A 12n Chiripa Worked Bone and Bone Tools KATHERINE M. MOORE INTRODUCTION B ENNETT S ORIGINAL Chiripa report con- tained a short section that illustrated and described the major functional types of bone implements from the site (Bennett 1936:443-45). Bone tools collected by the Taraco Archaeological Project at Chiripa have been identified, photo- graphed, and collected in the field during the 1992 and 1996 excavations. In addition, bone tools and bone tool fragments were identified during the sorting and examination of the bone that had been recovered in the screen. What is reported here is all the bone tool material from both sources that has been identified to date. More bone tools pro- bably will be identified as the analysis of animal bone from 1992 and 1996 season is completed. This report provides a brief catalog of the bone tools that have been recovered in the screen based on visual inspection of the pieces. Descriptions of the bone tools identified in the field (and stored in Bolivia) are based on notes and photographs. In this preliminary report I focus upon descriptive measures and the development of a typology to organize a diverse set of objects (table 4). I do not consider here the chronological or spatial elements of the tools' archaeological context. The sample is an unselective one, with objects coming from poor context such as plowzone deposits as well as secure context in pits, middens, and burials. The majority of the sample comes from the Santiago area of the site (70% of 404 objects), but because of the different volumetric extent of the excavations completed thus far, this may not necessarily mean that bone tools are more common there. IDENTIFICATION OF WORKED BONE AND BONE TOOLS The seventy-one bone implements that were recognized in the field are large pieces with obvious modification such as perforation or serration. The additional 333 objects that make up the sample of worked bones were identified while animal bone food scrap was being cleaned and sorted. As they were recognized, the bone tools were bagged individually, and further cleaned with brushes and wooden picks. In analysis, the bones were examined with a 1O power loupe, and rare 74 Ear-lv Settlement at Chir-ipa, Bolivia TABLE 4 Summary of Bone Tool Types. ToolType No. Percent Awls Awl 45 11.1% Long Bone-Pointed 22 5.4% Antler 1 0.2% Blunt Tools and Scrapers Long Bone-Blunt 65 16.1% Long Bone-Rounded 20 5.0% Long Bone-Lateral Shaping 3 0.7% Long Bone-Sharpened 10 2.5% Long Bone-Indeterminate 50 12.4% Mandible 6 1.5% Ribs 15 3.7% Net Gauges Net Gauges 57 14.1% Weaving and Spinning Equipment Combs 4 1.0% Shuttles 4 1.0% Toggles 9 2.2% Whorl 1 0.2% Beads and Ornaments Beads 18 4.5% Bead Blanks 4 1.0% Tubes 11 2.7% Plaques 9 2.2% Spatula? 1 0.2% Indeterminate Indeterminate Shaped and Wom Pieces 49 12.1% Total 404 decorated pieces were examined with a binocular microscope. This approach was sufficient to confirm that edges had been modified artificially after the event of the original breakage. Bone pseudotools (broken bones in tool shapes but with no traces of modification or with polish only on raised exterior surfaces as a result of trampling or pot-polish) were excluded. The presence and orientation of polish and fine striae were recorded. Since the worked bone had been found in secure archaeological contexts, no further magnification was necessary to identify humans as the modifying agent. Only 17% of the bone tools were recognized as such in the field, and only careful examination of all bone scrap allowed the smaller, less obvious or less complete implements to be identified. Care should be taken when comparing this sample with samples from other sites where bone tools are reported but no screening or faunal analysis was undertaken. While individual pieces might be compared from a technological point of view, samples that were identified without examination of the associated bone assemblage cannot be directly compared for the study of craft organiza- tion, site function, or taphonomic history. BONE AS A TOOL RAW MATERIAL Bone is a common raw material for tool manufacturing in traditional societies and is particularly useful in an area such as the Lake Titicaca Basin where wood is likely to have been scarce. The abundant bone scrap of large mam- mals would have provided an unending supply of pieces from which to choose. The inhabitants of Chiripa were familiar with the different working properties of fragments of straight and curved long bones, ribs, and the irregular bones of the pelvis and shoulder blade (scapula). In addition, they selected bone carefully for ornamented tubes and beads, and they made a special effort to obtain ant- ler, probably from the taruca deer (Hippocamelus). Most of the available evidence for the presence of deer at Chiripa comes from fragments of antler used as tools. Based on comparing bone tool and perishable tool samples from the Peruvian coast, one may imagine that when wood was available at Chiripa, wood could be substituted for bone and antler for many implements. Samples from the coast also show us that other perishable materials could be used to make implements that were made of bone at Chiripa. Fine needles and combs, for example, were made from thorns at Pachacamac, and we have no reason to believe that highland residents could not have done the same. The techniques used to manufacture bone tools at Chiripa were simple. Precisely shaped implements were cut by scoring with a flake and then snapping across the score mark. Such scoring or engraving was also used to decorate bone beads and bone tubes. A few bones were notched or drilled through, probably with a heavy bifacial tool. Most common, though, was shaping by Chiripa Worked Bone 75 grinding against an abrasive surface, perhaps ground stone. Both edges and flat surfaces were treated in this way to produce a uniform, smooth