surfperch (NISP=1480; 67.6%) and rockfish at CA-MNT-1227 represented nearly 50% of the diet (NISP=412; 18.8%). It showed 10 taxonomic classes at that location. Faunal data from CA-MNT-1942 are for a diversity score of 1.18. At CA-MNT-1942, the not amenable to the type of MNI-based dietary combined 3mm and extrapolated 1.5 mm samples reconstructions that were done at the other sites, but represented 3506 elements, dominated by anchovies there can be little doubt that the large fish bone (NISP=1914; 54.6%), rockfish (NISP=378; 10.8%), recovery from that site indicates a diet in which fish and rock or black prickleback (NISP=300; 8.6%). were important. Bone isotope findings from CA- Twenty-one taxonomic classes were represented and MNT-1227 and CA-MNT-1277/H indicated a this was the most diverse of the fish assemblages generalized diet with no particular emphasis on either with a Margalef score of 2.45. The Margalef score for terrestrial or marine foods (Table 28, Figure 96). Late the combined coastal and interior sites was 2.52 Period sites on the interior produced evidence for (Table 26). The amount of fish bone recovered from marine resource exploitation, but quantitative CA-MNT- 1942 makes it clear that earlier estimations evaluation of these remains showed them to be of the relative unimportance of fish in Late Period proportionately unimportant. Before the findings diets (e.g., Jones 1995) were exaggerated due to the from CA-MNT-1942 were reported by Wolgemuth et absence of a shoreline componefit in the previously al. (2002) I felt that the settlement and subsistence available sample. system employed between A.D. 1250 and historic Shellfish assemblages were consistently contact included the use of marine foods, but was dominated by the remains of California mussel-both more focused on terrestrial taxa. The new findings, in the interior and on the coast. While some remains however, indicate a greater use of fish during the of black and red abalone, turban snails, limpets, and Late and Protohistoric periods than previously chitons were recovered, the only mollusk that was suspected. Inhabitants of the Big Sur coast during the consistently present at all of the Late/Contact era Late Period had a generalized diet that included sites was mussel. All of the pre-contact sites showed nearly every type of edible food in the area. Sites on mussel shell size profiles that matched a "stripping" the shoreline, however, seem to show a significant curve. The historic feature at CA-MNT-63, however, interest in terrestrial mammals and plant foods, and showed a more selective "plucking" curve, while the their clearly was no intensive maritime focus as there Protohistoric component from CA-MNT-1277/H wras was in the Santa Barbara Channel during the Late intermediate between the two (Figure 95). Period (Walker and DeNiro 1986). Patterning among the remains of black-tailed deer, the preferred mammalian prey at nearly all of 180 Archaeological/Ethnohistoric Fusion Table 27 Dietary Reconstructions from Late, Protohistoric, and Historic Components % of edible flesh Component Marine Terrestrial Fish Shellfish Birds mammals mammals COASTAL CA-MNT-759/H 0.0 91.5 0.3 8.2 0.0 CA-MNT-1223 1.3 86.6 5.4 6.6 0.0 CA-MNT-1227 0.9 36.8 46.8 15.6 0.0 CA-MNT-1235 0.0 91.3 1.7 7.0 0.0 CA-MNT-1236 0.0 83.7 0.0 16.3 0.0 CA-MNT-1277/H 7.0 68.4 10.0 14.6 0.0 CA-MNT-1942 INTERIOR CA-MNT-569 B 0.0 98.1 1.5 0.1 0.3 CA-MNT-879 8.7 89.1 4.7* 4.4 0.2 HISTORIC COASTAL CA-MNT-63 60.5 25.8 3.5 9.9 0.2 *Includes 0.1% freshwater species: all other fish are marine. Table 28 Stable Isotope Ratios from Human Bone Site Unit Depth 13C apatite 13C gelatin '5N gelatin (cm) CA-MNT-1227 5 80-90 -11.1 -15.6 + 10.2 CA-MNT-1227 6 70-80 -11.0 -17.4 + 8.7 CA-MNT-1228 - 12.1 - 17.7 + 8.1 CA-MNT-1232/H 4 140-150 - 12.0 - 18.0 + 6.3 CA-MNT-1233 - 10.8 - 15.3 +11.8 CA-MNT-1277/H - 13.0 - 17.2 +9.3 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 181 PRIS1INE SElliNG (BIG CREEK) NON-PRISTINE SElliNG (DAVENPORT) 100 100 90 90 CA-1M NT-12 80 >180 70 / EXPERIMENTAL 0 / EXPERIMENTAL 8 STRIPPING % STRIPPING 50 /50/ 40 40 30 30/ EXPERIMENT 3 / 20 / PLUCKING 20 EXPERIMENTAL 10 10 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~PLUCKING 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Shell Slzecm CA-MNT-1227 LATE PREHISTORIC S 10 100 EXPERIMENTAL EXPERIMENTAL 80 STRIPPING R0 IPPING 80 80 % 70 / 70 / 80 CA-MNT-1277/H PO 80 / 10 PLUCKING 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Shed Simcm CA-MNT-1277/H PROTHISTORIC S 100 100 EXPERIMENTAL 90 EXPERIMENTALSTIPN STRIPPING 80 80 70 170/ % ~~~~~~EXPERIMENTAL PLUCKING 40 40 30 30 20 CA-MNT-63 20 ~~~~~~~~~EXPERIMENTAL 10 -10 PLUCKING 0 0 0 123 4 5 678910911112 0 123 4 567 8 910 She# Sim cm ~CA-MVNT-63 HISTORICSh#Swc Figure 95= Mussl-- Shll Siz.Pofle for- the^ -Lat thouhL onac-Prid 182 Archaeological/Ethnohistoric Fusion +25 MARINE MAMMALS +20 MARINE FISH z I- | | MARINE | SHELLFISH W z | 4 3 ~~~CA-MNT-1233 i z -20 z CA-MNT-1227 1 - - +O 2 C ARNIVORE FIELD 2 m \ /CA-NT-13277 GE Fiurn Stabe ICA-MNT-1227 R < ~~~CA-MNT-1228 A | ( v h gA-MNT-1232/H +5 t \ S HERBIVORE FIELD V 0 -20 -15 0l -5 1 C GELATIN Figure 96 Human Bone Stable Isotope Results Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 183 Table 29 Proportional Representation of Odocoileus hemionus Skeletal Segments from Late, Protohistoric, and Contact-era Components Proportional Representation of elements/ Segment/ Component Segment MNT- MNT MNT- MNT- MNT- MNT- 759/H -1223 1227 1235 1236 1277/H Cranial 0.000 1.600 1.800 1.200 1.400 0.600 Teeth 0.066 0.429 0.396 0.000 0.000 0.165 Axial 0.018 0.090 0.000 0.000 0.036 0.054 Forelimb 0.000 2.875 1.250 0.000 0.875 2.000 Hindlimb 0.400 3.200 3.400 0.000 0.400 2.800 Metapodial 0.000 4.250 5.000 0.500 6.500 5.500 Forefoot 0.000 1.250 0.250 0.000 0.500 0.500 Hindfoot 0.250 0.625 0.625 0.000 0.125 0.750 Phalanges 0.041 0.492 0.492 0.123 0.738 0.533 Table 30 Rank Coefficients for Skeletal Segment Rankings Compared to Idealized Rankings Based on General Utility, Marrow Value, and Bulk Density rs Scores per component Idealized ranking MNT- 1223 MNT- 1227 MNT-1277/H General Utility 0.26 0.15 0.36 Marrow 0.85 0.85 0.98 Bulk density 0.11 0.08 0.00 Score > 0.60 = Significance value of 0.05. Score > 0.783 = Significance value of 0.01. 184 Archeological/Ethnohistoric Fusion Table 31 Late, Protohistoric, and Contact-era Seasonality Based on Deer Teeth Annuli, Oxygen Isotope Determinations from Mussel Shells, and Botanical Remains Month Component J F M A M J J A S 0 N D COASTAL SITES CA-MNT-63 Historic CA-MNT-376 ----------- ------------- CA-MNT-759/H ----------- ------------------------------------ CA-MNT-1223 ----------- ------------------------------------ +++++++I~ ~~~++ + +-I+ + ++ + CA-MNT-1227 ------------ ------------------------------------ + ++++++ ++++ CA-MNT-1235 ----------- ------------- CA-MNT-1277/H ----------- ------------- CA-MNT- 1942 ?????????????=========????? INTERIOR SITES CA-MNT-361 CA-MNT-504 CA-MNT-507 CA-MNT-569 B ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ CA-MNT-879 =- - - ----- Deer Teeth annuli +++ Oxygen isotope values Botanical Remains the Late/Contact-era sites, was consistent through SEASONALITY time. Marrow-bearing elements, particularly metapodials, were always over-represented (Table Seasonality estimates based on deer teeth annuli, 29), and there was strong statistical correlation oxygen isotope results and floral remains show two between element profiles and profiles associated with important patterns. First, all of the coastal middens marrow processing (Table 30). This suggests that were occupied from fall through late winter/spring. body portions low in marrow content were disposed Since acorn collection was a fall activity, it can be of off-site, probably at kill sites. After field assumed that these were the sites of acorn stores butchering, carcasses were transported to the relied upon into the winter. Second, nut remains from residential base for more intensive processing. This CA-MNT-361 and -879 indicate that the interior was suggests a measure of logistical hunting behavior, occupied in the fall as well, indicating the existence Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 185 of distinct coastal and interior populations, not a method for coping with the extreme biodiversity of single group moving seasonally between the coast the Big Sur coast and the Santa Lucia Range. Re- and inland valleys. During fall through winter, source availability, however, did not follow a strict people seem to have been spread throughout the seasonal schedule, but instead decisions were made Santa Lucia Range and interior valleys, occupying on the basis of relative availability of particular foods residential sites. Middens with high diversity scores during any given year. The diversity of the terrestrial may reflect these occupations. Most of the coastal environment, year-to-year variability in the sites showed a seasonal gap during late spring/early abundance of alternative resources, and the potential summer (Table 31), while CA-MNT-569 in the year-round availability of some marine foods (e.g., interior showed evidence of people returning from fish) would have precluded a highly stable, the coast with mussels during this same period. This seasonally-structured food acquisition strategy like suggests some movement the coast and the interior in the kind that operated in the montane regions of the late spring/early summer. Because some groups California where people migrated into the highlands spent fall and winter in the interior, however, there during the summer and returned to the lowlands in does not seem to have been a wholesale migration by the fall. one population between the two environmental zones. When considered relative to Binford's (1980) Although plant remains from CA-MNT-1942 settlement classification system, the Late/Contact suggest the possibility of seasonally extended site Period subsistence system of the Santa Lucias use, historic accounts indicate that the local conforms poorly with either a forager or collector settlement system did not include permanent year- pattern. Foragers, of course, engage in frequent round habitation of single sites. Pedro Fages seasonal movements, and mobility patterns in the consistently described people in the Santa Lucias as Santa Lucias indicate periodic movement from one "wanderers... without house or home" (Priestley residential site to another. Foragers differ from 1972:54). These accounts and floral remains from collectors, however, in not storing foods. Collectors, CA-MNT-361, -879, -1227, and -1942 further tethered to residential sites with stores, send out task indicate that acorns were exploited, and the inland groups to exploit specific target resources, process emphasis in Late Period subsistence seems to be them, and bring them back to the main base in bulk. associated with use of acorns and pine nuts. Stores of The preponderance of residential sites in Big Sur these nutcrops may have sustained groups from fall suggests forager-like mobility, but ethnohistoric into early winter, but during other seasons, small accounts indicate that these people stored food, social units (extended families or bands) apparently particularly acorns and/or pine nuts. The residential took up residence elsewhere. Non-midden sites with sites do show variation in range and diversity of bedrock mortars and diverse scatters (short-term constituents suggesting at least four different residential bases) probably reflect brief encampments functional site types: (long-term residential bases by small family groups that dispersed throughout the marked by middens with high assemblage diversity, region especially in the spring/early summer. short-term residential bases marked by middens with intermediate diversity scores, brief encampments DISCUSSION marked by features with associated scatters, and processing stations represented by bedrock mortars Clearly, subsistence in the Saita Lucia Range without associated debris). This range of site types is was accomplished by group movement. Exemplified more consistent with a collector settlement strategy, by the location known as "La Hoya de Santa Lucia," but it is also clear that frequent movements (probably residential sites were abandoned for part of the year. within the confines of defined tribelet territories) by The Portola expedition recorded 60-80 people in residential groups were the norm in this area. September and "not a single heathen" in May of the The range of a group's movement was probably following year. The gap in archaeological seasonality constrained by tribelet boundaries. Historic accounts data between May and August in the coastal middens, suggest repeatedly that relations between many compliments these historic accounts, suggesting that tribelets were hostile, which may account for the coastal groups moved to other sites during this time, limited extension of trade networks. The probably to the interior. The large congregation of establishment of small residential sites in the uplands people gathering pine nuts in the interior in of these territories may too reflect an increased September of 1769 probably reflects movement of awareness of hostile social boundaries, as groups people in response to a seasonal resource turned inward to resolve subsistence problems. A concentration. Periodic aggregation in response to certain fluidity in group movements within tribelets some resources, and dispersal and breakup into insured that a full spectrum of diverse resources smaller social groups may have been an effective could be taken advantage of. 186 Archaeological/Ethnohistoric Fusion instances, raw material may have been at a premium. FLAKED STONE TECHNOLOGY This, in turn, suggests limited access to sources as a possible reflection of inter-group social tension. Flaked stone residues including artifacts, cores, Hostility between groups was repeatedly described in and debitage were represented in significant numbers early historic accounts. The production of a projectile at most of the Late/Contact sites. These items point from abalone shell at CA-MNT-1223 may illuminate a distinctive technology that was fIrther reflect scarcity of chert (Jones 1988:103), as employed between A.D. 1250 and 1769 as best does the absence of Franciscan stone from CA-MNT- represented by materials from CA-MNT-879 and - 1227. 