17 Culture Change and Persistence in the Daily Lifeways of lnterethnic Households KENT G. LIGHTFOOT, ANN M. SCHIFF, ANTOINETTE MARTINEZ, THOMAS A. WAKE, STEPHEN W. SILLIMAN, PETER R. MILLS, AND LISA HOLM TJIS CHAPIRs CONSIDERS THE implications of intereth- elites may perpetuate their own power base by intention- nic interaction and cohabitation on the material ally cultivating relations with colonial administrators, culture and day-to-day lives of the people who resided in providing them with powerful allies, and sources of trade the Native Alaskan Neighborhood. To what extent did goods and material possessions. interethnic relationships promote culture change and The purpose of this chapter is not to assign ethnic innovation? To what extent did such relationships attribution to the residents of the Native Alaskan Village encourage the persistence of traditional practices of per se since we already know the ethnic composition of Native Alaskans and Californians? As outlined in chapter households based on census data (see chapter 1). Here 1, people in multiethnic communities may initiate we are more concemed with the broader world views and different strategies to extend their social relations beyond organizational principles of the Native Alaskan and their own group, to cement alliances with "other"' peoples Californian peoples who made up the interethnic Village. who may provide access to valued resources or higher Did some Native Alaskan Village Site (NAVS) house- status positions, and even to forge new identities for holds follow the traditional practices of Alutiiq and/or themselves. Some individuals and households may Kashaya Pomo peoples, maintaining strong cultural and perceive advantages in the breakdown or manipulation of ethnic ties with their own respective homelands? Or did traditional sociopolitical structures, providing them with some households identify and relate more closely with enhanced social mobility for the acquisition of valued peoples of "other" ethnic backgrounds at Fort Ross, goods and the achievement of high status positions. They including the Creoles, Siberians, or Russians? Or did may choose to transform their native identities so as to still other NAVS households construct new identities and assimilate directly into "other" groups in multiethnic world views that were not simply blends of Alutiiq and communities, or they may choose to create distinctive Kashaya Pomo constructs and practices, but innovative culural constructs that set them apart from everyone else. syncretisms that signalled the creation of new multiethnic Other households may decide to remain faithful to groups? their traditional values and prestige systems, a decision While ethnohistorical documents identify the probably not uncommon for at least a few indigenous ethnicity of NAVS residents, they are largely silent about elites and their followers who could lose their favored their world views, organizational principles, and intra- positions if the underlying sociopolitical structure community affiliations. No extant accounts document changed dramnatically. Thley may follow a more conser- the degree to which interethnic relationships promoted vative, "traditionalist" culltural pattern that attempts to culture change or the reproduction of traditional practices reproduce many aspects of the ceremonial calendar, in the Native Alaskan Neighborhood. We believe these residential customs, and sociopolitical relationships as kinds of questions are well suited tO archaeological they existed prior to sustained contact with "other" investigation and therefore undertake a detailed examina- peoples (see Lightfoot and Martinez 1995). Still other tion of the spatial patterning and association of archaeo- 356 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood logical remains in the Neighborhood to address them. ment of house structures, we spent most of our time Specifically, we examine the organizational principles of recording and mapping the proveniences of materials in NAVS residents by considering their daily practices in the bone bed deposits. While the focus of the project the use of material culture. As outlined in chapter 1, we remained Neighborhood households, the emphasis shifted view material culture as an active agent in multiethnic from the analysis of architectural space to the study of communities whereby material choices are exercised to household refuse disposal practices. broadcast the identities, social relations, and alliance This chapter considers the spatial organization of formations of individuals and households. Much can be household trash and the kinds of household practices that leamed about the organizational principles of households contributed to specific refuse areas in the Neighborhood. through a careful examination of the kinds of material A detailed microscale analysis of the bone bed deposits culture employed, how daily domestic chores and makes up most of the chapter. We begin by examining recreational activities are conducted, and how space was the contextual relationship and spatial association of created and used in and around household complexes. material remains in the East Central and South bone beds. We proposed initially to focus our investigation on The domestic practices that produced the bone beds are the spatial organization of house structures and related then compared to the cooking methods, craft production extramural space. Employing the comparative method and use of ceramic and glass objects by Native Alaskan outlined in chapter 1, we would comparethe internal and Native Californian peoples in their respective arrangements of NAVS houses and associated extramural homelands. As noted in chapter 1, the comparison will space with ethnohistoric observations and archaeological focus primaily on the Kodiak Island Aluiiit and Kashaya reports of relevant late 18th and early 19th century Pomo because they make up most of the population of structures at Russian-American Company outposts in the the Neighborhood, including many of the interethnic North Pacific. Excellent descriptions of the floor plans, households. Furthsermore, teir ancestral homelands intemal features, dimensions, architectural elaborations, (Kodiak Island, Alaska and the southern North Coast and overall organization of space are known for Russian Ranges, California, respectively) are well documented in log-style structures in Siberia (Opolovnikov and pertinent ethnohistoric sources and archaeological Opolovnikov 1989), the Kurile Islands (Shubin reports. This documentation provides an excellent data 1990:431-32), and Fort Ross (Farris 1989, 1990). base for comparing the daily practices of each group to Similarly detailed observations are reported for late those interpreted from the bone bed deposits at Fort Ross. prehistoric and early historic Alutiiq semi-subterranean We next consider the construction, use, and upkeep houses on Kodiak Island (Clark 1974:127, 1984:19 1; of the pit features as residential structures in the Village. Davydov 1977:154-55 [1802-1803]; Gideon 1977:90-91 While the limited testing of the FRBS Pit Feature, the [1804-1807]; Knecht and Jordan 1985; Lisianksy East Central Pit Feature, and the South Pit Feature 1814:212-14 [1805]; Merck 1980:100 [1790]) and the precludes a detailed analysis of their spatial organization, Kurile Islands (Shubin 1990:434, 1994:340-42). Early we believe they contain important insights on trash ethnohistoric accounts (Corney 1896:33-34; disposal practices in residential space. By comparing Kostromitinov 1974:8 [1830-1838]; LaPlace 1986:66-67 these practices to those of the Alutiit and Kashaya Pomo, [1839]; Lutke 1989:275 [1818]; Schabelski 1993: 10 several implications concerning the cleaning and mainte- [1822-1823]; Wrangel 1974:3-4 [1833]) and later nance of Neighborhood features are outlined. ethnographic reports (Barrett 1908:24-25, 1975; Kniffen Finally, we turn to the intrasite layout of NAVS and 1939:386; Loeb 26:158-61) abound for Pomo and Coast its spatial relation to FRBS. The results of the surface Miwok structures in the Fort Ross Region. Finally, collection, geophysical survey, and trench and area Crowell (1994:159-8 1) summarizes known accounts of excavations are synthesized in order to examine the interethnic structures in the North Pacific and describes spatial organization of architectural structures, communal the excavation of a hybrid-style worker barracks that space, and refuse dumps across the Neighborhood. This combined Native Alaskan building techniques with spatial model is then compared to the organizational Russian stylistic touches at Three Saints Bay on Kodiak principles used by Kodiak Island Alutiiq and Kashya Island. Pomo peoples in locating and laying out their settle- In attempting to implement the above approach, we ments. found that a detailed study of the floor plans, internal features, building materials, and architectural styles ofTHBOEEDEPSS NAVS house structures is not yet possible. The discov- In previous chapters, we argue that the bone beds are ery of dense bone bed deposits in the fill of abandoned relatively intact refuse duxmps where domestic trash was house structures greatly curtailed our ability to expose deposited on intentionally created surfaces, sometime extensive areas of internal and extramural residential during the 1820s or 1830s. The presence of articulated space. Rather than detailing the internal