result. Many bone tools in this sample were identi- fied by the traces of wear on broken or natural surfaces, not by any deliberate shaping or cutting. These "expedient" bone tools are often quite worn and polished along one edge or end, with usewear and polish rounding the original pattern of broken edges and flaking left by breaking open the bone during butchery. With the exception of the cut and polished ornaments in this collection, it seems likely that the production of bone tools could have taken place in the household for personal or domestic use. Further modification of finished bone tools was noted in many cases. Bone is a relatively soft material with many possible pathways to decom- position, so it was usually difficult to determine when some of these types of modification took place. Most subjective was the identification of striae as representing the traces of manufacture, traces of usewear, traces of non-deliberate tram- pling, or post-excavation damage. Many of the broken edges and tips of tools were broken as part of the natural breakdown of bone in the deposit, but some of the broken edges appeared to have snapped off during use. Some shaped edges had been broken, and the broken edge had become rounded and polished from continued use. Occa- sionally the netting and weaving tools showed such lustrous polish from having been used on soft raw materials that the original marks from manu- facture had been worn away. About 12% the bone tools showed some signs of burning or heat treatment, and it may be that some of this heat treatment took place as a result of manufacturing or use. (Burning may harden bone by altering the crystal structure of the bone mineral.) The most common tool types to show burning were awls (28%), blunt and rounded end long bone tools (16%), and netting tools (14%). This assemblage of frequently burned tool types could also indicate that the use, loss, and discard of these tools took place in heavily main- tained, domestic spaces. In contrast, beads, weaving tools, and bone tubes were never burned. A few bone tools had been gnawed by carnivores, but it was not possible to say if this had taken place before or after the bone had been used as a tool. CATALOG OF TARACO ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT BONE TOOLS Tables 5-10 catalog the bone tools and worked bone fragments from TAP excavations at Chiripa in 1992 and 1996. Individual functional and formal types are grouped into six categories: 1) awls and other pointed tools, 2) scrapers and related tools, 3) tools probably for netting, 4) tools probably for spinning and weaving, 5) worked bone for ornaments and ritual purposes, and 6) indeterminate worn or shaped fragments. Within these broad categories, the objects are listed in locus number order. For each piece, provenience or a catalog number is given, along with an identification of the bone that was used as raw material and an estimate of the portion of the tool that remains. The "Tech" columns list the pro- cesses of manufacturing (shaping, engraving) and use (wear and polish) which modified the tool in the order in which they were applied. The orienta- tion and location of striations from manufacture or use are given where they were observed. Where they are not recorded, the piece did not show such marks, either because they had never existed or because the surface was too eroded to observe such faint traces. An asterix (*) in the "Striae" column indicates that piece was studied using a photograph only, so no observations of surface details could be made. Information in the "Modi- fication" column refers to modification of the piece as a finished artifact, either after manufac- ture or after discard. Information in the "Metrics" column was recorded only when original dimen- sions were preserved. The "Context" column lists distinctive information about the locus in which the object was found. Where there is no informa- tion listed, the context was a relatively undifferen- tiated fill or midden. AWLS AND OTHER POINTED TOOLS The bone awls and other perforating tools (16.8%of sample, taken together) are grouped together on presumed functional grounds (table 5). Awls (I 1. 1% of the site sample) include finely rounded needles (figure 28i) and narrow, shaped, long bone splinters with a wider cross section. Most occurred in the deposits as broken tips or 76 Early Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia a) a) ) a) a) c 00 00 -0 N N N N - 3: 3: 3: 31 3 0 0 0 0 -.. o o o o "1-- XX( N - Nt LO 19 (D0 1< C:. ._ -o 02) E.c -0 0) 01) 30 QC Ul) ') Q E0 0) C: E a) 01) L- a) Cl -c -C/ 0. CO . CZ ,cn a) 7 - : 0) 0) a) O C 0 9l _ 4 E 'o _ Q a) Cl) 0) Cl) C CO U) Ua b.5. Q- CL S- " ,0.0 O) C 0)0) Cl) Cl) Q- QL C _ 0 Cl) a) C C: C: C: E E 31 3: 3: 3r 3. COCOCOCOC O O 0 N v- CV) CV) LO CD N- CD CD CD CD CD 00 o o o Cm o 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) N N CD ItN 0) 03) Co 01) 0) Co Co 0C 0C 0C -J -j -J -j -J 0) cn CL) 0) Cl) > C: C O Cl) Cl) 0 0 CO a a) a) 0.0 a) a) C nL co) Cl) 0 Q D 0D ) EU) C: CD E E 3r CY) x N- a) Cl) 0) Cl) cO Cl) 0. CL co 01) Q .0 01) a C E C0 0 CD _- lt r- 00 CM CM CM CM CM N- cM 0), NO CD 0) CM C/) CD CD 0) 0 U- cn 0 0) C) U) "tX XX r< C. ) P- )< N N- = CD CD CV L C t VI '-t 0) Uf) Cl C Co 0 Cl) C/) 75 7*5 0. 0. 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E 0 C: .0 0) C E V C 0) C .0 0) C E V C 0) C .0 0) C E 3: 3: 3: 3: ?: 3 0 LO) CD 0 t CD U 0 N N CV CV t N _ N N N N N N CV) C _- _- F CV) _ 0 CM N- 0) N- CD (D CD 0') CM 0) 0 0 N- 0) C\l 01) 0 CD CD 0') 0) 0 CM N- 0) 0') 0 co N - 0) 0Y) 0 CM N- 0) 0o O cn c-J mm mm cncncn O x cJ 0 0 0) C.) U) CV) E E C,. ). co C.) 0 U 0 C.) 0 10 .X Co S Ia- c,-J C.- U CM 0 C.) C.) Cu E-? C-) 0 "0 0 "0 co~ -H 0 0. I- 7F) U) 0 -j 10 .c 0 ._ cn LL -J 0 z 0 z U) -J a w a. C') -J z IL Chiripa Work-ed Bone 77 U) C.) co cU *0 a) CZ 0. U) x LO) v- x N1 o C.) . CU CU 0- () C xN o >< 0t U) X- C\i x C5) X LO T- x C\ x coo -0 CD c .0 U1) U1) U) -l U) CU n '5 xr a' L- c . ' L a) U ) CU c : :3 - .2- 0 .: 0 U2) U) U) U) U) U) 5- - - -5 Q0 . 