1223 (Table 32). Stone residues from these sites showed evidence for production of arrow points from INTER-REGIONAL EXCHANGE small, prepared cores and flake blanks. The cores seem to have been prepared by removing small blade The ethnohistoric record suggests that the flakes (Figure 97) which allowed for the subsequent Salinan engaged in one-for-one trade and also used removal of flakes suitable for reduction into shell beads as currency (Hester 1978:502). projectile points or drills. Previously (Jones 1995), I Archaeological evidence for bead and pendant likened this industry to the microblade technology manufacturing, albeit somewhat limited, was represented in abundance on the northern Channnel recovered from CA-MNT-879, -1223, and -1227, Islands (Arnold 1987; Heizer and Kelly 1962), but and these finds could reflect manufacture of items for this similarity was probably overstated. Small cores exchange purposes (Figure 97). None of the Late with distinctive microblade scars were recovered Period components, however, produced much in the from CA-MNT-879 (Figure 97), but no microblades way of obvious exotic goods. Obsidian, in particular, were found among the debitage-despite a large one of the only unequivocal exchange items on the recovery sample (Haney et al. 2001). Furthermore, central coast, was nearly absent from Late and drills found with the Late Period materials at CA- Contact Period components (Table 33). Steatite MNT-879 and -1223 do not resemble the microblade objects were also recovered from Late Period drills common to the Channel Islands despite the middens, but steatite pendants appear to be of local likelihood that they were used to make beads and/or origin, as items representing an apparent production ornaments. Two traits that distinguished Late-Proto- sequence were recovered from CA-MNT-1228 (Jones historic flaked stone assemblages were relatively low 1996). Steatite disk beads may have been produced density of debitage in deposits and a predominance of locally or were imports from the central Sierra core-flake debris (Table 32). The bifacial technology, Nevada. The frequent mention of inter-group prevalent during earlier periods, probably did not hostilities in the ethnohistoric record suggests that disappear entirely, however, as reflected by the inter-regional social relationships may not have been occurrence of biface-derived debitage in low favorable enough to facilitate frequent exchange of frequencies in Late and Protohistoric assemblages. commodities over long distances during the Late On the coast, cores from CA-MNT-1223 and - through Contact eras. 1227 were very small and heavily worked, in some cases via the bipolar technique. The presence of these small heavily reworked pieces suggests that, in some Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 187 W~ io hFi 2 - t M. 0ub,,, *) 3.00, less diverse middens of site types was employed during that period, but with Margalef indices >2.00, and non-middens/short- one hunting base (CA-MNT-1754) was associated term residential bases with Margolef indices < 2.00 with the Middle/Late Transition. Given the (Table 37). The only midden site with a diversity similarities between Early and Middle Period tool value less than 2.00 was CA-MNT-282 which was kits, it is reasonable to conclude that systems of excavated by a previous investigator. Values from it settlement were similar if not the same for both and CA-MNT-281 probably should not be compared periods. with the sites investigated for the current study, The Millingstone component at CA-MNT- because there is a strong likelihood that different 1232/H Stratum II produced an intermediate diversity classificatory procedures and field methods affected score of 2.63. In itself, a single score is difficult to the composition of these assemblages and their interpret, but two other recently discovered resulting diversity scores. Excluding CA-MNT-282, Millingstone components (CA-SLO-1756 [Fitzgerald only non-midden sites produced diversity values less 1997] and CA-SLO-1797 [Fitzgerald 2000]) also than 2.00. Only coastal middens produced values showed low functional diversity (Table 38). This greater than 3.00, and it is clear that assemblage suggests that a more limited range of site types was diversity was greater on the coast than on the interior employed during the Millingstone Period. Further, it probably as a refection of the added technology suggests a more technologically limited adaptation, needed to exploit marine resources. For the most part, with less technological breadth and perhaps a more the statistical indices merely confirm inferences that narrowly focused or specialized adaptation. Although can be drawn based on presence/absence of midden the size of sample must be kept in mind, the findings and general evaluation of constituents. Perhaps the from CA-MNT-1232/H could represent a seasonally most important observation that can be made from restricted occupation during which a few tasks were these numbers is that at least four different functional undertaken regularly. Later middens, especially those site types were used during the Early Period: long- on the coast, showed increased richness, suggesting term residential bases (middens with high diversity that more types of activities were pursued. Middle scores such as CA-MNT-73), short-term residential and Middle/Late Transition components at CA-MNT- bases (marked by middens with intermediate 63 and 1233 produced the highest diversity scores of diversity scores such as CA-MNT- 1228), brief any non-mixed site. After the onset of the Early encampments (marked by scatters of flaked and Period, diversity scores for the most part show ground stone with low diversity scores such as CA- relative constancy over time. Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 191 00 "R oo , ,. ^ c! C', ^ t c , 0 oo *~~~~~~~ - .S~~~~~~~V In 06 o xnt Ct rI>U t;;o o WII c a " 0 " tOO - 0 -1 - 84 I0 c 1- e c r ra 0 4) I4)4f c c^ a l 4)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;5 S S o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o oooo ooo 0 00 0 d I -c; CS o CC; 3 | B | >^m v o ' ^m o t, oi ^n > _ 0 oo 0 w m t X F ^ m 0 I 1- i 00 m 0O O0 (In 0 6 00o n n > o IA m 0 Z '.4(oo oo ^ > > U. U f U U U U, ; 192 Antecedents 10t0t 000-000 0~0000000000000 00 0 0 InlI I'n00%0C000O0 00 0 00 00~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 00 e I I tO^"0OOO OOON~OOC>OOC0 O0 0_ z- I oot0om 000-0000000,0000 00 0C _ I 0? I _%'-'fn- _m?000O-'o0000000000 00 0 0 o I s I mS0Nn 00 - N00 000e0-c0000000 00 0 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ S I i I oooo'r oomoo ooocqoo-,-oooooo 00 0 - .0~~~~~~~~~6 00~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ U) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ po UaC 1f) 1 ~~U | & | 3 & E 3 t] 3 i-E ;g | E .t4 F- Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 193 .~~~% ma S- mxoono NoOo Nbo 00 m '~~ '0g~~~~ ~ ~ c~~ oo~~~ e~~c~~ r- -0 Z 0 ' -0% 0 00 - -- C 0~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~O '0~~~~~~~O 4) o0-0-'000c%4--0000,- ~ '0 'e -0'/0 e.4 0 r I, ..0C I Kt ,_ g I -00sI o0o~'rcs__ar00_oo-0 _o'oooor ooo-o oor 00 X 1 5: I 0004%r? f-0040000 sc'ooo000 0000 00 0 't 10~~~e | 4- so sh ~?c sxv _oOOoc I c- - ti 0Xt X { t ~ ~ 00cI-00 -000 000 00 0 8 ]ii< ]a3W]Xi]]Uit 194 Antecedents S. in - II- g X i z * N t n S ~~~~~N C: CD-S> 2?;> I ir I os mac~0 CDooo ooo O O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ Cl 00 N 0 C> > s 0 ~~~' 0%O oO0%0~00 0000 0% .o a3 >~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~00 e~~ c~0ieg0 0 -'0 0 01 a~~~~~( &P R Vt p U t z 4.4 00 N N 0 N\ t- ffi F H Q t F o > t Ci C D, C 0 C; 00v) tn 0 0 v) 'r \0 m m m0 010:0 ~00 000 - m . ~~~~~~~~~~0M ~ N tn V _) 0 F> C5C ;%a^ O'N - C ooO \00Cz -'o 3 E | E | | | | | i S | | | II I I I I I I II I w Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 195 Table 39 Bird and Mammal Remains from Millingstone and Early Period Components Common name MNT- Milling MNT- MNT- Coastal MNT- Early 1232/H stone 1228 73 subtotal 569A Period subtotal (Interior) total TERRESTRIAL TAXA Deer 27 27 75 31 106 15 121 Cottontail rabbit 0 0 0 8 8 2 10 Jack rabbit 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 Coyote/dog 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 Tuleelk 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bobcat 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Gray fox 3 3 1 0 1 0 1 Black bear 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mountain lion 0 0 0 0 1 1 Grizzly bear 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Skunk 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 Weasel 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 Red-tailed hawk 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Red-shouldered hawk 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Subtotal 31 31 78 42 120 23 143 MARINE TAXA Sea otter 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 Harbor seal 3 3 3 2 5 0 5 Northern fur seal 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Steller sea lion 0 0 1 1 2 0 2 California sea lion 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Subtotal 5 5 4 5 9 0 9 Grand total 36 36 82 47 129 23 152 FAUNAL REMAINS, ANIMAL showed a slightly higher proportion of marine species EXPLOITATION, AND DIET (13%). This proportion decreased to 11% when findings from interior sites were added (Table 40). In Faunal remains from pre-Late contexts show general, the Early through Middle Period showed a changes in relative importance of marine versus slight increase in marine mammal exploitation. terrestrial taxa, and mollusks versus fish and All but one pre-Late component (CA-MNT-63) mammals. The mammal bone assemblage from CA- had black-tailed deer as the dominant taxon (Table MNT-1232/H showed a high proportion of marine 41). Four species dominated nearly all of the species (14%), but the sample from that component assemblages: deer, sea otter, harbor seals, and rabbits. was limited to only 36 elements (Table 39). A Large migratory sea mammals (i.e., California sea slightly more robust Early Period sample showed a lion, Steller sea lion, northern and southern fur seal) heavy emphasis on terrestrial species with coastal were represented in very low frequencies throughout sites CA-MNT-73 and -1228 producing assemblages the sequence, probably because no rookeries were with 93%/ terrestrial animals (Table 39). This found in the vicinity of any of the investigated sites. proportion increased to 94%/ when the findings from A northern elephant seal rookery present today inland site, CA-MNT-569A, were added. The Middle Period and Middle-Late Transition components 196 Antecedents . - ? ^ ^ N N C oIA- s N 03 I0 vOCq o-0 ooooo00 \0 a ->oC 0O 0 0 0 a ! I-0000 0000000 0 000- con 0 a~~~o-~C C0 0 -0.0 00 00 0 0 0 00 ~~~~~~00 I -000 00000 0W 0 I0c o S t6 o> 6o~ t> Xm 00 0 N 0 N m , ^ ~~ ~~~~~~~~m. . Cu~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o So C,, C @ I crCt0e00 0 0 I00'-'4000 3~~~~~~ 0 0 Ceb xt) Ch _ t I I Cu u 3 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 197 c A O 1-' ooNMOV) 66o- z - ce~~~\ (1 0o cs o I o tno en en (1 0 0 o -4 o o 00zO~ 0co c 0 ooC> ( tr4N.o 'r~ (00 c- O0. * ~~~000 \~0~ o'r1 tn 0 tD R O O 00 e Ocq 00 d o o ooo 6 d .I: oo V0 Be 00t~m 0t00 0 ;, v O~~~cS)Ot - O0c S0 o U UUQUNUU 198 Antecedents at Point Piedras Blancas was almost certainly not Fish remains were a highly visible constituent in there prehistorically, since no bones from that species pre-Late components although there was evidence for were recovered from the archaeological deposit. change over time in density and diversity. The total Large marine mammals were probably taken on an pre-Late sample included 3473 elements representing encounter basis from ephemeral haul outs. The 34 taxonomic categories (Table 43). The overall greatest number of bones from a migratory sea sample was dominated by rockfish (NISP=1576; mammal was 13 representing California sea lion 45.4%) followed by cabezon (NISP=422; 12.2%) and recovered from CA-SLO-267. The most significant prickleback (NISP=363; 10.5%). Fifteen marine fish marine mammal overall was the sea otter, represented bones were recovered from CA-MNT-521 in the by 28 elements (4.3%) in the Middle Period and interior. No freshwater fish bones were recovered Middle-Late Transition components. from any pre-Late component. Evaluation of fish The pre-Late components show a distinctive remains is heavily influenced by sampling strategies, progression toward increased diet breadth through however, and the relative importance of individual time based on Margalef Index scores (Table 42). The species and fish in general changes when sampling Millingstone component at CA-MNT-1232/H techniques are accounted for-particularly when the produced a value of 1.39. This increased to 1.82 for results of micro-samples (columns and one unit from the combined Early Period assemblages, and CA-SLO-267) are taken into account (Table 44). increased still further to 2.87 for the combined Unlike nearly all of the Late and Protohistoric Middle and Middle-Late Transition components. components, several Early and Middle Period components produced many remains of small fish in Table 42 Margalef Index Scores for Mammal and residues processed with 1.5 mm (1/16 inch) mesh. Bird Bone Assemblages from Millingstone Several of the Middle Period deposits, in particular, through Middle-Late Transition Components produced large numbers of fish bones from relatively small samples, indicating very high density of fish bone. Small taxa were absent from the Millingstone Component NISP No. Margalef component at CA-MNT-1232/H which produced 77 species index fish bones representing 10 taxonomic classes. Cabezon was the dominant species in this collection, which produced a diversity score of 2.07 (Table 45). MILLINGSTONE PERIOD Fish bones were present only in a density of 14/M3, CA-MNT- 36 6 1.39 however. The Early Period sample showed some 1232/H variation with very few fish remains from CA-MNT- EARLY PERIOD 1228, and a greater number and density from CA- CA-MNT- 82 6 1.13 MNT-73. The number of species exploited showed 1228 no increase from the Millingstone Period, but density CA-MNT- 47 8 1.81 of fish bone increased to 110.4 elements/M3. Rock 73 prickleback, rockfish, and cabezon dominate the CA-MNT- 23 5 1.28 Early Period assemblages. The Middle Period and 569A Middle-Late Transition show significant increases in Subtotal 152 12 2.19 all categories. Fish bone density was extremely high MIDDLE PERIOD at some sites with over 25,000 elements/m3 at CA- CA-MNT- 140 10 1.82 MNT-63. Even inland site, CA-MNT-521, showed a 63 Middle fish bone density of 7.9 elements/mi3. The Middle CA-SLO- 277 15 2.49 Period components showed evidence for exploitation 267 of 29 taxa, and greater diet breadth was corroborated CA-SLO- 236 9 1.46 by considerably higher Margalef Index scores. The 1233 dominant species for the Middle Period were CA-MNT- 80 8 1.59 northern anchovies, sardines or herring, prickleback, 521 and rockfish. CA-MNT- 23 4 0.95 A similarly high frequency of anchovy remains 519 was recognized by Fitch (1972:115) at Diablo Subtotal 756 20 2.87 Canyon. Fitch attributed the high numbers of ancho- Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 199 Table 43 Summary of Fish Remains from pre-Late Components Common name MNT- MNT- MNT- Early MNT- SLO MNT- MNT- Middle Grand 1232/H 1228 73 Period 63 -267 521 1233 Period total Stratum II sub Middle sub total total Requiem shark 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2 Shark 4 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 9 Shark or ray 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 Sardineorherring 0 0 0 0 0 110 5 0 115 115 Pacific sardine 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 0 17 17 Northern anchovy 0 0 0 0 0 24 0 0 24 24 Smelts 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 3 Silversides 0 0 0 0 0 33 0 0 33 33 Steelhead 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 5 Pacific hake 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 13 Topsmeltor 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 jacksmelt Surfperches 4 0 15 15 26 144 1 68 239 258 Barred surfperch 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 3 3 Black or striped 0 0 0 0 3 4 0 0 7 7 surfperch Pile surfperch 0 0 0 0 0 56 0 1 57 57 Seijorita 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2 Prickleback 3 0 0 0 1 359 0 0 360 363 Monkeyface 0 0 31 31 65 44 2 1 112 143 prickleback Rock prickleback 2 0 20 20 13 102 2 6 123 145 Clinids 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 Striped kelpfish 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 6 6 Crevice kelpfish 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 Giant kelpfish 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 3 Chubmackeral 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 4 4 Pacific mackeral 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Rockfish 17 2 47 49 299 459 5 747 1510 1576 Rock or kelp 1 - 1 27 28 28 70 0 32 130 159 greenling Lingcod 8 0 19 19 18 3 0 35 56 83 Painted greenling 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2 Sculpins 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 3 Cabezon 33 7 102 109 117 75 0 88 280 422 Woolysculpin 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 Sand sole 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 Northern clingfish 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 9 9 Total 77 10 261 271 584 1538 15 988 3125 3473 200 Antecedents Table 44 Summary of Fish Remains from pre-Late Components