spatial arrange- fish bones, sea urchin spines, and whole abalone shells Culture Change and Persistence 357 suggests that the debris was covered with sediments The third analysis investigates the spatial arrange- shortly after deposition and that the refuse areas were ment of cultuaml materials mapped in situ in the first two protected from trampling and many other post-deposi- excavation levels of the East Central and South bone bed tional processes. It is possible that some of the structural deposits. The precise association and spatial context of components of the abandoned houses (posts, walls) were artifacts and faunal remains in the bone bed and adjacent still in place, providing an artificial barrier that both deposits are determined. The spatial distribution of contained and protected the trash deposits. materials in these bone beds provides insights into We assume that the bone bed deposits were produced dumping events, the kinds of materials that were dis- by households who were discarding residential trash a carded together, and food refuse from individual meals. short distance from their living quarters. This assumption The plan maps for each bone bed level drawn in the field is supported by: 1) the relatively small size of the trash are first converted into x, y, z coordinates suitable for deposits [they measure less than 4 m in diameter], 2) the entry into the SURFER software program. Artifact types shallow depth of the deposits sampled [less than 15 to 20 and faunal remains are coded as symbols and their point cm thick], and 3) the large number of bone bed deposits proveniences entered into SURFER. The SURFER data that probably occur at NAVS, since three separate trash points are then translated into the CorelDRAW software dumps (e.g., East Central Bone Bed, South Bone Bed, program, in which rodent burrows, shell concentrations, Abalone Dump) were detected in the relatively small soil stains, and nonartifactal rocks from the original plan space that was sampled. Furthermore, the shallow depth maps are added to the bone bed maps. The strength of and modest size of the bone beds suggest that they were CorelDRAW is that all the materials included in the relatively discrete deposits, probably formed over a short original plan maps-artifact categories, faunal remains, time by the discard practices of one or two related elevation contours, and background surfaces (nonartifac- housholds. Because the bone beds appear to be distinct, tual rocks, rodent burrows, soil stains)-are entered as short-term trash dumps produced by one or two related separate files so that any combination of these data can households, we believe that they are ideal deposits for be represented in any one map. The spacial organization examining the material culture and residential practices of the bone beds is illustrated in figures 17.1 to 17.58. associated with different NAVS households and for The spatial analyses of the bone bed deposits involve interpreting household organizational principles and two overlapping, but different, populations of cultural broader world views. materials. Not all of the artifacts and faunal remains Three different analyses are reported for the East recovered in the 1991 trench excavations are illustrated in Cental and South bone beds. The first involves the the plan maps of the bone bed deposits. Only those analysis of material remains from the 1991 excavations materials exposed on the upper surfaces of excavation of the East Cental and South trenches. Counts of faunal levels 1 and 2 are mapped and included in the spatial remains and artifacts are tabulated and densities com- analysis, as well as artifacts and faunal remains exposed puted (n/i3). In addition, for every artifact and faunal in the area excavations in 1992. Consequently, the counts assemblage examined, percentages are calculated for illustrated in the plan maps (figures 17.1-17.58) differ specific categories. The assemblages include mammals, from those reported for the trench excavations in table fish, birds, shellfish, worked bone, ceramic, glass, metal, 17.1. beads, and lithics. These data are presented in table 17.1. In the following section we present the results of our The second analysis is the flotation of bone bed detailed analyses of the East Central Bone Bed and South sediments to detect floral remains, and the sorting and Bone Bed. We recognize fully that the presentation can weighing of cultural constituents recovered in the light be rather tedious and involved, but it provides the and heavy fractions. Sediment samples (one and two essential basis for making three basic interpretations of liters in size) are first weighed, then dumped into a daily practices conducted in the Native Alaskan Neigh- frothing flotation tank where the light fraction is col- borhood. First, a significant portion of the bone bed lected in a .5 mm mesh, dried, and sorted. The remaining refuse was probably produced from the discarded heavy fraction is poured through nested screens of 2 mm, remains of meat dishes prepared and cooked using a "hot 1 mm, and .5 mm mesh. After drying the heavy fraction, rocks" method according to the traditional Kashaya all cultural materials are sorted into categories (artifact Pomo/Coast Miwok conventions. It appears that nearby types, animal bones, shellfish, charcoal) and weighed. underground ovens were cleaned out and their contents- The weights of cultural and noncultural materials are then both food remains (e.g., bones, shellfish) and cooking calculated as percentages, and the combined weight of residue (e.g., fire cracked rocks, ground stone "other" the atfacts, shell, animal bones, and charcoal is divided atfacts, small amounts of charcoal)- were thien t!ossed by the total weight of the sediment sample to determine into the bone beds. This culinary method was apparently the percentage of cultural remains recovered in each employed to slow bake and steamn terrestrial game, sample. These data are tabulated in tables 17.2 and 17.3. domesticated mammal and marine mamnmal meats. 358 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Table 17.1 Counts, Percentages, and Densities of Artifacts and Faunal Remains from Native Alaskan Village Site and Fort Ross Beach Sitet ASSEMBLAGE ECT ECBB ST SBB n % n/m3 n % n/m3 n % n/m3 n % n/m3 Mammal 605 100 173 199 100 398 801 100 243 257 100 514 Artiodactyl 270 45 77 104 52 208 340 43 103 78 30 156 Deer 131 22 37 56 28 112 125 16 38 31 12 62 Cattle 35 6 10 19 9.5 38 41 5 12 14 5 24 Sheep 33 5.5 9 18 9 36 17 2 5 5 2 10 Pig 3 .5 .9 1 .5 2 6 .7 2 3 1 6 Elk 7 1 2 4 2 8 1 .3 .3 0 0 0 Unidentified 61 10 17 6 3 12 150 19 45 25 10 50 Pinniped 195 32 56 76 38 152 395 49 120 156 61 312 Eared Seal 81 13 23 18 9 36 153 19 46 28 11 56 Cal. Sea Lion 26 4 7 20 10 40 43 5 13 26 10 52 Harbor Seal 26 4 7 12 6 24 69 9 21 35 14 70 Stel. Sea Lion 4 .7 1 1 .5 2 8 1 2 8 3 16 Nor. Fur Seal 1 .3 .3 1 .5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unidentified 57 10 16 24 12 48 122 15 37 59 23 118 Other Mammal 140 23 40 19 10 38 66 8 19 23 9 46 Fish 392 100 112 83 100 166 819 100 248 171 100 342 Cabezon 221 56 63 40 48 80 351 43 106 60 35 120 Rock Fish 103 26 29 20 24 40 246 30 75 38 22 76 Lingcod 48 13 14 18 22 36 126 16 38 47 27 94 Surfperch 7 2 2 1 1 2 18 2 5 6 4 12 Prickleback 3 .5 .9 2 2 4 12 1 4 2 1 4 Pacific Hake 2 .5 .6 1 1 2 15 2 4 6 4 12 Other Fish 8 2 2 1 1 2 51 6 15 12 7 24 Bird 102 100 29 26 100 52 216 100 65 90 100 180 Murre 83 81 24 21 81 42 136 63 41 47 53 94 Gull 3 3 .9 0 0 0 50 23 15 27 30 54 Pelican 3 3 .9 1 4 2 12 6 4 10 11 20 Duck 6 6 2 3 11 6 5 2 2 1 1 2 Goose 1 1 .3 0 0 0 2 .5 .6 1 1 2 Chicken 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 2 2 1 1 2 Cormorant 3 3 .9 0 0 0 1 .5 .3 0 0 0 Other Bird 3 3 .9 1 4 2 5 2 2 3 3 6 Shellfish 2047 100 585 411 100 822 2962 100 898 510 100 1020 Chiton 83 4 24 14 4 28 185 6 56 28 6 56 Mussel 164 8 47 60 15 120 196 7 59 43 8 86 Clam 11 .5 3 3 .7 6 19 .8 6 3 .6 6 Limpet 194 9 55 51 12 102 307 10 93 86 17 172 H. Slipper 40 2 11 13 3 26 51 2 15 9 2 18 Dogwinkle 18 .8 5 2 .4 4 17 .8 5 1 .2 2 Olivella 3 .1 .8 3 .7 6 7 .3 2 0 0 0 Periwinlde 13 .6 4 1 .2 2 3 .1 .9 1 .2 2 Turban 282 14 81 53 13 106 244 8 74 41 8 82 Other Snail 1208 59 345 202 49 404 1894 64 574 291 57 582 Barnacle 31 2 9 9 2 18 39 1 12 7 1 14 Oyster 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Abalone 13% of bags 13% of bags 14% of bags 15% of bags Sea Urchin 7% of bags 14% of bags 5% of bags 8% of bags Worked Bone 118 100 34 23 100 46 651 100 197 175 100 350 Tools 11 9 3 1 5 2 26 4 8 11 6 22 Rlakes 54 46 15 7 30 14 536 82 162 150 86 300 Chunks 18 15 5 13 56 26 16 2 5 8 5 16 Handholds 5 4 1 0 0 0 18 3 5 5 2.5 10 Other 30 26 9 2 9 4 55 9 17 1 .5 2 _________________________ ~~~~~~~~~~~continued t Key to be found at end of table. Culture Change and Persistence 359 ASSEMBLAGE ECT ECBB ST SBB n % n/m3 n % n/m3 n % n/m3 n % n/m3 Ceranic 165 100 48 34 100 68 477 100 145 35 100 70 Refined 127 77 37 25 74 50 382 80 116 23 66 46 Porcelain 32 19 9 9 26 18 81 17 25 10 29 20 Other 6 4 2 0 0 0 14 3 4 2 5 4 Ceramic Fonn 42 100 12 10 100 20 128 100 39 12 100 24 Plate 14 33 4 5 50 10 26 20 8 3 26 6 Bowl 2 5 .6 1 10 2 12 10 4 0 0 0 Saucer 13 31 4 3 30 6 44 34 13 4 33 8 Tea Cup 7 17 2 1 10 2 31 24 9 4 33 8 Tea Pot 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 4 2 0 0 0 Pitcher 1 2 3 0 0 0 2 2 .6 0 0 0 Pipe Stem/Bowl 1 2 3 0 0 0 7 5 2 1 8 2 Other 4 10 1 0 0 