ISBN I-882744-11-X 1111111 1 1 11111 19 791882 744113 LAPITA AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS IN NEAR OCEANIA Portion of a large vessel or cylinder stand, with anthropomorphic face design, from Zone C of Area B, Talepakemalai Site. LAPITA AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS IN N EAR OCEAN IA: ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE MUSSAU ISLANDS, PAPUA NEW GUINEA, 1985-88 Volume 1 Introduction, Excavations, Chronology Patrick Vinton Kirch, Editor With Contributions by Nick Araho, Carla Catterall, Patrick V. Kirch, and Marshall 1. Weisler Contribution No. 59 Archaeological Research Facility University of California at Berkeley 2001 iv Lapita and Its Transformations in Near Oceania: Archaeological Investigations in the Mussau Islands, Papua New Guinea, 1985-88 Volume 1: Introduction, Excavations, Chronology Volume 11: Lapita in its Environmental and Ecological Context Volume Ill: The Record of Material Culture, Conclusions Number 59 Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility University of California, Berkeley 2001 Kirch, Patrick Vinton Lapita and Its Transformations in Near Oceania: Archaeological Investigations in the Mussau Islands, Papua New Guinea, 1985-88 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 00-134802 ISBN 1-882744-11 -X (alk. paper) ? The authors. All rights reserved v TO THE MEMORY OF EDWARD W. GIFFORD PIONEER ARCHAEOLOGIST OF LAPITA vi THE PUBLISHER GRATEFULLY ACKNOWLEDGES THE FINANCIAL SUPPORT PROVIDED BY THE STAHL FUND, AND BY THE CLASS OF 1954 CHAIR FUND. vll CONTENTS OF VOLUME I List of Figures / xi List of Tables / xv Preface / xvi Acknowledgements / xviii Contributors / Abreviations / xx Chapter I The Mussau Project in the Context of Lapita Archaeology - Patrick V. Kirch 1 The Lapita Cultural Complex: History and Background 1 The Lapita Homeland Project 2 Problems and Issues in Lapita Archaeology 4 Lapita Origins 4 Lapita Economy 6 Long-Distance Exchange 7 Lapita Society 8 What Happened to Lapita After 500 BC ? 9 The Mussau Project: Specific Research Design and Strategy, 1985-1988 10 The 1985 Mussau Expedition 10 The 1986 Mussau Expedition and its Objectives 13 Laboratory Interlude, 1986-87 17 The 1988 Mussau Expedition and its Objectives 20 Post-1 988 Analyses 24 Notes to Chapter 1 25 Chapter 2 The Mussau Islands: Natural and Cultural Environments - Patrick V Kirch with Carla Catterall 28 Geographical Overview 28 Natural Environment and Resources 31 Basal Geology 32 Climate 34 Soils and Other Landform Features 35 Flora and Vegetation Patterns 36 Vegetation Patterns of the Offshore Islands 36 Terrestrial Faunal Resources 39 Marine and Littoral Environment and Resources 40 Shallow-Water Marine Habitats of the Offshore Islands 41 Methods Used for Habitat Assessment 41 Map and Description of Shallow-Water Habitat Types 41 Coastal Geomorphology and Implications for Holocene Sea-Levels 46 The Ethnographic Record 47 The Mussau Language and its External Affinities 50 Social Organization 51 Settlement Patterns, Land Use, and Subsistence 52 Material Culture 52 Trade and Exchange 54 Notes to Chapter 2 55 viii Chapter 3 Excavating the Mussau Archaeological Record: An Introduction - Patrick V. Kirch 57 Sampling the Archaeological Record: Site Choice and Excavation Strategies 57 Excavation Methods 60 Recovery Techniques and Biases 62 Recording Schemes and Databases 63 Notes to Chapter 3 66 Chapter 4 Three Lapita Villages: Excavations at Talepakemalai (ECA), Etakosarai (ECB), and Etapakengaroasa (EHB), Eloaua and Emananus Islands - Patrick V Kirch 68 The Talepakemalai Site (ECA) 68 The Setting 69 Site Discovery and Prior Excavations 71 Excavation Objectives and Stratigraphy 73 The 1985 Season 73 The 1986 Season 76 The 1988 Season 79 The ECA Site Excavations 81 The Airfield Transects (1985) 81 Area A Excavations (1985) 83 Area B and W200 Transect Excavations (1985-88) 86 The W250 Transect (1988) 103 Area C Excavations (1988) 116 Sedimentology of the Talepakemalai Site 120 Field and Laboratory Methods 120 Analysis of Modern Control Samples 123 Analysis of Archaeological Sediments 124 Sea-Level Change and Depositional History at ECA 130 Stage 1, -3,500 BP 132 Stage 2, -2,800 BP 132 Stage 3, -2,500 BP 132 The Etakosarai Site (ECB) 134 The Setting 135 Excavations and Stratigraphy 136 The 1985 Transect 136 The 1986 Excavations 137 