Weighted to 1.5 mm Mesh Common name MNT- MNT- MNT- Early MNT- SLO- MNT MNT- Middle Grand 1232/H 1228 -- -1233 Period Total Stratum 73 Period 63 267 -521 Subtotal II Sub- Middle total Shark 4 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 14 Shark or ray 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 Ray 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3209 3209 3209 Sardineorherring 0 0 0 0 21,010 31 44 9626 30,711 30711 Pacific sardine 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 10 10 Northern anchovy 0 0 0 0 63,000 24 0 0 63,024 63024 Smelts 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2 Silversides 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 5 5 Steelhead 0 0 0 0 3005 0 0 12 3017 3017 Pacifichake 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Topsmelt or 0 0 0 0 751 0 0 132 883 883 jacksmelt Surfperches 4 0 15 15 1526 41 22 0 1589 1608 Barred surfperch 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 Black or striped 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 4 4 surfperch Pilesurfperch 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 20 20 Prickleback 3 0 0 0 12,751 94 0 1 12,846 12849 Monkeyface 0 0 31 31 65 7 44 9 125 156 prickleback Rock prickleback 2 0 3155 3155 7 23 44 0 74 3231 Clinids 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 Crevice kelpfish 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 Pacific mackeral 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2498 2498 2499 Rockfish 17 2 570 572 6299 75 44 71 6489 7078 Rock or kelp 1 1 27 28 3028 10 0 1093 4131 4160 greenling Lingcod 8 0 19 19 18 0 0 115 133 160 Cabezon 33 7- 102 109 117 10 0 1 128 270 Threespine 0 0 0 0 1500 0 0 0 1500 1500 stickleback Gobies 0 0 0 0 750 0 0 0 750 750 Sculpins 0 0 0 0 750 1 0 0 751 751 Northern clingfish 0 0 0 0 750 6 0 0 756 756 Clingfish 0 0 0 0 750 6 0 0 756 756 Total 77 10 3919 3929 116,088 367 198 16768 133,421 137,432 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 201 vy bones in the Middle Period levels to greater the onset of the Early Period, as evidenced by shell exploitation of marine mammals, and the deposition curves from CA-MNT-73 and CA-MNT-1228. This of their stomach contents (anchovies) into the strategy continued to be employed through the midden. This explanation is supported by the high Middle/Late Transition (CA-MNT-1233) (Figure 98). frequency of anchovy and otter bones at CA-MNT- Although evidence for taxonomic change was absent, 63, but not by the low percentage of marine the importance of shellfish varied through time mammals at CA-MNT-1233 (Table 39). A relative to other animal food resources, based on description of anchovy habitat preference and meat:shell and meat:MNI conversions (Table 46). behavior suggests their presence in the coastal The highest dietary proportion for shellfish was middens could be a product of seasonality: found in the Millingstone component at CA-MNT- 1232/H (26.3%). Through time, percentages declined Anchovies are pelagic schooling to 16.8% at CA-MNT-1228 during the Early Period, fishes ... [that] exhibit some seasonal and 0.7% during the Middle Period at CA-MNT-63. movements. During fall and winter they They increased slightly during the Middle/Late apparently move offshore and return inshore Transition (4.6% at CA-MNT-1233). in spring... anchovies occur well below the Like shellfish, marine mammals showed greatest surface during the day and move to the dietary importance (30.5%) during the Millingstone upper levels of the ocean at night. During Period (Table 46). Proportions declined in the Early periods of warmer-than-average water Period (24.4% at CA-MNT-1228 and 12.7% at CA- temperatures, adult anchovies become less MNT-73), and remained stable through the available in the inshore waters (Baxter Middle/Late Transition (10.5% at CA-MNT-1233). 1967:110). This trend is virtually identical to dietary reconstructions reported by Glassow (1992:121) from If they indeed reflect human diet, and not the western Santa Barbara County. Taxonomically, stomach contents of marine mammals, these small harbor seals were the second most important fish would have required significant expenditures of mammals at CA-MNT- 1232/H and CA-MNT- 1228, time to catch and process, particularly if they were while otters were absent. available only at night or from considerable depths. Fish also showed proportional changes in overall Invertebrate remains at all sites were dominated dietary significance through time. Based on findings by the California sea mussel, Mytilus californianus. from CA-MNT-73, fish became an important dietary Percentages of mussels ranged from a low of 61.5% item in the Early Period, and continued to be used at CA-MNT-73 to 98% at CA-MNT-1228 (Jones through the Middle/Late Transition. All of the 1995). The variability between CA-MNT-73 and - Middle Period and Middle-Late Transition 1228 reflects differences in habitat, as lower components showed a high proportion of fish in the percentages were found only at the mouth of the Big diet. Sur River (CA-MNT-63 and-73) where sandy beach Patterning among remains of black-tailed deer is more expansive than at other locations. There is no was as consistent through time for the pre-Late significant proportional variation through time at any components as it was for the Late and Protohistoric of the other sites. The Millingstone component at periods. Marrow-bearing elements were always over- CA-MNT-1232/H yielded 97.3% mussels, the Early represented (Table 47), and there are strong statistical Period component at CA-MNT-1228 yielded 98%, correlations between site element profiles and the and the lowest percentage of 84.9% was obtained profile associated with marrow processing (Table from the Middle Period component at CA-SLO-267 48). This suggests that body portions low in marrow (Jones and Ferneau 2001). content were disposed of off-site, probably at kill Patterns over time in the use of alternative sites. After field butchering, carcasses were "plucking" versus "stripping" strategies for mussel transported to the residential base for more intensive collection are striking in the lack of variability. With processing. This suggests a measure of logistical the exception of the bottom of CA-MNT-1232/H hunting behavior employed throughout the local Stratum II, which showed a "plucking" profile, all of sequence. The element representation profiles the pre-Late components showed stripping curves. contrast markedly with findings from Middle and Apparently, a plucking strategy employed during the Late period sites in the San Francisco Bay area, Millingstone Period was replaced with stripping at where Watts (1984:76-82) found a consistent 202 Antecedents PRISTINE SETTING (BIG CREEK) NON-PRISTINE SETING (DAVENPORT) 100 100 0 EXPERNTAL 20ERMETA 90 W STRIPPING ~~~~~~~~~STRIPPIN 60 0O 70 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~70 C~~iNT-1233 MIDDLE-LATE TRANSITION~~CA4tfT123 60 . 1 e'1 40 40 30 30 20 EXPERNMENTAL W0NNA 10 PLUCIONG 10 P OLCKNG 0 . - . 1- 1 .0 0 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 898 t10 11 12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7. 8 9 10 MHELL8 :ME WIELl(mR CA-MNT-1233 MIDDLE-LATE TRANSITION 100 100. -0 EXPEREX~flAL ' K . TPERNEAL p i 20 A DEPERMENTAL - //60 TRIPINGL eo ao 70 / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 60 1 2 3 '4 4 B 7 8C S 10 CA-SLO-273 MIDDLE PERIOD 100 _ l10 30 3^T1$2H { 0 / J / C -2 ,V0 EXPERIMENTAL . bEXEO 20 STRIPG . EXPERIMENTAL 10 l8dg~ 0 - -PLUION 0 1 2 3 4 8 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 0 1 2 3 4 6 8 T7 8 9 10 CA-M LO-232/ MIDDLENPEROD 20ge90 EXPERel Shell 20 EXPEie La Te 60 STRIPPING - 60 STRIPPINGN PLUI(IN 60/ 'CA-MNT-73 EARL PERIOD- 40 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 30 /IM 30 C~ 10 10 C 40 -- 0..IU CAPRMENT-7A ARYPEID 100 100 . 80 / 80 50 *5 3 4 5 0 0 1 20 1923 -.6 9 1 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 203 Table 45 Summary of pre-Late Fish Bone Assemblages Component NISP No. Margalef Index Excavation NISP/m3 species volume (M3) MILLINGSTONE PERIOD CA-MNT- 1232/H Stratum II 77 10 2.07 5.4 14.3 Subtotal 77 10 2.07 5.4 14.3 EARLY PERIOD CA-MNT- 1228 10 3 0.87 14.7 0.7 CA-MNT-73 3919 7 0.72 20.9 187.5 Subtotal 3929 7 0.72 35.6 110.4 MIDDLE PERIOD CA-MNT-63 Middle 116,088 21 1.71 4.6 25,236.5 CA-SLO-267 367 16 3.02 0.8 459.0 CA-MNT-521 198 5 0.76 24.9 7.9 CA-MNT- 1233 16,768 12 1.48 10.0 1676.8 Subtotal 133,421 29 2.37 40.3 3310.7 Grand total 137,427 30 2.56 81.3 Table 46 Dietary Reconstructions from pre-Late Components Component Marine Terrestrial Fish Shellfish mammals mammals MILLINGSTONE PERIOD COASTAL CA-MNT-1232/H Stratum II 30.5 32.6 10.6 26.3 EARLY PERIOD COASTAL CA-MNT-1228 24.4 58.5 0.2 16.8 CA-MNT-73 12.7 12.2 74.4 0.6 EARLY PERIOD INTERIOR CA-MNT-569 A 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 MIDDLE PERIOD COASTAL CA-MNT-63 13.7 4.2 81.3 0.7 CA-SLO-267 14.9 12.0 69.0 4.0 CA-MNT-1233 10.5 31.2 53.4 4.6 MIDDLE PERIOD INTERIOR CA-MNT-519 0.0 97.8 2.2 0.0 CA-MNT-521 ~0.0 88.9 10.5 0.5 204 Antecedents Table 47 Proportional Representation of Odocoileus hemionus Skeletal Segments from Millingstone through Middle-Late Transition Proportional Representation of Elements/ Segment/ Component Segment MNT MNT- MNT MNT- MNT -63 73 -1228 1232/H -1233 Cranial 0.800 0.200 0.800 1.000 1.200 Teeth 0.066 0.033 0.231 0.132 0.165 Axial 0.090 0.054 0.144 0.000 0.756 Forelimb 0.625 0.250 1.000 0.750 2.375 Hindlimb 1.000 1.000 1.800 0.600 2.200 Meta-podial 1.750 11.750 1.250 5.000 0.750 Forefoot 0.500 1.000 1.500 0.250 3.500 Hindfoot 0.125 0.250 0.250 0.125 1.500 Phalanges 0.123 1.476 0.164 3.034 0.041 Table 48 Spearman Rank Coefficients for Skeletal Segment Rankings Compared to Idealized Rankings Based on General Utility, Marrow Value, and Bulk Density for Milingstone through Middle-Late Transition Components rs Scores per component Idealized ranking MNT-63 MNT-73 MNT-1228 MNT-1233 MNT-1232/H General Utility 0.25 0.44 0.20 0.11 0.11 Marrow 0.80 0.81 0.75 0.63 0.61 Bulk density 0.00 0.22 0.08 0.00 0.28 Score > 0.60 = Significance-value of 0.05. Score > 0.783 = Significance value of 0.01. Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 205 overrepresentation of cranial elements, probably as a Readings from Late Period contexts at CA-MNT- result of the use of antlers for tools. Crania aside, the 1277/H and CA-MNT-1227 show a more generalized rest of the deer assemblages showed fairly equal diet with less marine emphasis. CA-MNT-1227 proportions of all body segments, indicating that shows a slight herbivorous focus, consistent with animals were brought to the home base whole, increased use of the acorn. Overall, better without butchering. The profile from CA-MNT- correspondence between faunal and isotopic data 1232/H and other sites may reflect the significantly after 3500 B.C. suggests a decrease in mobility. more rugged character of the Big Sur environment, where field butchering would have been a necessity, SEASONALITY and the time-consuming extraction of marrow was saved for the residential base. Regular marrow Seasonality estimates for the Millingstone processing also explains the low frequency of through Middle/Late Transition were based on deer identifiable mammalian elements in the sites (Noe- tooth annuli and oxygen isotope readings from Nygaard 1977). None of the element rankings mussel shells. While incomplete, the data are correlated well with a bulk density profile, so it is generally consistent and suggest only a modicum of unlikely that post-depositional destruction was at temporal variability. Deer teeth annuli from four sites work in the record. There is no correlation with a indicated occupation during the fall/winter reverse utility profile, suggesting that the type of (November-February) (Table 49 and Appendix II). logistical hunting recorded by Binford (1978, 1980) This included Middle Period components on the coast among the Nunamiut and used to define his collector (CA-MNT-63, CA-SLO-267) and in the interior (CA- settlement strategy was not practiced. MNT-521). This is an important finding, indicating separate interior and coastal populations, at least The Isotopic Record during the Middle Period (the same pattern evident for the Late Period). Most coastal sites (CA-MNT-63, The sample of isotope readings from human -1228, and -1232/H), however, also showed a bone provides an important comparison with the seasonal gap during spring and early summer. This dietary estimates based on faunal remains. One of the gap was less pronounced at CA-MNT-1233, where most striking revelations from the isotopic data is the shellfish were collected between April and August. lack of correspondence between the Millingstone Seasonal data from the Middle Period interior archaeofauna, which show a heavy marine emphasis, component at CA-MNT-521 show evidence for and the stable isotope findings, which suggest a people returning from the coast with mussels in the terrestrially-focused herbivorous diet (Figure 95). spring--during the gap in coastal occupation. It would Identical findings were reported from larger samples appear that coastal inhabitants moved inland during in the Santa Barbara Channel, where Walker and the spring, possibly to take advantage of the seasonal DeNiro (1986) found the earliest inhabitants to be bloom in grasses and herbs that would follow winter heavily dependent on terrestrial plant food, rains. Based on the findings from CA-SLO-267, it presumably small seeds. Millingstone archaeological further appears that coastal inhabitants returned to the deposits from the Channel, however, consistently shoreline in the summer or fall, while interior peoples yield high concentrations of shell (Erlandson 1988a, remained in the interior. Overall, there seems to have 1988b, 1991, 1994; Glassow 1992:121), as did the been seasonal movement between the interior and the component at CA-MNT-1232/H. If is likely this coast in the spring. Whether this was a bipolar system disparity reflects high mobility during the with one group moving between the shore and the Millingstone Period, with groups using a variety of interior is unclear, although I have suggested this inland settings during the course of their seasonal elsewhere (Jones and Ferneau 2002). Some data also movements, and the coast only for limited periods. suggest separate occupations of both areas during the Samples post-dating the Millingstone Period fall and winter. Tentatively, occupations seem to show heavier use of meat and fish, although in the have been more seasonally extended during the context of a generalized diet. CA-MNT- 1228 Middle-Late Transition. Overall, the seasonality showed the highest reliance on terrestrial game of profiles show general continuity over time, which any of the samples, matching the estimate based on may be partially related to a small sample. faunal remains. Shellfish were never an important The consistency in seasonality, particularly the dietary item, again corroborating the zooarch- redundant evidence of fall/winter deer hunting, could aeological data. The peak marine focus was at CA- be related to nutrient availability. Speth (1990) and MNT-1233 (Middle/Late Transition), but even here Speth and Spielmann (1983) noted that spring was an the intensity of maritime resource use was interval of resource stress among many hunter- considerably less than in the Santa Barbara Channel. gatherers in temperate climates, including California. 