CULTURE HISTORY OF THE NEW MELONES RESERVOIR AREA, CALAVERAS AND TUOLUMNE COUNTIES, CALIFORNIA Michael J. Moratto Summarized here are the results of archaeological studies (1948-1988) in the Stanislaus River locality of the central Sierra Nevada. A local sequence of cultural phases, spanning nearly 10,000 years, is defined in terms of land uselsettlement, subsistence, resource procurement, and technology. In the prehistoric record, three phases in particular-Clarks Flat (ca. 7650-4500 B.C.), Sierra (ca. 1000 B.C.-A.D. 500), and Horseshoe Bend (ca. A.D. 1300-1848-reflect intensive occupation. The sequence concludes with the Peoria Basin Phase (A.D. 1849-1910), representing historic transformations of Central Sierra Miwok lifeways in the study area. Introduction As a young graduate student during the late 1960s, I was awed by the prospect of meeting Franklin Fenenga - a major deity in the pantheon of California archaeology. After all, he was one of the Holy Trinity who had handed down (what was then believed to be) the basic culture sequence in central California pre- history (Heizer and Fenenga 1939; Lillard, Heizer, and Fenenga 1939). He was the first archaeologist (1948- 1950) of the University of California Archaeological Survey (UCAS) (Heizer 1972:37), and a pioneer in archaeological surveys and excavations throughout central and southern Sierra Nevada, the San Joaquin Valley, and elsewhere in California on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution as well as the UCAS (Fenenga 1947a, 1947b, 1948a, 1948b, 1949, 1952; Fenenga and Riddell 1949; Heizer and Fenenga 1948). Thus, it was with the trepidation of an acolyte approaching the Pope that I first met Frank at his field camp on the Fresno River, not far from my own excavations on the Chowchilla River, in the foothills of Madera County. My timidity proved unwarranted. Frank was a gra- cious host, who spent hours acquainting me with vari- ous sites in the Hidden Reservoir (Hensley Lake) project area. I found him to be a skilled teacher, obvi- ously at ease with his students, and a man who in- volved his family in the work to which he was so de- voted. He patiently discussed his investigations of large prehistoric midden sites, historic-era Indian settlements, and James Savage's trading post (see Fenenga 1973, 1975; Kelly 1974; Mufioz 1980b). During this and subsequent trips to the Fresno River, and during Frank's visits to my project, I learned a great deal about field methods, historical archaeology, and the prehistory and ethnohistory of the Sierra Ne- vada foothills. I remember, too, with deep apprecia- tion, that Frank treated me with respect and as a fel- low professional, even though I was many years his junior and probably knew less altogether than he was apt to forget on any given day. Looking back over the past three decades, I am sure that Frank Fenenga's warm welcome to Sierran archaeology influenced my own commitment to this fascinating region. Some years later, after working at Buchanan Res- ervoir, Lake Don Pedro, and on the Stanislaus Na- tional Forest (Moratto 1971, 1972, 1981), I was privi- leged to direct fieldwork, and later to synthesize the results of nearly 40 years of archaeological research, in the New Melones Reservoir area on the Stanislaus River. Highlights of that research are summarized in the following pages. The purpose of this paper is to review the Holocene archaeological record of Indian activity in the study area. Cultural phases and peri- ods are defined, with emphasis on diachronic changes in land use, subsistence, resource procurement, and technology between ca. 8000 B.C. and A.D. 1910. The proposed sequence is offered as a model to be tested FENENGA VOLUME and refined in the course of future archaeological in- vestigations. Project Location and Setting New Melones Reservoir lies in the Stanislaus River basin of the central Sierra Nevada foothills, approxi- mately 160 km (100 mi) east of San Francisco (Fig- ure 1.) The project area encompasses roughly 10,250 ha (25,000 ac), including the reservoir pool (<5122 ha, or <12,500 ac), recreation areas, wildlife habitat, and administrative facilities. At maximum gross pool, the impounded waters (913 million m3, or 2.4 million ac-ft) extend upriver 38 km (24 mi), cre- ating a shoreline of more than 150 km (95 mi). Local elevations range between .150 and 760 m (~500 and 2500 ft) amsl; most of the project area falls below 455 m (1500 ft) amsl (Moratto and Goldberg 1982). Natural Environment This part of the Stanislaus River watershed fea- tures diverse landforms. Prominent among these are rolling hills, steep-walled river canyons, alluvial "flats," and segments of latite-capped Tuolumne Table Mountain (Moratto 1976b). The study locality exem- plifies the Mediterranean Warm Summer (Csa) cli- matic type. Temperatures recorded historically at New Melones Dam have ranged from a summer high of 45?C (113?F) to a winter low of -10?C (14?F). In nearby Sonora (Figure 1), mean temperatures are ar- rayed between 10?C (50?F) in January and 28.3?C (83?F) in July; the mean annual temperature is 18.3?C (65?F) (Corps of Engineers 1972:12). Precipitation occurs mainly between October and March, with the heaviest rainfall normally in December and January. Summer rainfall is minimal. Normal annual precipi- tation averages about 686 mm (27.0 in) at New Melones Dam and 1189 mm (46.8 in) in the drainage basin upstream. At Sonora, mean annual precipita- tion during a 95-year period beginning in 1887-88 was 826 mm (32.5 in) (The Union Democrat 1982:9). As a northeast-southwest transect across the cen- tral Sierran foothills, this segment of the Stanislaus River drainage represents chiefly the Upper Sonoran life zone, although marker species of the Transition and Lower Sonoran zones (Merriam 1898) are also present, respectively, in the northeastern and south- western parts of the study area. Five plant communi- ties or vegetation types (Munz 1968: 11) are common at New Melones Reservoir: Yellow Pine Forest, Chap- arral, Foothill Oak Woodland, Grassland, and Ripar- ian. Of these, the most extensive are Chaparral and Woodland-Grass savanna (Moratto and Goldberg 1982: 57-72). Cultural Background The study area lies within the traditional home- land of the Central Sierra Miwok (Aginsky 1943; Barrett and Gifford 1933; Kroeber 1925; Levy 1978; Powers 1976). While sharing a common language, the Miwok did not think of themselves as an inclusive tribal entity. Rather, political cohesion was limited to smaller, corporate land-holding groups consisting of a main or "royal" village and several tributary com- munities (Kroeber 1954; Merriam 1967). Each settle- ment within a tribelet was named, and appears to have been occupied by a localized patrilineage (Levy 1978:410). The province of the Central Sierra Miwok included the foothill and mountain drainages of the Stanislaus and Tuolumne rivers, except that the Washo had hunting and camping rights down the west- ern slope almost as far as Big Trees (in the Stanislaus watershed) in Calaveras County (Kroeber 1925: 442- 443). Miwok concepts of territory were conditioned by the nature of their land use and social relations with other groups. Because land tenure was communal and intermarriage with other peoples common, boundaries were often indistinct and subject to change. Although the Indians of the study area were not profoundly af- fected by mission-era Spanish expeditions and later Mexican expansion into east-central California (see Cook 1960), they were devastated by the Gold Rush and its aftermath (Castillo 1978; Cook 1976; Heizer 1974; Hurtado 1988; Rawls 1976). Situated at the heart of the Mother Lode gold belt, the Stanislaus River area was a major center of Gold Rush activity beginning in 1848 (Borthwick 1917; Carson 1952; Jackson and Mikesell 1979a; Jenkins 1948; Meyer 1938; Shoup and Greenwood 1984). Many immigrant groups sought their fortunes in the central Sierra during the mid-nineteenth century. Some of these people departed when the goldfields were depleted, but others settled as ranchers, farmers, and businessmen. They and their descendants have been responsible for local economic and social devel- opment. The history of the central Sierra Nevada has been strongly influenced by environmental conditions. 