MANUFACTURING METHODS OF PILGRIM FLASKS AND RELATED VESSELS FROM CEMETERY 500 AT EL-AHAIWAH JOAN KNUDSEN The site of el-Ahaiwah is located on the west bank of the Nile, approximately sixty-eight miles north of Luxor. In May of 1900, George Reisner, then excavating at Der el Ballas, was called to the site by an antiquities inspector who reported that a Predynastic cemetery there was in the process of being plundered. Between May 21 and August of that year, Reisner excavated one hundred late New Kingdom/Third Intermediate period graves and tombs (Cemetery 500), in addition to some one thou- sand graves belonging to a large Predynastic cemetery. A cluster of houses and a structure that was determined to be a fort were also excavated by Albert Lythgoe, Reisner's assistant (Reisner 1904, 123). Among the ceramics recovered from Cem- etery 500 were twelve whole or fragmentary pilgrim flasks, or similarly shaped ves- sels, now housed in the Phoebe Hearst Museum of Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley.' Six of these will be discussed here.2 The term "pilgrim flask" originally applied to "Saint Menas flasks" and other two-handled flasks manufactured in great quantities as souvenirs for the large num- bers of Christian pilgrims who visited the tomb of Saint Menas and other shrines in Egypt and the Holy Land during the Coptic and Medieval periods. These flasks held sacred oils and holy water (Badawy 1978, 346), which the pilgrims brought back with them when they returned home. As a consequence, the name "pilgrim flask" eventu- ally came to refer to two-handled flasks in general, even those manufactured more than a thousand years before the term was coined (Seif El-Din 1992, 121; Bourriau 1981, 99-100). The bodies of these vessels are usually lenticular or ovoid in shape, with the spouted neck placed at the top of the angle where the two lenses meet. The upper ends of the handles are fastened to either side of the neck, while the lower ends are usually joined to the shoulder of the vessel. This vessel form is believed to have originated in Syria-Palestine, and first appeared in Egypt during mid-Dynasty 18 (Holthoer 1977, 99). It does not disappear until after the Arab conquest in A.D. 641. 88 Egyptian Pottery METHODS OF MANUFACTURE Like terracotta figurines, the Saint Menas flasks and similar vessels from the Graeco- Roman period were made from two-piece molds. Each mold produced one half of a flask, complete with neck and handles. The two halves were then joined. As a result, a seam running along the sides of the body, neck, and handles was usually visible (Hayes 1976, 37). It has been popularly assumed that the earlier vessels of this type from both Syria-Palestine and Egypt were made of three basic parts, all wheel thrown. These consisted of two bowl- or plate-like body sections, and the spouted neck. The body sections would have been joined at the rims, the neck attached, and the handles added last (Amiran 1970, 166; Bourriau 1981, 75). Evidence for this method of manufac- ture would be the characteristic turning-marks on each body section, and a visible joint or other anomalies at the point where the two halves were joined together (Holthoer 1977, 100). Indeed, both Amiran and Holthoer cite examples of pilgrim flasks made by this method from Palestine and Nubia, respectively (Amiran 1970, 166-69, 276- 83; Holthoer 1977, 99-101). Based on a study of pilgrim flasks made in one piece from Transjordan and from the Late Bronze Age Egyptian garrison at Beth Shan, however, Glanzman docu- ments two further methods of manufacture in which the body of a pilgrim flask was made in a single piece (Glanzman and Rufo 1989; Glanzman and Fleming 1993). Glanzman and Fleming describe the two methods as follows: "1) rotation in the upright mode, off a hump of clay, with complete closure of the lenticular body, which was removed from the hump by a pinching movement; or 2) closure of a cone, whose lower portion was cut through, the form inverted, and the orifice then completely closed in the upside-down mode. For either method, the lenticular-shaped body was probably achieved by pressing down on one or both lenses during the formation pro- cess." The visible characteristics of pilgrim flasks made in one piece are: 1) con- tinuous striations proceeding from the center of one lens to the center of the other without interruption; and 2) distinctive marks at the centers of the lenses. These distinctive marks consisted of an interlocking, "navel-like" appearance in the case of lenses closed with a twisting motion, and stretch marks radiating from a central "twisted mass of clay" in the case of those lenses released from the hump by pinching.3 THE EL-AHAIWAH PILGRIM FLASKS A two-part examination was carried out on each of the six vessels from el-Ahaiwah considered here. First, a general macroscopic examination was made, and then each vessel was x-rayed