206 Antecedents + 4 + I I 3+1~~~~ I 3 I I~ ~ ~ I I I + I ~ ~ I I I + 3 1+~~~~~~~ 0 1+~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1+~~~~~~~ Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 207 Contributing to this problem was the lean state of This source does not appear to have been particularly game animals. Hunting and consumption of lean rich, however. A more visible and productive source game, in the absence of other sources of fat and/or of Monterey chert is located at Point Piedras Blancas calories, makes for very meager subsistence, that in where cobbles, pebbles, and boulders of relatively extreme cases, is dangerously low in calories. Many high-quality stone are found. All of the other coastal discussions of prehistoric diet in California sites investigated for the study (i.e., those in the Big emphasize protein (Erlandson 1988a, 1988b; Creek drainage) were situated at least 15 km from Glassow and Wilcoxon 1988), but the high protein sources of either Franciscan or Monterey chert. The content of many foods available on the Big Sur coast interior sites within Fort Hunter Liggett were all (e.g., shellfish, fish, deer) could actually have been relatively close to sources of Monterey chert, problematic, particularly in the spring. In the fall and although exact distances between sites and sources winter when acorns were available, and deer were fat, could not be defined, due to lack of complete it would have been cost-effective to hunt. By late information on the quarry locations. Proximity to winter/spring when acorn stores were exhausted and stone explains many characteristics of the game became lean, it would have been unprofitable archaeological assemblages, irrespective of time or to hunt terrestrial animals and could have been more technology. Sites in the chert-rich areas showed high prudent to pursue either marine mammals or debitage densities, high flake:tool ratios, high terrestrial sources of carbohydrates (e.g., plant proportions of core/flake-derived debitage, and high foods). Marine mammals migrate past the Big Sur core:biface ratios (Table 50). The local Franciscan coast seasonally, but their appearance on shore is chert was the dominant raw material at the Big Sur limited to unpredictable haul-outs. The spring/ River sites (CA-MNT-63 and CA-MNT-73), whereas summer gap in occupation of the coast may reflect Monterey chert dominated at all other coastal and migration to the interior to exploit more expansive, inland areas. richer sources of terrestrial plant foods. Acorn stores With respect to technology, the Millingstone may too have lasted longer in the interior, where oak through Middle-Late Transition components groves were larger and the dominant species are distinguished themselves from the Late and superior to coastal oaks in acorn production Protohistoric periods by an industry focused on large (McCarthy 1993). The oxygen isotope findings from bifacial implements suitable for use as knives, spear, the interior corroborate movement of people from the and/or dart points. This technology was well coast to the interior in spring/early summer. represented at both CA-MNT-73 and CA-SLO-267. At least three different reduction sequences were FLAKED STONE TECHNOLOGY associated with this industry. As represented by production failures at CA-MNT-73, large bifaces Flaked stone cores, debitage, and tools made up were in some cases produced from Franciscan chert a significant portion of the archaeological record at by splitting the cobbles either with the bipolar the investigated sites, and considerable energy was technique or direct freehand percussion to produce devoted to washing, cataloging, and classifying these large flake blanks that could, in turn, be reduced into materials, and completing of replication experiments bifacial preforms (Figure 10). The preforms were to aid in their interpretation. While the stone-working reduced through a series of stages from crude stage 1 residues showed marked spatial and temporal bifacial cores into finished, pressure-flaked tools variability, with some important exceptions, they (Stage 5). Two other reduction trajectories were seemed more than anything else to reflect raw suggested at CA-SLO-267. The first involved large material distribution and technology. The degree to flakes obtained from boulders or other massive which they reflected mobility and settlement seem sources which served as flake blanks (Figure 99). more limited. Nonetheless, temporal and spatial These were in turn reduced through the same bifacial patterns in the flaked stone residues have been stages. Points and other tools produced in this manner described, if for no other reason than to establish a were distinguished by a lack of cobble cortex on the seminal datum point for lithic studies in the region. finished implement. Bifaces produced from cobble- Two types of stone dominated the study site derived flake blanks inevitably showed some remnant assemblages: Monterey chert found in the interior of of the original cobble on at least one surface. The the Santa Lucia Range and as a source adjacent to other reduction technique, represented at CA-SLO- CA-SLO-267, and Franciscan chert found on the - ~267, involved small tabular pebbles and cobbles of coast at outcrops and as cobbles. One source of Monterey chert (Figure 100). For Franciscan chert Franciscan chert cobbles is located at the mouth of cobbles, experimental replication the Big Sur River, adjacent to CA-MNT-63 and -73. 208 Antecedents 0 J~~~4 ~ - r- in ,-4 C4- 0\- I I400 -~~~~ O~~~~~~) ef~~~~~~~~OO ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C1 C IV 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 m~~~~~~~n v) m C) C) Moo 00W B ~ ~~~~~~~~I I0v | t- c a% m 1 ,o ,g 0\ c- o 0 - ~~ 't0 O~~~~~,g00 0l -r 00 (In~'- 00 C-, 0~~~~~~~` Ct 0~~~~~~~ O a O\C1f V c n0 D2 S 9 4 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ' 0 e X e o t 4 N oo t- t o e > a > .-o o 4 )otomX 4) ^m>F6 *C Ct 0 E Y ^ 6 ^ > N oUU UUUUUUU Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 209 Figure 99 Biface Reduction Sequence from CA-SLO-267 Involving Large Flake Blanks LU 'I-2 v.}~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~K. ,Fw;-... tll'sI 2,.f~~~~~~II*1 210 Antecedents 7%. E ~ 4 i~ o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~v~ ' / W-Of~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- I. t.,* . ..j~ . Es . 0 \ }t# / . ~Figure 100 Chert Pebble Reduction Sequence Identified at CA-SLO-267 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 211 showed that initial reduction (manufacture of a Stage former. Core/flake debris was also much less 1 biface from a cobble) produces debitage that is ca. dominant among the waste. These figures all seem to 73% core/flake derived. Reduction of stage 1 bifacial reflect the form in which chert occurred at this site. preforms into tools produced debitage dominated (ca. In contrast with the Monterey chert, experimental 74%) by biface-derived flakes (Table 6). When the reduction of small Franciscan chert cobbles like those full reduction sequence is carried out in one location, found near CA-MNT-63 and -73 shows a dominance biface-derived flakes make up 62% of the debitage, of bifacial flake types over core flake debris for a full and core-flake debris, 38%. reduction sequence (see Table 5). The high Experimentation also showed that patterns in frequencies of biface-derived debitage at CA-MNT- debitage frequency were very different for Monterey 63 and -73 probably reflect a full reduction sequence. chert which occurs in more massive blocks at sources More importantly, the form of the raw material at this in the interior and at CA-SLO-267. At quarry site location fostered a quantitative profile completely CA-MNT-1813 within Fort Hunter Liggett material different from those associated with Monterey chert was available in large (10-25 cm diameter) angular sources. blocks, most of which were of relatively poor quality The remaining pre-Late assemblages represent due to linear fracture planes. For this reason, sites situated at various distances from toolstone reduction of Monterey chert from Fort Hunter Liggett sources, including those in the Big Creek drainage on quarries required much more primary reduction, the coast where the nearest quarry for Monterey chert which led to the production of more core/flake was at least 15 km distant, and sites in the interior debitage. Production of a large flake blank from an within Fort Hunter-Liggett where raw material was angular chunk and subsequent reduction of the blank generally rather close at hand. The actual locations of into a stage 1 biface resulted in 1215 pieces of all of the Fort Hunter-Liggett sources are unknown, debitage (3 mm mesh) for a flake-biface ratio of however, due to incomplete survey coverage. Sites in 1215:1. This reduction was associated with 97.6% the chert-poor coastal areas showed remarkably low core/flake debitage. Reduction of a Stage 1 bifacial flake densities (<36 flakes/M3) and extremely low preform to a Stage 5 projectile point was still flake-biface ratios (59:1). All of these assemblages dominated by core/flake debris (74.5%). The full were also heavily dominated by biface-derived reduction sequence from chunk to finished bifacial debitage. Biface-core ratios also varied from source tool yielded 89.6% core/flake debitage. locations, with CA-MNT-1228 at Big Creek showing In general, the vast majority of variability in the a value of 36:1. There can be little doubt, that with pre-Late flaked stone assemblages can be equated the possible exception of CA-MNT- 1232/H, these with technology, distance from source, and site assemblages represent bifaces that were produced function. CA-SLO-267 represents a chert elsewhere and then transported into the chert-poor source/workshop where relatively good quality stone areas where they were further reduced. was abundant in a variety of forms (cobble, pebble, Sites within Fort Hunter-Liggett showed boulder). The site produced a profusion of debitage attributes intermediate between chert sources and with an average of over 16,000 flakes/i3 (Table 50). chert-poor areas. All of the interior sites were Nearly all of this waste material represented the local dominated by Monterey chert (>99%). All of these stone (99.8%). While the site was clearly associated sites showed a predominance of core-flake debris, with biface technology, producing aver 500 bifaces despite the heavy representation of bifaces in the tool and projectile points, debitage was dominated by assemblages. All of the midden sites (CA-MNT-332, core/flake debris (95%), reflecting primary reduction -519, -521, -569A) showed nearly identical from the source. The flake-biface ratio was extremely proportions of core-flake debris (between 83 and high (2303:1) as a result of the transport of some 85%). These sites also showed fairly high flake bifaces to other locations for further reduction and densities with a range between ca. 8300/i at CA- uise. Perhaps most siguificantly, this deposit showed a MNT-569A and 1400/in3 at CA-MNT-5 19. A range predominance of bifaces over cores by a ratio of 2:1, of flake-biface ratios was also apparent with a een with the very liberal definition of core used for maximum of 4180:1 at CA-MNT-332 and a Ihcurrent project (cf., Bouey and Basgall 1991). minimum of ca. 200:1 at CA-MNT-5S19. The The less abundant secondary chert sources at profusion of flakes and the high flake-biface ratios at ?A-MNT-63 and CA-MNT-73 showed different CA-MNT-569A and CA-MNT-332 suggest these s.Debitage density was much lower (only 145 sites were situated relatively close to sources of kes/in3 at CA-MNT-63), and the stone available at Monterey chert. The inordinately high flake:biface urce (Franciscan chert) accounted for no more ratio at CA-MNT-332 is particularly suggestive of a 88% of the debitage. Flake-biface and biface- near-source situation with bifaces being produced for rat i os were lower, considerably so for the transport and use elsewhere. Cores, flake blanks and 212 Antecedents early stage bifaces were probably brought to these technology marking the Early and Middle Period on locations and reduced into later stage bifacial tools. the Big Sur coast would seem generally consistent CA-MNT-519 with a considerably lower flake with some measure of mobility. Most of the density and flake-biface ratio was probably a location variability in biface-core ratios, however, seems to where early stage bifaces were reduced. Consistent reflect distance from source. The highest biface:core with this observation was a biface-core ratio of 3:1. ratio (36:1) was manifested at CA-MNT-1228 in the The other midden sites all had biface-core ratios of Big Creek drainage, far from any source of toolstone 2:1. Perhaps not surprisingly, all of the non-midden while lower values (2:1 at CA-MNT-521, -332, 569A sites (CA-MNT-504, -507, 861, -1657, -1672, -1754) and CA-SLO-267) were evident at sites closer to also had lower debitage densities, lower flake-biface sources of stone. No clear temporal trend can be ratios, and higher biface-core ratios. These traits discerned among the biface:core ratios. If this seem consistent with locations that were not major computation does reflect mobility at some level, the production loci, but rather places where a limited data from the Millingstone through Middle-Late array of tasks was accomplished using later stage Transition do not show any obvious trend toward bifaces. Later stage preforms were probably reduced increasing sedentism. into tools. In the interior within Fort Hunter-Liggett, A hint of a meaningful shift in the organization midden sites were clearly major stone reduction loci of technology was afforded by the findings from the where all stages of reduction were completed. The Millingstone Period component at CA-MNT-1232/H, non-midden sites represent places where preforms where an inordinately low frequency of debitage (4 were reduced. flakes/M3) and flake:biface ratio (4.8:1) suggested a As a general rule, preforms and finished tools minimal emphasis on flaked stone tool production. A manufactured at sources were transported to sites in low incidence of flaked stone is characteristic of chert-poor settings, where they were further reduced Millingstone sites throughout California (Meighan (i.e., preforms were converted into tools and tools 1978:236). Furthermore, one of the largest cores of were reworked). In this regard, the Monterey chert- any of the investigated sites, a chunk of Monterey dominated assemblages on the coast at Big Creek chert weighing 461 g, was also found as part of this testify to the movement of people between the component. Larger than any of the cores found at interior and the coast. Debitage from pre-arrow sites either the Big Sur River chert source or the interior, where raw material was absent, such as CA-MNT- this specimen was one of three cores recovered from 1228, show biface thinning debris in a proportion Stratum II, equaling the number of bifaces. These (73.2%) similar to the experimentally-derived figure traits suggest a low rate of tool production and a high (73.5%) associated with preform reduction. The rate of curation, as raw material was transported into heavily resharpened blades on several points from chert-poor settings in the form of flake blanks, and CA-MNT-1228 (Figures 16 and 17) also indicate cores more frequently than preforms. reworking. The Early Period shows a departure from Clearly most of the variability in the Big Sur Millingstone tool manufacturing strategies. Early assemblages can be attributed to the the distribution Period components in both chert-rich and chert-poor and quality of toolstone and the form in which it settings show greater densities of flaked stone debris occurs. This observation is consistent with views and increased flake:biface values (Table 50). CA- advanced by Andrefsky (1994) who emphasized the MNT-1228, situated near CA-MNT-1232/H but significant influence of raw material availability on occupied after CA-MNT-1232/H Stratum II was the organization of stone technology. Nonetheless, abandoned, showed a markedly increased ratio of some aspects of the flaked stone assemblages may 36:1, signaling a new emphasis on biface technology, speak to aspects of Big Sur prehistory beyond the with preforms (Stage 1-4 bifaces) emphasized over specifics of simple tool manufacture and distribution. cores. It is unclear whether the shift in ratios reflects Seminal papers in the 1980s by Parry and Kelly a general disinterest in bifaces