26 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR NEW MELONES RESERVOIR PROJECT AREA Murphys Copperopolis NEW MELONES RESERVOIR New Melones E Nt 0 1 2 Mile 0 1 2 3 Km Figure 1: New Melones Reservoir Project area. 27 Moratto FENENGA VOLUME Terrain, climate, water, mineral resources, and veg- etation all have shaped the patterns of enterprise and settlement. Accordingly, the regional economy has been dominated by mining, logging, ranching, water projects, and recreation (Jackson 1976; Shoup 1986). Concomitantly, shallow soils, mountainous terrain, and poor transportation routes have limited some kinds of agricultural and industrial ventures. Abundant stream flows and high topographic relief along the Stanislaus River, however, have created ideal conditions for wa- ter projects (Jackson and Mikesell 1979b). The larg- est of these is New Melones Reservoir. Synopsis of the New Melones Archeological Project Over a period of 30 years, beginning with a recon- naissance in 1948 (Fredrickson 1949), more than 700 archeological sites were documented in the course of numerous surveys within the New Melones Reservoir study area. In 1968 the Central California Archaeo- logical Foundation (CCAF) discovered 112 sites (Payen et al. 1969). Between 1969 and 1972 the CCAF and the Foundation for Archaeological Research (FAR) completed additional surveys and posted 68 more sites to the inventory, for a total of 180 (Gage 1969, 1970; Kenton 1973a, 1973b; Johnson 1973; Peak 1973). Concurrently, a listing of archeological and other caves was prepared (Squire 1972). A sys- tematic survey of the entire project area, performed in 1974-1975 by San Francisco State University (SFSU), resulted in the documentation of 474 "new" and 155 previously-recorded sites. Adding 25 known sites that were then inundated, otherwise inaccessible, or out- side of project boundaries, 654 prehistoric and his- toric sites were known by 1975 (Moratto 1974a, 1974b, 1976c). The register of archeological caves was also expanded at that time (Squire 1975). During 1976 and 1977 Greenwood and Associates evaluated 168 previously recorded historic sites, sur- veyed lands newly acquired by the project, and dis- covered 36 sites (Greenwood 1976, 1977a, 1977b). Subsequently, J. M. McEachern and M. A. Grady (1977, 1978) prepared an inventory and assessment of 25 caves in the study area (see also McEachern 1986); Science Applications, Inc. (SAI) encountered 20 previously-unknown sites in the course of 1978-1979 fieldwork throughout the project area (Fit- ting et al. 1979); and INFOTEC Development, Inc. (IDI) added two sites in 1981. This brought to 737 the grand total of archeological sites-including 442 historic non-Indian properties and 295 Indian sites- recorded between 1948 and 1981 at New Melones Reservoir (Moratto et al. 1987; Oman 1982), exclud- ing cultural resources in the downriver segment of the project near Knight's Ferry (Orlins 1977a, 1977b; Swernoff 1982). The New Melones Archaeological Project (NMAP) involved many episodes of fieldwork and other stud- ies. Subsurface testing was initiated by the CCAF at four sites in 1968 (Payen et al. 1969). Thereafter, sam- pling was performed: in 1969 and 1970 by the CCAF at 18 sites (Gage 1970; Johns 1970; Peak 1973; Pritchard 1973); in 1972 by the FAR at six sites (P. Johnson 1973) and by the University of Califor- nia, Davis at three sites (Richards 1973); by SFSU in 1975 at four sites (Moratto 1976d); and in 1975 by M. J. Moratto (1976a) at one site (see Moratto et al. 1988: Tables 9.1, 9.2). Between 1976 and 1978 several re- search proposals and cultural resources management plans were developed (cf. Greenwood 1977a, 1977c; Iroquois Research Institute 1978; Moratto 1976e, 1976f, 1977a, 1977b). During this same interval, stud- ies of ethnography, history, and ethnohistory in the project area also were completed (A. Hall 1976,1978; W. T. Jackson 1976; Theodoratus 1976). Four other works on local history and ethnohistory appeared soon thereafter (Jackson and Mikesell 1979a, 1979b, 1979c; Munioz 1980a). Beginning in August, 1978 SAI undertook a large-scale program of archeological testing ("Stage I") and "mitigation" ("Stage II") at New Melones Reservoir (SAI 1979; Singleton 1986b). By April, 1979 SAI had sampled 56 "prehistoric" (i.e., Indian) sites and 15 "historic" (non-Indian) sites. During Stage II, which lasted until April, 1980, SAI excavated 20 Indian sites, 19 of which had been tested during the first stage of fieldwork, and seven historic sites. Al- together, within a span of 21 months, SAI tested or excavated 57 Indian sites and 22 historic non-Indian sites (Cooley-Reynolds 1980; Costello 1981, 1983; Crew 1980; Fitting et al. 1979). Following SAI's investigations, IDI undertook a program of fieldwork and analytic studies between 1981 and 1987 (Moratto and Greenwood 1982). In 1981 IDI excavated: the prehistoric/protohistoric Texas Charley Gulch site (Moratto and Arguelles 1984); the prehistoric Redbud site (O'Brien 1984); 28 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR the protohistoric Albany Flat site (Goldberg 1984); the Vonich Gulch historic site cluster, and nine addi- tional historic sites with remains of early mining and residential activities (Greenwood 1982). Subse- quently, IDI analyzed and reported data collected by the NMAP between 1948 and 1980 at Indian sites (Moratto and Singleton 1986) and non-Indian sites (Greenwood and Shoup 1983; Shoup and Greenwood 1984). A ten-volume final report of the NMAP cul- minated in a summary and synthesis of Culture Change in the Central Sierra Nevada, 8000 B.C.-A.D. 1950 (Moratto et al. 1988). A related study by Professional Analysts, Inc. (ProLysts) involved geological, biological, and archeo- logical research at Coral Cave in the Stanislaus River Canyon (Gehr et al. 1983). ProLysts also conducted archival research, field survey, and subsurface testing at 16 proposed recreation areas along the lower Stanislaus River, from Goodwin Dam downstream to the San Joaquin River confluence (Swernoff 1982). Lastly, J. G. Costello prepared overviews of histori- cal archeology in the project area (1981) and of the town of Melones (1983), and T. M. Van Bueren (1983) examined the archaeological record of the historic Central Sierra Miwok. In sum, taking into account all of the NMAP in- vestigations except those at cave sites and along the lower Stanislaus River, 34 historic (non-Indian) sites and 68 Indian sites were sampled. Nearly all of the historical archeology was performed during the late 1970s and early 1980s (Greenwood 1982; Greenwood and Shoup 1983). Previous sampling of historic sites had exposed four features at two sites (Peak 1973). SAI's (1978-1979) work involved clearing 40 features and excavating an areal sample of 115.4 m_ at a total of 22 sites. IDI investigated 16 features and exca- vated units covering a total of 279.2 m2 at 10 sites during 1981. Altogether, the fieldwork at historic sites resulted in the excavation of 60 features and 394.6 m2 (Moratto et al. 1988: Table 9.1). Subsurface samples at the Indian sites range from 1.0 to 182 m2 per site (849 m2 total), with a mean of 12.5 m2 per site, and from 0.3 to 134 m3 (544.7 m3 total), with a mean of 8.01 m3 per site (Moratto et al. 1988: Table 9.2). The grand totals of areal and volu- metric samples would rise to 1163 m2 and 858.7 m3, respectively, if the 314 m2/est. 314 m3 trench at 04-Cal-S-286 were added. At 40 of the sites, test units covered 1-9 M2. Sampled areas covered 20 m2 or more at 19 sites. The excavated volume exceeded 15 m3 at 11 sites; six were sampled at 10.0-14.9 m3, 14 at 5.0- 9.9 m3, and all the rest (37 sites or 54.4%) were sampled at levels below 4.9 m3 each. With several exceptions (04-Cal-S-276/344, 04-Cal- S-286, 04-Tuo-S-313, and 04-Tuo-S-444/449), the excavated volumes were too small to reveal site structure or to provide representative samples of site contents. Also, with few exceptions, the small samples preclude reli- able definitions of intra- and inter-site archeological patterning. Knowledge of local prehistory thus is lim- ited by the nature and size of the available archeo- logical samples. Archaeological Units: Time, Space, Form An archeological sequence, tracing cultural devel- opments from the first evidence of early Holocene hunter-gatherers to the Gold Rush and its aftermath, can be outlined for the middle Stanislaus River local- ity. The following pages review significant cultural patterns, trends, and changes through time. Arbitrary time periods provide a broad organizational structure, while cultural