0 0 . 0. 0. I- = L- L- L- - = L.. a. CU U CUCU U : CU CU U CL a a a a a a a a C.) n n c n n n c en - m m U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U/) U/) 0 0 Q- Q- U) 5 QL cn U) 0 0 QL Q Ul) U1) U) U) En 0 0c0n 0 0. a a Q- Q Q- CU U . , n An An T .A C U ,cn . , .L .L . 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U) a) a) c 0 N 0 U) c 0 N 0 FL E 0. .O v- C') C0) 0 - N ._ 10 0 U) LO x CO~~~L 3:x v- x 0 t) CD) x X U x _) U) N rsoo a) V c E) Cg o .0 Cs.. a) C.) CZ C) XU) U1) c g0 x (D c) cn C) x LO x U1) c CD C')D - ) CY) oo (D CD U) () c) c E_ .O. * U) Ul) U1) c CZ C', 4) ;-- a) U/) c Ca U) U/) a) cn c Et U) C) U) Ul) CU Cu 3C cts a) - , - a0 c a) c) 3 ,o 0 -J 4) -J cu z LI) a) CD) 0 Ct) 78 Early Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia midsections. The fine5t awls had a cross section of 3 x 3 mm, and the heavier shaped splinters were approximately 7 x 4 mm in cross section. The "Long bone-pointed" category (5.4% of the site total) includes more generalized long bone shaft fragment tools with an acute angle and sharp point on the working end. The working end was some- times carefully shaped and symmetrical, and sometimes simply took advantage of a naturally sharp broken end to the original fragment (figure 28a). The awls and long bone sharp categories share a common raw material (straight fragments of large mammal long bone, most likely the metapodial or cannon bones of camelids) and general manufacturing technique. None of the tools of this type in this sample showed any perforations. They have strong transverse stria- tions probably from wear but possibly also from manufacture (see below for further information on striae patterns). Awls are a common type of bone tool recognized in archaeological deposits. Their functions probably included perforating and sewing skins and textiles. The heavier awls may also have been used in producing twined basketry. Working with reeds and other fiber materials may well have been an important technology along the reed beds of Lake Titicaca. One of the pointed long bone tools (from Locus 630) is so symmetri- cal and carefully shaped that it may have been a bone projectile point. LONG BONES WITH BLUNT OR WORN WORKING ENDS A large category of bone tools (42% of all tools) was made from pieces of large mammal (most probably camelid) long bone (table 6). The tools of this type illustrated by Bennett (1943) are labeled "end scrapers," though relatively few of them probably served this function. Some of the tools in this sample are complete or fragmentary tools of a type attributed to loom weaving (see for example, the range of camelid metatarsal tools illustrated in Kolata 1989:fig. 32 and the discus- sion of the modern wich'una in Miller 1979:77- 80). The category of long bone tools has been broken down based on examination of the working end of the tools, originally made from a broken end of a large fragment. In most cases, the bone end has been lightly shaped to blunt it, or used with the fresh edge as it was broken (the "Long bone-blunt" category, 16% of the total sample), but a minority have carefully shaped, usually rounded ends ("Long bone-round," 5.0%). A smaller number of long bone tools had been thinned and sharpened along the lateral edges of the piece ("Long bone-lateral shaping," 0.7%). The long bones chosen as raw material for these categories were most often limb elements that have a straight, even grain, in particular the metatarsal and metacarpal bones, but also includ- ing the tibia and radius. A group of long bone tool fragments with insufficient edge to make a further determination are listed here as "Long bone: indeterminate." Also included in this category are two kinds of worked edge tools made on other types of bone. The "Rib tools" (3.7%) are ribs or rib sections with worn distal ends and use polish similar to the long bone tools. The "Mandibles with shaped edges" (1.5%) are a distinctive but poorly under- stood implement where the heavy, cheek tooth portion of a camelid mandible is the apparent handle. The angle of the jaw (the ascending ramus) has been broken off and shaped to form a working edge. This edge in some pieces appears to be sharp enough for scraping but in others is smoother and blunter. "Long bone-sharp" (2.5%) tools are the best candidates in this group of long bone tools to actually have served as scrapers. These tools have sharpened, scoop-like edges and look as though they could have been used as scrapers or even spoons. They are often made on fragments of bones with a curved shaft, like the femur or humerus. Typically, the pieces are shorter than the other long bone tools. There is considerable variation in the outline shape of the long bone tools: rounded, blunt, and squared off. There is also variation in the profile and working angle of the edge. While some have smoothly rounded edges from use or a combina- tion of shaping and use, others are worn to a beveled edge, as though they had been worked back and forth on an angled, flat surface. Some of the heaviest, least-shaped pointed tools could have been pressure flaking tools. In contrast, the "Long bone-sharp" were thinned to a sharp edge rather than being dulled and rounded by abrasion against another material. Clhiipa Wo11 e tVd Bone 79 FIC;URE 28 Bone tools from Chiripa. (a) Pointed long bone tool (Locus 778). (b) Blunt long bone tool (Locus 1070). (c) Toggle (Locus 839). (d) Toggle (Locus 108). (e) Netting Gauge, pointed end (Locus 1206). (f) Netting Gauge, blunt end (Locus 866). (g) Netting Gauge, blunt end (Locus 141 1). (h) Net- ting Gauge, midsection (Locus 1336). (i) Awl, finely rounded type (Locus 866). It is difficult to assign specific functions or