by Millingstone (1987) and Kelly (1988) demonstrated that mobile peoples or a shift in mobility. If it is the latter, the hunter-gatherers tend to rely on bifaces as cores. The trend would be toward increased mobility not a premise here is that bifacial cores would benefit decrease. After this shift, stone residues in the Big mobile populations in being readily modifiable, Creek area show continuity through the Middle/Late multi-functional, and portable (Andrefsky 1998:150). Transition as suggested by the findings from CA- Some (e.g., Kuhn 1994) have argued for a different MNT-1233 where the flake:biface ratio (9:1) and optimal mobile tool kit, but Parry and Kelly (1987) debitage density (17 flakes/in3) are similar to CA- also showed that biface-core ratios tend to decrease MNT-1228. A lower biface:core ratio may reflect the as people settle down and become less mobile. If this obserevation is accurate, the biface-oriented Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 213 presence of an incipient arrow point industry MNT- 1277/H) indicated that the obsidian was not reflected by the presence of small leaf-shaped contemporaneous with the rest of a deposit. When projectile points. these variables were controlled, the Big Sur data It is significant that stone sources seem not to show definitive trends through time (Table 51). No have been exploited through the use of specialized obsidian whatsoever was recovered from the quarry sites, but by combined residential/workshop Millingstone component at CA-MNT-1232/H, and a sites, exemplified by CA-MNT-63, CA-MNT-73, and similar absence or near-absence has been noted at CA-SLO-267. Flaked stone tool manufacture and use other Millingstone components on the central coast, appears to have been firmly embedded within the including CA-MNT-229 (Dietz et al. 1988; Jones and larger settlement and site use strategy. Use of these Jones 1992), CA-MNT-228 (Jones et al. 1996), CA- sites changed slightly through time, however, as SLO-1796 (Fitzgerald 1997), and CA-SLO-1797 Early Period occupation at CA-MNT-73 showed (Fitzgerald 2000; Jones et al. 2002). more emphasis on stone-working (flake density of Obsidian appeared initially during the Early 537/M3 and flake:tool ratio of 249.6:1) than the Period, first at CA-MNT-1228, in a small quantity, Middle Period component at CA-MNT-63 (flake and later at CA-MNT-73, in abundance. Quantities density of 145/M3 and flake:tool ratio of 107:1). comparable to the yield from CA-MNT-73 were Apparently, Middle Period site use was more reported by Breschini and Haversat (1989) from CA- generalized. Changes accompanying the onset of the MNT-108 on the Monterey Peninsula in a nearly Late Period reflect the greater production of arrow identical temporal context. Obsidian density points. Although arrows seem to have been increases through the Middle Period, as shown at introduced during the Middle/Late Transition, arrow CA-MNT-63 and CA-MNT-521, but disappeared points did not dominate tool assemblages until the from the record during the Middle/Late Transition at Late Period. CA-MNT-1233. As discussed in Chapter 8, it was also missing from most of the Late and Protohistoric INTER-REGIONAL EXCHANGE Period components. A cumulative hydration profile depicting all hydration readings from Big Sur Obsidian is perhaps the only clear marker of likewise shows the greatest number of readings in the inter-regional exchange during the Millingstone Early and Middle Period micron spans, with very few through Middle-Late Transition periods. Imported as in earlier or later periods (Figure 102). finished bifaces that were often heavily re-worked, obsidian was found at Big Sur sites in the form of biface fragments and small broken pressure flakes. Eight different source locations have been identified to date: Annadel, Bodie, Casa Diablo, Coso, Hicks/Queen, Mono, Napa, and Queen (Figure 101), but only Casa Diablo, Coso, and Napa were numerically significant. In general, obsidian from the Casa Diablo source was most abundant, followed by Coso and Napa. Coso obsidian, however, did not appear in significant quantities until the Middle Period, as indicated by its near absence from the Early Period component at CA-MNT-73. No other significant source variability is apparent. When recovery bias was accounted for, obsidian showed change in frequency through time. Because it was most commonly found in the form of small pressure flakes, obsidian samples from 6 mm mesh recovery were inevitably lower than those from 3 mm mesh. Previous claims for the chronology of obsidian arrival on the central coast (cf. Breschini and Haversat 1989; Cartier 1993a) ignore this type of recovery bias. Obsidian from the sites investigated for this project were evaluated by considering the density/in3 from 3 mm mesh samples only. Calculations of density also took into account hydration results, which in some instances (e.g., CA- 214 Antecedents I'* w'- ' % ' t M. . A' . * 8 . . . 40b. .0 * * IC~~~~~~~~~~ Cl,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 215 Figure 102 Cumulative Hydration Prorile for Casa Diablo, Napa, and Coso Obisidian from Big Sur Archaeological Sites .......................................................... ......................................... ......................... ......................................................... .......................................... ......................... .......................................................... ......................................... ......................... ......................................................... .......................................... ......................... .......................................................... ......................................... ......................... .......................................................... ........................................... ......................... ........................................................... ........................................... ......................... ...................................................................... ........................................... ......................... ............................................................... .......................................... ....................... ............................................................... .................................... .................... ...................................................................... ............................. .. ... ... ............................................................... .................... .................... ............................................................... .................................... ?gon .................... . ............................................................... (D - - - .. . .................... ............................................................... ...................................... .................... ...................................................................... ...................................... --- 'I ......1 ......................................................... ........................................... .................. ............................................................... ............................................ I.M. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1 ...... .......................1 .............................................. ..................................... .................. ............................................................ ?.I......? ........ ..................... ......................... ...1 ................................................................... .................... ......................... ............................................... 1,11,11,11,11,11,11,1-111 ..................... ........................ ..............1 ........................................................ ..................... ......................... ...............................................1 ......................1..................... ........................ ....................................................................... .................... ......................... ............................................................... ..................................... . .. ......................... ............................ 1............................... .......................................... ......................... ...................................................................... ................................ ............ -- .................................................... ................................ ...................................................................... .......................................... ...................................................................... .......................................... ......................... ................................................................. .................. ......................... ................................................................. .................. ......................... ...................................................................... .......................................... ...................... ............................... ............................... ................................ ............ ................................. .............. =41 .......... . ............ .............. . ......... .............................. .............................. ................................ ........................... ............................ ............................ ............................. .. ......... ............................. ............ ...................... ............................... ..................................... .......................................... ........................................... ........................... .. .... - - ... .. .. .. .. ... _. ._ .. _. .. - _. - .. 1..K .. .. _. .. ...- _. .. _. .. _. _. 1........... ................................ .......................... . .................................................... ............................... ................................................... ...................................... ................................................... ..................................... ........................... ................................................... ............................... ..... .......................... ................... .... ........................... .... ........................... C- .................. ..................................... ........... . ............. ...........1 ....................................... ................ .................................... ............ ...............................................1 ............... ..........................1.......... ............................................... ............... ..................................... ................................................... ............... ................................... ................................................... ... ............ ................................... ................................. ............... .................................. ................................ ............................... ................................. ................................. ............................... ................................ ............................................. ............................... ............................... .............................................. .............................. ............................. ............................ ........................... .......... .......................... ........... ......................... icE U m CE) I - - ^ I a 1 Antecedents Table 51 Summary of Obsidian Recovery, Millingstone through Middle-Late Transition Site Total Volume Contemporaneous Obsidian/ excavation screened obsidian m3 screened volume through 3 mm through 3 (m3) mesh (m3) mm mesh CA-MNT-1232/H 5.4 2.6 0 0.00 Subtotal 5.4 2.6 0 0.00 CA-MNT-1228 14.7 1.6 1 0.40 CA-MNT-73 20.9 20.9 94 4.49 CA-MNT-569 A 30.1 1.9 4 2.11 Subtotal 65.7 24.4 99 4.06 CA-MNT-63 4.6 3.2 19 5.93 CA-MNT-332 6.5 0.7 5 7.01 CA-MNT-521 25.0 3.2 32 10.00 CA-MNT-519 10.0 1.0 2 2.00 CA-SLO-267 70.3 7.0 6 0.86 Subtotal 116.4 15.1 64 4.24 CA-MNT-1233 10.0 3.4 0 0.00 Subtotal 10.0 3.4 0 0.00 Grand total 197.5 45.5 163 3.58 Pendants of talc schist were also apparently employed in exchange networks. Absent from Stra- tum II at CA-MNT-1232/H, these artifacts appear for the first time during the Early Period at CA-MNT- 1228 when obsidian also first appeared. Partially complete specimens were recovered from both this site and Stratum I at CA-MNT-1232/H, demon- strating their local manufacture. Evidence for local shell bead and/or pendant manufacture is relatively modest among the investi- gated sites. Possible pendant blanks were found at CA-MNT-1223, -1227, and -1233. Several bead blanks were recovered from CA-MNT-1277/H. The most substantive inventory was obtained from CA- MNT-1223, where pendant blanks were found along with drills and a few small blades. These items apparently represent a small-scale manufacturing industry. All of the evidence for shell bead and/or pendant manufacture dates from the Middle/Late Transition and later, and may indicate continuation of trade. The absence of obsidian and otter bones from the Late Period sites, however, suggests that exchange networks were less extensive than they had been previously. 216 CHAPTER 10: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Sites investigated for this project revealed a complex pattern of human occupation spanning from 4400 B.C. to A.D. 1830. This sequence was divided into seven periods, each represented by a local phase: Millingstone (Interpretive Phase; 4400-3500 B.C.), Early (Redwood Phase; 3500-600 B.C.), Middle (Willow Creek Phase; 600 B.C.-A.D. 1000), Middle- Late Transition (Highland Phase A.D. 1000-1300), Late and Protohistoric (Dolan Phase; A.D. 1300- 1769), and Historic (Santos Phase; A.D. 1769-1830). In an effort to develop the most effective interpretation for patterns in this sequence, salient characteristics of each period are reviewed in this chapter, and intervals of transition are evaluated relative to the predicted outcomes from alternative theories discussed in Chapter 1. Four intervals of significant change were considered: Millingstone- Early (ca. 3500 B.C.), Early-Middle.