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 Worked Ceramic 1 100 3 0 0 0 6 100 2 1 100 2 Glass Fragment 324 100 93 45 100 90 831 100 252 65 100 130 Vessel 140 43 40 19 42 38 184 22 56 7 11 14 Window 182 56 52 26 58 52 643 77 195 58 59 116 Lamp 2 1 .6 0 0 0 4 1 1 0 0 0 Worked Glass 33 100 9 3 100 6 28 100 8 1 100 2 Flake 12 36 3 2 67 4 18 64 5 1 100 2 Projectile Point 3 10 1 1 33 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other 11 54 3 0 0 0 10 36 3 0 0 0 Metal 136 100 39 15 100 30 203 100 61 23 100 46 Nail Iron/Brass 50 37 14 7 46 14 94 46 28 11 48 22 Nail/Wire 17 12 5 0 0 0 11 6 3 1 4 2 Spike 1 1 3 0 0 0 3 1 1 0 0 0 BulletShot 4 3 1 1 7 2 5 2 2 0 0 0 Copper Sheet/Strip 5 4 1 1 7 2 6 3 2 0 0 0 Iron Wire/Plate 45 33 13 5 33 10 57 28 17 8 35 16 Other 14 10 4 1 7 2 27 14 8 3 13 6 Beads Glass 79 100 23 13 100 26 278 100 84 23 100 46 Shell/Bone 19 100 5 1 100 2 27 100 8 4 100 8 Clam disk 11 58 3 1 100 2 7 26 2 2 50 4 Olivella 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 11 .9 0 0 0 Other shell 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 7 .6 0 0 0 Bone 8 42 2 0 0 0 15 56 .5 2 50 4 Lithic 307 100 88 121 100 242 1326 100 402 268 100 536 Flaked 148 48 42 16 13 32 1038 78 315 98 36 196 Debitage 131 43 37 15 12 30 994 75 301 95 35 190 Edge-Modified 12 4 3 0 0 0 28 2 9 1 .3 2 Fornal 5 1 1 1 1 2 16 1 5 2 .7 4 Ground Stone 23 8 7 19 16 38 26 2 8 12 5 24 Tool 15 5 4 11 922 10 1 3 4 2 8 Other 8 3 2 8 7 16 16 1 5 8 3 16 Cobble 82 26 23 60 49 120 188 14 57 101 38 202 Fire-Cracked 48 16 14 26 22 52 68 5 21 56 20.7 112 Gun Flint 3 1 .9 0 0 0 2 .5 .6 0 0 0 Other 3 1 .9 0 0 0 4 5 1 1 .3 2 Cooking 138 45 39 94 78 188 272 20 82 165 62 330 _. continued 360 The Natve Alaskan Neighborhood ASSEMBLAGE WCT scru FRBS SW Bench n % n/m3 n % n/m3 n % n % n/m3 Mammal 5 100 4 139 100 253 735 100 329 100 67 Artiodactyl 5 100 4 95 68 173 300 41 162 49 33 Deer 0 0 0 15 11 27 158 21 65 20 13 Cattle 3 60 3 8 6 15 41 6 18 5 4 Sheep 0 0 0 8 6 15 22 3 17 5 3 Pig 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 .7 2 .6 .4 Elk 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 1 .4 .2 Unidentified 2 40 2 64 45 116 72 10 59 18 12 Pinnped 0 0 0 30 22 54 400 54 154 47 31 Eared Seal 0 0 0 24 17 44 125 17 59 18 12 California Sea Lion 0 0 0 2 2 4 61 7.6 32 10 6 Harbor Seal 0 0 0 3 2 5 88 12 33 10 7 Steller's Sea Lion 0 0 0 1 1 2 3 .4 3 1 .6 Unidentified 0 0 0 0 0 0 123 17 27 8 5 Other Mammal 0 0 0 14 10 25 35 5 13 4 3 Fish 0 0 0 72 100 131 222 100 183 100 37 Cabezon 0 0 0 53 74 96 118 53 103 56 21 Rock Fish 0 0 0 9 12 16 62 28 46 25 9 Lingcod 0 0 0 2 3 4 32 14 27 15 5 Surfperch 0 0 0 3 4 5 4 2 0 0 0 Prickleback 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pacific Hake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other 0 0 0 5 7 9 6 3 7 4 1 Bird 0 0 0 10 100 18 132 100 61 100 11 Murre 0 0 0 6 60 11 93 71 39 64 8 Gull 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 6 6 10 1 Pelican 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1.5 0 0 0 Duck 0 0 0 1 10 2 7 5 5 8 1 Goose 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1.5 2 3 .4 Chicken 0 0 0 1 10 2 3 2 0 0 0 Cornorant 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 3 5 .6 Other 0 0 0 2 20 4 13 10 6 10 1 Shellfish 1 100 1 295 100 536 748 100 309 100 63 Chiton 0 0 0 23 8 42 25 3 13 4 3 Mussel 0 0 0 16 5 29 207 28 59 19 12 Clam 0 0 0 6 2 11 9 1 5 2 1 Limpet 0 0 0 8 3 15 64 9 25 8 5 Homed Slipper 0 0 0 3 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 Dogwinkle 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Olivella 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Periwinlce 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Turban 0 0 0 43 15 78 113 15 38 12 8 Other Snail 0 0 0 192 65 349 321 43 165 54 33 Barnacle 1 0 0 4 1 7 1 .1 1 .3 .2 Oyster 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 .9 3 .7 .6 Abalone 1 bag 133% of bags 19% of bags 21% of bags Sea Urchin 0% of bags 3.6% of bags 0%o of bags 0% of bags Worked Bone 0 0 0 7 100 13 17 100 4 100 .8 Tools 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 41 3 75 .6 Flakes 0 0 0 4 57 7 0 0 0 0 0 Chunks 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 Handholds 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 30 1 25 .2 Other 0 0 0 3 43 5 3 18 0 0 0 Ceramic 94 100 85 101 100 184 213 100 130 100 26 Refined 77 81 70 84 83 153 180 85 115 89 23 Porcelain 15 16 14 14 14 25 28 13 11 8 2 Other 2 2 2 3 3 5 5 2 4 3 .6 continued Culture Change and Persistence 361 AssmBLAGE WCIT SCI U FRBS SW Bench n % n/r3 n % n/m3 n % n % n/m3 Ceramic Form 16 100 15 22 100 40 61 100 37 100 8 Plate 3 19 3 3 14 5 11 18 7 19 1 Bowl 3 19 3 3 14 5 11 18 7 19 1 Saucer 4 25 4 7 32 13 20 33 11 30 2 Tea Cup 2 12.5 2 7 32 13 15 24 10 24 2 Tea Pot 0 0 0 1 4 2 1 2 0 0 0 Pitcher 1 6 1 0 0 0 2 3 2 8 .4 Pipe Stem/Bowl 1 6 1 1 4 2 1 2 0 0 0 Other 2 12.5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Worked Ceramic 2 100 2 2 100 4 0 0 0 0 0 Glass Fragment 214 100 195 183 100 333 291 100 161 100 33 Vessel 69 32 63 52 29 95 134 46 79 49 16 Wndow 143 67 130 129 70.9 234 156 53.7 81 50 16 Lamp 2 1 2 2 .1 4 1 .3 1 1 .2 Worked Glass 7 100 6 1 100 2 16 100 13 100 3 Flake 5 71 5 1 100 2 9 56 8 62 2 Projectile Point 0 0 0 0 100 0 2 13 2 15 .4 Other 2 29 2 0 0 0 5 51 3 23 .7 Metal 31 100 28 38 100 69 66 100 49 100 10 Nail Iron/Brass 15 48 14 10 26 18 30 46 24 49 5 Nail/Wire 2 7 2 3 8 5 3 4 1 2 .2 Spike 0 0 0 1 3 2 6 9 4 8 .8 Bullet/Shot 0 0 0 5 13 9 2 3 0 0 0 Copper Sheet/Strip 1 3 1 3 8 5 1 2 3 6 .6 Iron Wire/Plate 12 39 11 14 37 25 18 27 12 25 2 Other 1 3 1 2 5 4 6 9 5 10 1 Beads Glass 68 100 62 72 100 131 19 100 16 100 3 Shell/Bone 0 0 0 2 100 4 4 100 3 100 .6 Clam Disk 0 0 0 2 100 4 2 50 2 67 .4 Olivella 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 25 1 33 .2 Other Shell 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bone 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 25 0 0 0 Lithic 67 100 61 138 100 251 2485 100 1267 100 257 Flaked 55 82 50 131 95 238 1852 75 1138 90 231 Debitage 48 72 44 124 90 225 1703 69 1056 83 214 Edge-Modified 5 7 4 6 4 11 125 5 74 6.3 15 Fornal 2 3 2 1 1 2 24 1 8 .6 2 Ground Stone 2 3 2 0 0 0 176 7 7 .6 1 Tool 1 1.5 1 0 0 0 40 2 4 3 .8 Other 1 1.5 1 0 0 0 136 5 3 3 .6 Cobble 2 3 2 0 0 0 28 1 4 .3 .8 Fire-Cracked 3 4.5 3 4 3 7 407 16 101 8 20 Gun Flint 2 3 2 3 2 5 2 .1 1 .1 .2 Other 3 45 3 0 0 0 20 .9 16 1 3 Cooking 6 9 5 4 3 7 571 23 108 8.5 22 KEY: ECT = East Central Trench; ECBB = East Central Bone Bed; ST = South Trench; SBB = South Bone Bed; WCT = West Central Trench; SCIU = South Central Test Unit; FRBS = Fort Ross Beach Site; SWBench - Southwest Bench 362 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Second, household manufacture of some Native Alaskan majority of the shellfish assemblage. Bivalves are crafts are represented in the bone bed deposits, including represented primarily by mussels (15%) with a small worked bone tools and debitage, and circumstantial presence of clams. Chitons are also present, along with evidence exists for the production of kamleikas, birdskin barnacles, abalones, and a high proportion of sea urchins. parkas, and the repair of baidarkas. However, other The density of shellfish is 822 NIs per cubic meter of household-equipment or furniture commonly found in bone bed deposit. historic Kodiak Island houses, such as ground slate e) Worked Bone. Of the 23 worked bone artifacts artifacts, are rare or nonexistent. Finally, small fragmen- identified in the East Central Bone Bed, the great tary pieces of ceramics and glass from multiple vessels or majority (95%) are nondiagnostic pieces including window panes were recovered in the bone bed deposits. various amorphous pieces of worked bone chunks (56%), These artifacts appear to have been recycled from broken worked flakes (30%), and worked antler (9%). The only or discarded objects as sources of raw material by the diagnostic artifact (5%) is a worked bird ulna. The residents who were using the bone bed deposits. The density of worked bone artifacts is 46 per cubic meter. three interpretations are taken up in detail following the f) Ceramics. Refined earthenwares (primarily presentation of the bone bed data analyses. handpainted blue and transferprinted blue) constitute the majority of the ceramic assemblage, along with a few EAST CFJTRAL BONE BED porcelain sherds. The ceramic forms include plates 1) East Central Bone Bed: Artifacts and Faunal (50%), saucers (30%), bowls (10%), and tea cups (10%). Remains Recovered in the Trench Excavaton. Table 17.1 The 34 ceramics from the bone bed deposit produce a presents the counts, percentages, and densities for the density of 68 sherds per cubic meter. None of the sherds faunal and artifact assemblages from the bone bed are worked. deposit in 75S, OE; 75S, IE; and 75S, 2E. g) Glass Sherds. Window glass (58%) slightly a) Mammals. Artiodactyls make up more than half outnumbers vessel glass (42%), while no lamp glass is the mammal remains in the East Central Bone Bed, with reported. The 45 glass sherds generate a density of 90 deer (28%) the most common constituent, followed by sherds per cubic meter. Three glass pieces are worked- cattle (9.5%) and sheep (9%), and lastly elk (2%) and pig two flakes and one projectile point (.5%). Pinnipeds are also common, representing 38% of h) Metal. Iron and brass nails (46%) make up the the mammal remains. Califomia sea lions dominate majority of the metal artifacts, followed by iron wire/ (10%), followed by unidentifiable eared seal (9%), plates and unknown objects (33%), a lead shot piece harbor seal (6%), some Steller's sea lion (.5%), and (7%), a copper sheet (7%), and one button hook (7%). Northern fur seal (.5%). Other identifiable mammal The total density of metal objects is 30 per cubic meter. bones include Botta's pocket gopher (5.5%), skunks i) Beads. Color classifications of the thirteen (1.5%), porpoise (1.5%), carnivores (1%), and one undecorated glass beads (26/m3) follow: white (38.5%), grizzly bear element (.5%). The densities of artiodactyl brownish-red green or black (23.1%), blue to bluish- and pinniped bones are 208 and 152 NISP per cubic green (15.4%), purplish-red (7.7%), purplish-blue meter, respectively. (7.7%), and yellow (7.7%). One clam shell disk bead is b) Fish. Cabezon (48%), rock fLshes (Sebastes sp.) also present. (24%), and lingcod (22%) from intertidal and subtidal j) Lithics. Only 13% of the lithic assemblage waters make up the majority of the fish remains. As consists of flaked stone tools or debitage. The vast Gobalet suggests, these fishes were probably captured majority are cobbles (49%), fire-cracked rocks (22%), with hook and line from shore near Fort Ross. They may and ground stone artifacts (16%). The ground stone tools also have been caught offshore in baidarkas. The include 1 basin millingstone fragment, 1 nutting stone, 3 presence of Pacific hake, buffalo sculpin, surf perches pestle fragments, and 6 slab millingstone fragments. One (Embiotocidae), and black or rock prickleback polished ground slate tabular fragment is identified from (Xiphister) is noted as well. The density of fish remains the bone bed deposit. The density of lithic specimens in in the bone bed deposit is 166 NISP per cubic meter. this deposit is 242 per cubic meter. c) Birds. More than 80% of the bird bones are from the common murre, followed by duck (11%), pelican 2) East Central Bone Bed: Flotation and Constitu- (4%), and California condor (4%). The density of ent Analysis. Two samples from 75S, OE, each contain- identifiable bird remains is 52 per cubic meter of bone ing two liters of sediments, are analyzed from Level 2 of bed deposit. The California condor was probably not the bone bed. Three sediment samples are floated and hunted for food and may be related to ceremonial sorted from 755, lE: a two-liter sample from Level 1 of activities of the household(s) proximate with the bone the bone bed feature and two- and one-liter samples from bed deposit, a matter taken up below. Level 2 of the deposit. The results of the flotation and d) Shellfish. Gastropods, especially other snails constituent analysis are presented in table 17.2. (49%), turbans (13%), and limpets (12%), constitute the a) Cultural Materials. Cultural materials (flora, Culture Change and Persistence 363 Table 17.2 Cutural Constituents by Weight and Percentage in the Bone Bed Deposit of the East Central Trench 75S, OE 75S, OE 75S, 1E 75S, 1E 75S, 1E LEvE 2 Liv. 2 LEvl LEva 2 LnvL 2 (2 liters) (2 liters) (2 liters) (2 liters) (1 liter) g % g % g % g % g % charcoal 2.66 5.8 3.80 6.2 3.60 6.8 2.28 3.5 1.1 3.8 wood 0 0 36 .6 0 0 0 0 0 0 seed 0 0 .06 .1 A2 .8 .01 .02 .01 .03 fauna 8.15 17.9 12.10 20.7 14A5 27.1 12.14 18.5 6A7 22.5 chiton 1.16 2.6 .78 1.33 .08 .17 .98 1A .01 .03 mussel 1953 42.9 24.88 42.6 20.91 39.3 32.96 50.1 11.51 40.1 clam .36 .8 0 0 .52 1.0 1.38 2.1 0 0 limpet 0 0 0 0 .01 .02 0 0 3.1 1.1 hs 0 0 .25 .5 0 0 0 0 0 0 snail 1.47 3.2 13 2.2 2.26 4.2 .2.11 3.2 .72 2.5 banacle 1.82 4.0 .78 133 .56 1.0 2.74 4.2 2.05 7.12 abalone 1.14 2.5 3.25 5.6 2.76 5.2 2A 3.6 1.44 5.0 su frag. 4.8 10.6 537 9.2 4.20 7.9 4.66 7.1 2.21 7.7 su spine 3.14 6.9 3.51 6.0 3.04 5.7 2.95 4.5 1.57 5.5 shellfish 1.17 2.6 1.92 3.3 .01 .02 .84 1.3 .90 3.12 worked bone 0 0 0 0 .26 .5 .17 .28 .21 .7 ceramic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 glass sherd 0 0 .01 .02 .11 .2 0 0 0 0 metal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 glass bead 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .24 .8 ch if .1 .2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ob if 0 0 .01 .02 .05 .09 .12 .2 0 0 Cultural Materials: Total 45.53 100 58.38 100 53.24 100 65.74 100 28.75 100 Percent of Entire Sample: Cultual 45.53 1.5 5838 1.9 53.24 1.7 65.74 2.2 28.75 1.9 NonCultural 2940A7 98.5 2997.62 98.1 3095.26 983 2895.26 97.8 1469.25 98.1 Key: hs = homed slipper, su = sea urchin, ch if = chert interior flake, ob if = obsidian interior flake g = weight in grams %= percent of cultural materials fauna, artifacts) constitute 1.5 to 2.2 percent of the weight recovered in the sediment samples. The greatest sediment samples by weight. The largest quantities come quantity is found in Level 1 of the bone bed deposit in from Level 2 of the bone bed deposit in 75S, IE, and they 75S, IE, while the smallest mass of bone pieces is in decrease in mass in Level 1 of 75S, lE and Level 2 of Level 2 of 75S, OE. Most of the bones are in a frag- 75S, OE. mented state and are not sorted into specific taxa. b) Floral Remains. Charred seeds or nuts are rare d) Shellfish. Shellfish make up the great bulk of the inclusions in either the light or heavy fraction. faunal remains and artifacts recovered in sediment Uncharred floral remains are also sparse-the majority of samples, representing anywhere from 65.5 to 77.5 them identified as introduced grasses of the Bromus and percent of all the cultural remains by weight. The Festuca families that probably have migrated into the smallest weight of shellfish is from Level 1 of 75S, lE, bone bed deposit in recent years. Charcoal wood makes while the greatest numbers are from Level 2 of both 75S, up 3.5 to 6.8 percent of the cultural remains recovered in OE and 75S, IE. Interestingly, mussel umbos and the sediment samples by weight The greatest armount of fragments are the most common cultural constituent in charcoal wood is in Level 1 of the bone bed deposit in the sediment samples, making up between 39 to 50 75S, lE and Level 2 of 75S, OE. Charcoal decreases percent of the cultural remains by weight. Shell weight in weight in the Level 2 samnple from 75S, lE. greatly increases thie kcnown presence of mussels in the c) Mammal, Fish, Bird Bones. Animal bones East Centrl Bone Bed in contrast to percentages based constitute 17.9 to 27.1 percent of the cultural remains by only on MNI counts (number of umbos divided by 2, see 364 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood chapter 15, table 17.1). The next most common shellfish 73S, IE and 73S, 2E, while some artiodactyl bones are type, sea urchin spines and fragments, constitute 11.6 to found in 73S, OE. Interestingly, two major breaks in the 17.5 percent of all cultural remains by weight Between spatial patterning of both marine and artiodactyl bones 2.5 to 5.6 percent of the cultural remains by weight is occur in 74S, OE and 75S, 1W. Animal bones (primarily composed of abalone fragments. The remainder of the marine mammal and cattle) are present but uncommon shellfish types (snails, chitons, barnacles, etc.) represent a outside the bone bed deposit much smaller portion of the shellfish remains in either The spatial patterning of several of the bone clusters level of the East Central Bone Bed. suggests that they were tossed in small aggregates from e) Artifacts. Ceramic sherds, glass fragments, and containers by people facing the bone bed deposit from obsidian and chert interior flakes constitute a very small the south. The greatest concentration of elements in percentage of the cultural remains by weight. With the these bone clusters tends to be located along the southern exception of one glass bead in Level 2 of 75S, lE, only edge of each cluster with the number of elements very small slivers or fragments of ceramic, lithic, and decreasing in a linear pattern to the north. Furthermore, glass artifacts are found. Worked bone occurs only in elements from the same species tend to be associated levels 1 and 2 of the bone bed deposit in 75S, IE. together, suggesting that refuse from the preparation of individual meals may occur as discrete dumping events. 3) East Central Bone Bed: Spatial Analysis. The For example, California sea lion elements are clustered spatial patterning of archaeological remains is examined along the southern boundary of 75S, OE and 75S, 1E and for both levels of the bone bed deposit. Level 1 includes along the boundary of 75S, OE and 74S, OE. The sea lion not only cultural remains from the bone bed in the East elements include 1 femur, 1 ilium, 1 tibia, 1 calcaneum, 1 Central Trench (75S, OE; 75S, 1E; 75S, 2E) excavated in thoracic vertebra, 1 humerus, and a tooth (see appendix 1991, but also materials exposed along the top surface of 17.1). Deer elements are concentrated in the se quad of the bone bed deposit in 1992. In addition, archaeological 74S, 1W; the sw quad of 75S, IE; and the northern remains outside the bone bed deposit proper unearthed in boundary of 75S, lE. Again, the diverse range of body the East Central Trench (75S, 3E; 75S, 4E) in 1991 and parts that exhibit little redundancy suggest that one (or the areal excavation in 1992 are included in the spatial possibly two) butchered deer are represented. The deer analysis. Level 1 consists of a 23 square meter area of elements from these spatial clusters include 2 ilia, 1 axis, both bone bed and contiguous archaeological deposits. 