type labels to these generalized implements. Certainly some of them may have been used for scraping hides, ceramics, fiber, reeds, or foods, based on the sharp shape and condition of their working edge. Some also may have been used against softer materials, such as yam or other fibers, based on the smooth luster still preserved on blunted working suLrfaces. Most of them are much shorter than the classic wich'una and lack the handle formed by using the articular end. This shorter dimension could possibly relate to a smaller size of loom being used, as well. Analysis of usewear where it was observable on these tools does suggest that their morphological similarity is related to some aspect of their func- tion. When the long bone tools are compared to the awls and pointed tools, strong differences in pattems of striations appear. (In this comparison, tools with multiple sets of striae running in different directions were counted for each different set: thus a tool with longitudinal and oblique striae was counted in both categories.) For the long bone tools, oblique striae were most common (61. 1% of marks observed on tools of that cat- egory) followed by transverse (22.2%) and longi tudinal (16.7cc) striae. For the awls and other pointed tools, transverse striae were most common (59.3%), followed by longitudinal (25.9c%), and then oblique marks (14.8%). The functional assignment of awl is nicely supported by the evidence for strong transverse action (the tool 80 Earlv Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia x- a)a C~- Cl) a) xO a) a) C. aU o >C ) fL~~~~~~~~C o) o B g Uz Cva ns LO a N op C)/) LOo co< \ 0 co-q CM' CJE ' N L- '9 C x x x _C- x CD x x E ~ _0 0000 xo xo oooo x E 0~(' 0 C)O(00C) 0O LOCQO. - v ~~~~~~CM O x U) Ct LO LnO ) LO O C)- 2 CMl C) r- 0) ) __ CMJ CMi- C\l ,a) :5 a) a) a) a) ) ) 0C cr - rc ' U cr c) C ) -C -C C C C C -C a) a) a) -0o aa) a)CUa) O ) 00 ) a) n C E) c,B BB cr a ca ca DccB 0 2o? oo o 0a)0o o~0 a) )*..2..?? o CO n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- O 0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 c 0 o c c 0 (75 2 in a 57 cn H Q~~~~~~~~~~Q LC20C 0C0 a .0 L CL L QLO) a- C- C) a a CL 00 -~~~ -~~~ -~~~ -~~~~ -~~~ - ~ ~ ~ C --- o An o o co o Z o co co Z o o o o a) o - o c o o m ~ a) a a) a a) a)a) 0 )) )) a) a) a) a) a) a)a ) a3) U).= C cccc _r 1) _Z C: a1) C -C _r_ _r x a) C c a)c - a() c3-C a3() (a) (D :c -E-C() (1) (K E a) a) 0 E a a) a) aD Q) D a) v C. ) ^-m 'a a a ' ma ' mma m tQQtQ'aQ 'a 'a 'L QCa'S n~~~~L 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 3 Da 0 0 0 0 0 03 0 XB3 0 33 0 0 3 0 w 0 ct ~ 0 C~ .- CO -i O N N CM CM .ICMJCM CJC CM CM\ CM 'J C CY) C 0 N J ClCO 'J-CM M JM 0 w ui o cn JLO J .. n n Xn n X X X n cn c cn cn n cn c cn n cn') LO c n ) OD co , ,a, c,a, a,N - _ _c ar_ r_ or_- ( CD) ( co-cco r--P_cO cO co 00 0a,co 1)0) 0 0)a)0) 0 0) 0) 0)0a) 0')0')0) 0')0) a) 0) 0 C)0()00)0()0a)0) 0)0)0a)a) 0) _ (~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~00 Wa,a,aOD co aa) y) , oooo ')C'i 0i-) -0 C-) 0 0 C) -(C C) 0 C)C) OC z 0 C/) _ j-i- _ j-i- j j i i- cn .= E -: C'J N - CDU CD)c CC :3 0 0 E N N oO I 0 0 FL 0 - a, CVi CO x 0 0 CM CD 0 N 0 CV- U) _ 0) C .: N >% C : C . ? <: 0 0L LO x Oa, 0 C\. 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CU C0 L) 0 Oa, a)U) a) a) a) a) :3:3 ~ ~ L : 0) 0 a) a) O a) U0 _ , 0 o c r C C a) , a) a) a)- Z - a) a: (YD cm CY) OOOn ,^ 0 CM c0i CM CM 0- 0- 02 0 I CM (V W q0 Cm CM0 CI- Lu J LOL I)L , ~L() 0) m0 0 0) ) )0 CD 0) Cm 0 CD OD)0)0)- 0)0)c-m 0) CO c aoN N- _ _ _ ( 3: m U)z 0~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~C)/J a) a) aa- CL C CL C U -C - -5C5 cn) cn cl cn _a) (1 V )D E E C -C 00o U) U) 0 0 CC C: ?2 -0 -?2 ?2 c m E - E E E E Vo V V V en m m m Z--_ 0 CC C Cl C: LO CD :3 a CO CD X CO 0 0 0 z :) 0 cc a,~ m cm c cmi o C ) a, a, C' N- N- a, a, a z 0) CE ~ ~ ~ C ;Ct C\ C 0 C 00 LU 0c m co O z cO co co CD _ w c- m C) 0 0 = = J J- Gnc a) 0) U) U) C) a) a) a) ul) 0) mnu )B0 03 0 a) a) a) a)_ -a E -o E U) V V V c o C o C~ CC C U) CQ U) C O U ) U) U) 0) 0) 0) 0 0 0 0) 0) g E E E E E E E E___ m m m cn m m m m m CD C 0 0 D 0 r0 c0 c xcm c cq c cs c C C C C C C CC0 m - - E ?C )m a )0 )C 0 0 0 0 0 0 00- Co Co 00 cm) ~ N- C' cm ) 't N- c\j a, 0 cM ' a CD N- aO NN- a ,,O c0 0) ) ) ) ) o) 0a a, O CD Cm Cm N 0 0) -0 __ 0 o - _ o _ _- _rN- P _ _ _ _ _ _ cn OCl ) C) cn ) cn ) cn cn cn Chiripa Worked Bone 81 x U1) C c 0 C') cn C E D E -o U) -o 70 a, 0 U1) C-J U) I- 82 Early Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia U) C.) 0 : cn "c -o CDC -C Ui) cx x co c 0 c: 0 10 U) a) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~O g: V 0 a) .r g tn ~~~~~~~~~~~~cD cn ? C v cnc > x > > a) B B .' o U) _ U._ 0 c :n U ) U ) c c:0) U) cc: CD . QE U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) O 0 0a ) a 75 75 7575 75 75 -5 75 -5 c C__ 00 0 X0 a a) 0a Q Q C CD U) 33 3 3: 3: 3r 3' 3: 8- a- a 3: 3: cn 3a) 0 0 0 0 0 0 U a) a) a) a) a) a) a)? U ) ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) a) a) U )a) sO - U) a) a) U) a) a) E 'a- 'D D 'a 'D 'D 'D a) 7o o E lo E 7o -- - lo -a o8 ccc: cc : c : c c 0c c c -- -- c c O U ) C U U ) U ) U )0 0 U ) ) ) U - U ) ) U 0 U ) E E U ) U ) CZ c c c c: m E EE E cc E E E E E z o . -o V0 VV -0 Vo o c:c:c:c c: *) _ (D z - . D D . QCI 0 00 00 0 Z cn o o n o n 0 (0 0) 0) 0)0)0)0CD I D- 'E~ c' c 0 Z 0 C a C C C a:D 0n 0 CI) ctz CM rl -r-C O N O cm t L n LU C) w O CM CM F- CM C C < N LO ,_IN 0 CO)'t U) cc) F- Co N- Co r- 0 m 0) 0) 0) 0)) 0) Z U LL U.(O CD ) 0) ) O C) vn c OC) O O, C OO (_J 0 _ 0-- m U)z 0 C/ i. -j C/) C) -j C/) U/) u) -c E -c -c cE EEE E E E E E E LL 0 z z 0 0UU) Z C 0 0 CO) C -D N 1 0 LO CO N 0 1 0 1 0 10) C o C o C o C o- N - U ) U ) ' -\ C LO )c Uc C a 0 C - 0 0 cn -N N ND N N (1 C' ' N C1) z )m N NC R N- N-_ Co N- N-_ N- N- N- N- Co Co Cya) Cy 0) Cy 0. 0. 0) cx 0) C3 0 LL U) 0 INO 00 0 0 C> ? 