manifestations within periods are dis- cussed in terms of phases, components, and assem- blages (defined below). Topical foci include land-use and settlement, occupational intensity, subsistence, resource procurement, and technology. Locations of sites representing various periods are shown in the accompanying maps (Figures 2-6). Organizing the archeological record by temporal periods is a useful approach insofar as it allows inter- site comparisons and highlights cultural change through time. Like any organizational structure, how- ever, periods entail certain biases and limitations. One of these is the inherent perception of cultural homo- geneity in each temporal block; another is the impli- cation of rather abrupt cultural shifts at period bound- aries. In reality, cultural evolution is a continuous process, albeit one punctuated by episodes of rapid change; moreover, there is no reason to think that, for each time period, a single, monolithic culture prevailed throughout the entire NMAP area. A more realistic model would allow for occupation of the study area at any point in time by one or more sociocultural enti- ties. Archeological remains in the project area thus might evince significant formal variation in space or time, or both, within a given period. Another way to organize archeological data is by Moratto 29 FENENGA VOLUME cultural or formal, rather than temporal, units. Three such units - phase, component, and assemblage are employed here to represent local culture history and to provide a framework for regional comparisons. A phase is a distinctive formal unit including one or more components, spatially limited to a locality or region, and chronologically limited to a relatively brief interval of time (Willey and Phillips 1958:22). When ordered chronologically, phases comprise a local or regional sequence. Phase may be viewed as the ar- cheological manifestation of community or society, with each component representing a settlement or special-activity site used by members of a defined sociocultural group. A component, then, is the ex- pression of a phase at a single site. While a site may contain multiple components, each component repre- sents one or more occupations ascribable to a single phase. The term assemblage refers to a discrete, con- temporaneous group or class of artifacts (e.g., a func- tional toolkit or technologically related set of items) from a single component. Described below are phases and other cultural units identifiable in the New Melones archeological record. To the extent feasible, each such unit is defined for- mally, delimited in space and time, and discussed rela- tive to other units in the project area. As data permit, the issue of continuity vs. replacement is examined for each sequential unit. Comparisons with local and regional sequences elsewhere in central California are presented in Moratto et al. (1988:541-562). The local chronology proposed for the NMAP area is summa- rized in Figure 7. Culture History of the Project Area Pre-6000 B.C. Flaked-stone assemblages from NMAP excava- tions at 04-Cal-S-276/344, 04-Cal-S-321/ 418, 04-Cal-S-347, and 04-Tuo-S-505 (Figure 2) include a total of seven Lanceolate Stemmed and Large Square-stemmed bifaces (Singleton 1984a, 1986a). A much larger sample of stemmed bifaces was obtained in 1985 by Peak & Associates, mostly at 04-Cal-S-342 but also at 04-Cal-S-275, on Clarks Flat (Peak 1987; Peak and Crew 1990). Typically, these specimens are large, percussion-flaked, lanceolate-bladed bifaces with long, broad, parallel-sided to slightly contract- ing stems and square to semi-excurvate bases. Chert is the preferred material, examples of obsidian being rare; heat-pretreatment is evident on some specimens. These bifaces are comparable to projectile points of the Hell Gap, Lind Coulee, Lake Mojave, and Parman types, variously dated to ca. 6000-8000 B.C. (Daugherty 1956, 1962; Frison 1974, 1978; Layton 1979; Warren 1984; Warren and DeCosta 1964). Closer to the NMAP area, "Parman points" have been found at 04-Pla-23 near the Truckee River, northwest of Lake Tahoe; these have been assigned to a provi- sional Tahoe Reach Phase, tentatively dated at ca. 6000 B.C. (Elston et al. 1977:169, 171). In the upper Stanislaus River watershed, similar bifaces, likened to "Cougar Mountain points" (cf. Cowles 1960), were recovered in 1986 from early Holocene archeological contexts (Peak and Neuenschwander 1991). An early Holocene component typified by numerous large, stemmed, "Lake Mojave-like" points also has been excavated at the Skyrocket site near Copperopolis (Figure 1), a few kilometers west of the NMAP area (J. Pryor, personal communications 1989, 1993, 1995). These discoveries indicate fairly widespread occupa- tion of the central Sierra during early Holocene times. The Clarks Flat Phase is here proposed as the cul- tural unit subsuming all components distinguished by large, stemmed bifaces of early Holocene age, in the NMAP locality (Figure 7). Minimal expressions of the Clarks Flat Phase are recognized at 04-Cal-S-275 and 04-Cal-S-276/ 344, with unconfirmed evidence of related occupations at 04-Cal-S-321/418, 04-Cal-S-347, and 04-Tuo-S-505. It is possible that large side scrapers of basalt and Great Basin Trans- verse point (Moratto et al. 1988: Figures 4.4,4.5) from Zone 4 at 04-Cal-S-276/344 also belong to the Clarks Flat Phase component, or they might register some different, largely unknown occupation(s). The lower levels of 04-Cal-S-342 on Clarks Flat (Figure 2) provide the type component of the Clarks Flat Phase. Occupation beginning ca. 7650 B.C., or possibly earlier, is evidenced by a "low density" and "restricted variety" of artifacts, notably 13 types of stemmed and foliate projectile points, five kinds of scrapers, notched tools, "discoidals," and beaked grav- ers; this assemblage marks an Early Clarks Flat subphase (Peak and Crew 1990:227). A Late Clarks Flat subphase (post ca. 4800 B.C.) is distinguished by the addition of scraper-gravers, five more types of scrapers, and four varieties of Western Stemmed Se- ries points as well as by increases in artifact density (Peak and Crew 1990:228). These findings suggest 30 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR INDIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES Pre-1000 B.C. NEW MELONES RESERVOIR VICINITY. :/ C.: ,/ *Times-sens*tve arttfacts/features present 0Minknal or equivocal use indicated 2 *Tuo-S-505 o1 Mile I 1 , m 0 1 Km Figure 2: Map of New Melones Reservoir Vicinity Indian Archaeological Sites, Pre-1000 B.C. / . CaI-S-321/418 S Moratto 31 I I I I q3t: " -, 'Ot -.-- " , I ....A., .e I N FENENGA VOLUME INDIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL Sm 1000 B.C. - A.D. 500 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR VICII It ', /~~~~~~~~i Ct s, Sip 0 Cai-S-433 Cal-S-323 0 ? Cal-S-329 aCi-S-330 t# .I we ,,. f--..' 9/S ' ";--.-.1... I . ES NITY: ,/ F ,r ~ ~ ~ ~~ F ..,. ( u-S-711272 * ime-senswbve artifactMfeatures preset E)0 MinImal or equivocal useidca Tuo-S-444/449 0 TUO-S-459 t o t KM NT O 1 K Figure 3: Map of New Melones Reservoir Vicinity Indian Archaeological Sites, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 500. 32 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR Cal-S-276/344 - INDIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES A.D. 500-1 300 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR VICINITY: ,~~~~~~~~~~~ .~~~~~~~ ,.; . / v ' CP~I CaI-S-433 Cal-S-323 0 * Time-sensitive artifacts/features present (o Minimal or equivocal use indicated Dam .. - \ Tuo-S444/449 Cal-S-328 . S * Tuo-S-459 .CM ,>'v-.,, 40 .- .. / ? Tuo-S-493 306/314 * Tuo-S-505 * 1 Hie 0 I mI Ni 0 1 Km Figure 4: Map of New Melones Reservoir Vicinity Indian Archaeological Sites, A.D. 500 to 1300. Moratto 33 34 FENENGA VOLUME INDIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES A.D. 1300-1848 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR VICINITY f /~~~~~~~ CalS-433* ST oS31' Cal-S-414 E) Cal-S Cal-S-323 * Cal0s CaJ -S-32 *1S .-, New Melones Tuo-S Dam p Cal-S-326 Cal-S-328 ) *Tuo- * Tuo-S-470 *Tuo-q7 Cal-S-329 toS-444TS.8 930 ~-Cal-S-331 * Tuo.S.459 Cal-S-330. Tuo-S- TuoS-894 /; .; . 433 m>-3 * Tuo-S-536 T O TUO-S- ,498 0 Tuo-S493 41,_ /- - I..., .. .- . ...... . I * Time-sensitive artffactsfeatures present O; (0 Mnimal or equivocal use indiated t 1 Mile No 1 Km Figure 5: Map of New Melones Reservoir Vicinity Indian Archaeological Sites, A.D. 1300 to 1848. 