(600 B.C.), the Middle-Late (A.D. 1000-1300), and the Proto- historic-Historic (A.D. 1769). To evaluate possible links between apparent cultural changes and events in the natural environment, paleo-environmental trends were reviewed, and cases for or against environmental causality were evaluated. In light of the paleoenvironmental record, the directions of cultural changes were then evaluated relative to the outcomes anticipated from theories of cultural ,evolution, cultural ecology, resource stewardship, and optimal foraging. While population-induced sbsistence intensification explains much of the record, rapidly transpiring, high-intensity- environmental deterioration between A.D. 1000 and 1300 appears to have caused unique changes in setflement, diet, exchange, and social relationships. MILLINGSTONE PERIOD Other than a single, unassociated radiocarbon date from CA-MNT-521, the Millingstone Period was represented only by Stratum II at CA-MNT- 1232/H, and the interpretive limitations of such a small sample must be acknowledged. Indeed, the term "Interpretive" was applied to the phase defined from this component in part to acknowledge the challenges presented by such a small but unique component, and in part to recognize the site's location along the Big Creek Reserve Interpretive Trail. Dating ca. 4400-3300 B.C., Stratum II yielded a small, but distinctive assemblage similar to those from Millingstone sites in southern California (Meighan 1978:234-236; Rogers 1929; Wallace 1955). Typical Millingstone traits represented in Stratum II included a low frequency of flaked stone debitage and tools, particularly projectile points, and absence of mortars and pestles. Overall, this component fits comfortably within widely accepted characterizations of the Millingstone culture or horizon (Wallace 1955, 1978; Meighan 1978:234- 236; Fitzgerald and Jones 1999). The dietary proclivities of Millingstone peoples have been a subject of different views over the years. Marine foods, in particular, have not always been linked with the Millingstone Horizon (see Wallace 1978:28), but recent investigations have documented dense accumulations of shell in Millingstone contexts (Greenwood 1972; Erlandson 1988a, 1988b, 1991, 1994; Glassow 1991:119, 1992; Warren 1964). In keeping with this pattern, CA-MNT-1232/H showed a dense concentration of mussel shells, although the rest of the faunal assemblage suggested a somewhat Summary and Conclusions diverse diet composed of nearly equal proportions of shellfish, marine mammals, and terrestrial mammals. While fish were insignificant as a dietary item, shellfish and marine mammals were more important than during any other period prior to historic contact. Overall, diet breadth was fairly low, however, with a Margalef score of only 1.39 for the mammal and bird assemblage (Figure 103). A human bone isotope reading suggesting an herbivorous, terrestrially- focused diet is at odds with the findings from the faunal remains. Although this discrepancy could reflect the limited sample, it is consistent with the Santa Barbara Channel, where faunal residues show high frequencies of shellfish (Erlandson 1988a, 1988b, 1991), but human bone studies suggest a vegetable-based diet (Walker and DeNiro 1986). It is further consistent with a millingstone-dominated tool assemblage, commonly linked to small seed processing (see Meighan 1978; Wallace 1978; Erlandson 1991, 1994 among others). The dis- crepancy between the faunal and isotope findings from CA-MNT-1232/H, suggests this was only one location used for subsistence, indicating that Millingstone peoples in Big Sur were relatively mobile. The mussel harvesting strategy represented in Stratum II was one of only four that showed any degree of selectivity. This further suggests non- sedentary occupation and relatively low population levels, as selective harvest could only be sustained at mussel beds that were not harvested regularly (White 1989). Mobility was probably residential in nature, since Stratum II clearly represented a residential base. The distribution profile of deer elements, however, suggested a logistical hunting strategy in which carcasses were butchered in the field and then were transferred to the residential base for marrow processing. A dominance of Monterey chert among the debitage and tools suggests movement between the coast and the interior, as does the shell-derived radiocarbon date from the interi6r at CA-MNT-521. At a minimum, the coast was apparently used in the fall/winter, based on deer teeth annuli. Flaked stone from CA-MNT-1232/H showed a very low debitage density and a very low flake:biface ratio (5:1). These characteristics suggest that flaked stone tool manufacture was relatively unimportant which is consistent with a diet emphasizing shellfish and small seeds. There was also a hint of variation in the use of toolstone as suggested by a large block of Monterey chert. This large piece of toolstone suggested an ad hoc strategy in which stone was occasionally transported into chert-poor areas in the form of cores and flake blanks that were apparently cached in anticipation of a range of future needs. Stratum II yielded no obsidian, which is consistent with other early sites on the central California coast (Jones and Waugh 1995). Inter-regional exchange appears to have been very poorly developed during the Millingstone Period. EARLY PERIOD The Early Period was represented by a more robust sample including findings from CA-MNT- 1228 (3700-2900 B.C.) and CA-MNT-73 (2300-1700 B.C.) on the coast and CA-MNT-569A, -861, -1672, and -1657 in the interior. Collectively, these sites defined the Redwood Phase. They show continued use of milling slabs and handstones, along with the initial appearance of mortars and pestles, and stemmed projectile points. These additions conform with patterns in the Santa Barbara Channel and the Monterey Bay Area. Other changes in diet, mussel collection strategies, and exchange suggest that Early Period people were less mobile then during the Millingstone Period but still not fully sedentary. Faunal residues show significant change, as fish and terrestrial game became more significant in the diet (Figure 104). At CA-MNT- 1228, terrestrial mammals were dominant, while at CA-MNT-73, fish were most important. Shellfish decreased in dietary importance at both sites. Human bone isotope data were consistent with the faunal indices, indicating a greater carnivorous focus. Mussels were collected by the more labor-intensive stripping technique for the first time, causing a decrease in the mean size of shells. Early Period stone working reflected greater use of flaked stone tools, and more calculated use of bifacial preforms. CA-MNT-1228 showed significant increases in debitage density (23 flakes/m3), flake:biface ratio (9:1), and biface:core ratio (36:1). Continued dominance of Monterey chert (CA-MNT- 1228) suggested ongoing ties between the coast and the interior. Sites in the interior showed a range of functional types, indicating that local settlement systems more closely approximated a collector type settlement strategy. Inter-regional trade apparently began in earnest during the Early Period based on the appearance of obsidian, first in small amounts at CA-MNT-1228, and later in abundance at CA-MNT-73 and CA- MNT-569 A. Locally-made talc schist pendants might have been probably offered in trade, since the pendants appear in the record for the first time coeval with the appearance of obsidian. 218 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 3- LL :W 1- n 3500B.C. 6OOBc. AD.100 AD.1800 AD.1769 MILLING- EARLY MIDDLE MIDDLE- LATE & HISTORIC STONE LATE PROTO- TRANSITION HISTORIC MAMMALS AND BIRDS 3 .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I . ARL 3OOB.C. - 'EARLY 60.C ._ AAD.IQ0O AC MIDDLE MIDL- LATE TRANSITION ).130D AD.1769 LATE & PROTO- HISTORIC FISH Figure 103 Diet Breadth through Time for Mammals, Birds, and Fish Based on Margalef Index Scores 'W -z 'LL W. -X CD cr: MIUING- STONE HISTORIC 219 Summary and Conclusions 0 0CA-MNT-122MH * GA.MNT.1282M CA-MNT-122e ~~~CA~-N1220 0 CA.MNT-73 j K *1.CA4LO. 0 CAmN* *1238 CA.WNT.1235 0 *CA-MNT.1235 ft ~~~~~~~~~CAMNT41M3 0 CAM.MNTC .AMW1223 o ~~~~ CA.MIIT.12A27107 0CAMN-177 CAbw- C-MN.?5CA 44N 1 ~ ~~~~~~C4N~26 m 0>f' MNrI7 CA-MNT412 0H C4N.171 CA-N1MN12M E E d~~ ~~~ .AN.13/ C12 *CA-MNT1*232/ m :0: C "CA.1228 m * CA-MN-1228 * CA.M_T.73 *CA-MNT-73 0kC.~~26 i ASO * D *>. @ 0 CA- NT-S 0CA-MNT.12US CA-MNT.IMS * CA4dNT.12*5 CA~NT1U65 CA44NT.1223 0 CA4.#J-122 ~~~ CA.MNT.1227 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0CAMN-12 MmA4IN-?BH C4W7 * CA.MNT-1277M Z CA-MNT.236 0 CA-MNT-123S * CA.MN.1277M * * 0 5 - S 4g-- -9 -- * CA4NT-73 * CA4L.267 CA MNT630 In cn X * CA-~NT1233 MT-1227 '0) X m 0) s S 220 ? 0- a 8 9 Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast MIDDLE PERIOD The Middle Period was represented by materials from CA-MNT-63, -332, and -521, supplemented with data reported previously from CA-MNT-282 (Pohorecky 1976). These sites show strong stylistic continuity from the Early Period. Earlier projectile point and ground stone types persisted, along with circular shell fishhooks that were a significant innovation at the onset of the Middle Period, supplementing or possibly replacing bone gorge hooks. Faunal residues show the appearance of hooks to be coeval with an increase in fishing, as seen elsewhere on the California coast (Fitch 1972). Rabbits and otters were slightly more important in the diet than they had been previously, although the latter may have been exploited more for their pelts than for their meat. Diet breadth among both fish and mammals was higher than at any other point in the sequence (Figure 104). There was only modest evidence for change in stone tool manufacturing from the Early Period to the Middle Period. The chert source at the mouth of the Big Sur River was exploited as part of generalized residential occupation, with less emphasis on stone- working than during the Early Period. Sites near sources of Monterey chert showed occupations that combined heavy stone working with residential use. Sites closest to sources showed the full range of reduction, while sites further away showed a focus on preform reduction. These types of uses seem little changed from the Early Period. Both the coast and the interior were occupied during the fall/winter, indicating two distinct populations, not one moving between two environments. Seasonal movements were undertaken in the spring when coastal inhabitants migrated inland, only to return to the coast in the late summer or fall. A combination of residential mobility combined with logistical hunting suggests a continued collect6r-like settlement strategy. Inter-regional exchange peaked during the Middle Period as obsidian density was higher at CA- MNT-521 than at any other site, although combined obsidian density for the Middle Period was very similar to the Early Period. Volcanic glass from the Coso source reached Big Sur for the first time. Otter pelts apparently reached their peak utility as trade items during this time. MIDDLE-LATE TRANSITION PERIOD The Middle-Late Transition was represented at CA-MNT-1233 and CA-MNT-281 on the coast and CA-MNT-1754 in the interior. These assemblages again showed continuity in point types and ground stone from the Middle Period, although small leaf- shaped points and hopper mortars appeared for the first time alongside the persisting large stemmed types. The larger points were more abundant in the assemblages than the smaller types, however. The latter are commonly interpreted as arrow points. Faunal remains showed continued emphasis on fishing, including pursuit of some small taxa like anchovies. A bone isotope reading suggests more generalized subsistence, slightly more marine- focused than at other sites. Mussels continued to be collected by stripping entire colonies. Stone use showed strong continuity from the Early Period in the Big Creek drainage. The settlement system continued to approximate a "collector" pattern based on the hunting-focused assemblage at CA-MNT-1754 and on patterns in the skeletal element profile from CA-MNT-1233. Seasonality findings suggest that coastal sites might have been occupied longer than they were previously, but were still probably not fully permanent. No obsidian was recovered from the Middle-Late Transition sites, and otter bones show a significant proportional decrease from the Middle Period, suggesting that inter-regional exchange networks may have broken down. LATE AND PROTOHISTORIC PERIODS The Late and Protohistoric Periods were well- represented in the excavation sample. Thirteen sites yielded evidence for Late/Protohistoric occupation, and ten produced substantive, temporally discrete components. Most of these showed little evidence for occupation earlier than A.D. 1100. All were marked by Desert Side-notched and Canaliiio/Coastal Cottonwood projectile points, hopper mortars and/or bedrock mortars, small well-made drills, and class E Olivella and steatite disk beads. Circular shell fishhooks were still used, and contracting-stemmed points may have persisted in very low quantities, along with handstones and milling slabs. In my earlier writing (Jones 1995), I suggested that the Late Period showed a decided emphasis on terrestrial foods, particularly black-tailed deer. The excavation sample available in 1995 suggested a lack marine mammals in the diet, and a decrease in the importance of fish. The findings from CA-MNT- 1942 reported by Wolgemuth et al. (2002), however, show that fish, including small taxa such as herring and anchovies, continued to be caught during the Late Period. Margalef scores show no evidence for increased diet breadth among piscine resources, however, from the Middle Period into the Late Period (Figure 103). Human bone isotope results suggest a generalized diet. Margalef Index scores for mammals 221 Summary and Conclusions and birds suggest a decrease in diet breath. Mussels were collected by stripping, although the Protohistoric components at CA-MNT-1277/H and CA-MNT-569B suggest a return to "plucking" and an increase in mean shell size. The latter, however, could also reflect slightly cooler sea temperatures during the Little Ice Age. The Late Period was marked by a new stone technology, in which flake blanks from carefully prepared cores were pressure-flaked into preforms, and arrow points. Large bifacial implements were very uncommon among Late Period assemblages, and staged reduction of large preforms into bifacial tools (a process that dominated Early and Middle Period stone working activities) was not common during the Late Period. As a result, debitage at Late components was dominated by core/flake debris. Blade flakes were found occasionally reflecting careful core preparation, and the use of blade blanks for projectile points. Late Period cores on the coast were very small and heavily worked. Four types of sites were associated with the Late/Protohistoric Period: large middens associated with village names, smaller middens, bedrock mortars with associated, diverse scatters, and bedrock mortars with minimal associated debris (CA-MNT- 361). All four of these site types seem to represent residential encampments, occupied for varied amounts of time although bedrock mortars with little or no associated debris must have functioned as non- residential processing stations in some instances. No example of a fifth site type--the rockshelter with midden and/or pictographs--was investigated for the current study. The bedrock mortar and associated subsurface feature at CA-MNT-361 seemed to represent a fairly ephemeral encampment, while the middens were occupied longer. In general, the the two site types that dominate the Late Period landscape are small, discrete middens and bedrock mortars. The size of the deposits seems to reflect their almost inevitable occurrence as single temporal components post-dating A.D. 1250. During the early phases of this study, it appeared that Late Period middens were rarely found along the shoreline (Jones 1992, 1995), but discovery of the buried Late Period component at CA-MNT-1942 at the mouth of Big Creek and other findings (Hildebrandt and Jones 1998; Hines 1986; Laurie and Jones 2002) show that Late Period sites indeed occur on the shore of southern Monterey and northern San Luis Obispo counties-- generally as single components. The earlier estimation was a product of limited sampling. Sites situated the furthest inland and at the highest elevations (CA-MNT-759/H and CA-MNT-1236) were among the most recently occupied, and it appears that there was a push higher into the Santa Lucia Range after ca. A.D. 1400. Skeletal profiles from black-tailed deer showed the same patterning as earlier periods suggesting the same logistical hunting. The only site to show a more specialized focus was CA-MNT-361 where the mortars and associated features suggested a focus on terrestrial plant foods. Non-residential sites from earlier periods showed a focus on hunting. Seasonal indicators including deer teeth annuli and botanical remains from features indicate separate coastal and interior populations that resided in residential bases from fall through winter. Oxygen isotope findings from CA-MNT-569 suggest that people returned to the interior with mussels in the spring/summer. These spring/summer readings from this interior site correspond with a gap in the coastal seasonality profiles, suggesting some movement of people from the shore to the interior valleys in the spring/summer. It seems reasonable to conclude that spring was the period of movement for both interior and coastal populations, with some focus on interior resources. Overall, the scheduling and direction of residential movements was probably very flexible, and the size of the migrating group probably varied from year to year, as the highly diverse Big Sur resource base demanded a fluid approach to settlement. This system was by no means fully sedentary, but might best be characterized as semi- sedentary. Late Period deposits were also marked by a striking lack of obsidian, suggesting that inter- regional exchange was not common. HISTORIC PERIOD The Historic Period was best represented by a subsurface feature at CA-MNT-63, although CA- MNT-361 may have been occupied around the time of contact. CA-MNT-63 provided a more complete assemblage, however, as findings from -361 were limited to botanical remains. Feature 1, Unit 3 at CA- MNT-63 was dated on the basis of glass beads to A.D.1800-1816. The faunal assemblage was dominated by otter bones, while a sample of mussel shells showed evidence for selective harvest and a large mean shell size. Seasonality indicators suggest nearly year-round occupation. The deposit apparently represents a small refugee group, partially dependent on the Euro-American market, and exploiting an environment from which exploitative pressure had been lessened by the decline of the overall Native population. 