0o 0co 0 z U) Cc _------_____m w z . sn sn cn cn u Cl) cn) cn) cn cn to -0 fi fi _ E E E E c1) 00 Cl) CY) 0 NM U) U) LO0 N U)C5() 0) 0) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 N- 0 0 cnc Cl) Cl) Cl) Cl) -ia -ia -F cc 0 x x 5o. U) a: 0 U) 5 U) 0 oc O a.. ? .U U)U U).2 X U C 0 c : c: 0 U 2 -) -) c a cL U) c cU co U ) ) 0 (U) 0 U) C.) > E V V V E E V c:cZcc:cc5 CO U CO CU CU CO C) CL Q C 'a' 'a 'D 'O E1 E E E E E U/) WU E EE EE E z 0 z O Co NC CU C) Ut Z -t CD co co co W Cl LLJn 0: % N NN N 4: 0 0 0 0 < EL EL EL E 0') v- x C = . cl- c % ;r- {z_ a) a) =C C.) C) U) cOCZ < 00 C N- N- V V ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0~ - 0 C a) O n B n ) V V 0) ~~~~~~~~~~CU 0 C U o E c:c: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ c: n n n Q ) n 0) 0) n) 0) 0 ) 0) U) U) U) O oBw ~~~> CU > >??O c: 0 ) J)C x * <1~~~~C) ._O : ?Q c O . 0~~~~~ CD _ _ U) U ) -Cf)~~~~~~~~~- 0D a S ~ ~ ~ - -r z s C SC C -C c-- - -r '. C _r_ - CU . Cl C b n M )U)U U U) U i0 . c) ,c cu0 5 0 )n ,o 0 ) 0 0 0) CK , a) a O O a O o aao ooo az aa 3: QL 3: aB Q' a B QQQQQQQQQB QQ C. ) a aaa a) CO CO CO CO CO 0 C m m f ff ff Q Q F SC -r-- -r = -F ._= ) 0)0)0) cn cn ) E a) C ) a) a) 0) -a -a 5 -a - C E E O OE E 000QQQ QQ 0. C) 0 0) 0) 0 C) E E E E c c z .2.0 0) ,)OC)_ cu~ ~ c:c CE~ ~~ z a a-0 a a- aL a a 0~~0 a J m ~- - : -O -m 5 0)000 0) 0) 0) 19 Z c c c cc c c CJ0 to LO 0CLN C.) (O C m 'D LO LO Z ,_ r- C N C(O C' _ J C D - 0) '- a)n << j 0 CN N C') 0) - Cm CN a- W:L -O < OCD( I N 0) 0) 0) o) N) CD o0) ) 0)0 ) m a z C) C)= (c Cl) ..J Cl) Cl) Cl) C ) -J a) a) 4: 0) E E LC- 0 0 ' 0 0 CU c: n0E Q E E cuE ir CU CU ccc c: LU J C) C) N- C\ C Z: LU I Nr C) N O a: cn U) a:00 Cm U 0t N- CD 0~ 0)0)0 Cl m z = 0 __ * J.JCl)U) 0) 4 0) 0) a) a) a- cn aL C a D - MO M C OS oQ Ct C ' C 5 5 C C E CO CE U iO _r c ) - 0) 0) 0) s 0) 0) 0o 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0 4: )D ) a) o CU) a 0 ) 3 3 cU 0 0 a) 0) C: c: a)_ a) C: C C C C CO su .? 0 cOa 0 C OOC o oC a 0) a) a) 0) 0 V V 0) 0 V 0 E a3 E a -5 V a ) O 0 ) O ) C: (D c: U 0) 0 D ) 8 0 0 c: a) c: - ) a)' c C: C c c C: C C: C c c c c c: c c: CU c c: C 0) U 0) - U) Ua ) 0 ) a ) ) 0c ) p U) U) E r- ._ c c c: c c c: c c: c c Ct t c: c : c : c : c : c : c : c : c : c : c : c E c : c : c: :c E c: c: c E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E c:c:c:c:c:c:c:c:c:c:c:c:c:c:c:c:c: c:c:c:a:c:c: n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) c:c:ccc:c: cc: c:c:c:c:c:c:c: c:c:c:c:c c:c:c M T- 0 0 't 0D M O O CD 0 CD 00- 03M Co cm M CM 0 N CD O) a O t (Dm CO CO M r- - CO "; r- N cn I LO _ u u) LO O LOf 0 0 CD0 ) CD' r- N- r- Er a: O ~~~~m m m Co m Co mCm 0R N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N C' o CNN C' Cto LL N- 00 N Nx 0x N c N 0 m CD N m N 0 0oo C D C D a: N-6 0) 0) 0) CO N N N- N N CD CD N- N- N N N- N- L U ( z ~ ) 0J) 0) 0) 05) 0D) 0) 0) 0) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 O '-------- - - _ * X * J J J J c/z c/ cJ) CO(1) cJ)(I) cJ) ct: l) cn) Cl) cn) Cl) Cl) x a) c 0 Cl) 0 . _ a) -. _ o 0 a) CZ C/) Cf) a) c'J C.) a) (0 0-J CO H- 84 Early Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia -~~~~~~~ ~~0 0 c ~~~~~~~N 0 o 0 00 E t O x a) E Cm C! o 'I B OBR x >~~~~~~~~~~~~\ _) co co CO 00 D_ CD ,a) CD a) a) a) a) a) cn a a)0 > C 0 ? > > C ? >O c C) CO) O 0 ? ? ) O ) U)U) U) C: C C C) C )CC C O U) flC05 fx i , 0 . , U) D OO CY) O o) ,0 C cl n.CJ Cl) CI) -CI) Cl) CEn Cl C) Cl) a ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 H a) o a) ( o. o c oA c o D o o o O O a) a o Q o a 0 -~~~~~~InC c C C -- CZ H ~ ~~~~~0la0Z7 50750- 57 ? 0 C1 CE 7)a c: F Q ? ? Q~C a cn C Q 8- Q. 3- Q: - Q' a Q a 3: Q: 0- Q: 0 01)~~~~~~~~~~~~a o C - a) a) > a) a) a a a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) ; R U % ~~~Z t Co ?Co CI Co Co rrrsa a) 3 CIO CZ CU co co cZ c co CZ CZ co co cn B F- E 2 I-s C-s (1)( , sx5 (ts.o a)s .o -C -C- C- C r C a U ) cn a) O a) 3: a) 3'n cn cn cn cn cn n cn cn C) 3. n C C a) t CCCCCCCCCC CCCCC 2~~~~~~ co -F 2 ' DDDzQ 0 D 6D U)?mOmamOmE -D E ?mOm co CCCC E E ''- E E E E EEEEE E E E gE E E E E a) C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C o5 m -0 m m m cn -0- m -0 0 -0 0 -0 D -0 -0 0 -0 -0 O F C C' C '' C C C C C C C C C ''CC C C C C C co z =3 O - Cm LO 0 CM CO UC) LO LO U CV) C.) ?) C OC M ( N ON O ?) 0 T- U' 0) LO )C") v- N r-v r-v o r- (3 i "t (D CD CD F. N co C) C\j CQ Cy) 4 CM It lq qt LO a: LL - CS O 00CD CO C O -0 c) O CM C,, "it LO t CM C M( C/ c,) clv) ( ct r- cy) oo cm cm C\D 1-- COmN O . C") F- F- F- (J LC_ awOOOO nO ) LO LrcvO LO LO a) I0 c O L 0)a)0)0 0) Dm0) a) CD0) m0) m 0)0)0)mm Hw C C C C CC C C C C C 0 z D z 0 O O ?LO ) C ' C) O CDO) a)Co Co 0~-0-~-OOC)0Com 0 0 0000 CO .0 1)z = =1 1 )s)z )z r l r 1 O*)Jc)()( Chiripa Worked Bone 85 twisting as it was inserted in rough materials). For the long bone tools, the pushing and rubbing at an angle that produced the pattern of oblique striae could be associated with weaving, as well as many other tasks. NET GAUGES These are a group of very carefully made bone implements for which most traces of the original bone morphology have been effaced by grinding (table 7). This single category makes up 14.1 % of the total sample of tools. One group (n=26, 62% of this category) of them appears to have been made by grinding away the inner table of bone on a rib midsection. Once a thinned blank about 8 mm wide and 1.2 mm thick had been prepared, the ends were carefully shaped into squared off edges or blunt points (fig. 28e-h). Others pieces of this general form appear to have been made of long bone shaft fragments that have been thinned in a similar manner to about 2 mm. With the possible exception of the incised bone tubes, these thin bone blades represent the most careful and elaborate technology of any of the bone tools, and suggest most strongly the stan- dardization of workshop rather than home produc- tion. These tools typically have