34 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR / INDIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES HISTORIC PERIOD NEW MELONES RESERVOIR VICINITY . /~~~~~~ / / . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ., * Timesensitlve artifacts/features present O Minmal or equivocal use idcated Tuo-S-444 */449 * Tuo-S-498 t0 1 Mle O * Km Figure 6: Map of New Melones Reservoir Vicinity Indian Archaeological Sites, Historic Period. Moratto 35 36 FENENGA VOLUME Temporal and Formal Units in NMAP Culture History Periods Time Markers* Cultural Uni Comments CENTRAL SIERRA MIWOK 1910 Glass beads; Historic Miwok; village community DSN, CT points. PEORIA BASIN PHASE pattem; acculturaton; depopulation. E1 848- 1848E SS, CT, DSN, GB Large populatons; Intensive occupation; w ~~projectile points; acorn-based economy; year-round cn 1500 OlivelIa E, K, M beads. HORSESHOE BEND PHASE settements; 54 sites. di w 1000 Rosegate series Oter Phases? Ephemeral site use; small populations; co projectile points; minimal trade. Of 21 sites, only 3 _______ OlivelIa D, K, M beads. REDBUD PHASE have anthrosols. o500 A.D. Bowl mortar; Large populations; intensive occupation; 0 cylindrical pestle; SIERRA PHASE houses, mlddens, cemeteries; extnsive O B.C. SCB, SSN, Elko series trade; 24 sites are known. Economic UJ 500 points; Oivelia F, G diversity; acorn use. Use of mortuary series beads. caves; abundant funerary artifacts 1000- 1 500OtePhs? I SOC) Other Phases? Poorly known; traces of minimal, 2000 Pinto and Humboldt CALAVERAS PHASE empory at 9 sites. series projectile 2500 points; milling stones. ? ~~~~~-HIATUS?- Large Lanceolate Dsnbesrpr n -2 3000 Bifaces. TEXAS CHARLEY PHASE rDistinctie scrapers and 3500 Pinto and Humboldt Increasing artifact densites and O series projectile points. Undesignated Components assemblage diversity in the Late Clarks z 4000 Late Clarks Flat types Flat through Stanislaus Phase sequence 0X. continue, but with the at 04-Cal-S-342 reflect diversification of addition of Stanislaus econorric pursuits (notably expanding 4500 Broad Stemmed points "STANISLAUS PHASE use of vegetal resources) and and abundant milling tools. (Peak and Crew 1990) occuipatonal intensification. Elsewhere Ii 5000 Early Clarks Flat types the project area, poorly known continue, but with the aealages mrked by Pinto and $ addit5on of mniling slabs, TE Humboldt points seem unrelated to the w scrapers, and Western CLARKS FLAT SUBPHASE Clars Flat-Stanislaus continuum. co QLiStemmed Series Points. (Peak and Crew 1990) -sC- 6000- w Bipointed, foliate, and Several sites, most notably 04-Cal-S-34: 2 stemmed points; scrapers; functoned as hunting camps as early 1- 6500 notched tools; beaked as 7650 B.C. Low assemblage diversity co gravers. Great Basin and artifact densities suggest limited, 7000 Transverse points may temporary use of sites. be ascribed to this or EARLY possibly an earHer, CLARKS FLAT SUBPHASE 7500 undesignated phase. (Peak and Crew 1990) 8000 Figure 7: Table of Temporal and Formal Units in NMAP Culture History. 36 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR intensive use of the Clarks Flat vicinity: "Hunting and Game Processing was still the economic empha- sis, although the presence of milling stone bases and unshaped manos suggests the addition of vegetal food" (Peak and Crew 1990: 228). 6000-3500 B.C. Cultural materials older than 5500 years have been recognized at 04-Cal-S-276/344, 04-Cal-S-342, and possibly at 04-Cal-S-347-all on Clarks Flat (Fig- ure 2). The case for cultural activity at 04-Cal-S-347 prior to 3500 B.C. is tenuous; the few biface frag- ments and pieces of debitage from Stratum D (ca. 6000-4000 B.C.) may be coeval with the deposition of that stratum by the Stanislaus River, or possibly the artifacts were intruded from overlying anthrosols (O'Brien 1984:152). Another site, 04-Cal-S-286 on Texas Charley Gulch in the Angels Creek drainage (Figure 2), also might have been occupied prior to 3500 B.C. Evidence of cultural activity soon after this date, however, is more definitive (see 3500-1000 B.C., below). The 6000-3500 B.C. period is better represented by Zone 4 at 04-Cal-S-276/344 (Figure 2), character- ized by: a paucity of groundstone items (Riley and Moratto 1986); few bifaces but many backed scrap- ers, scraper-planes, backed bladelets, choppers, and hammerstones; a lower density of tools and debitage than in any other zone at the site; and an emphasis on chert as the primary toolstone. Obsidian tools are present but account for only 45% of the Zone 4 flaked stone assemblage (Singleton 1986a). The low den- sity and remarkable variety of artifacts at 04-Cal-S-276/344 indicate a wide range of activities- hunting, flaked stone tool production, scraping, pulping, and limited milling-but probably not inten- sive occupation. In fact, the Zone-4 ensemble may reflect brief visits by diverse groups at various times over a span of centuries. Multiple components may be documented, albeit sparsely, in this zone. The evi- dent degree of mixing and the absence of clearly de- finable components within Zone 4 preclude defini- tion of represented phases. The best-known archaeological record of the 6000- 3500 B.C. interval in the study area is from 04-Cal-S- 342, where Peak and Crew (1990) recovered ample evidence of early (ca. 7650-4800 B.C.) and late (ca. 4800-? B.C.) expressions of the Clarks Flat Phase (su- pra). Peak and Crew (1990:229-230) also defined a Stanislaus Phase (ca.? 4250 B.C.), characterized by the addition of Stanislaus Broad-stemmed projectile points and a marked increase in the use of ground stone tools, "to constitute the dominant tool category by the end of the phase" (Peak and Crew 1990:229). One may question the definition of a separate Stanislaus Phase, given its shared sedimentary context ("Spit B") with the Late Clarks Flat materials, the unclear tem- poral distinction between Late Clarks Flat and Stanislaus assemblages, and given that "during the Stanislaus Phase, the entire tool inventory of the pre- ceding Clark Phase (sic) was retained and the newer tools appeared as an overlay on the older assemblage" (Peak and Crew 1990:229). Nonetheless, the diachronic changes in relative frequencies of various kinds of implements would seem to evince an adap- tive shift: The steadily increasing numbers of ground stone tools with a corre- sponding diversity in types may re- flect a change in the botanical re- sources of the locale. Hunting per- sisted as an economic pursuit.... In short, although direct evidence is lacking, the changes observed in the artifact record may well indicate an environmental shift with a corre- sponding change in the interactive responses of the residents (Peak and Crew 1990:279). Except for these findings at 04-Cal-S-342, the 6000-3500 B.C. period remains poorly known archaeologically. Occupation is registered by mixed assemblages reflecting brief visits by diverse, small groups. Hunting, flaked-stone tool production and maintenance, and milling with manos and mealing slabs are inferred, but elucidation of occupational in- tensity must await further study. The paucity of infor- mation for this and earlier periods, however, should not be interpreted as evidence of either small popula- tions or limited site use in the project area. Paleoenvironmental surveys have not been undertaken to inventory the relict landforms and paleosols most likely to harbor early and middle Holocene archeo- logical remains. All of the known cultural materials of such antiquity in the study area were discovered fortuitously (i.e., they occurred below younger, more 37 Moratto FENENGA VOLUME visible archeological deposits). The apparent number and distribution of early components thus are more the products of coincidence than of systematic re- search, and they might not accurately represent the patterns of prehistoric land use. 3500-1000 B.C. Archeological deposits at 04-Cal-S-275, -276/344, -286, -347, and 04-Tuo-S-271/272 and -505 (Figure 2) have produced cultural materials ascribable to this period. Pinto and Humboldt series points from these sites (see Moratto et al. 1988) are thought to register times before ca. 1000 B.C. and possibly as early as 5000 B.C. (Hester 1973; Singleton 1984a, 1986a; Warren 1984:410-414). Minimal archeological data from the 3500-1000 B.C. period was obtained at 04-Tuo-S-505 and 04-Cal-S-347 (Figure 2). At 04-Tuo-S-505, east of