1 left maxilla, 1 maxilla fragment, 1 right maxilla, 2 The elevation of the upper surface of Level 1 varies from humeri, 1 calcaneum, 3 innominate pieces, 2 tibias, 2 about 25.92 to 25.72 m asl. Appendix 17.1 presents the femurs, 1 scapula, and a radius (appendix 17.1). Cattle following information for each artifact and faunal elements are distributed in the sw quad of 75S, IE and specimen mapped in Level 1: catalog number (when along the boundary of 75S, OE and 75S, 1E, while sheep collected), item code (as keyed into plan maps), artifact/ elements are found in the ne quad of 75S, IE and along faunal identification, unit, size (length/width), and three the boundary of 75S, OE and 74S, OE. Cattle and sheep dimensional provenience. bones are distributed together in 74S, 1W and 73S, OE. The spatial analysis of Level 2 involves only the East The cattle and sheep parts in Level 1, primarily represent- Central Trench excavated in 1991. Level 2 includes the ing the skull, vertebra, and long bones (appendix 17.1), underlying tier of the bone bed deposit in 75S, OE; 75S, indicate few individuals are present 1E; and 75S, 2E as well as the archaeological remains A final observation is that the spatial distribution of unearthed adjacent to the bone bed in 75S, 3E and 75S, some clusters of deer, cattle, sheep, and marine mammal 4E. The elevation of the upper surface of Level 2 ranges bones overlap, especially in 75S, OE; 75S, IE; and 74S, from 25.78 to 25.54 m asl. Appendix 17.2 lists the 1W. This pattern indicates that the remains of wild game, catalog number, item code, artifact/faunal identification, domesticated artiodactyls, and marine mammals were unit, size, and three dimensional provenience for each often deposited together into the refuse dump. Some of artifact and faunal remain mapped in Level 2. these animal remains likely were discarded from the same container, suggesting that they were prepared and EAST CENTRAL BoNE BED: LEvEL 1 cooked by the same households and may even represent a) Mammal (Level 1). Deer and elk (figure 17.1), the remains of the same meal. In any event, there cattle and sheep (figure 17.2), and marine mammal appears to have been little segregation in the disposal bones, including California sea lion and harbor seal treatment of terrestrial and marine mammals. elements, (figure 17.3) exhibit very similar spatial b) Fish (Level 1). Fish bones display a different organizations. The majority of the faunal remains are spatial organization than the mammal remains (figure distributed along thie boundary of 75S, OE and 75S, lE as 17.4). While two elements are found in 75S, 2E and 755, well as in discrete clusters in the western half of 75S, lE, 1W, respectively, the majority (n=6) are clustered in the thie eastern half of 74S, 1W, and the western half of 745, northiern halves of 735, OE and 735, lE where few lE. Marine mammal remains are also concentrated in mammal bones are discarded, with the exception of the Culture Change and Persistence 36S Figure 17.1 Spatia Distribution of Deer andElk Elements in Level 1, East Central Bone Bed 71 S Li I, I, Li L Li~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l L l a- il.IL- *Ll 72 S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 7 3 S - - ,I - .1 _....._._.... . * 1 illlk Li * 74 S* . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .... .. . .. ..*... . *. ... .. . . .*..... *..... 75 S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __~~~~~~~~~~~..... . .... ... . . .. . 2W 1W GE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... . ..lE.... . .E 3E.4E.. D East.... Ce ....on. Bd..aE E] Eu Ca&l B CentrleBneDedyi iii ii' iii ii ~ ~~~I i, llil iiiD E N i Ui LB LiiGnu iLiii = lk(L)i 72S Li Li ii ~~~~~~~~~~~~ Li i Li~~~~'Y 71 IL IL iUL a, ALI 9111 AUL, 311, &I~.1 1 73 S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3I, Li~~~~~~Li ~ ~ i 74 S * A ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~AL 75 S 366 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 17.3 Spatia Distrbibuion ofMarine Mammal Elemets in Level 1, East Central Bone Bed 713S 725S 2W 1W GE lE 2E 3E 4E SE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .... ..... .. ... D East.Cenral.Bo..e ed.Mar..e.ammal.(MM Balk Grass California Sea Lion (MM) [~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~] P.......ped.s...(MM) HarorSel.M..U.dntfid.MM 'I' 74S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... :: W ..- 735S 2W 1W CE IE 2E 3E 4E SE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... ... LZ East Central Bone Bed~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ........ . Balk Grass [~~~~~~~~~~] Unidentified (Fl)....... .. Culture Change and Persistence 367 marine marnmal elements in 73S, lE and 73S, 2E. The j) Lithics (Level 1). The flaked stone artifacts tend close association and linear patterning of the fish bones not to be associated with the bone bed. Only one of three suggest they were discarded from a container in a chert flakes is located in the refuse dump (figure 17.12), discrete dumping episode, possibly representing the while none of the four flaked stone tools (figure 17.12) refuse from an individual meal. are found in the bone bed. Two edge-modified flakes and c) Birds (Level 1). No bird bones are found. one projectile point are located in the eastern units of the d) Shellfish (Level 1). The spatial organization of trench near the spikes, nails, and a ceramic sherd. abalones (figure 17.5), mussels (figure 17.6), clams Cobbles (figure 17.13) exhibit a relatively random (figure 17.6), and, to a lesser extent, turbans (figure 17.6) distribution across the entire trench and area excavations. differs from that of the mammal and fish bones. The The fire-cracked rock (figure 17.14) and ground stone shellfish tend to be randomly distributed across the bone "other" artifacts (figure 17.15) are associated primarily bed and are found in areas (75S, 1W and 74S, OE) where with the bone bed and tend to follow a spatial pattern few animal bones are found. For example, abalone similar to the mammal bones and shellfish. The greatest shells, because of their large size and distinctive color, density of fire-cracked rocks occurs in 75S, OE and 75S, are the most commonly mapped shellfish. Almost 1E where many of the mammal bones and shellfish are ubiquitous in the bone bed deposit, they are dispersed found. However, no fire-cracked rocks and only one both within and outside the separate clusters of marine ground stone "other" artifact are found in 74S, 1W and mammal and artiodactyl remains. The spatial pattern of 73S, OE where mammal remains and abalone shells are the shellfish suggests that they were not dumped together common constituents. Finally, ground stone tools (figure in batches but rather were tossed individually into the 17.16) are found primarily in the nw quad of 75S, OE and refuse dump or were discarded from containers that in 75S, 1W, adjacent but separate from the mammal bone included other food remains, such as mammal and fish clusters and abalone shells in the eastern half of 75S, OE bones. The common distribution of the shellfish across and all of 75S, IE. Since the ground stone tools (2 the deposit, both associated with the remains of other manos, 4 slab millingstones, and 2 pestle fragments) are foods and in separate locations by themselves, indicates located near the extensive aggregate of fire-cracked rocks they were probably a familiar supplement in most meals in 75S, OE, they may have been discarded together into consumed by the household(s) using the East Central the bone bed. Bone Bed. e) Worked Bone (Level 1). The worked bone EAST CENTRAL BONE BED: LEvEL 2 artifacts (figure 17.7) tend not to be associated with the a) Mammal (Level 2). Deer (figure 17.17), cattle bone bed. Only one of the five specimens is located in and sheep (figure 17.18), and marine mammal bones the refuse dump (73S, 1E), the remainder are located to (flgure 17.19) continue to be concentrated in the bone the north and east of the deposit. bed in 75S, OE and 75S, IE. The spatial distribution of 0 Ceramics (Level 1). Only five ceramic sherds bone elements from the same species exhibits patterns (figure 17.8) occur in Level 1. Three are in the bone bed, similar to those in Level 1. Deer elements (3 humeri, 3 and two are directly adjacent to it in 75S, 3E and 72S, lumbar vertebrae, 1 occipital, 2 femurs, 1 acetabulum, 1 2E. The ceramics in the refuse dump are not in close axis, 1 maxilla, 1 scaphoid, 1 ilium) are found in the ne association with the major aggregates of mammal or fish quad of 75S, OE and the north half of 75S, IE, near a bones, nor shelfish remains. cluster of deer bones in Level 1. Five cattle elements (2 g) Glass Sherds (Level 1). Three glass sherds are vertebrae, 1 scapula, 1 tibia, 1 femur) are clustered in the found in the bone bed deposit (figure 17.9). One bottle sw quad of 75S, 1E and along the north half of the border glass sherd is associated with the cluster of California sea of 75S, OE and 75S, 1E, not far from the concentrations lion bones and abalone shells in the eastern half of 75S, of cattle remains in Level 1. One sheep element is found OE. The worked glass specimen in 75S, 1W is situated in the ne quad of 75S, IE directly below the cluster of near isolated deer, fish, and shellfish specimens, while sheep bones in Level 1. One Califomia sea lion astraga- the window glass in 75S, 2E may be associated with one lus in the sw quad of 75S, 1E may be related to the sea of the ceramic sherds. lion bone cluster in Level 1 along the boundary of 75S, h) Metal (Level 1). The spatial patterning of 6 nails IE and 75S, OE; and a California sea lion phalanx and and 4 spikes (figure 17.10) indicates that most are not tooth in the ne quad of 75S, OE may be associated with associated with the bone bed but rather with the eastern the small cluster of sea lion bones in Level 1 on the units of the trench and areal excavations. Other metal boundary of 75S, OE and 74S, OE. Objects (figure 17.11), a copper piece, an iron rod, a That some elements from the same species are bracket, a hook, and a round metal disk (appendix 17.1), spatially related between both levels of the bone bed are also found in the eastern units of the trench and area indicates they were probably discarded in the same excavations as well as in the bone bed. dumping events. Some of the elements probably come i) Beads (Level 1). No beads are reported. from the samne individual. This observation suggests that 368 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 17.5 Spatial Ditibution of Abalone Shells in Level 1, East Central Bone Bed 71 S IL f Li' - ,.