a high polish with only faint striae, suggesting that they were used on a soft material. The care with which uniform size and shape were attained, and perfect smoothness of edge reflect their supposed purpose. It is most likely that they were netting gauges, the flat sticks which hold a uniform length of cordage in a loop as the netting shuttle pulls each knot tight. The size of the gauge determines the size of the net opening. Two general sizes are most common for the gauges in this sample (those about 11 mm wide and those about 20 mm wide). It may be that this reflects two different mesh sizes in the nets that were being produced. While these gauges match those in use today by fishermen and lacemakers, they have been described by other functional labels such as knives, spatulas, or ornaments (see Bennett 1936, for example). Their common presence at Chiripa is consistent with the eco- nomic importance of fishing and hunting birds, both of which activities probably involved nets. TOOLS FOR WEAVING AND FIBER PROCESSING This general label has been applied to four categories of relatively rare implements to flag their possible function as having to do with cordage, fiber processing, spinning and weaving (table 8). The categories include flat, evenly serrated pieces labeled here as "combs," usually made on cut pieces of camelid scapula (n=4 including 2 from the same feature, Locus 565, see figure 29); a single spindle whorl made of a bone disk; and two very loose categories of "shuttles" and "toggles." The combs could have been used to even the packing of the weft threads as weaving progressed on a backstrap loom. The spindle whorl would have been used on a drop spindle, but, as noted below, some of the large beads also could have been used as spindle whorls and perishable spindle whorls are very common in the Andes today. The shuttles (n=4) are smooth, flat, polished pieces with perforations suitable for fastening or winding yarn around them. Both loom weaving and netting make use of shuttles to carry the twisted fiber through the work, but the many examples from the Peruvian coast indicate that simple sticks and reeds were most often used as shuttles, so this functional assignment may be difficult to support. The toggles (n=9) are smoothed pieces that have been notched or perfo- rated with smaller holes that appeared less suitable for use passing back and forth as a shuttle (see figure 28c, d). Such pieces could have been useful to secure cordage or straps in a variety of fishing, boating, or harness equipment. The assignment of functions to these care- fully shaped pieces is speculative. Their location in a variety of offerings (Locus 565, 536) and possible caches (Locus 837) signals that they may have had multiple meanings. To understand the range of craft production at the site, we must take into account these apparent specialized tools, the more generalized tools such as the smooth, blunted long bones, and the missing perishable materials that would have been used with them. BEADS AND PENDANTS, PLAQUES, TUBES This group of objects is thought to have had special personal or ritual significance, rather than a 86 Early Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia 0)0) = 0) 0) a) x 0U C) -c c ;L;-- CC c cC ._ E z X X z S S~-0 - N N XN- XX XSS _ XX CD 0 > E~~~~~~~ 0 o) 0 0 0 LOt -C ox _(- _ _0 _CJL .OO(N _ CM CM _ 00 -_ C' _ - - -b - --- I ,c r XJ O ? ?- CD C OR D ~ ~ ~ L CM LO LO LO CD CD C c OC CO~~ CO a M 0 Ens xcj -. ( xx _- c=_ xU xs xD ( LOC CD a0 ) CD a) 0) CM~~~~~~~~~~~ er F B n en 0B cn c B 3 cnen en n cn c en ce cn c cu n n cn nc n0Bc nB0c cn cnBu n Q -0 - a) a VCD b~~~~4 o o o o C: o- - U) > -3 > > 00 CZ O OEnO nn _ _nn0)00 n0 E)0)n .n -C- -C C - r -C C -C -C -C _ .c .C OC .C DC .Cn O gAC.C0) -. gO .C.C.ChC)C-C-C)Ch -z _U_)U)U)EU)U)U)U) _ E F E E _ E _ _ F E E MEM _ _ _ ) _ _ L E . '- C T T _ En ? \) ( o) a) a)a0 00a a) a)0 - U 1 1 ) a) )aoo a O 0 a a _ c) __ O CL a " a CL - 0L CL Q- CL QL CL CL CL CD Q- CD CO CO CO a C- a a . D- Q. CL CL C C n CL cn n 0 = _D_ -C) --_ O- O _ OO_ 0000 -C -- C -C _ F-0 MU UC)UL0cU))UUU))cccooc a C) C C C 0) 0) 0) 0 . O 0 C\J C\i C) OL OCIL X D( DC OCJO \ \ O tws Rd > D D1 O0)JO co 0 t0 E vt5E Ev-vavvv- o 0'a- vovv "O"Ovovvvv-vvvvEvvv-o-o- - E- - - -ov-a-o - , ~ ~ ~~ a) c 0 C) 1s 1 0 0-a > D1 _1 CD CD r-0 . C 1< O- 19 Cl .- .D .-N . Ct 1< 19 r 19 10 C9 1 p C CD J LL 0) E E E E E E E E 0) C a) a) a) C C C C C C C 4- C . m0 D DM0- 0M 0- O- 0- 0- 0 -fl n nfl .0 . 0 m0) C C C C - C C~ CCCCC C -: E:C rc CD G -C: C: C 0 ~~~~~~~~0 O- OU) O0 OMMMNC (O 0 C')0M0MMt I T OMM q q a) coC JC'J CmJC' C ) NCOWCY) CY) W 0) LO) 0)00) 0)0C) 0) 0')0) 0)0() 0)C)0a)0a)a) 0) 0)0C) 0) 0)a) 0) 0)0)0)0)0)0)0)0)0)0)0) m0)0)0)0)00)0) CD~~~~~~~~~~C DCC Zl) Z j . Cco a)C n ~~~~~C 000 c C CCM N ?) CM CM lt co lt lt Id CD O OCD (D C.C 0~ Cm Cm UO r" CT 4 -~~~~~~~c OC co 00 00 _0 a v 'I 'Ia vv._t qT CY ) 0) 00 0) CY) 0) 00 X0 CC COCM0) 0) 0) 19 1< 0) r a) CF ,- (J) cn oo 0o ao 0 C) 0 0 C) 0 0 C- 0 0 M C) 0 CDI 0C O ==== _ Chi, i;l Wo,V-ked?lBo)ie S' FIGURE 29 Bone comb, probably Locus 525 (cat. CH3-' technological funiction (table 9). Eighteen beads and bead fragments, and foLir apparent bead blanks were identified. Both camelid phalanges (mostly of the small size class of camelids, either alpaca or vicuna) and bird long bones were used as raw material for tubular beads. These natural bone tubes were scored two or more times with a stone tool and snapped to break off a section of tube. A number of the beads show several evenly spaced grooves about 5 mm apart in addition to the grooves used to cut the piece. These grooves appear to be deliberate incised decoration. The cut ends of the beads were often smoothed, and some of the beads show a high degree of wear and polish from use. One bead had heavy wear on the ends, apparently from rubbing against other beads on a cord (Locus 