upper Long Gulch, SAI recov- ered a Humboldt Concave Base point, a core, a stepped biface, a drill, and debitage at depths below 100 cm in sub-midden gravelly clay; no millingstones were found below 90 cm at 04-Tuo-S-505, despite their abundance in the overlying midden deposits. Unfor- tunately, the excavated sample at this site is very small (5.1 m3), and the nature of the sub-midden compo- nent is not well understood. Similarly, the small as- semblage from Stratum E (ca. 5320-2600 B.C.) at 04-Cal-S-347 is poorly defined. Included are manos, scrapers, retouched pieces, bifaces, choppers, and a hammerstone fragment. Among the bifaces are a con- tracting-stem point fragment and two Large Lanceolate Bifaces comparable to specimens from the middle-Holocene yellow clay deposits at 04-Cal-S-286 (O'Brien 1984; Singleton 1984a). Similar assem- blages might be discovered at 04-Tuo-S-313, -531, and -567, if ever their known sub-midden deposits are excavated. Occupation at ca. 3500 B.C., or possibly earlier, is clearly evidenced at the Texas Charley Gulch site, 04-Cal-S-286 (Figure 2). The oldest recognized ar- cheological component at this site occurs in sub-mid- den, alluvial over bank sediments and in old residual soils (Haltenhoff 1984). These deposits exhibit no charcoal, little if any bone or shell, almost no detect- able phosphates, approximately neutral pH, and mini- mal (11.6-19.3 kg/m3) fire-altered rock, much of which may be intrusive. In short, the matrix is developed only weakly, or not at all, as an anthrosol. Best known from Strata D and E of the Eastern zone but also from Stratum D of the Central zone and Stratum C in the Western zone (Moratto and Arguelles 1984: Figure 1.2.4), the occupation is recognized by: a percussion-flaked tool industry (pressure flak- ing is not represented); distinctive backed scrap- ers and Large Lanceolate Bifaces of chert..., cores, choppers, and scraper-planes; and abun- dant debitage (more than 7450 pieces in the Eastern zone sample alone), of which chert rep- resents a much higher frequency (398.5m3) than do obsidian (84.2/m3) and other lithic materi- als (161.2/m3). The selection, heat pretreatment, and skillful percussion- flaking of exotic cherts reflect systems of lithic procurement and tech- nology not replicated in later components. Fi- nally, the Texas Charley component has pro- duced several pestle-like implements, a pecked but apparently unfinished "charmstone," and several other groundstone artifacts; the asso- ciation of manos with this component remains equivocal (Moratto et al. 1984:102-103). These materials from the sub-midden clays at 04-Cal-S-286 comprise the type component of the Texas Charley Phase (Figure 7). The entailed speci- mens show that the production of chert and green- stone tools was an important activity in Texas Char- ley Gulch some 5500 years ago. The lack of anthrosols, coupled with the absence of recognized features and low density of artifacts other than debitage, suggests that occupation was not intensive. Unfortunately, nothing is known about the subsistence economy, land-use patterns, shelters, mortuary prac- tices, or ethnic identity of the people who left the Texas Charley Phase component. Nor does this component seem to have known antecedents or successors at the type-site. The phase, however, is well represented at the Skyrocket site near Copperopolis (J. Pryor, per- sonal communication 1995). At 04-Cal-S-286 erosion seems to have removed any deposits representing the 3500-2500 B.C. period. Whether the site was inhabited at any time during this interval is unknown. Occupation after ca. 2500 B.C. is evidenced by a few square and rectangular manos, millingslabs, and Pinto Sloping Shoulder and Sierra Side-notched points in the lower levels of Stratum B in the Western and Eastern zones (Moratto and Arguelles 1984). This component does not appear to 38 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR be extensive at the site, implying minimal cultural activity there between ca. 2500 and 1000 B.C. Aside from the assumed general contemporaneity of the Pinto-series points, none of the assemblages assigned to the 3500-1000 B.C. period is necessarily coeval with any other. Indeed, the variety of bifaces (Humboldt Concave Base, Pinto Sloping Shoulder, Pinto Square Shoulder, and Large Lanceolate) and variable occurrences of millingstones may signal cul- tural diversity as well as temporal separation. Cer- tainly, the lithic technology expressed in the Texas Charley Phase component at 04-Cal-S-286 is very different than the technology evinced by the Humboldt/Pinto assemblages. The latter thus seem to represent a distinct occupation, or occupations, to which the name Calaveras Phase is applied provision- ally. Otherwise, current data provide little informa- tion about the economy and land-use strategies of the evidently small, mobile groups who inhabited several sites in the NMAP locality at various times between ca. 3500 and 1000 B.C. 1000 B.C. - A.D. 500 This is the first period for which available evidence shows widespread, relatively intensive occupation of the study area. Archeological materials at 24 sites (Figure 3) are attributed, with varying levels of confi- dence, to this interval. Additional components may remain undetected; some sites may have been lost to erosion or buried by sediments; others likely were destroyed by placer mining during the Gold Rush; and yet other sites, particularly those along the Stanislaus River below Coyote Creek, may have been inundated by old Melones Reservoir. Consequently, the known components must be viewed as a very incomplete record of land use and settlement during the 1000 B.C.- A.D. 500 time span. Sites 04-Cal-S-320, -323, -329, -433, -468, -521, -565, and 04-Tuo-S-271/272, -315, -459, and -568 have produced only minimal or equivocal evidence of cultural activity during this period. The collections from each of these sites include from one to several time markers, notably bifaces of the Elko Eared, Elko Corner-notched, Sierra Concave Base, and Eared Con- cave Base types; Olivella G series beads; and Haliotis H3c2 beads. Anthrosols or archaeological features (implying longterm or intensive occupation) definitely related to the 1000 B.C.-A.D. 500 interval have not been detected at these sites. The record is more substantial at 12 sites: 04-Cal-S-275, -276/344, -286, -330, -342, -347, and 04-Tuo-S-316, -44/449, -505, and -657 (Figure 3). Pre-A.D. 500 occupations at these sites are marked by brown midden soils (often stratigraphically below darker-colored, later prehistoric midden deposits); buried, earthen housefloors; numerous millingslabs and manos; infrequent cobble mortars and shaped pestles; conical pipes; Haliotis H2 and H3 beads; Olivella C and G series beads; atlatl weights; medium-to-large bifaces of Elko Eared, Elko Corner-notched, Sierra Concave Base, Triangular Contracting Stem, Medium Triangular Contracting Stem, Medium Corner-notched, Bipoint, and Sierra Side-notched types; abundant debitage, of which ob- sidian is the predominant material; and flexed buri- als, often under stone cairns and sometimes furnished with Olivella and/or Haliotis ornaments. These traits characterize the Sierra Phase (Figure 7). The well-developed midden deposits at these sites attest to repeated or long-term habitation. Housefloors and burials likewise indicate that the sites were resi- dential bases. Subsistence practices seem to have in- cluded hunting mostly deer, rabbits, and squirrels with atlatl and dart, and gathering vegetal foods, of which some were processed in mortars and on millingslabs. Although no acorns have been found among recov- ered plant macrofossils, the combination of mortars and pestles, ashy midden soil, and fire-altered rock makes a good circumstantial case for their use by the Sierra Phase people. While shell beads and ornaments, along with obsidian from the North Coast Ranges, sig- nal trade relationships with peoples to the west, biface types and the large quantities of obsidian from Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo evince strong economic ties with groups to the east. In the aggregate, these findings attest to levels of economic activity, sedentism, and occupational intensity apparently not documented by earlier components in the study area. For example, Zone 3 at 04-Cal-S-276/344 contains the deepest cul- tural deposits, highest densities of debitage and both flaked