- ,.- ,,- ,1 - -1 & - L w Db, l' . d 'I, i ; i6; llk L ;1 i 1 ** BQ I IL I . i ,1.~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .1 .1. 1,;1....:. ibM.-1 b' A-9,;= . M,, 1 ; - - . - . .... .1, ,'. ,I, ,,, , ... :. ;, ;* 7- . , ............... . , L . .. t 73S -ILvi2aIki1S 1- -L -1 - wSf : ;. = i,: / ,:s'. 'S' i .'. ',- ' , '' ,}I .. ... . . ....... - - ~~~~~~~. .----:. . . . , l ......................................: ........... ~~~~~ U~~~~~~ 7 4IS. .- .: - - .:E ........................ V - V .............. .. .. - I 74 S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i 7 f - f E ; E ~ ~~~.. .. : ...... .. :: : :: ::.... : 75 S 3 U _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I 2W 1W OE IE 2E 3E 4E 5E N D Eas Centr Boe Bed [E] Abalone (AB) A k Or 50 1 Figure 17.6 Spatial Distribution of MAssel, Clam, and Tlurban Snail Shells in Level 1, East Central Bone Bed 71 S ; i. , l Ak .1, .1, ,1: . .... 73s - - -,^ - It,t,1r.. . ...... 7 4 ! . . , ::. ;;]:.:: . . i\ ,t\!t {t ^ \ > ft i : :..-: ^\1 ... .: ....... .:..0 0: . 0 U 73S _ _ _ _ ./; 7 ..........~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... ... ...... .' & , : . . . . . . . . . . S---= A .- .1 :: 0' f ::,.f.: ' . D.; .......... . . . . . . '-** - -*. - E .. . . . . . . . . . .* 75 S \ : - - 7 : :; ;; : : -; :-: : : . 2W 1W OE IE 2E 3E 4E SE 0: --xBeePe g X (z)~~~~ ~~~~~aMwlbU *~ ~~ ~ ~ n ]tTS Culture Change and Persistence 369 Figure 17.7 Spatial Distibution of Worked Bone Artifacts in Level 1, East Cetral Bone Bed 71 S it jX sI I i;j,M s t + It i , it tit wi tkl , it m It 72S 14~~~~~~~~~4 ik lA ak lZ ak L k' 1,M,,sE,M, Sid . ... ...... i& \t u it ,k . .. .. ;1;idl1 IL IL ..... . ....; tl-d' f. ,a' .' ', :,. sZ ij Xtm St . . t. . ..... \2 sk ...~~..... . :- . ........ . . . .. . . . :::s .E 73~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... . , e, ....... .. :. --.:::.:. 735 - tlt It ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6I'. IL /:~~~~~~~~~~~ ..... ... . .. . :::t.. t ! . '::........ . ..........;. . St 1+ 7 4 3 : : . . ................................... :: : ::::: :: :::::::- : : :::::::.:.::.:: -.::. : : . .:. . ...... it .... ... 74 - ... . .. . :.. W W E ...... .........E... ............ . . . .. S E. I - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. -. . . 0.. . ... . .. . .: ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . - i: . , . i i . .. ~~~~~... - . . .. . . ... . . . ... ..... . .. . . . t ::: . -: i: ~:: ::: a: .; .. . .. . . . ..... t 0 : ;: 75 S 2W ' 1W OE I E 2E 3 E 4E S E East Cent Bone Bed Wodied Bone (WB) gal Grass Fom T l ) N Debitage.Cmre, Baon (WB) *\ ~ ~ ~~~~~ O S 100 cm Figure 17.8 SpatialDistibution of Cerami Pieces in Level 1, East Central Bone Bed 71 S ;1, ;1, Ill, ;,1 1 4L 41 g '41 72 k 41. . ,1 75 - -1 - - ; - -u - - >E_ Q AL iUL ^L i i:.: , bM , :, ; ': . | '':i' 'j .: ::' . . . . . ... . ...t . . . f- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ;ir.-.. ;'DS '. ;.....(, 7 - .. . ... ..... -. . - 7 W S .1W..E l . 2.E . . . . . ... . r . . . .. . .. . : . .u .v ... ... . . ,, ' '' ''' " ' ' " ' ''' 0 } 74S f .- :: :::::-~~~~~~~~~~.: e-........... ... :. .- :.::. .; . _ - .. . M NrWI D Es C a B Bed Hsr C (HC) 75S . . . B_ 370 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 17.9 Spadia Distribufion of Glcws Sherds in Level 1, East Central Bone Bed 71 S ib Aa 72 S a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i a aa IIW 1W OR;, lE2kE..3E.......E El East Central Bone Bed~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... dik la dkl Ba lk G as Botl Glass..........(BG).... . ......W..d.wG.ass..W.L 73 S . .0.50 ........W..ked.G.ass (WG) Figure 17.10 Spatial Disiri bution~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... ofNa.b.and.Spikes..n Level.1 .. . E.a.t.Cer..l Bone Bed.... a a a a a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .. . .. ... 5Is ~~~~~~~~Is Is ~~~~~~~~~~Is ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I, ~~~~~~I,~ . ..s.....sT a a a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i ... .... ........a..... sIs~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~....... ............. ............ ...... a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . a... ............~ 7 4 S ........__._....._ _._... 755~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... . 2W 1W OR lB 2E 3E 4E SE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... El Eas C..ralB.e.Bd.N.l/Spke Balk...... Grass. Nils.(NA 75 S ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ WSiks(P Culture Change and Persistence 371 Figure17.11 Spatial Disrbtnion of0OterMetal Artfactsin Levell1, East Centra Bone Bed 71 S 1 a6 a4 _kik iI A ib ii L.dI 72 Sa .1 .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ..... ak ibA i 73 ____ ________~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .... 7 3 S _ _ _ _ _ _ __..._ _.... . ..._... .. .. . . ... .. ... . .... .. ..... .A .. ........ ......... 75 S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .... 2W 1W GE lE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .... .E3 ES D1 E.tC ta Bo..e Be.ea .... ) 74 ....Ba . ..as .....) .4, - ........... .*.. . .. .. . a . . . . a a a a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ ..... ,j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 4,4,4,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.................. - a i k a a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .. .. .... ... . 7S S 23 W- - IE2E3 E] Ea CmW Bo BtdMdd a) 74 S 72 S _ _ _ _ _ -W - W GE ........E S D EastCentral Bone Bed Lithic Tools. (Li)..... .. -" Balk Grass Biface (Li)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... .. . Litbic ebitag (LDB)Edge-Moified lake/Hne (Li 73 S ~ ~ [~ Flae.(DB. Prjec.l.Pont.Li 372 The Native Alaskcan Neighborhood Figure 17.13 Spatial Distri bution of Cobbla~ in Level 1, East Central Bone Bed 75 S L6 J 4J ~1 2W 1W E I 2E3E E S D dasieum BaeBe obl (C Ak di Ba1kG m s 72 S k Itk J,X7--l ilk ib ib i .......... .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~il 75 S L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. 1 3~t d .. .. 2W 1W0I 2E 3E.4... Li ..a..C..... BoeBd.J XeCake ok(C ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... .. B alk G r....a.....s... Cudtusre Change and Persistence 373 Figure 17.15 Spatial Distrbutdion of Ground Stone ffOther"Artfacts in Level 1, East Central Bone Bed 715 S ,~ 4, I' , 4, A,16J 725 - S if~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ 4,4,4, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ A~~~~~~.. ....4........... 73 S - - - X 4 ......... . .. ..... ..... .......a ........ . ........ . ...., . ......7 7~~: 1 a j . . . . ..... .....4. 74 S . ... A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ .. .. . 755~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........... .. ...... 2W 1W GE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ..E. ..2E. ............... D...... Eas C.. rl.o..Be Gr.. StneOt...GO .. .. ...... . . ...0 5 0........... Figure 17.16 SpatialDistribution~~~~~~~~.. ....... . .. of.... dStoe.oos.i.Lve.1 Ea.t.Centr. Bone..Bed 71S *~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~ 4, 4, 4, 4, ~~~~~.. ..... ....... .. .4.... aaa _ a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .... ~~~~ 4 ,4 , ,~ ~~~~~~~~~~...... ............... .............. aaa a a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... 725 - - - ________~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 -so 10c Akaa a Ea"aitd meBe 4, 4, J, I, ~ , , , 4 72 a a 4 , 4 , 4 , 4,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ..... . .............. . - _ _ _ a _ _ _ _ . ... ....... .. ..........a. ... ... .... . . .... ... iLk h A i ... ....... ....... ..... . ... .... .. . . .. .... . ... .... .. . . .. . 73 S -V~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .. .. . J~~~~~~~~~~. .. .. .....U. 75S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(J .... 2W 1W GE 1! ZE 3E 4E SE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... D .as Cetr...e.edGo.d.t.eTol Balk Grass [~~~~~~~] Slab M........i.n...to.... (SM). ..................... . P es..e .F ra...... .....P..) ... . .... .M..n....A ) 374 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 17.17 Spatia Distibution of Deer Elements in Level 2Z East Central Bone Bed 74S - * * *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... *;Z PM * .. ....... 