Stratigraphy 137 Sediment Analysis 137 Radiocarbon Dating 139 Cultural Content 139 The Etapakengaroasa Site (EHB) 139 The Setting 140 Excavations and Stratigraphy 140 1985 Test Excavations 140 1986 Transect Excavations 141 Stratigraphy 141 Radiocarbon Dating 141 Cultural Content 142 Concluding Remarks 142 Notes to Chapter 4 143 Chapter 5 Lapita Rockshelters of Eloaua and Mussau Islands (Sites EHM, EHN, EKO, EKP, and EKQ) - Marshall 1. Weisler 146 Introduction 146 General Excavation Methods 146 Eloaua Island Excavations 147 Site EHM 147 Site EKO 148 Site EHN 150 Summary of the Eloaua Rockshelters 151 Mussau Island Excavations 151 Site EKP, Eatulawana Rocksherlter 152 Site EKQ, Epakapaka Rockshelter 154 Stratigraphy and Depositional Sequence of EKQ 154 Radiocarbon Dating of EKQ 157 Burial Feature 157 Cultural Content of EKQ 157 Summary of the Mussau Rockshelters 160 Notes to Chapter 5 161 Chapter 6 The Boliu Site (EKE) - Patrick V. Kirch 162 The Setting 163 Excavations 165 Excavation Procedures 165 The E200 Transect 166 Deposits at the S End of the Transect 168 The Sequence at Units E200N1 74-175 168 Unit E200N200 171 Deposits from N225 to N275 172 The N200 Transect 172 The Sequence at El 17N327 (TP1) 173 Test Excavation on the Upraised Plateau (TP2) 173 Summary 173 Notes to Chapter 6 174 Chapter 7 An Aceramic Midden on Emussau Island (Site EKS) - Marshall 1. Weisler 175 Excavations 175 Objectives 175 Methods 176 Stratigraphy 176 Stratigraphy of Unit 2, E Profile, Mound 176 Stratigraphy of Unit 4, E Profile, Off Mound 177 Features 178 Dating 179 Cultural Content 179 Summary 180 Chapter 8 Elunguai, an Aceramic Site on Eloaua Island (Site EHK) - Nick Araho 181 The Setting 181 Excavations 182 Stratigraphy of the Lower Terrace Units 183 x Stratigraphy of the Upper Terrace Units 183 Radiocarbon Dating 185 Cultural Content of EHK 185 Artifacts 185 Faunal Materials 185 Conclusions 185 Notes to Chapter 8 186 Chapter 9 Sites Surveys and Miscellaneous Excavations (Sites EKL, EKU) Patrick V. Kirch with Marshall 1. Weisler 187 Reconnaissance Surveys 187 The Offshore Islands 187 Eloaua Island 187 Emananus Island 189 Boliu Island 189 Ebolo Island 190 Ekaleu Island 190 Ebanalu Island 190 Enoanaulu Island 191 Mussau Island 191 The SE Region 191 The NW Region 191 Miscellaneous Excavations 193 The Enusagila Site (EKL) 193 The Sinakasae Site (EKU) 194 Notes to Chapter9 , 195 Chapter I 0 A Radiocarbon Chronology for the Mussau Islands Patrick V. Kirch 196 Methods 197 Calibration 198 Correlating Mussau Marine and Terrestrial Sample Pairs 199 Rogue Dates and "Chronometric Hygiene" 204 Results 205 Chronology of the Lapita Sites 205 Talepakemalai (ECA) 205 Etakosarai (ECB) 213 Etapakengaroasa (EHB) 214 Epakapaka (EKQ) and Other Rockshelters 214 Lapita Component at Boliu Island (EKE) 216 Chronology of the Post-Lapita Sites 216 Elunguai (EHK) 216 Boliu Island (EKE) 216 Emussau Island (EKS) 217 Sinakasae (EKU) 218 Post-Lapita Component at Epakapaka Rockshelter (EKQ) 218 Enusagila Island (EKL) 218 Conclusions 219 Notes to Chapter 10 220 Appendix 10.1 Mussau Project Radiocarbon Age Determinations 223 References Cited 237 xi LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 The geographic distribution of the Lapita cultural complex. 3 1.2 Near Oceania, showing the central position of the Bismarck Archipelago. 5 1.3 Senior leaders of the local Eloaua community. 12 1.4 Excavations in progress at Area B of the Talepakemalai (ECA) Site in 1985. 13 1.5 Excavations in progress at the expanded Area B locus, Talepakemalai (ECA) Site, 1986. 15 1.6 Naomi Kavi and Liah Aite operating a marine bilge pump. 15 1.7 The field laboratory in Eloaua Village. 16 1.8 Marshall Weisler records stratigraphy in one of the ECA transect units. 16 1.9 Terry Hunt excavating at the ECA Site. 16 1.10 Loading the dugout canoe "Two Mile" for a reconnaissance trip. 1 7 1.11 Dana Lepofsky and Eric Kop sorting anaerobically preserved plant remains. 22 1.12 Wet-screening along the W250 transect excavations. 23 1.13 Mike Ritchie records metric data on control samples of mollusks. 23 1.14 Nick Araho supervises test excavations at the Boliu Island Site (EKE) in 1988. 24 2.1 Map of the Mussau Islands. 29 2.2 Aerial photograph of the S part of the Mussau Islands. 30 2.3 Aerial view of the NW part of Emananus Island. 32 2.4 The view from Eloaua Island across the Malle Channel. 