and ground stone tools, highest proportion of obsidian among both tools and debitage, and greatest variety of artifact classes and types found at the site (Moratto and Singleton 1986:141-142). The Sierra Phase components at 04-Cal-S-275, -330, and 04-Tuo-S-316, -444/449, -505, and -657 (Moratto and Singleton 1986) are comparable. Stratum B at 04-Cal-S-286 is consistent with the 39 Moratto FENENGA VOLUME type component of the Sierra Phase. The extensive, deep midden deposits of Stratum B are dark, organic loams with neutral to basic pH, high phosphate lev- els, moderate quantities of faunal remains, and con- siderable amounts (26.8-124.0 kg/m3) of fire-altered rock, showing that cooking with heated rocks was an important activity. Culturally, the Sierra Phase com- ponent is marked by Haliotis H3b Flat Disc beads; Olivella beads of the F2 Saddle, GI Round Saucer, G2a Small Saucer, and G2b Large Saucer types; Elko Corner-notched, Medium Triangular Contracting Stem, Medium Corner-notched/removed, Medium Expanding Stem, and Sierra Concave Base points; stepped bifaces; various scrapers and other flaked stone tools (Riley 1984a, 1984b; Singleton 1984a: Tables 2.6.104, 2.6.110, 2.6.116); quartz and chryso- tile crystals, manuports, and ochre; occasional pointed bone implements; manos, millingslabs, shaped and possibly unshaped pestles, and cobble, boulder, and slab mortars (but not bedrock mortars); and hammerstones. Lithic debitage is generally abundant (244-472 pieces/m3), and obsidian achieves its high- est density (88-144 pieces/m3) in the Sierra Phase com- ponent. Although artifactual cross-dating, reinforced by radiocarbon assays at 04-Cal-S-286 and 04-Cal-S-347 (Moratto et al. 1988: Table 5.1), would assign all of the components discussed in this section to the 1000 B.C.-A.D. 500 period, temporal control is poor at most of the sites and synchroneity of occupation can- not be assumed. Thus, settlement patterns in the sense of population distribution at a given point in time can- not be reconstructed on the basis of current informa- tion. Nonetheless, it is interesting that the known Si- erra Phase midden sites in the foothill portion of the study area (namely, 04-Cal-S-286, -329/330, -468, possibly -565, and 04-Tuo-S-271/272, -316, -444/449 together with -459, and -505) are approximately equi- distant at -3 km from one another (Figure 3). Per- haps this distribution of sites reflects some proxemic reality, such as settlement spacing and the mutual cir- cumscription of primary catchments, in prehistory. Given the nature and limited extent of excavations at most of these sites, however, the apparent pattern might as well be an artifact of sampling bias. In ei- ther case, additional data will be required to recon- struct Sierra Phase settlement patterns in the New Melones project area. Aside from the habitation sites, numerous caves in the study area evidently were used as mortuary chambers during a time span beginning ca. 1000-500 B.C. and ending ca. A.D. 500-700 (McEachern 1968; Moratto 1984: 304-308). These funerary caverns con- tain secondary burials and, rarely, cremations together with stone pipes, bone daggers, large side-notched projectile points, fish vertebra beads, turtle bone arti- facts, quartz crystals, basketry, Haliotis ornaments, and a profusion of Olivella beads (Beck 1970; Danehy 1951; Gonsalves 1955; McEachern 1968; McEachern and Grady 1977; Orr 1952; Payen 1964; Payen and Johnson 1965; Wallace 195 la, 195 lb; Whitney 1867). In quantity and range of types, the artifact assemblages from the mortuary caves are different than those from the habitation sites. This may reflect differential pres- ervation, formal distinctions between funerary and economic assemblages, or, possibly, the use of the mortuary caves by cultural groups other than those who lived and interred their dead at the nearby mid- den sites. On present evidence, it would seem most likely that the caves were used by local groups, and that the funerary offerings found in the caves eluci- date a range of artifact forms and inferred sociotechnic behaviors not fully represented in the assemblages from open sites. A.D. 500-1300 Unlike the relatively sedentary and intensive oc- cupations of 1000 B.C.-A.D. 500, the subsequent pe- riod evidently witnessed sparse populations and lim- ited site use by small, presumably mobile groups. Moreover, all of the known Sierra Phase sites (Figure 3) in the project area seem to have been abandoned, or inhabited only minimally, during the A.D. 500-1300 interval. The archeological record apparently indi- cates cultural discontinuity from the preceding phase. The cessation of cave burial at ca. A.D. 500-700 sup- ports this reconstruction. A few time-sensitive artifacts typically one to several Rosegate series bifaces and/or Olivella B, D, K, or M series beads attest to minimal activity during this period at 21 sites: 04-Cal-3, 04-Cal-S-275, -276/344, -323, -328, -347, -433, and 04-Tuo-1,,04-Tuo-S-304/305/306/314,-316, -444/449, -459, -505, -531, -568, and -932 (Figure 4). One other site, 04-Tuo-S-493, produced a radiocarbon date of 910 + 60 B.P.: A.D. 1040, but no diagnostic artifacts. Cul- tural deposits, features, or other indications of signifi- cant occupation during theA.D. 500-1300 time span have not been recognized at any of these 22 sites. 40 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR At three sites-04-Cal-S-286, 04-Tuo-S-313, and 04-Tuo-S-657-the known records of activity between ca. A.D. 500 and 1300 are more appreciable. The Redbud Phase type component at 04-Cal-S-286, for example, includes definite midden deposits with mam- mal bone, fragnients of M. margaritifera shell, and moderate amounts of fire-altered rock. Found in this midden were two broad, shallow pits of unknown func- tion and an apparent housefloor of compacted earth associated with ash and charcoal. At least two inter- ments also seem related to this component (Moratto and Arguelles 1984:105-106). Faunal remains docu- ment the hunting of deer and small game as well as the collecting of freshwater mussels. Vegetal foods, perhaps including acorns, were gathered and processed in portable mortars and millingslabs. Hallmarks of the Redbud Phase at 04-Cal-S-286 include: Olivella beads of B2 End-ground, C3 Split Oval Drilled, K2 Cupped, and Mla Plain Thin Rect- angular types; projectile points of the "Rosegate" se- ries (i.e., Rose Spring and Eastgate types [Thomas 1981]), and, late in the period, Gunther Barbed type; flaked stone scrapers and other lithic tools of various types (Singleton 1984a: Table 2.6.112); pestles of un- shaped cobbles, cobble mortars, manos and millingslabs; and red ochre, together with quartz and chrysotile crystals. Like their predecessors, the Red- bud Phase residents of 04-Cal-S-286 continued to ac- quire Bodie Hills obsidian. However, "the quantities of obsidian reaching the site or at least the obsidian densities in the midden were smaller than in earlier and later phases of prehistory. Indeed, the overall densities of all kinds of lithic debitage tend to be low (245/m3) relative to those of the earlier...component or later protohistoric and historic components at the site" (Moratto and Arguelles 1984:106). Together, the comparatively low debitage frequencies, small quan- tities of fire-altered rock, and paucity of Rosegate ar- tifacts and midden imply that the Redbud Phase oc- cupation of 04-Cal-S-286 was spatially limited and of small scale. The A.D. 500-1300 period is also documented at 04-Tuo-S-313 near Bear Creek (Figure 4) in strata for which temporal control is supplied only by three Rosegate-series bifaces, a single Olivella C1 bead, and hydration measurements of 5.7/7.1 and 4.1 microns, respectively, on pieces of Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo obsidian. Two charcoal samples from "random" test units, and not associated with any of the 30 features excavated at this site, provided modern radiocarbon dates (i.e., <300 B.P.) and thus contribute no useful information. The A.D. 500-1300 period at 04-Tuo-S-313 witnessed the procurement and reduc- tion of local slate, manufacture and use of slate chop- pers and scraper-planes (function unknown), limited production of small tools of chert, hunting with the bow and arrow, food processing with millingslabs/ manos and portable mortars/pestles, and cooking in steatite vessels (Moratto and Singleton 1986). At 04-Tuo-S-657, in the Stanislaus River canyon (Figure 4), occupation is registered by a dark brown midden radiocarbon-dated between 850 ? 