7 5 S ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . . . .. . . . . . ....... ....... . ....... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ OB lB~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... 2E. .3E... 4E. S..E.. ... ; ! 4 ... .........D eer/Elk. N ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 Deer(DE)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.............. Figure 17.18 Spatial Distribution of Domesticated Mammal Elements in Level...........2,.East .Central .. .. .. . .. .Bo.....e...B ed... 74 S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... ........ ... ..... n 4 ........... ... .......a U7;: "....... 75 S 0 E I ~~E 2EB 3 E 4 E SEF E-at CaiUt1 Bone BEkd f/lk o 0 00m SDeerp(DM) Figure 17.19 SpatiaDlbuDistibuionof MiarineMammalElements inLevel 2,Eata EatCnrlBone Bed '74 f S ........... . . ..........~~~ 7SS~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ...... ......... ._ _ _ _ _ _ lB 2E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ....... .... S... Ea ........ B.. Be.. H ro Sa Marine Mammal (MNf)~~~~~~~~ . Clifrni.Sa..on MM ..... Se.... I Pnnpe ( M Culture Change and Persistence 375 the two levels of the bone bed defined by us during the ments and an iron wire fragment are located outside the excavation do not represent separate occupation episodes refuse dump in 75S, 3E and 75S, 4E. or discard events. Mammal remains were probably i) Beads (Level 2). A clam shell disk bead is dumped from containers into small piles whereby bones mapped in the bone bed in 75S, OE (figure 17.23). from the same species, as well as other food remains j) Lithics (Level 2). No flaked stone tools are consumed in the same meals, were stacked on top of one recorded in the plan maps of Level 2. A nutting stone another. (figure 17.26) is situated in the nw quad of 75S, OE. There is some evidence, however, for dumping Cobbles, in contrast to their spatial pattem in Level 1, are events confined to only one level of the bone bed. For found only in the bone bed, concentrated primarily in a example, a small cluster of harbor seal bones is found in rock cluster in 75S, IE (figure 17.27). Fire-cracked rocks the sw quad of 75S, OE, and clusters of deer bones are are amassed again in the refuse dump of 75S, OE and the distributed in the ne quad of 75S, OE and the nw quad of western half of 75S, IE (figure 17.28). The two ground 75S, IE. These cases may represent dumping events stone "other" artifacts are distributed in the sw quad of confined primarily to the lower stratum of the bone bed. 75S, OE (figure 17.26). Finally, the slab millingstone and b) Fish (Level 2). One lingcod element (figure basin millingstone fragments (figure 17.26) are situated 17.20) is mapped in 75S, OE. It is not spatially related to in the southern half of 75S, OE, not far from the main the majority of the fish elements in Level 1. concentration of ground stone tools and fire-cracked c) Birds (Level 2). No bird remains are mapped. rocks in Level 1. d) Shellfish (Level 2). The concentration of abalone (figure 17.21), mussel (figure 17.22), clam (figure 17.22), 4) East Central Bone Bed: Summary. The majority and turban (figure 17.22) shells primarily in 75S, OE and of the ariifact and faunal assemblages consist of mammal 75S, 1E follows a spatial pattem similar to the shells in bones, shellfish, fire-cracked rocks, cobbles, and ground Level 1 of these two units. One discrete cluster of stone artifacts. A diverse range of ceramic, glass, bone, turbans is observed in the ne quad of 75S, OE. The and metal artifacts, as well as bird and fish remains, is remainder of the shellfish remains exhibit a relatively present in the bone bed and adjacent deposits, but in random distribution, an interpretation that is strengthened fewer numbers. While small quantities of wood charcoal when the composite spatial organization of the shellfish are found in the bone bed, diagnostic seeds and nuts are are considered together for both levels of the bone bed very rare. deposit. Deer, cattle, sheep, sea lion, and harbor seal are the e) Worked Bone (Level 2). Two bone flakes from a most common mammal elements in the bone bed and California condor ulna and a whale lie in 75S, OE and one tend to be distributed in bone clusters that link together incised bird bone tube is located east of the bone bed the two excavation levels of the refuse dump. Cabezon, boundary in 75S 2E (figure 17.23). This pattern contrasts rock fishes, and lingcod are present, but they tend to be with the worked bone artifacts in Level 1 that are found spatially discrete from the mammal bone aggregations. primarily outside the refuse dump. Common murres dominate the bird assemblage, but none f) Ceramics (Level 2). Two ceramic sherds are were mapped in situ. Shellfish remains are very common found in 75S, OE (figure 17.23). There is no spatial constituents of the bone bed. The most prevalent association between these artifacts and the ceramic shellfish, based on MNI counts, are small gastropods, sherds in Level 1. while mussel shells and sea urchin remains make up the g) Glass Sherds (Level 2). Both artifacts (figure greatest weight of the shellfish assemblage. The mapping 17.23) are found in the bone bed of 75S, OE. The of larger shellfish specimens (abalone, mussel, clam, window glass and bottle glass sherds are spatially related turbans) indicates a relatively ubiquitous spatial distribu- to the bottle glass found in Level 1 of 75S, OE. Interest- tion in the bone bed as well as in adjacent deposits. A ingly, window glass and bottle glass sherds in both levels variety of ceramic, glass, bone, and metal artifacts is are found only in 75S, OE and 75S, IE of the refuse present in the bone bed and nearby deposits. The most dump, in addition to one window glass sherd in Level I notable spatial distribution of these artifacts involves of 75S, 2E. nails and spikes that clearly are found outside the bone h) Metal (Level 2). As in Level 1, the spatial bed. Other ceramic, glass, bone, and metal artifacts are patteming of nails (figure 17.24) is clearly not associated found in both the refuse dump and adjacent deposits. The with the bone bed. Nails are concentrated to the east of majorty of the lithic assemblage is composed of fire- the refuse dump in the eastern half of 755, 2E, all of 75S, cracked rocks, cobbles, and ground stone artifacts. While 3E, and the se quad of 75S, 4E. Other metal objects the cobbles are omnipresent inside and outside the refuse (figure 17.25) are found in the refuse dump and adjacent dump, the fire-cracked rocks and grounld stone artifacts deposits. A button hook and flat iron fragments are in are concentrated in the bone bed and tend to be associ- 75S, OE; a large fragment of a copper bowl is on the edge ated with some mammal bone clusters. of the bone bed in 75S 2E; and three other metal frag- 376 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figwue 17.20 Spatial Distiwton of Fish Elements in Level 2, East Central Bone Bed 74 75 S OE I E 2E 3E 4E 5E * Eas Central Bone Bed Fish (Fl) N [I Lingcod(I) Figure 17.21 DistribuDon ofA balone Shells in Level 2, East Central Bone Bed OE 1E 2E 3E 4E SE *E Centra Boe Bed [ Abalon (AB) 0 50 100cm Figue 17.22 Spatial Distrib n of Mussel, Clam, and Turban Shells in Level 2, East Cenral Bone Bed 74 S ;.-<> t2tm 75S OE IE 2E 3E 4E 5E Eas CenrlBoeBed Muse 1 SheUhish [~~~~~~~] Olivella (OL) Cla C(CL) Tuba n (TS) Culture Change and Persistence 377 Figre 17.23 SpatialDistiion of Worked Bone Artifacts, Ceramic Piecs, Glass Sherds, and ShellBeads in Level 2, East Central Bone Bed 74 S __ __ __ i __ __ _ OE IE 2E 3E 4E SE * East Ctrl Bone Bed Glass Workd Bone (WB) F 3>1 Beads (BE) Bottle Glass (BG) Inciged Bird Bone (WB) Hisoric Crmic (HC) Wmdow Glas (WG) lDeiage, core Baton (WB) N Figre 17.24 Spata Distribuion ofNails in Level 2, East Cenral Bone Bed 745S 4, OE I 2E 3E 4E SE *Eas Centra Bone Bed NailslSplkss o 50 1oo * Nais s(A) Figure 17.25 Spatial Distribution of Other MetalArtifacts in Level 2 , East Central Bone Bed 74_ I_I_ * I 75S S _ _ _I OE lB 2E 3E 4E 5E Eas Cental Bonbe Bed Buttons (M) Metal (M) Odie (ME) W Bowl(M) Rac Wir (ME) 378 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 17.26 Spatia Distribution of Chipped Stone and Ground Stone Art zfacts in Level 2, East Central Bone Bed 74 S f--7 .- .. .. . 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . .. ......A....... . ... A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... ... ..... ............U....... ... ... . 7 5 S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ .... .l. .. ....E.... .. .. ...E.t.C...I.Bon.B d Goud.SoneOte..GO Ground Stogie Tools Lithic Tools~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ..... Slab.. .. . Miln1on S ) :4utn Soe(S [ ....Basin. ... li..sto .e.(BM) Figure1727 pahalDistriutionof Cobles i Leve 2, Est.Cenral.Bne.Be 74 S ........... 7 5 S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __~~~~~. ..... . ....... ....... . .. . ... . ....2 ...... . 