courtesy of the University Health Center at the University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley. The first vessels examined are a group of four flasks from Tomb A502. Numbers 6-18460 and 6-18461 are "true" pilgrim flasks, while 6-18457 and 6-18462 are identical in shape, but without handles. The body of each of these flasks is lenticular in shape. All are of a marl clay fabric, and are self slipped and burnished. Number 6-18460 (fig. 5.1) is the only completely intact vessel in the group. It mea- sures 19 cm in height and 12.5 cm in diameter, with an exterior Munsell reading of 5YR5/4 to 6/4 (reddish brown to light reddish brown). No interior examination was possible, and an exterior examination revealed a smooth surface with no trace of a "twist" at the center of either lens. Number 6-18461 (see color plate 5.1) is fragmen- Manufacturing Methods of Pilgrim Flasks Figure 5.1 Flask, 6-18460 from Tomb A502. Drawing by Sabrina Maras. tary and has been partially reconstructed. Its reconstructed measurements are 18.5 cm in height and 12.5 cm in diameter, with an exterior Munsell readinig of 7.5YR 6/4 (light brown). Like 6-18460, the outer surface was smooth. A visual examination of the interior, however, revealed a lumpy, iffegular surface with no trace of wheel marks. A hole had been made at a spot along the sharp angle and the neck had been pushed through. The remains of clay that had been dislodged during this process still adhere to the inside of the vessel at the neck opening. Number 6-18457 (fig. 5.2) is one of the smaller, handleless flasks. It measures 14.6 cm high and is 9.8 cm in diameter, with a Munsell reading of 7.5YR 6/44 (light brown). It has a very faint black and red gar- land painted around the shoulder, and the interior of the rim appears to have been painted red as well. A small chip is missing from the edge of the spout, but the body is intact; thus no interior inspection was possible. Like the two previous examples, the exterior surface was smooth. Number 6-18462 (fig. 5.3) is the second handleless flask of the group. The spout has been broken off 1.2 cm from the shoulder, and its present height measures 11.5 cm and its diameter is 10.3 cm. Like the previous two vessels, this flask also has a Munsell reading of 7.5YR 6/4 (light brown). The intact body prevented an interior inspection, but as with the other three flasks in this group, the exterior was smooth. T'he examination of the interior of flask 6-18461, and of the X rays of all four of these vessels (color plate 5.2), indicates that each body was mold-made in two 89 90 Egyptian Pottery Figure 5.2 Flask, 6-18457 from Tomb A502. Drawing by Sabrina Maras. Figure 5.3 Flask, 6-18462 from Tomb Manufacturing Methods of Pilgrim Flasks - --- -- Figure 5.4 Flask, 6-18525 from Tomb A549. Drawing by Sabrina Maras. pieces, the mold most likely being a shallow dish or saucer. The X rays show that an amorphous mass of clay had been pressed into the mold, and concentric circles of finger-sized indentations indicate where the potter had further worked to even and thin each lens wall (Rye 1981,70, 81). The two separate sections of each body were then joined at the rims, a hole was made at a point along the angle made by the join, and the handmade spout was affixed. Handles were then added to two of the flasks; the other two were left without them. The next vessel, 6-18525 (fig. 5.4) is a "true" pilgrim flask. It is incomplete, with a present height of 13.5 cm, a width of 11.5 cm, and a greatest diameter of 9.6 cm. It has an exterior Munsell reading of SYR 6/4 (light reddish brown). Although the field notes do not mention it, other museum records attribute this vessel to Tomb A549. The body of this flask is more globular in shape than the previous examples, but, like the others, it is of a marl clay fabric and is self slipped and burnished (color plate 5.3). A portion of the neck and one complete handle remain, with an attachment for the second handle clearly visible on the opposite side of the neck. The body had been broken and subsequently repaired, leaving a hole where a section of the body is missing. This allowed for a visual inspection of the vessel interior. The exterior surface is smooth with the exception of the center of each lens, where a raised bump may be felt. An inspection of the interior indicates that the body was wheel made in one piece: the wheel marks flowed continuously from the center of one lens to the other, and the center of each lens was closed with a twist. As with the previous vessels, the end of the spout was pushed through, leaving clay residue from the pro- cess clinging to the interior of the vessel. The last example examined, 6-18519 (fig. 5.5), is from Tomb A542. This vessel is not a pilgrim flask, but a spherical jug having a flared neck with handle ridge 91 92 Egyptian Pottery Figure 5.5 Handled Jug, 6-18519 from Tomb A542. Drawing