33 2.5 Aerial view of the S part of Mussau Island. 34 2.6 Vegetation map of Eloaua Island. 37 2.7 Vegetation map of Boliu Island. 38 2.8 Aerial view of the NW coast of Emananus Island. 39 2.9 Young taro (Colocasia esculenta) plants growing in a swidden garden on Eloaua Island. 40 2.10 Aerial view of part of the Eloaua atoll system of reefs and lagoons. 42 2.11 Distribution of the types of shallow-water marine habitats. 43 -2.12 An idealized cross-section through part of an atoll system. 44 1 Areas covered by habitat types within the Eloaua atoll system. 44 4 Geological map of Eloaua Island. 47 A typical incised shoreline notch along the coast of Boliu Island. 48 Measured profiles of five incised shoreline notches. 49 Views of a traditional hamlet at Palakau and house at Enai. 50 A contemporary village on Eloaua Island. 51 Mussau artifacts collected by the Sudsee Expedition of 1908. 53 Map of the Mussau Islands, showing site locations. 59 Examples of standardized field recording forms. 64 Structure of the Mussau database system. 65 Map of the Talepakemalai Site. 70 Aerial view of part of Eloaua Island. 71 Elevation profiles across the ECA Site. 72 The completed Area A excavation, during the 1985 field season. 76 A finely decorated, flat-bottomed Lapita dish, as exposed in situ. 77 xii 4.6 View of the Area B excavation during the 1986 field season. 78 4.7 Excavating in Zone C of the S expansion of Area B. 79 4.8 View of Area B during the 1986 excavation. 80 4.9 Excavation in progress in one of the two 4 m2 excavation units of Area C. 82 4.10 Plan of the N portion of the ECA Site. 84 4.11 Diagram of the W200 transect. 87 4.12 Stratigraphic section of the E face of Unit W200N1 20. 88 4.13 Representive stratigraphic sections of Area B, Site ECA. 90 4.14 A cluster of sherds in situ in Zone C of Area B. 91 4.15 Close up view of anaerobically preserved plant remains. 92 4.16 Concordance diagram for the main Area B excavation. 93 4.17 Concordance diagram for the 1988 Area B extension excavation. 94 4.18 Plan of the Area B main excavation. 98 4.19 Plan of the Area B 1988 extension. 99 4.20 Perspective rendering (from the NW) of the main Area B excavation. 99 4.21 View of Area B, at the completion of excavations in 1986. 100 4.22 Close up view of Posts B20 and B21 in the E part of the main Area B excavation. 100 4.23 View of the S expansion of Area B at the close of excavations in 1986. 101 4.24 The Area B extension at the close of excavations in 1988. 101 4.25 Posts Bi and B2 after conservation by freeze-drying, and after sampling for radiocarbon dating. 102 4.26 Finely decorated vessel or cylinder stand as exposed in situ in Zone C. 103 4.27 Spatial distribution (density) of plain body sherds in Zone C. 104 4.28 Spatial distribution (density) of decorated body sherds in Zone C. 105 4.29 Spatial distribution (density) of lithic flakes (primarily obsidian) in Zone C. 106 4.30 Vertical distribution of several main ceramic decorative techniques. 108 4.31 Diagram of the W250 transect. 109 4.32 Stratigraphic section of the E face of Unit W250N1 20. 110 4.33 Concentration of sticks and anaerobically preserved plant remains. 111 4.34 Stratigraphic section of the E face of Unit W250N1 50. 112 4.35 Stratigraphic section of the E face of Unit W250N200. 113 4.36 Distribution of ceramic sherds, obsidian flakes, and coral oven stones along the W250 transect. 114 4.37 Distribution of anaerobically preserved plant remains along the W250 transect. 115 4.38 Distribution of worked shell along the W250 transect. 1 16 4.39 Distribution of primary ceramic decorative techniques along the W250 transect. 117 4.40 Plan of the 1988 Area C excavations. 119 4.41 Distribution of selected categories of cultural materials in Area C. 121 4.42 Topographic profiles of modem Eloaua Island beaches. 122 4.43 Representative plots of sediment grain size distributions from modem control samples. 126 4.44 Representative plots of sediment grain size distributions from archaeological samples, ECA Site. 128 4.45 The probable stages of geomorphological evolution of the Talepakemalai Site, from -3,500 to -2,500 BP. 133 4.46 View of the seaward foreshore fronting Eloaua Village, at low tide. 134 4.47 Suggested configuration of the NW part of Eloaua Island. 135 4.48 View of the ECB Site. 136 4.49 Plan of the Etakosarai Site (ECB). 