222 fPrehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 223 CULTURAL TRANSITIONS 4400 B.C. - A.D. Millingstone-Early (3500 B.C.) 1800 Cultural changes at 3500 B.C. conformed with Continuity through time in some aspects of the the appearance of what is sometimes referred to as material record from Big Sur was very apparent, the Hunting Culture in the Santa Barbara Channel, particularly the character of site use, mobility replacing Oak Grove, a local manifestation of the strategies, and hunting patterns. The majority of Millingstone Horizon. Although all of the Big Sur investigated sites were residential bases; most were sites occupied before and after this transition were occupied in the fall/winter, and a majority showed residential bases, there are strong indications of a logistical deer hunting. While there was evidence for change in mobility ca. 3500 B.C. Most indicators a disruption in settlement at the onset of the Late suggest a shift toward a more sedentary lifeway, but Period, the overall settlement/subsistence strategy did some ambiguity is also apparent in the record, and not show major shifts. The prevailing system was not may only be clarified with the discovery of additional Wholly concordant with either a forager or collector components. First, the disparity between the faunal ystem, but more closely approximated the latter. The data and the bone isotope results, also seen in the Diverse resource base of Big Sur and the Santa Lucia Santa Barbara Channel (Erlandson 1988b; Walker lange apparently promoted fairly flexible mobility, and DeNiro 1986) suggests the Millingstone Period in which people congregated in larger groups for was a time of high mobility, with exploitation of parts of the year, and dispersed into smaller multiple interior and coastal settings. Early Period 1sidential associations during others. Year-round use and later sites show a stronger correlation between f single sites was evident only during the Historic faunal residues and the isotopic results, suggesting a Period under conditions of refuge and Euroamerican more constrained system of transhumance. Early tlade in otter pelts. Residential sites on the coast Period faunal reconstructions suggest a decreased wight have been partially unoccupied between late importance of shellfish and marine mammals, and an Winter and summer, when many people traveled to increased reliance on fish and terrestrial mammals. We interior. Groups from the interior apparently Since there is no evidence for a marine mammal Ade forays to the coast in spring/summer, although rookery in the vicinity of any of the Millingstone or caonality data are incomplete for the full 6400-year Early sites prehistorically, seal exploitation probably Occupational sequence. There was probably no strict involved the pursuit of animals at haulouts. Hunters seasonal schedule for resource exploitation, however, ranging over a wide area would be able to exploit Oa many coastal foods, particularly fish and shellfish these sporadically-occurring resources, but those re available year-round, and the timing of their operating within more restricted radii would have had uit may have depended more on the year-to-year less access. Decrease in proportional significance of itality of other resources. The leanness of game in marine mammals across the Millingstone/Early Ate winter/spring (Speth 1990) and the low transition therefore is consistent with a decrease in ilability of high-fat, high-calorie foods may have foraging radii. Margalef Index scores suggest that Encouraged exploitation of inland plant foods in the diet breadth decreased which is consistent with economic intensification, and the imposition of Patterns in diet, site location, and trade show boundaries in what had previously been unlimited e distinctive changes through time,- with at least hunting areas. intervals of transition: Millingston-e-Early (ca. Comparison between experimentally derived @500 B.C.), Early-Middle (ca. 600 B.C.), Middle- cumulative frequency curves for mussel exploitation e (ca. A.D. 1300), Protohistoric/Historic (A.D. and curves generated from the archaeological 769). Of varied intensity, these periods of change collections suggest a change in exploitation strategy nerally correspond with transitions defined in across this transition, coincident with decrease in Adjoining areas. In the following discussion, these mean shell size. The selective strategy evident in the sitions are placed in ecological context by lower portion of the Millingstone component was luating the direction of change at each juncture superseded by stripping in the Early Period. Mussels laive to alternative predictions based on concepts continued to be stripped until the Protohistoric cultural evolution, cultural ecology, resource Period. The experimental data also indicated that wardship, and economic optimization/intensifica- plucking is the more efficient strategy, even in Won. The paleoenvironmental context of each mussel beds that are regularly harvested. The sition has been reviewed in order to evaluate the superiority of plucking over stripping is greatest in Pssible role of environmental flux in influencing or settings subjected to infrequent human harvest, Fing cultural adjustments. however. Intensity of human collection, therefore, influences the value of the resource through time. 224 Summary and Conclusions Mussels can grow up to 86 mm in a single year, but concomitant with a reduction in mobility and only in cases where they are not totally recolonizing. decreased subsistence efficiency. Mussel collection that was either too frequent or too These dietary and exchange shifts may also intensive will impact the mussel population and signal a change in social organization and division of deflate the value of subsequent harvests. Any degree labor along gender lines. Based on faunal remains of exploitation could potentially reduce the and human isotope findings both from this study and population's recovery rate, although Yamada and the Santa Barbara Channel, there are indications that Peters (1988) demonstrated that limited harvesting is gathered foods contributed a large portion of the diet beneficial to the growth curve of Mytilus during the Millingstone Period. Flaked stone tools are californianus. Limited harvesting, which allows the uncommon relative to milling slabs and handstones, mussel to grow instead of competing for space, can and shellfish remains occur in dense deposits. Human actually be beneficial to marine populations (Hockey bone isotope readings suggest a heavy reliance on and Bosman 1986). The Millingstone/Early tran- terrestrial vegetable foods. Such a diet suggests that sition, therefore, represents the adoption of a less gathering was undertaken by all group members, and efficient bivalve collection strategy that could yield that a less rigid division of gender-defined tasks higher total calories with the expenditure of more existed (Erlandson 1994; Jones 1996; Mcguire and processing labor, particularly in locations where Hildebrandt 1994)). During the Millingstone Period, humans had previously collected. The high frequency men must have participated in gathering more of mussel shells in Stratum II at CA-MNT-1232/H is frequently than they did at the time of historic most likely a product of mobile groups who were contact. At the inception of the Early Period, as foraging optimally and moving on. It is reasonable to economies became more intensive, men began to assume that the subsequent adoption of a less spend more time hunting and fishing, and less time efficient strategy was not voluntary, but rather a gathering. The suggestion by Hill et al. (1987) that forced transition associated with longer occupation of men could provide more calories to a group by coastal residential bases and concomitant human gathering than by hunting may be supported by the impact on intertidal fauna. The other major change behavior of men during the Millingstone Period in marking the Millingstone/Early transition involved California, who apparently gathered more than they exchange commodities, as obsidian seems to have did at contact. A strategy in which shellfish collection arrived for the first time in significant quantities was used as a contingency to a failed hunt may have during the Early Period. provided an exceptionally high and reliable caloric In concert, diachronic trends in tool assemblages, contribution to the group, particularly when mussels dietary remains, mussel collection strategies, and were harvested selectively by mobile populations. exchange suggest population circumscription, as a As hunting became more important, a concurrent selective use of the coast was replaced by a less increase in processing time is seen in the mussel diverse, more intensive exploitation strategy that profiles, and by the appearance of a technology involved extended, but not permanent, occupation of suggestive of processing intensification--the mortar residential bases. These changes, equating to what and pestle-- and an increased reliance on fish. Beaton (1991) described as a shift from Women's processing labor must have been critical to extensification to intensification may reflect the this newly intensified economy which was also success of an earlier, mobile, more selective adaptive marked by a dramatic increase in inter-regional strategy. Trends in diet breadth and diversity are exchange, shown by obsidian profiles. It is interesting somewhat unclear due to the small size of the to speculate on the possibility that these two available Millingstone sample, but foraging radii developments reflect marriage-related exchanges and probably shrank in response to the presence of groups the formation of marriage alliances based on the in adjoining areas. Mussels became less important in exchange of women between groups, as a result of the diet as longer use of individual sites depleted the increased value of, indeed the need for, beds. More time was spent processing mussels to processing labor. Equally speculative is the capture more calories, but net returns were lower. possibility that these developments approximate the Compared to acorns and fish, mussels are more system of marriage-related exchange identified at the limited in their potential for intensification (Jones and time of historic contact by J. P. Harrington (1942:30), Richman 1995:52), and their decrease in dietary and that they further reflect the emergence of a significance relative to other foods is consistent with system of lineal kin organization, as kin-based groups their economic value. The mortar and pestle, niior became more closely associated with particular additions to the equipment inventory in the Early geographic localities, and trade goods and mates Period, support conclusions from the mussel profiles were exchanged between groups. Production of that processing was becoming increasingly important, steatite pendants and the first exploitation of otters Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 225 during the Early Period at the same time when In point of fact, some ambiguity is apparent obsidian first appeared in significant quantities may concerning the direction of environmental change at represent the beginning of commoditization (i.e., the ca. 3500 B.C. along the California coast, particularly "process of becoming involved in producing things conditions in the terrestrial biome. Most data indeed for exchange" [Peterson 1991:2]). Evidence for suggest an improvement from earlier, drier and increased resource processing and inter-regional warmer conditions of the mid-Holocene warm period, exchange conforms well with expectations advanced but some findings suggest that such conditions of Kelly (1991) concerning the possible gender persisted much later into the Early Period. (Heusser implications of subsistence intensification. He 1978; Moratto 1984:548). Pollen data from Elkhorn suggested that reliance on smaller foraging radii Slough in Monterey Bay show high frequencies of would encourages development of social alliances redwood pollen in the Early Period levels suggesting through inter-lineage marriage. At Big Sur, inter- that the interval was not marked by prolonged dry regional exchange began abruptly and may signal the and/or warm climate. Conditions in the marine exchange of women and women's processing labor. environment are better documented, at least in the Exchange might have also served as a substitute for Santa Barbara Channel, where there is evidence for direct resource acquisition, as population circum- decline in sea temperature and enhanced marine scription resulted in decreased access to some productivity. The Big Sur coast must have commodities. These trends are consistent with experienced this lowering of sea temperatures, but observations about exchange in foraging societies decrease in mean size of mussel shells is the opposite made by Peterson (1991:3), who stated that, of what would be caused by colder ocean "commoditization has its origins in things produced temperatures, as mussels grow fastest in cold water. for use, subsequently these come to be alienated A shift from selective mussel harvest to stripping was through gift and barter, which leads to an apparently responsible for this decrease, indicating intensification of the division of labor and circulation that human behavior and population, not large-scale by means of exchange." Among California foragers, environmental change, were influential on the division of labor was based primarily on gender and character of this resource. Furthermore, the transition age. At the Millingstone/Early transition, gender toward intensified mussel collection (stripping) roles became more clearly delineated in response to represents a step away from resource stewardship, as population circumscription and intensification. This high yields could only be perpetuated through the use is contrary to a proposal made by Hollimon (1990) of a more selective harvesting strategy. that division of labor became less gender-based in For the time being, it is suggested that in situ Native California through time. intensification related to population growth and Whether or not the mortar and pestle, which also circumscription best explains varriability in the appeared at this juncture, represent initial use of the record across this transition at Big Sur. The