80 B.P.: A.D. 1225 and 415 ? 80: A.D. 1450. This component is marked by triangular arrow points and a profusion of mano fragments. Biface preforms and abundant debitage confirm that lithic reduction was a major activity at this site. Remarkably, obsidian pieces ac- counted for only about 24 percent of the otherwise silicate (mostly chalcedonic) debitage. Hunting is at- tested by numerous bones of deer, lagomorphs, and squirrels; fishing, too, is indicated. Given its canyon-bottom setting next to the river, 04-Tuo-S-657 perhaps served as summer hunting/gathering/fishing camp between A.D. 1200 and 1450 (Moratto and Singleton 1986). Aside from the modest evidence of habitation at 04-Cal-S-286, 04-Tuo-S-313, and 04-Tuo-657, the archeology of the A.D. 500-1300 period is poorly known. Even the assignment of 04-Tuo-S-313 and -657 to the Redbud Phase is tenuous, given their pe- culiar assemblages. The fact that they share with the type component such traits as Rosegate points, abun- dant manos and millingslabs, and low frequencies of obsidian tend to justify their place in the Redbud Phase. The variability among the three components may re- flect different environmental settings, site functions, and/or economic specializations. Nonetheless, the possibility of more than one phase cannot be dis- counted for the A.D. 500-1300 period. By every indi- cation, the study area was sparsely populated and mini- mally used during much of this period. Older (Sierra Phase) villages were abandoned, their sites used oc- casionally for ephemeral camps and perhaps as sources of obsidian to be reworked. Cultural continuity from the Sierra Phase is not implied by the meager archeo- logical remains of the subsequent Redbud and other phases. Moratto 41 FENENGA VOLUME A.D. 1300-1848 Late prehistoric occupation of the middle Stanislaus River locality was both extensive and in- tensive, especially as compared with that of the A.D. 500-1300 period. Fifty-four of the 68 sampled Indian sites in the project area can be assigned, definitely (43) or probably (11), to the A.D. 1300-1848 period (Figure 5; Moratto et al. 1988: Table 5.17); 42 of these sites feature middens, bedrock mortars, and other evi- dence of substantial, long-term and/or repeated, oc- cupations as compared with only three such compo- nents recognized for the preceding period and 12 for the 1000 B.C.-A.D. 500 period. The overall impres- sion derived from the sampled components is that late prehistoric times witnessed larger populations, more sedentism, tighter spatial clustering of settlements, and higher levels of both intra- and inter-site organization than in any earlier period. Late prehistory in the NMAP area coincides with the Horseshoe Bend Phase (Figure 7), of which the type component is strongly registered in Stratum A at 04-Cal-S-286 (Figure 5). This stratum is a deep, very dark, ashy loam midden with weakly basic pH, high phosphate and total organic content, abundant char- coal and other plant macrofossils, numerous faunal remains, and high densities (mean=212 kg/m3) of fire-altered rock. Horseshoe Bend Phase activities at 04-Cal-S-286 are further attested by numerous hearth, cairn, pit, and earthen-floor features, as well as cre- mations and burials (Moratto and Arguelles 1984: Goldberg 1984). Typical artifacts are Olivella El Thin Lipped beads; Saxidomus Al and A2 disc beads; Desert Side-notched, Cottonwood Triangular, and Gunther Barbed points; inferred use of the bow and arrow; hammerstones, cores, choppers, and abundant flake tools of diverse types (Singleton 1984a); a ste- atite industry featuring disc beads, cooking vessels, ear ornaments, and other forms; manos, millingstones, unshaped (and possibly some shaped) pestles, and bedrock mortars; battered stones; and fairly high den- sities of debitage, ranging from 245 pieces/m3 in the Western Zone to 500/m3 in the Central Zone. The frequency of late prehistoric obsidian (120-165/m3) is greater than that of the underlying Redbud Phase com- ponent (68/m3) at this site (Moratto and Arguelles 1984). Several clusters of Horseshoe Bend Phase compo- nents can be defined. Some of these such as the groups of sites at Clarks Flat (04-Cal-S-275, -276/344, and -343), Bowie Flat (04-Cal-S-326, -328, -329, -330, and -331) and on the southern flank of Bostick Moun- tain (04-Cal-S-320, -321, -323, and -358A) - reflect the constraints of topography. Perhaps these compo- nents are absolutely contemporaneous and do reflect some measure of intersite organization, but the data are equivocal on this point. Other apparent clusters, such as 04-Cal-S-286 and -586 at Texas Charley Gulch and 04-Tuo-S-304/305/306/314 on Bear Creek, are in fact nothing more than nearly contiguous loci of single sites. Other settlement clusters, however, seem to include synchronous components reflecting intersite organization. The best example of this pattern is the cluster focused upon 04-Tuo-S-444/449 (Cooley- Reynolds 1980) near Peoria Mountain (Figure 5; Moratto et al. 1988: 299-314). Considering the extent of midden, number of bed- rock mortars, presence of a large structure (commu- nal dance house?), number of smaller structures (dwellings?), abundance of sociotechnic artifacts, and evident cemetery, 04-Tuo-S-449 probably functioned in late prehistoric and early historic times as the cen- ter of a village community (cf. Merriam 1967:340). If this inference is valid, 04-Tuo-S-449 might have been the social and political center for a community of hamlets in the Peoria Basin-Peoria Mountain vi- cinity. In terms of propinquity and contemporaneity, this community might have encompassed 04-Tuo-S-444, 449, -470, -485, -433, -459, and -894 (Figures 5, 6). Village communities probably also were centered at 04-Cal-S-565 and 04-Tuo-S-27 1/272, and possibly near the confluences of Angels and Bear creeks with the Stanislaus River (both inundated by old Melones Reservoir); unfortunately, these impres- sions cannot be verified with available data. By A.D. 1848, however, named villages existed at Horseshoe Bend (Tipotoya [04-Tuo-S-271/272?]), Robinsons Ferry/Melones (Wiiyii [04-Cal-S-565 and 04-Cal-3?]), on Mormon Creek (Pokto-no), and on Bear Creek (Suchumumu [04-Tuo-l? or 04-Tuo-S-304/305/ 306/ 314?]) (cf. Kroeber 1925). Some or all of these cen- ters might have emerged from late prehistoric ante- cedents. The strong similarities between Horseshoe Bend Phase assemblages and the ethnographic material cul- ture of the Central Sierra Miwok (cf. Barrett and Gifford 1933), together with models of California lin- guistic prehistory (see Moratto 1984: Chapter 11), in- dicate that the post-A.D. 1300 occupants of the project 42 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR area were, predominantly, the ancestors of the Cen- tral Sierra Miwok. Cultural discontinuities between Redbud and Horseshoe Bend Phase components im- ply that the ancestral Miwok did not come to occupy the study area until ca. A.D. 1300. Subsequently, their population spread seems to have been rapid and by ca. A.D. 1500-1600, complete. While it would be nice to know the ethnolinguistic identity of the people(s) supplanted by the Miwok, it would be even more in- teresting to learn about the mechanisms of replace- ment. The archeological record is taciturn on both counts, although, as discussed above, a significant factor might have been the minimal occupation of the middle Stanislaus River locality prior to ca. A.D. 1300. In turn, both the limited Redbud Phase activity and the intensive late-prehistoric (Miwok) occupation may reflect paleoenvironmental conditions and changes (see Moratto et al. 1988: 39-86, 535-541). The subsistence economy of the Horseshoe Bend Phase involved hunting, fishing, collecting, and gath- ering, doubtless supplemented by trade (supra). Fau- nal remains show that deer, rabbits, squirrels, and vari- ous birds were hunted regularly; other animals among them, black bear, coyote, tule elk, antelope, and turtles also were taken, at least occasionally. While the bow and arrow served as the principal weapon, one may assume (based upon ethnographic information [Barrett and Gifford 1933]) that various traps, snares, dead- falls, nets, and other devices also were employed. The technology for processing vegetal foods changed sig- nificantly from that of earlier periods. Millingslabs and