138 4.50 Stratigraphic profile of the N face of Unit El S21 at the ECB Site. 139 4.51 Elevation profile across the EHB Site. 140 4.52 Stratigraphic sections of Units ON1 OW and ON20W at the EHB Site. 142 5.1 Plan of Site EHM. 148 5.2 Stratigraphic section of the E face of Units 1-3, Site EHM. 148 5.3 Plan of Site EKO. 150 5.4 Stratigraphic section of the W face of Units 1-3, Site EKO. 150 5.5 Plan of Site EHN. 151 5.6 Stratigraphic section of the test unit in Site EHN. 152 5.7 Plan of Site EKP, Eatulawana Rockshelter. 153 5.8 Stratigraphic profile of the N face of Units 1-5, Site EKP 154 5.9 Plan of Site EKQ, Epakapaka Rockshelter. 155 5.10 Stratigraphic profile of the S face of Unit 2, Site EKQ. 156 5.11 Stratigraphic distribution of cultural materials in Site EKQ. 158 5.12 Stratigraphic distribution of decorated ceramics in Site EKQ, Unit 1. 159 5.13 Stratigraphic distribution of decorated ceramics in Site EKQ, Unit 2. 159 5.14 Stratigraphic distribution of obsidian in Site EKQ. 160 5.15 Stratigraphic distribution of shellfish in Site EKQ. 161 6.1 Map of Boliu Island, showing the general location of sites EKE and EKF 163 6.2 Topographic map of the EKE Site area. 164 6.3 Three-dimensional block diagram of the EKE Site. 165 6.4 View of the central part of the EKE Site. 166 6.5 Plan of the EKE Site showing the main N-S and E-W transects. 167 6.6 Elevation profiles along the N-S (E200) and E-W (N200) transect lines at Site EKE. 168 6.7 West face of Unit E200N1 75 at the EKE Site. 170 6.8 View of EKE Unit E200N1 75 after excavation. 171 7.1 Aerial view of Emussau Island. 176 7.2 View of the EKS Site at the time of excavation. 177 7.3 Elevation transect across the EKS Site. 178 7.4 Weight of rock greater than 5 cm through a level area with adjacent mounds, Site EKS. 178 7.5 Profile of excavation Unit 2, E wall, Site EKS. 179 7.6 Profile of excavation Unit 4, E wall, Site EKS. 179 8.1 Map of the EHK Site showing the location of excavated units. 182 8.2 Elevation profile across the lower terrace of the EHK Site. 183 8.3 Stratigraphic sections of the E300 transect units at the EHK Site. 184 9.1 Map of the offshore islands and S part of Mussau Island. 188 9.2 Plan of Site EKW, Mussau Island. 192 9.3 Plan of Site EKP, Mussau Island. 193 10.1 OXCAL plot of 14C probability distributions for paired wood and shell samples from Area B, Site ECA. 200 10.2 OXCAL plot of 14C probability distributions for paired wood and shell samples from Area B, Site ECA. 201 10.3 OXCAL plot of 14C probability distributions for paired wood and shell samples from Site ECB. 202 10.4 OXCAL plot of 14C probability distributions for paired charcoal and shell samples from Site ECB. 203 10.5 OXCAL plot of 14C probability distributions for two shell samples from Area A, Site ECA. 206 10.6 OXCAL plot of five samples from the paleobeach terrace at Site ECA. 207 10.7 OXCAL plot of 14C probability distributions for three wooden post samples from Area B, Site ECA. 208 10.8 OXCAL plot of 14C probability distributions on five charcoal samples from Area B, Site ECA. 209 xiv 10.9 OXCAL summary plot of calibrated ages from Area B, Site ECA. 210 10.10 OXCAL summary box plot of all 14C dates from Area B, Site ECA. 211 10.11 OXCAL summary plot of calibrated ages from the W250 transect, Site ECA. 212 10.12 OXCAL plot of five radiocarbon samples from Area C, Site ECA. 213 10.13 OXCAL plots of 14C probability distributions for two shell samples from Site EHB. 215 10.14 OXCAL plot of 14C probability distributions for the ceramic phase at Site EKQ. 217 10.15 OXCAL sequence plot of 14C probability distributions for four samples from Site EKE. 218 10.16 Inferred ages of the Mussau excavated sites and site components. 220 xv LIST OF TABLES 2.1 Geographic characteristics of the Mussau Islands. 31 3.1 Features of Mussau archaeological site classes. 58 3.2 Summary of Mussau excavations, 1985-1988. 61 4.1 Summary of the Talepakemalai Site excavations. 83 4.2 Data on wooden posts in Site ECA excavations. 96 4.3 Summary of cultural content of Area B, Site ECA (by analytic zones). 107 4.4 Summary of cultural content of Area C, Site ECA (by analytic zones). 120 4.5 Analytical data for modern sediment control samples. 125 4.6 Analytical data for archaeological sediment samples from the W200 Transect, Site ECA. 127 4.7 Analytical data for archaeological sediment samples from the W250 Transect, Site ECA. 129 5.1 Invertebrate fauna from sites EHM and EKO. 149 5.2 Sediment analytic data for excavation Unit 2, EKQ, Mussau Island. 