cultural acorn is less significant than the importance of these changes that mark the onset of the Early Period in tools for processing. The co-occurrence of their this region, however, are very striking, particularly in initial appearance and the initiation of inter-regional regard to formal artifacts and increased evidence for exchange seems to signify population circum- inter-regional exchange. Mikkelsen et al (2000) have scription, economic intensification, and perhaps, suggested that similar changes recognized at CA- more speculatively, the commoditizati6n of women. SLO-165 at Morro Bay in San Luis Obispo County could reflect intrusion of people to the coast from the Environment Conditions and the Case Against interior during the mid-Holocene warm period. This Environmental Causality must also be considered a viable possibility. A major cultural transition is also recognized in Early-Middle (600 B.C.) the Santa Barbara Channel ca. 3500-3400 B.C., where it has been linked with a decline in ocean Cultural changes marking the transition from the temperatures. Identified originally by Pisias (1978, Early to the Middle Period are generally not strong, 1979), and subsequently confirmed by Glassow et al. and it is not surprising that earlier archaeologists (1994), this decline was associated by Glassow et al. working in adjoining areas (e.g., Greenwood 1972; (1988:75) and Glassow (1997) with increased rainfall Rogers 1929) did not recognize a significant cultural and greater marine productivity, which is argued to break at this juncture. Among the sites investigated have promoted growth of marine mammal popula- for this study, this transition is not well dated. The tions, encouraging their pursuit by humans. The Middle Period, represented by findings from CA- advent of the mortar and pestle is attributed to a loss MNT-63, -282, -332, -521 and CA-SLO-267, shows of grassland caused by sea level rise. only minor changes in assemblage from the Early 226 Summary and Conclusions Period as stemmed projectile points, hand stones, equates to a decrease in dietary efficiency. milling slabs, mortars, and pestles all persisted. The Development of the shell fishhook suggests increased main changes marking the onset of the Middle Period line and hook fishing which is a potentially low-yield are limited to bead types (i.e., saucers replace pursuit strategy. rectangles and clam shell disks) and the initial appearance of circular shell fishhooks. In the interior, Environmental Conditions and the Case Against where fishhooks are rarely found, it is particularly Environmental Causality difficult to distinguish Middle from Early Period assemblages. Findings from CA-MNT-282 and CA- While incompleteness of the paleoenvironmental SLO-267 suggest that square-stemmed points became record must be acknowledged, there is little reason to much less common during the Middle Period, and attribute patterns in the Early-Middle transition to probably disappeared entirely. King (1982, 1990) environmental change. Limited oxygen isotope data, argued that the stylistic shift from rectangular to available for the Middle Period onward (Jones and circular beads that marks the Early-Middle transition Kennett 1999), show that sea temperatures were in both the Santa Barbara Channel and Big Sur was slightly cooler than present and relatively stable symbolic of major economic and sociopolitical between ca. A.D. 1 and 1300, but there is nothing in changes. At least in Big Sur, the modest stylistic the available record that shows incremental shifts that mark the transition from Early to Middle directional change from the Early Period through the seem more consistent with cultural and adaptive Middle Period. Trends in diet and exchange seem continuity. most readily explained by slow population growth, Diet and exchange, in particular, showed little simple intensification, and increased diet breadth. change from the Early Period. Diet breadth in mammals, birds, and fish showed marked increases Middle-Late (A.D. 1000-1250) from the Early Period, reaching their highest post- Millingstone levels (Figure 103). Fish, which first Unlike previous transitions, the Middle-Late became important in the Early Period at CA-MNT- juncture was a period marked by distinct 73, were even more significant during the Middle archaeological components (CA-MNT-1233 and CA- Period. Even in the interior, marine fish represented MNT-1754) spanning the interval of transition. Of 10% of the animal diet. Shellfish continued to these, most important was CA-MNT-1233 which decrease in dietary importance. Herring and northern showed continuity from the Middle Period, as well as anchovies appeared in the record for the first time. change. Artifact types that first appeared ca. 3500 Sea otters and rabbits were more important than they B.C. (e.g., large stemmed points, bowl mortars, had been previously, complementing a trend toward pestles, handstones and milling slabs) persisted along increased use of smaller, more elusive taxa. with the first appearance of hopper mortars and an Obsidian showed continued increase, arriving occasional small leaf-shaped point. Settlement and from the Coso source in larger quantities. A high subsistence showed continuity from the Middle frequency of otter bones suggested that otter pelts Period, consistent with slow, ongoing intensification. may have been used in exchange, along with locally- Fish continued as an important dietary item, while produced steatite or talc schist pendants. Inter- shellfish were insignificant. Faunal and isotope data regional exchange relationships apparently were suggested that marine resources reached their peak well-developed, representing continuation of a trend importance, but the isotope data also indicate that that began during the Millingstone Period. It is not diets were more generalized than in the Santa unreasonable to speculate that inter-group alliances Barbara Channel. Mussel collection continued to remained strong and perhaps solidified during this emphasize "stripping" over "plucking," as mean shell period. size reached a low point (Figure 105). Dietary patterns, particularly the increase in diet The seasonality profile from CA-MNT-1233, breadth, seem most consistent with simple however, was one of the few that suggested optimization, as a slowly increasing population added occupation during the spring/summer on the coast. more items to the diet. They further suggest Although there is little evidence for significant intensification as a consequence of increasing change in the character of site use, this finding demographic pressure, with smaller, more labor- suggests that individual residential sites may have intensive taxa, particularly fish, exploited more been used for more of the year during the Middle- heavily. Increased exploitation of fish clearly marks Late Transition than they were before or after. an intensifying economy in which processing labor Continually growing populations apparently led to was important. Like acorns, fish can provide higher increasingly intensified subsistence during the initial caloric yields with increased labor inputs, but this Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 227 HARVESTING STRATEGY 4.0-. 25 s _ Figure 105 Mean Size of Mytilus californianus Shells and Collecting Strategies through Time on the Big Sur Coast part of the Middle-Late Transition, as diet and The PaleoenvironmentalRecordA.D.800-1350and mobility progressed along previously established theCase for Environmental Complicity trajectories. Sites first occupied during the latter portion of From one perspective, cultural changes the Middle-Late Transition show evidence for more accompanying the onset of the Late Period might be substantial changes. Most significant is an apparent interpreted as the logical outcome of population settlement disruption. Late and Contact Period sites growth and resource overexploitation, as Native showed a marked unconformity with earlier deposits, populations reached a demographic threshold where many of which were abandoned between A.D. 1100 periodic lows in resource availability forced inter- and 1300. The Late Period settlement landscape was group competition. In several early papers (T. Jones marked by a profusion of small residential sites 1992:16; Hildebrandt and Jones 1992), I argued that located in a wide variety of locations, along with point, attributing the terrestrial economy of the Late bedrock mortars. This seems to contrasdt with the Period on the central coast to limitations of the larger interior and coastal middens that mark the marine environment, particularly in contrast with Middle Period. Diet breadth, however, shows no theSanta Barbara Channel. Without the rich pelagic evidence for increase among fish,wmammals, or birds, fisheries of the Channel, central coast populations with a noticeable decrease among mammals. During may have been forced to direct their intensification the Protohistoric Period, sites were established efforts inland after overexploiting key marine farther inland at higher elevations, and residential resources (e.g., shellfish and migratory marine sites may have been slightly more common away mammals). Shoreline sites were used less often in from the shoreline at elevations in excess of 550 n., order to focus more heavily on interior resources while shoreline encampments were used less (e.g., acorns), which can provide more calories with frequently. Obsidian disappeared from the record, increased labor expenditures (Basgall 1987). Late reflecting continued deterioration of exchange Period features from the Big Sur coast all produced relationships. These patterns are very different from remains of acorns and other nuts. Furthermore, the the Santa Barbara Channel, where a progressive mean shell size profile from Big Sur suggests that maritime intensification continues into the Late regular harvest of mussels between 3500 B.C. and the Period, as fish were exploited intensively with Middle-Late Transition may have effected an overall redwoodplank canoes. dimainuton in the shell beds, although Claassen (1998) suggested that human harvest is a much less significant influence on mussel beds than are the impacts of non-human predators and disruptive 228 Summary and Conclusions natural events like large winter storms. Marine decrease in human population, and a reversal of the mammals, although never found in high frequencies previous trends of economic intensification. The at Big Sur, declined in importance along the entire Medieval Warm Period or the Little Climatic coast by the end of the Middle Period (Hildebrandt Optimum has been recognized for decades in Europe, and Jones 1992). Simple population growth and but its effects in North America have only recently economic intensification seem to provide adequate been discussed (Jones et al. 1999). explanation for some changes that transpired by the Characterization of the Medieval Climatic end of the Middle Period, but there are also reasons Anomaly in western North American has evolved to suspect that environmental problems may have considerably over the last decade. Researchers have contributed to the cultural shifts. identified three different environmental trends during Intensification does not readily explain dietary this period: changing sea temperatures (Arnold trends after ca. A.D. 1300. Simple optimization 1992a, 1992b; Kennett 1998; Kennett and Kennett theory would suggest continued expansion of the 2000; Pisias 1978), decreased precipitation (Stine number of species exploited over time, but the 1990, 1994), and warmer summer temperatures Margalef diversity indices show trends in the (Graumlich 1993). Based on the provisional paleo- opposite direction, in that the number of species sea temperature record for the Santa Barbara Channel exploited dropped among both mammals and fish. developed by Pisias (1978, 1979), Arnold (1992a, While human predation may have lessened the 1992b) argued for a causal link between high sea availability and/or value of marine mammals and water temperatures, marine deterioration, and abrupt shellfish, there is no reason to suspect that Big Sur cultural change in the Santa Barbara Channel. She fisheries were affected by the intensity of prehistoric focused on an interval of apparently warm seas fishing. Elsewhere in California, some researchers dating ca. 1150-1250, likening its effects to a 100- (e.g., Broughton 1994, 1999; Salls 1992) have argued year El Niiio event. Raab (1994) and Raab et al. that Native fisheries were depressed as a consequence (1995) countered that there are no data which firmly of sustained, overly intensive prehistoric harvest, but support a holocaust in the marine environment ca. these arguments are based on suspect faunal samples A.D. 1150-1250. Subsequently, Kennett and Kennett that did not take into account fish bone recovery (2000) reported an enhanced sea temperature record strategies. While humans could have overhunted for the Channel that shows the A.D. 1150-1250 megafauna at the end of the Pleistocene and may period as a time of cold but variable sea have decimated highly vulnerable marine mammal temperatures. Isotopic results from the Big Sur coast rookeries, there is little empirical evidence to suggest show trends less dramatic than those of the Channel, significant human impact on prehistoric California with temperatures more variable than today between fisheries. This resource base was simply too large, A.D. 1300 and 1500, and colder than present during too abundant, and too invisible to be depressed by the Little Ice Age (A.D. 1500-1800) (Jones and means of prehistoric technology. Nonetheless, people Kennett 1999). During the Medieval Climatic inhabiting the Big Sur coast after ca. A.D. 1250 did Anomaly, the California coast must have experienced not increase their fish catches which seems changes in ocean temperatures and/or circulation inconsistent with relentless economic intensification. patterns, but their correlation with inland weather Inter-regional exchange, which increased in patterns may be more important than their impact on regularity from the Early through Middle periods at marine ecosystems. Events of the last decade further the same time that diets were apparently broadening, show that in California warm seas associated with the came to a halt during the Middle-Late Transition. El Niflo Southern Oscillation decrease marine Simple intensification cannot simultaneously explain productivity (Dayton and Tegner 1990), but also increased trade and broadening of diets on the one cause increased rainfall and enhanced terrestrial hand and decline in diet breadth and deterioration of productivity as is the case in Peru where the El Niflo exchange relationships on the other. phenomenon was first recognized (Philander 1990). There is, however, ample evidence for serious Graumlich (1993) and Stine (1990, 1994) environmental problems between ca. A.D. 800 and discussed climate during the Medieval Warm Period 1350, associated with the Medieval Climatic in California in slightly different terms. Based on tree Anomaly (Graumlich 1993; Stine 1994; although see rings from the southern Sierra Nevada, Graumlich Mensing 1993; Roos 2002). Prolonged droughts argued that the period between A.D. 1100 and 1375 during this interval came at a time when human was unusual for its inordinately high summer populations were probably very high and ~Were temperatures, which peaked ca. A.D. 1150. Droughts approaching a significant demographic threshold. occurred from A.D. 1020-1070, 1197-1217, and Many changes in the archaeological record ca. A.D. 1249-1365 (Figure 106), but were less anomalous 1000- 1400 may reflect subsistence problems, Prehistoric Human Ecology of the Big Sur Coast 229 1.I .. .. .. .... .. * . ......... ... . . ................ I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .. .t ns .... 8 0 -I'-. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~X Xa> I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . ... . . .. o