manos evidently were used less frequently than before, and portable mortars were replaced almost entirely by bedrock mortars (BRMs). While not con- clusive, the absence of BRMs in Redbud Phase com- ponents and their ubiquitous correlation with Horse- shoe Bend Phase occupations imply that bedrock mill- ing technology spread within the project area some- time after ca. A.D. 1300. It is probably significant, too, that the proliferation of fire-altered, clastic rocks in midden deposits largely coincided with the advent of BRMs. Both are thought to reflect an emphasis on acorns as a staple food, the mortars of course being used as mills and the rocks attesting to stone-boiling. The increased reliance on acorns an abundant, nutri- tious, and storable food resource would have facili- tated year-round occupation and allowed for popula- tion expansion. Trade was also an important aspect of the late pre- historic economy. Olivella Ela, EIb, and HIa beads, Saxidomus and Tresus disc beads, and Haliotis orna- ments came ultimately from coastal groups, probably through the intermediacy of Valley peoples. Stock- ton Serrated points, while infrequent in the project area, also signal contacts with the west _ an inference sustained not only by typologic similarities with points in the Stockton locality, but also by the distribution of these points at sites (04-Tuo-S-307, 04-Tuo-932, and 04-Cal-S-328) in the western part of the NMAP area, and by the fact that at least one of the four recovered Stockton Serrated points is made of Napa Glass Moun- tain obsidian. Obsidian, chiefly from the Bodie Hills source, was acquired through trade with higher Sier- ran and/or Great Basin peoples. Debitage from the post-A.D. 1300 components at New Melones typically includes a larger proportion of obsidian than is found in Redbud Phase debitage but less than in the Sierra Phase components. The widespread occurrence of Desert Side-notched and Cottonwood Triangular points throughout late prehistory further attests to sus- tained influences from the Great Basin. Nonetheless, the dominant cultural ties during this period were with the central California area, as indicated by the acorn-based economy, settlement pattern, degree of sedentism, community organization, complex of sociotechnic artifacts, and participation in religious cults. By A.D. 1848, the peoples of the middle Stanislaus River locality had become well integrated into the economic, social, and religious systems of central California. A.D. 1848-1910 The ethnohistory and historical archeology of this period are reviewed elsewhere in considerable detail (Goldberg et al. 1986; Greenwood 1982; Greenwood and Shoup 1983; Hall 1978; Jackson 1976; Theodoratus 1976; Tordoff 1988a, 1988b; Van Bueren 1983). Essentially, this was the time of the Gold Rush and its aftermath, when Miwok culture and society were devastated. The early years of this period were characterized by environmental destruction, intercul- tural violence, decimation of Native populations, the incursion of non-local Indians, forced abandonment of traditional villages and short-term occupation of new sites that would have been judged marginal or unsuitable by earlier settlement criteria. The historic period further witnessed the demise of Miwok social and political institutions; collapse of obsidian trade; Moratto 43 44 FENENGA VOLUME adoption of Euro-American clothing, tools, weapons, musical instruments, and ornaments-all of which are attested archeologically; significant dietary changes; and even a change in mortuary practices, from a pref- erence for cremation to a general pattern of coffin burial. By the end of this period, following more than 100 centuries of adaptation to the local environments, Indian populations ceased to live in the New Melones project area. Archeologically, these profound changes are re- flected in Peoria Basin Phase components, most of which trace ephemeral occupation or use, at 33 sites (Figure 6; Moratto et al. 1988: Tables 5.16, 5.17; Moratto and Singleton 1986; Van Bueren 1983). The Peoria Basin type component at 04-Cal-S-286 exhib- its flaked glass tools (e.g., Desert Side-notched and Cottonwood Triangular points and scrapers) of tradi- tional form; Saxidomus disc, and Olivella series H Ground and Rough Disc beads; glass beads of many types; cobble pestles and bedrock mortars; coiled bas- kets of varied forms; textile fragments, buttons, buck- les, and shoe parts; rings, brooches, and other jewelry of metal and glass; metal tableware; steel knives, shov- els, and picks; iron nails; pane, bottle, and lamp-chimney glass; stoneware, porcelain, and other ceramics; and parts of musical instruments (Furnis 1984; Isaacs 1984; Van Bueren 1983). This compo- nent also features both cremations and burials, together with the persistence of ceremonial structures (Moratto and Arguelles 1984). In brief, the Peoria Basin Phase documents sweep- ing cultural changes from Gold Rush times until the early twentieth century. During this period, traditional economic patterns, domestic architecture, clothing, and most technology rapidly gave way to those of the dominant culture, while aspects of social organiza- tion, ceremonial architecture, ritual, and many native foods-together with their processing technology- were retained by the historic Miwok. The middle Stanislaus River country, transecting perhaps the richest segment of the Mother Lode belt, was at the very heart of the Gold Rush. Beginning in 1848, waves of foreigners: Anglo-Americans, Italians, Chinese, Mexicans, Chileans, as well as Californios swept into the southern mines to seek their fortunes. The resulting population growth was phenomenal: "At the eve of the Gold Rush [California's] population [excluding Indians] had grown to about twenty-six thousand. By mid-summer of 1849 it reached fifty thousand, and by the year's end it was probably near 115,000. By 1860 the number had more than tripled to 380,000" (MacKinnon 1967:3-4). The early min- ers created a dependent economy (see Shoup 1988), and an ephemeral one at that. By 1860, having ex- hausted the easily-worked placers, most of the '49ers had left the Stanislaus. In their wake remained count- less abandoned camps and prospects, and vast areas of despoiled land. But not all of the Argonauts pulled up stakes. Some stayed on, making their living by ranching, hard-rock mining, or commercial enterprises in the foothill towns. Between the 1860s and 1890s, gold mining declined and agriculture emerged as dominate in the local economy. Thereafter, the economic base was broadened to include: corporate industrial mining; logging, aided by the Sierra Railroad; and hydroelec- tric developments, notably the Camp Nine Powerhouse and old Melones Dam. These varied activities, rang- ing from the placer mining of Gold Rush days to twentieth-century hydroelectric projects, are recorded by at least 442 historic archeological sites in the NMAP area (Tordoff 1988a). Grouped by function, these sites related to mining, agriculture, residential activities, water systems, transportation, stone ovens, miscella- neous functions, and various combinations of these. Together, these sites represent the (undesignated) his- toric phases of the New Melones cultural sequence. Acknowledgements This paper is an abridged and revised version of the concluding chapter of the Final Report of the New Melones Archaeological Project, Volume 9 (Moratto, Shoup, and Tordoff 1988). Funding for archaeo- logical fieldwork, data analyses, and preparation of the Final Report... was provided by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Reclamation, and Na- tional Park Service. I am particularly indebted to Drs. Bennie Keel (National Park Service) and G. James West (Bureau of Reclamation) for their administra- tive support of the New Melones Archaeological Project between 1981 and 1988. Any deficiencies in the Project's technical work or resultant reports, how- ever, are claimed as my own. 44 NEW MELONES RESERVOIR References Cited Aginsky, B. W. 1943 Culture Element Distribution, XXIV: Central Sierra. University of California Anthro- pological Records 8(4). Berkeley. Barrett, S. A., and E. W. Gifford 1933 Miwok Material Culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 2(4):117-376. Milwaukee. Beck, J. L. 1970 Turtle-bone Artifacts from Pinnacle Point Cave (4-Tuo-272), Tuolumne County, California. 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