157 5.3 Ceramic summary data for Epakapaka (EKQ) Rockshelter. 158 6.1 Cultural content of Unit E200N1 75, EKE Site. 171 9.1 Cultural content of the EKL test excavation. 194 10.1 Radiocarbon age determinations from Mussau sites. 197 xvi PREFACE A preface affords an author or editor a privileged space wherein, side-stepping the narrow scholarly constraints of academic rhetoric, he may self-reflexively comment on the work he has created. The Mussau Project has filled-albeit intermittently-the hours and days of a decade and a half of my life. I take the opportunity thus presented to share a few of what, for me, were some of the more emotionally charged and remark- able moments, particularly the experiences of fieldwork in the remote, often physically challenging, but always exquisitely beautiful Mussau Islands. Unforgettable is my memory of first sight of Eloaua's uplifted coral lime- stone cliffs and forested plateau, seen through a gray dawn from the rail of the Dick Smith Explorer. I recall the curious mix of emotions and thoughts racing through me as the ship pulled closer up the Malle Chan- nel. How would we be greeted; with reserve and hesi- tation, even suspicion, perhaps, regarding our unusual work? Would Eloaua's sites prove to be productive, yielding the sorts of materials we sought so as to an- swer a host of questions and competing hypotheses? Seemingly mundane problems loomed large for the mo- ment: would we get all of our gear across the reef safely? What sort of lodgings might be found? Would our chloroquine supply prove an adequate defense against the infamously virulent malaria of New Ireland Province? Except for the latter I myself came down with malaria at the end of the 1985 season), in the event it turned out I need not have worried, for we were warmly received from the first hour, and subsequent weeks and months of fieldwork based out of Eloaua Village were among some of the most enjoyable I have ever experienced in the Pacific. And, as this volume at- tests, the archaeological record proved rich beyond expectations. Then too, it would be hard to ever forget the se- quence of events on a baking hot Sunday afternoon- August 11, 1985 to be exact-when the first hint of the unique undisturbed deposits at Talepakemalai began to turn up 65 cm down in test unit 14. Trowelling in wa- terlogged sands that within a few days would yield the first evidence for a Lapita stilt-house settlement pat- tern, sherd after large sherd appeared, most covered with classic dentate-stamped designs, and with them whole Conus-shell rings, a pig tusk pendant, and large obsidian flakes. Coming after days of tedious excavat- ing in shallow, disturbed deposits where the sherds were highly fragmented and eroded, this turn of events was, as I penned in my field journal, "very exciting to say the least." Later, when unit 14 had been expanded into a 12 m2 excavation, it was the setting for another dra- matic moment as Baua Sagila gently picked up a small piece of porpoise bone which had been lying face-down in the waterlogged sands, turning it over in his hands to reveal an exquisitely carved human representation. A sea deity of the Lapita people? And there have been sad memories too, as when we returned to Eloaua the next season, only to hear that Baua had passed away, having choked to death on a fish spine just a few weeks before. Other scenes that fill my memories of Mussau have nothing to do with archaeology, but are just as pre- cious. They include chasing after a school of tuna fish in the dugout canoe Two Mile, kilometers off Cape Forster in a running sea, salt spray stinging our eyes as one of the most dramatic sunsets I have ever witnessed gilded the western horizon. Or the wonder of a school of bottle-nosed porpoises chasing up the wake of my tiny Metzler inflatable boat as we rode across the Malle Channel to Boliu Island, breaking to either side so close that we could reach out and touch their backs as they leaped passed. Or our nocturnal "expedition" to Ekaleu Island to hunt the massive coconut crabs, swarming about under towering coconut palms of an abandoned plantation dating to the early German colonial period. I think also, of watching mesmerized as more than a hundred great Frigate birds glided low over our house late one afternoon