836). In addition to the tubular beads, one camelid phalanx was drilled through the shaft, perhaps to prepare a pendant (Locus 632). Stone beads have been found with burials at Chiripa, though none of the bone beads was directly associated with a burial. The presence of preforms or blanks and waste suggests that in contrast to the imported stone beads, bone tools were manufactured at the site. It is also possible that some of these beads may have in fact been spindle whorls for extremely fine fibers, as for weaving, one of two from 565/4-01). suggested by bone whorls (no more than I cm wide) still on fine spindles in the Pachacamac collection. Eleven worked pieces appear to be frag- ments of long bones cut and shaped to prepare bone tubes (2.7% of total). Some of these pieces are undecorated and may have been handles or blanks for some other implement, but others appear to have been carefully finished and two are decorated. One complete but undecorated piece (Locus 1283, from a pit in the Santiago area) was made from a cut camelid metatarsal that had been highly smoothed and polished. Pieces of this type have been known as snuff tubes and are thought to have had important ritual functions. Another fragmentary bone tube was en- graved with a pattem of intersecting narrow lines (Locus 674 from Santiago) and lightly polished. The interior as well as the exterior of this piece had been polished. The size and pattem of lines suggests that the original artifact might have been as long as 15 cm. The most spectacular find of this type, though a minute fragment (20 x 10 mm), was a finely decorated bone tube fragment from Locus 522 (the ashy fill of a pit in the Santiago III area). The engraved and polished design shows the feet 88 Early Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia (D C CD o 0) N -C 2 0 ELi (.) - E E B t 0010 C I'll \1-\ N '- U1) Cl) Cl) cn CO U) CZ)CZ U) U1) U() -5 01 0: 0- a) U() U1) U 0- 0. = a) CoS Cc$ S CZ QL h - = Q Ul a)U() 0U() -C Ul)U) a U) CD)C U) U) U) 0 D-0 0 0) 0 0)0) U1) (0) o) CD a) CD a) C ) C) 'a O2 a a E o Zo E E o .Ea) 0 o o cO CD cn 0 n CD CZ 0 E E w E 1010 N- 10 101 0 C) N 101010'- 1 0 N- CD r- CDN r -1Co U) 0 = = = 0 cn CD CD - - -J U) I nU 't 10 Z 0 H 0 LL I cn LU H U) w CL _ - LL 0 a-- LU 0 - I 3r n U) o)0 0 0 aa a -.C C-C .C l C U) -5 -G5 -D a E EE E , 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0)0)0) 0)U C CC C Z E E E E c 0 LL cr LO CD I* ' NO co) - a- 10101 N- a 0 U) w 11 I 0 c: CM O co) U C 0 I w 0 CL w L- C- HMv C _Ni ? - _ _ ~ _ = Iw * (n en cn cn0 U1) 0 0 a) cn U) ._ a Un ) .S- = = - a a a a) Q QQ - ( 1 ) U1) 0 0 0 0 0 = =n o =n = o 0 0 0 0 6" Q a Q a a5 Q Q 5) U) 0 20 03) U) 0 20 0) -C Ul) 0 Q ) U) U 0 0 U U U) 1- a a "aaa 0 ) r 0~ S) - C C ,C .C U) U U) U U U U) U) -5-- E 0 0 OD a) E 0 0 C n 0) E E V0 U C E0 E C -0 E 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E E E E E U U U U U U)U)U U) U) C -0 C E n - C 0) c E C -0 0) E C m0 0) C E C0D C0 0 10 10 10 r- - 0 0 Ct 0 0 10 N- N Cm N N N 10 L 0 10 0 1 V m CM co rn 0') C It N Nt 0 10NN CM 0Y) a) 0)0a) 0t 0 0) V 10 '- -- r - CY) N- C CD o- 0r C a ) - v- v- - v- U a)a) C'-- U1) C *C 0 0 0 0 )ON 00O U) C C) o c N - -: 0 L--+ a-m U) a 0 0 N CO 0 tS a- U) U) 100: X -I (O 0 v Oq x z 0 U) cn H w 0 w 0 LL U: E U2) 0) -o) a) N- 0) E -o 0 co) LO x LO 0 x 0 X 0 0 C 10 0 C\ Xl r- U2) a 0 CY) x LO 10 x CM (f) C) C\j C1) I I LLI 0 z w cc U- U) U) U .-_ C.n U) cu u 2 (U ._ 'Ct . _ ct cu x. cn C) 0 -J -J -j w C) C) z a: cn. 0l U) Chiripa Worked Bone 89 a) a- a- cu m m ct 0- 0L ._ C/) CM 0 0 CM 0N 0 N- CM\ ---C . 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CCD C.0 (D r- < 0a))0) 0) co m C .0(D O- 0) a) O ) 0o U) z m 0 C/) Cl) /) C/) a0 CY) - 0) CM LO) IT0 )t c CM CM - 0CM L)N -t CMCM CY) 0C OD LO LO (D 00 V- - - U) w o- w z 0 C) CO CD < CMCM C\) C) t 0C) t CM z 0 0 coC\ CMcoo0 oa , -- N O CD N-- N- N- 0) 0 0) a) 0' CY a) u) m a< Cf) w LO z 0 co0CD C) D CM CM 0 C) co o o o0) co 0)L() u a W,~ 00 0 00 oC, 00 co CO u. co 0 = - - 0=l -i cl ) U) cJ) c) cn a) X j Cl) x a1) 0 a) oc 00 CN Cl)- 03o cn *-E 0 __ a) -o 0 c 0 c -.C Co 0u ._ CI: 0 U) CM 0 N- 0 a, a) CZ L- -I. a) a) 0) :5 o 0 Oa, a) a) a 0 "0 a) Co "0 CO ON P .1 H) CY) C.) CM a.) JC 0) Co CE u) 0 -J a) -j LI CD CO CD 90 Earlv Settlement at Chiripa, Bolivia a) 0 N 0 0L 4: o U) a)E t (D E x a) o ) (0, - ) o: o o Qms cv S Q ) - o o 3 M cn U2) DO) O O ) 0 ) UUXC C O0U U U = = -C -C -C , cl) 0 _ ) 0) C1) ch U) 0 U0 a) Q<5..0 .0 .0 -a.2 E C CC C U)C c o E o o 0) ) ) C CCo a) J U ) U ) Cl U ) 0 ) 0 U )c E E C =-- E c ., fl ' ' ' co c = _)n cn c- g C ) CU 0 C E ' ' cnC ' '- - cn E EE E E E E E CD ) 0 CD CO CD L 0 N U C) U) ) U) U) "; N O) C Cr) Cf) 00 CD N CM C O N NN N 0 CD 0 M N 9 9 N N N co N N CM CM N o 00 c c) \ CD CN ) _ O O O O Cl) ~~~~O CO cU CU a) cr ;_) CU C) C) "0 7: [4) r- (LL CIO CZ I- Ur LU H- z LL CD C) it U- )a) O c- a) ) a) a) .C s 0 U 0 ul) cn) - Q4. 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U)U)U)U) -5-5-5-5 0000.C C 0 u a) C) ~0 -0 Ct (A C) m cU U) I-"0 a4 m C) CD\ H r-) 0 1) E CU a U) L-) -J -J U) .6- a: a cn 00 C:) LU 0 a) o w0 ._ I Cl Cn . Chiripa Worked Bone 91 C ) ) )U ) C 0 = -= -= = 0 = Q 0 0 0 0 N *- 3 000i Om 0- C.- U) U) U) = a) s U O O ) U) ? CL CL -L Cs) x 4O- LO C U1) 1) Ua) :3 -:3:3 fi -0 n- -0 a1) c Q3 U1) :3 -0 Q a1) a) C C :3Q nfl- -o U1) Ec =3 C x) U) s sC sC cn cn U - - - 5 Q. Q 0 Q L- - UC . .Sl? (1) -O O U-5 Q Q Ul) 0. CL Ua) = U) -5 -5 U) U) U 0s s a O U) QUCoU) CD 0 = = " 0 0 05 0)> L0. 0c _ __ =b 0? 0 cU o = U 0) 0).. 0. .. 