by Sabrina Maras. and only one handle, which extends from mid-neck to shoulder. It measures 18.7 cm in height and has a greatest diameter of approximately 11 cm. It is of marl clay fabric, Munsell reading 5YR 6/4 (light reddish brown), and has a cream colored slip with a Munsell reading which falls between 7.5YR 8/2 and 7/2 (pinkish white and pinkish gray). The vessel is decorated with brown paint. Two groups of concentric circles, one within the other, are placed on either side of the body. Traces of a vertical lattice panel may still be seen connecting these two groups, and a ladder pattern is visible on the handle (color plate 5.4). Although this vessel shows structural and stylistic simi- larities to white painted wares of the Cypriot Geometric period (Gjerstad et al. 1934, pl. LXI, nos. 6 and 18; pl. XLVI, niche no. 6), and to Phoenician examples of the Iron I through IIC periods (Amiran 1970, pls. 93, 95), a definitive identification has not been made at this time. Since this vessel was broken and not repaired, the interior is clearly visible. An inspection of the interior reveals, as with the previous piece, that the vessel body was made in one piece. Again, there is a continuous flow of wheel marks from the twist at the center of one lens to the twist at the center of the other. Examinations of these six vessels reveal that the bodies of four were pro- duced in two pieces using molds, while the bodies of the remaining two were both wheel thrown in one piece. None of the vessels was constructed of separate wheel thrown lenses joined at the rims. Manufacturing Methods of Pilgrim Flasks NoTEs 1 The museum numbers of the twelve flasks are: 6-18457, 6-18460, 6-18461, and 18462 (from Tomb A.502); 6-18519 (from Tomb A.542); 6-18525 and 6-18526 (from Tomb A.549); 6-18554 (from Tomb A.564); and 6-18726, 6-18865, 6-18992, 6-18806. 2 Museum numbers 6-18457, 6-18460,6-18461,6-18462,6-18519,6-18525. Illustrations of these vessels, figs. 5.1-5, were kindly provided by Sabrina Maras. 3 For illustrations and photographs of these characteristic marks, see James and McGovern 1993, pl. 19; Franken 1969, pl. XIII. REFERENCES AMIRAN, R. 1970 BADAWY, A. 1978 BOURRIAU, J 1981 FRANKEN, H Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land: From its Beginnings in the Neo- lithic Period to the End of the Iron Age. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. Coptic Art and Archaeology: The Art of the Christian Egyptians from the Late Antique to the Middle Ages. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. F. Umm El-Ga 'ab: Pottery from the Nile VaUey Before the Arab Con- quest. Catalogue of the Exhibition organized by the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 6 October to 11 December 1981. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Fitzwilliam Museum. J. 1969 Excavations at Tel Deir 'Alli I: A Stratigraphical and Analytical Study of the Early Iron Age Pottery. Leiden: E.J. Brill. GJERSTADT, E., J. LINDROS, E. SJOQVIST, and A. WESTHOLM 1934 The Swedish Cyprus Expedition: Finds and Results of the Excava- tions in Cyprus 1927-1931, VoL 1: Text and Plates. Stockholm: Swedish Cyprus Expedition. GLANZMAN, W. D., and S. J. FLEMING 1993 "The Pottery: Typology and Technology - Fabrication Methods." In The Late Bronze Egyptian Garrison at Beth Shan: A Study of Levels VII and VIII, VoL 1, by F. W. JAMES and P. E. MCGOVERN. University Museum Monograph 85. Philadelphia: The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania in cooperation with the University of Mississippi, 94-102. GLANZMAN, W. D., and A. RUFO 1989 "Palestinian 'Pilgrim Flasks': Technical Assessment of their Fabrication Methods." Handout circulated at the annual meeting of the American Research Center in Egypt, Philadelphia, Pa. HAYES, J. W. 1976 Roman Pottery in the Royal Ontario Museum: A Catalogue. Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum. HOLTHOER, R. 1977 New Kingdom Pharaonic Sites: The Pottery. The Scandinavian Joint Expedition to Sudanese Nubia Publications 5: 1. Scandinavian University Books. Lund: The Scandinavian Joint Expedition to Sudanese Nubia. 93 94 Egyptian Pottery JAMES, F. W., and P. E. MCGOVERN 1993 The Late Bronze Egyptian Garmson at Beth Shan: A Study of Levels VII and VIII, 2 vols. University Museum Monograph 85. Philadelphia: The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania in cooperation with the University of Mississippi. REISNER, G. A. 1904 "Work of the Expedition of the University of California at Naga ed Der."Annales du Service desAntiquitis de l'tgypte 5:105-109. RYE, 0. S. 1981 Pottery Technology: Principles and Reconstruction. Manuals on Archaeology 4. Washington, D.C.: Taraxcum. SEIF El-DIN, M. 1992 "Technical Aspects and Workshop's Centres of the Pilgrim Flasks in the Graeco-Roman Egypt." Cahiers de la Ciramique Egyptienne 3 (Ateliers de Potiers et Productions Ceramiques en Egypte): 121-27.