headed for their roost on tiny Enusagila Island. The people of Eloaua, too, have left their mark with me. Ave, John, Baua, Eric, and other members of the impromptu "Giaman Club" that convened under our makeshift lab tarp in the evenings to drink my tea and tell tales of Mussau in the "time belong ol tumbuna," as well as the remembered upheavals of the German colonial period, and of World War II, enriched my appreciation of their world immensely. Nor will I forget our pre-dawn parting in 1988, shivering on the bach at Eloaua, as Ave, John, Meis, and the others FpJredto launch Two Mile on a 200 kilometer voyage wManus, John holding a battered World War II U.S. compass in which he had utter faith. Invited by Manus people to come for a time and teach them Mussau technique of cutting large dugouts from a e log, they saw this as a great adventure, a way of turing--I suspected-something of their cultural handed down in traditions of elaborate exchange orks between these archipelagoes in the days of ancestors. They literally stood between two worlds, Eloaua friends of mine, bent on continuing the g traditions of their ancestors while guided by lus military compass! ( have not seen them since, I had word from Ave that the trip was successful.) Most of all I remember their eager participation in project, their openness to my patient explanations dgin English of such bizarre concepts as radiocar- dating, and their amazement that the very ground knew so intimately-that they had dug and gar- for generations-could yield such material wit- of their own deep past. Their own cultural inter- tions of that material record often differed from as when the first preserved wooden house posts revealed in Area B at Talepakemalai, and Aimalo Ave pronounced these to be the foundations of a "haus matmat" (burial house) that their grand- had said once stood on this spot. The event was eless as symbolically charged for them as for me, s more so, as each man knelt to lay his hands on stand touch a piece of this world that had been t back from the past. Nor does it particularly concern me that each of us makes of this material evi- dence what we will, according to our own cultural can- ons, for I have accepted enough of the "postmodern turn" to know that there is always scope for multiple histories, different ways of knowing the past. Much has been written of the "people without his- tory," which is in reality only a Western intellectual con- ceit, dependent on the assumption that history requires written texts. Colonial education schemes and mission- ary teachers extended and promulgated this view, as in the Seventh Day Adventist text I was shown in which the "history" of Mussau begins with the arrival of the first SDA missionaries in 1930! All that came before was presumably not worth knowing (or unknowable), a void of history-less, pagan "savagery." Yet our Mussau friends had clearly never quite accepted this Western view of their past, and still valued the oral and aural "texts" through which generations of their people had constructed and passed down their own histories. I think it was the unexpected excitement at the realization that here was yet another, previously unperceived material "text" of their past-the archaeological record-that so fired the interests of John, Ave, Meis, Baua, Eric, and the others. Without their help, encouragement, in- terest, and most importantly, their friendship, that world would lie buried still. I hope that this volume, along with the carefully curated collection of artifacts to be deposited in their country's National Museum, in some small way helps to repay the debt we owe them, pro- viding a firmer basis for making them a people with history. Patrick Vinton Kirch El Sobrante xvii xviii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Modern archaeological work is expensive, especially when conducted overseas. The Mussau Project could not have been carried out without the generous finan- cial support provided by the National Geographic Society's Committee for Research and Exploration (both to the 1985 Lapita Homeland Project, and to the Mussau Project specifically through Grant No. 3304-86 in 1986), by the U. S. National Science Foundation (through Grant Nos. BNS-8615147 and BNS-8996182), and by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research (Grant No. 4687). Additional financial support, as well