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All four edges of this piece are broken (see figure 30). The animal would have been facing the end of the tube, with the scene running from end to end rather than around the piece like others that have been illustrated. The toes and square areas are a good match for those of the Pucara feline on a stele from Velille illustrated by Chavez (1988). A category of 9 (2.2% of total) trimmed and shaped bone pieces has been tentatively identified as plaques to indicate their general shape and size. Most of these were made on naturally flat bones such as skull or pelvis which had then been thinned, shaped, and polished into pieces with rounded outlines. Few of them are complete enough to reconstruct the size or shape of the original worked piece though one was probably about 5 by 2 cm and another was larger. No traces of wear or use help us in interpreting these pieces. They could be pieces of ornaments, small dishes or palettes, offering vessels, or snuff paraphernalia. Of this small sample, most come from the Santiago sector of the site. A single example of a bone spatula, spoon, or similar object is unique also for its elaborate surface decoration (Locus 636, from Santiago). This broken midsection of a flat piece has been examined from a photograph only, and the broken section shows a piece that was about 10 mm wide and more than 80 mm long (figure 31). One end shows where a wider section (the bowl of the spoon?) had broken off. The surface of the object was carefully prepared and had been decorated with fine (pigmented filled?) dot-in-circle incising. While this decoration is lavish by Chiripa stan- dards, it is common in a wide range of utilitarian items in the (mostly later) Pachacamac collection. INDETERMINATE FRAGMENTS A number of worked or shaped pieces (n=49, 12. 1% of total) were too fragmentary or eroded to permit any useful speculation as to the function of the tool or even, in some cases, the orientation of the working edge (table 10). About half of these pieces were fragments of long bones, while the other half was made from other large mammal elements such as pelvis or skull. The most generalized tool categories such as the long bone tools and awls are most likely to be included in this group, since such tool categories as the net gauges have such characteristic features that even tiny fragments of them were recognizable. The modification visible on these indeterminate fragments was predominately shaping and wear of a natural broken edge. ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF BONE IMPLEMENTS The analysis of the archaeological contexts of these bone artifacts is just beginning. At this point, we can see the pattern of bone tool diversity and abundance at the level of the individual locus. Most deposits yielded one or fewer pieces of worked bone per locus. The concentration of tools in Locus 636 (an ashy pit fill with 12 bone tools including 3 plaques and the decorated spatula), Locus 837 (occupational matrix with 9 bone tools including a comb, a toggle, and 3 long bone tools), Locus 848 (a pit with a concentration of animal bones with 7 bone tools including 2 gauges and a mandible scraper) and Locus 778 (occupational matrix with 10 bone tools including the one antler tine tool and other long bone tools) may indicate caches or activity areas. Locus 536 was a burial offering that included bone shuttle; and Locus 565 was a female Early Chiripa burial offering that included 2 combs, a gauge, and a rounded long bone tool. Locus 1275 was a bone-filled pit that included 2 awls and 2 long bone tools. The next step in this analysis will be to compare the incidence of bone tools with the volume of deposit and the overall bone density to identify concentrations in the context of the entire assemblage. This may be combined with a consid- eration of possible temporal change in the bone tool assemblage. We may also be able to identify spatial clustering of specific tool types or activity sets in one area of the site or between areas. In a preliminary comparison of the Llusco and Santiago samples, most categories of bone tools occurred in roughly similar proportions. This may support a reconstruction of a similar mix of domestic and ritual activities in these two sectors of Chiripa. Bone tubes and beads are evenly distributed between the two areas, for example. Of the rarer pieces, Santiago, with its Ciuuiluia Wo4-kcd Bkone 93 FIGURE 3() Fragment of engraved bone tuLbe FIGLJRE 3 1 Bone spatula or spoon. with feet of feline figure (Locus 522). larger sample, yielded the only spatula, and had a higher proportion of the plaques (3% of the Santiago sample and 1% of the Llusco sample were plaques). Of the more general implements, the two areas differ noticeably in the incidence of awls (12% of the Santiago sample and 7% at Llusco) and the incidence of blunt long bone tools (1O% of the Santiago sample and 31% at Llusco). CRAFT PRODUCTION AND HOUSEHOILI) ORGANIZATION The analysis of bone tool production and use is in progress. The stone tool assemblage from the site that is being analyzed now will be an impor- tant set of data for understanding the production of the bone tools. Both chipped and ground stone tools appear to have been used to work the bone tools at Chiripa. Matthew Bandy (personal communication) has noted in a preliminary exam- ination that very few burins were identified from Chiripa, despite the amount of fine scoring and enaraving that was being done. The predominance of expedient bone tools over formalized bone tools at the site may match a predominance of expedient flake tools used in bone tool production. The determination of the level of craft production is a subjective reading of the time, skill, and planning needed to produce some of the objects seen in this sample. Several types of implements, including the netting gauges, the notched and perforated pieces, the beads, and the bone tubes, represent a level of production much higher than the long bone tools and awls that make up the bulk of the sample. By tracking the manu- factuLre and discard of these types across the site and over the periods of its occupation, we will be able to follow specialized workers, households, or activity areas.