as critically important equipment and laboratory space, were provided successively by the Burke Museum of the University of Washington (1985-88), and the Ar- chaeological Research Facility of the University of Cali- fornia at Berkeley (1989-1999). Prof. Jim Allen, of the Department of Archaeol- ogy, La Trobe University, deserves special mention for having organized the Lapita Homeland Project in 1984- 85, and for inviting me to participate, thus launching my foray into Mussau prehistory. Jim and I have at times argued long and hard about our respective interpreta- tions of Lapita (once to the point of sheer hoarseness), but always with mutual respect. Archaeological research in the Mussau Islands was conducted under Research Permit Nos. 14 and 30, and export of archaeological materials for overseas study under Loan Permit Nos. 74, 87, 101, 129, and 131, all issued by the National Museum and Art Gallery of Papua New Guinea. The staff of the National Mu- seum were at all times most helpful with official ar- rangements, and I would especially like to thank the Director, Dr. Soroi Eoe, and the Curator of Prehis- tory, Ms. Pamela Swadling. Mr. John Saulo, Assistant Curator of Anthropology, and Mr. Nick Araho, Assis- tant Curator of Prehistory, were both able to join us for periods in the field and added materially to the suc- cess of the Project. Other individuals who aided us in Port Moresby include Mr. Rex Okona and Mr. Jacob Simet of the Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, who assisted with research visas and immigration matters. At the University of Papua New Guinea, Dr. Les Groube and Dr. Jean Kennedy were both welcoming and gave us useful advice, as well as sharing the results of their own fieldwork in PNG. In New Ireland Province, Mr. Ezekiel Waisale, Minister for Finance, Planning, and Public Service, of the Policy and Planning Department of the N. I. Pro- vincial Government facilitated our requests for permis- sion to conduct research in the Province. Mr. Ellison Kalasar, Assistant Secretary for Policy and Planning, and Mr. Eli Wanera, Assistant Secretary for Education were also most helpful with official arrangements. For addi- tional assistance, we also acknowledge Mr. Esekia Tomon of the N. I. Provincial Government, and Mr. Herman Sole, the elected Member from Mussau. Arranging an archaeological expedition to islands as remote as Mussau requires a great deal of forward planning, as Eloaua and Emananus lack trade stores, requiring all equipment and supplies to be furnished externally. Logistical arrangements were greatly facili- tated by Mr. Roger Dixon, General Manager of Haus Toksave Pty., Ltd. in Kavieng, who acted as our local agent for supplies, aircraft charter, and shipping, and who allowed us to store equipment in his shed between field seasons. Roger's efforts on our behalf went be- yond those of normal business, however, entertaining us in his Kavieng home while we were en route to and from Mussau, and sending us small packets of fresh vegetables, cheese, or other delicacies via the irregular small plane to Eloaua. In the Mussau Islands, official support was pro- vided by the District Manager, Mr. William Sibia, who also gave us use of the government Land Rover for a reconnaissance of the E coast of Mussau Island. The local Council member for Eloaua and Emananus, Mr. Eric Kop, was at all times supportive and helpful. Mr. Aimalo Lavatea of Lomakanauru, the landowner of the ECB Site, was likewise generous in his assistance, and shared much traditional information regarding clan history and Mussau culture. Baua Sagila was a valued friend during our 1985 field season, and it was with great sadness that I learned of his passing just before our return in 1986. Saupa of Emananus Island, owner of the EHB Site, also gave his permission to excavate and helped with the work. Our excavations at ECA and other sites were carried out by a highly enthusiastic and energetic crew of Eloaua and Emananus islanders, who included at various times: Meis Talogu, Susuvin Matonge, Riller Sagila, Deliah Sagila, Lien Kavigona, Milu Kavigona, Benta Kavigona, Melin Ave, Holson Aite, Kelvin Susuvin, Kevin Susuvin, Bila Ave, Reslin Sagila, Ave Male, John Male, Kavigona Tambu, Mata t Sagla, Baua Sagila, Rillinter Hurald, SollyJoshua, Milan . Solon, Liah Aite, Naomi Kavi, Bronwyn Meis, Dixy Joshua, Marren Baua, Delwyn Susuvin, Asa Ave, Ellen Ani, Lennae Tamangei, Mobilly Ave, and Rachael Mosoke. I could not have wished for a better archaeo- logical team. I would also like to acknowledge the as- sistance of those who accompanied and assisted me duringthe three field seasons in Mussau: Sally Brockwell andPm Gaffey (1985); Terry Hunt and Marshall Weisler (1986); and, Dana Lepofsky and Jason Tyler (1988). John Aini, Carla Catterall, HollyMcEldowney, andMike Ritchie also joined us for periods in the field, and their help was inestimable. Various colleagues in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and PNG have generously assisted with aspects of data analysis, provided comparative materi- als or shared unpublished reports and drafts, and in various other ways facilitated our Mussau research. Among themIwouldparticularly like to thankJim Allen, Melinda Allen, Gwen Bell, Roger Bird, Deborah *Cembellin, Emily Dean, Bill Dickinson, Scarlett Chiu, ris Gosden, Jack Golson, Mark Hall, John Head, ,er Green, Elizabeth Manning, Holly McEldowney, e Midgely, Rob Schmitt, John Sinton, Jim Specht, atthew Spriggs, David Steadman, Daris Swindler, Turner, Andrew Wright, Douglas Yen, and Alan The superb line drawings of ceramics and por- le artifacts which grace this and subsequent volumes the work of Margaret Davidson, whose patience and accuracy are both remarkable. Therese Babineau printed all of my black-and-white field photographs from often rather difficult negatives, and also took a number of the artifact photographs. The final writing and editorial compilation of this monograph was accomplished while I was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sci- ences, Palo Alto. The Center provided wonderful li- brary and clerical support, not to mention a highly stimu- lating intellectual atmosphere. My tenure at the Center was supported, in part, by a grant from the National Science Foundation (SBR-9601236). Roger C. Green most kindly read and critiqued the manuscript; Mat- thew Spriggs offered valuable comments on Chapter 10. Tanya Smith, Editor of the Archaeological Research Facility, gave the manuscript a careful copy edit. I am especially grateful to Lisa Holm, of the Oceanic Ar- chaeology Laboratory, who expertly handled the com- plex task of formatting this volume, as well as prepar- ing a significant number of the line illustrations. I have reserved for last the acknowledgment of my very substantial debt owed to brothers Ave Male and John Male of Eloaua Island, senior members of the clan which holds the Talepakemalai (ECA) Site. They not only granted permission to carry out excavations at ECA (despite some early skepticism on John Male's part regarding the nature of our work), but became enthusiastic supporters of the Project as a whole, work- ing closely with us in the excavations, helping in recon- naissance, and in general facilitating our life in their vil- lage. Ave Male put his house at our disposal, and in a thousand countless ways made our life there produc- tive and enjoyable. The success of the Mussau Project is in large part due to the support of Ave and John Male, and on behalf of all Project participants, I ex- tend our sincere thanks. xix CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I Nick Araho, Assistant Curator of Prehistory, National Museum of Papua New Guinea, Box 5560, Boroko, Papua New Guinea (pngmuseum@global.net.pg) Carla Catterall, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Griffith University, Nathan, Qld. 4111, Australia (C.Catterall@plato.ens.gu.edu.au) Patrick V. Kirch, Class of 1954 Professor of Anthropology, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720 (irch@sscl.berkeley.edu) Marshall I. Weisler, Lecturer, Department of Anthropology, University of Otago, P. O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand (marshall.weisler@stonebow.otago.ac.nz) ABBREVIATIONS - approximately asl above sea level bd below datum BP years before present (radiocarbon) bs below surface cal calibrated AR delta-R, the ocean reservoir factor in radiocarbon calibration E east ha hectare km kilometers kyr thousands of years LHP Lapita Homeland Project m meters m square meters (area) MM minimum number of individuals N north NISP number of identified specimens PNG Papua New Guinea 4 phi, unit of the Wentworth grain-size scale cs standard deviation S south W west XRF X-Ray flourescence