74 S OE I E 2E 3E 4E S E Eat ast Cenea Bon Bd [A]F~Cake ok(C Culture Change and Persistence 379 SOuTH BONE BED of the assemblage, including 3 incised bird bone tubes, 2 1) South Bone Bed: Faunal Remains and Artifacts conical points, and 1 each of a bone button, fastner, Recoveredffrom the Trench Excavation. Table 17.1 fishhook, whale bone platter, awl tip, and dart tip. The presents the counts, percentages, and densities for the great majority of the nondiagnostic bone artifacts are faunal and artifact assemblages from the bone bed worked flakes (86%), followed by worked bone chunks deposit in 125S, 23W; 125S, 22W; and 125S, 21W. (5%), handles (2.5%), and a whale bone core. The a) Mammals. Artiodactyls constitute only 30% of density of worked bone artifacts (350 per cubic meter) is the mammal assemblage, with deer (12%), cattle (5%), over 7.5 times that of the East Central Bone Bed (46 per sheep (2%), and pig (1%) making up the majority of the cubic meter). identifiable species. The density of artiodactyls here is f) Ceramics. Refined earthenwares (primarily considerably less (156 NISP per cubic meter) than in the handpainted blue and transferprinted blue) again consti- East Central Bone Bed (208 NISP per cubic meter). tute the majority of the ceramic assemblage, along with a Pinniped elements make up most of the mammal fauna few porcelain sherds. The ceramic forms include tea (61%), composed primarily of harbor seals (14%), cups (33%), saucers (33%), plates (26%), and one pipe unidentifiable eared seals (11%), California sea lions fragment (8%). While fewer plates are represented than (10%), and Steller's sea lions (3%). The density of in the East Central Bone Bed, the percentage of tea cup pinniped remains (312 NISP per cubic meter) is more pieces is greater. The 35 ceramics from the bone bed than twice that of the East Central Bone Bed (152 NISP deposit, one more than recovered from the East Cental per cubic meter). Other identifiable mammal bones Bone Bed, yield a density of 70 sherds per cubic meter. include Botta's pocket gopher (5%), meadow vole (1%), One sherd is worked. carnivores (1%), whale (1%), and one bone each of a g) Glass Sherds. Window glass makes up a much grizzly bear, poxpoise, and jackrabbit greater percentage of the 65 glass sherds (89%) in this b) Fish. Cabezon (35%), lingcod (27%), and rock bone bed, with only 7 identified from bottles (11%) and fishes (Sebastes) (22%) again dominate the fish assem- none from lamps. The density of glass sherds (130 per blage. A greater diversity of other fish remains are cubic meter) is almost 1.5 times greater than the East present, including surf perches (Embiotocidae), Pacific Central Bone Bed (90 per cubic meter). Only one glass hake, herring or sardine (Clupeidae), black or rock piece is worked. prickleback (Xiphister sp.), barracuda, and sucker. The h) Metal. Iron and brass nails (48%) comprise the density of fish remains (342 NISP per cubic meter) is majority of the meta artifacts, followed by iron wire/ twice that of the East Central Bone Bed (166 NISP per plates and unidentified objects (35%), and one piece each cubic meter). of a nail/wire, an iron strap fragment, an iron hook/nail, c) Birds. As in the East Central Bone Bed, the and a brass button. The density of metal objects is common murre (53%) dominates the bird assemblage. slightly greater for the South Bone Bed than the East However, about 30% of the bird remains consist of gull, Central deposit 46 and 30 per cubic meter, respectively. which is not even represented in the East Central Bone i) Beads. The 23 undecorated glass beads (46/m3) Bed. The next most frequent constituent, Pelican (11%) are primarily white (43.5%), blue to bluish-green (13%), is followed by one element each of duck, goose, chicken, brownish-red on green (13%), green (13%), purple American coot, and bald eagle. The density of bird bones (8.7%), and yellow (8.7%) in color. Two clam shell disk (180 NISP per cubic meter) is more than three times that beads are also present of the East Central Bone Bed (52 NISP per cubic meter). j) Lithics. A greater percentage of the lithic assem- d) Shellfish. The distribution of shellfish types blage consists of chipped stone artifacts (36%). Like the resembles that of the East Central Bone Bed. Slightly East Central Bone Bed, the majority of the lithics are greater percentages of other snails (57%) and limpets cobbles (38%), fire-cracked rocks (20.7%), and ground (17%) are present, while smaller proportions of turbans stone artifacts (5%), including 2 basin millingstone (8%) and mussels (8%) occur. The other shellfish fragments, 1 mano fragment, and 1 pestle fragment. No include chiton (6%), horned slipper (2%), barnacle (1%), ground slate artifacts are identified from the refuse dump. and the presence of clam, dogwinkle, and periwinkle. The density of lithic specimens (536 per cubic meter) is Abalone are present in 15% of the specimen bags, while more than twice that of the East Central Bone Bed (242 sea urchins are identified in 8%. The density of shellfish per cubic meter). The densities of all categories of lithics remains (1020 MN! per cubic meter) is a little greater are greater in the South Bone Bed, with the exception of than in the East Central Bone Bed (898 MN per cubic ground stone tools and other ground stone artifacts. meter). e) Worked Bone. A much more numerous and 2) South Bone Bed: Flotation and Constituent vared assemblage of worked bone artifacts is found in Analysis. We analyzed four sediment samples collected thie South Bone Bed. Diagnostic bone tools make up 6% from the bone bed during the 1991 excavation of the 380 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Table 17.3 Cultural Constituents by Weight and Percentage in the Bone Bed of the South Trench 125S, 23W 125S, 22W 125S, 22W 125S, 21W LEVEL 2 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 2 LEVELS 1/2 (2 liters) (2 liters) (1 liter) (2 liters) g % g % g % g % charcoal 7.87 8.8 7.01 7.1 4.85 9.7 1.16 3.1 seed 0 0 .07 .07 0 0 .11 .3 wood .01 0.01 0 0 .08 .2 0 0 fauma 16.49 18.5 17.6 17.8 937 18.9 10.6 28.0 chiton .74 .8 1.91 1.93 38 .8 1.06 2.8 mussel 37.82 42.4 28.91 29.2 18.80 37.8 13.71 36.2 clam 0 0 0 0 .76 1.5 3.16 8.3 limpet 0 0 .78 .8 0 0 0 0 hs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 snail 1.66 1.9 6.04 6.1 1.01 2.0 1.55 4.1 barnacle 1.25 1.4 2.76 2.8 .41 .8 .84 2.2 abalone 3.67 4.1 4.88 4.9 2.22 4.5 2.33 6.2 su fragment 6.83 7.7 14.71 14.9 4.47 9.0 1.55 4.1 su spine 5.36 6.0 10.58 10.7 3.29 6.6 .81 2.1 shellfish 7.10 8.0 3.25 3.3 1.77 3.6 .93 2.5 worked bone 0 0 0 0 .6 1.2 0 0 ceramic 0 0 .11 .1 0 0 .02 .05 glass sherd .07 .07 0 0 .13 .3 .04 .1 metal .01 .01 0 0 1.25 2.5 .14 A glass bead .17 .2 .15 .15 .16 .3 .26 .7 chert if .12 .1 0 0 0 0 .02 .05 obsidian if .01 .01 .15 .15 .15 .3 .12 .3 Cultural Materials: Total 89.18 100.0 98.91 100.0 49.70 100.0 37.85 100.0 Percent of Entire Sample: Cultual 89.18 3.1 98.91 3A 49.70 3.4 37.85 1.3 Noncultural 2800.82 96.9 2779.09 96.6 1403.30 96.6 2788.15 98.7 Key: hs = horned slipper, su = sea urchin, if = interior flake g = weight in grams % = percent of cultural materials South Trench. These include: a two-liter sediment sediment sample consists of artifacts, animal bone sample from Level 2 in 125S, 23W; a two liter sample fragments, shellfish, and floral remains. from Level 2 in 125S, 22W; a one-liter sample taken b) Floral Remains. Similar to the samples from the from a shell concentration in the nw quad of 125S, 22W; East Central Bone Bed, very few charred seeds or nuts and a two-liter sample from levels 1 and 2 in the nw are identified in either the light or heavy fraction. corner of 125S, 21W. The results of the flotation and Uncharred remains are also sparse, consisting mainly of constituent analysis are presented in table 17.3. recent introductions (Bromus and Festuca). Charcoal a) Cultural Materials. The three sediment samples wood makes up 3.1 to 9.7 percent of the cultural materi- from the bone bed in 125S, 23W and 125S, 22W contain als recovered in the sediment samples by weight. The a greater quantity of cultural materials (flora, fauna, quantity of charcoal from 125S, 21W is much lower than atfacts) by weight than any of thie East Centrl Bone the other units, constituting only 3.1 percent of the cultur- Bed samnples, with the former ranging from 3.1 to 3.4 al remains, compared to 122S, 23W and 122S, 22W percent and thie latter 1.5 to 2.2 percent. The quantity of where it constitutes 7.1 to 9.7 percent. The amount of cultural materials decreases significantLly in 125S, 21W, charcoal in the latter two units slightly exceeds that in which only 1.3 percent of the total weight of the recovered in any of the units in the East Central Bone Bed. Culture Change and Persistence 381 c) Mammal, Fish, Bird Bones. Animal bones make upper two levels of the South Bone Bed defined during up 17.8 to 28 percent of the cultul materials by weight its excavation in 1991 and 1992. The third and fourth recovered in the sediment samples, a range that is levels are not analyzed here. We decided to exclude their consistent with the East Central Bone Bed. The bone detailed description because they are limited primarily to weights of the three samples from 125S, 23W and 125S, two 1 by 1 m units (125S, 23W; 125S, 22W) and the 22W are relatively congruent, varying between 17.8 and spatial pattern of material remains is largely redundant in 18.9 percent of all cultural materials. The quantity of the upper two levels. It will suffice to say that the spatial bone from these units falls into the lower range of bone associations described for the upper two levels of the weights recorded for the East Central Bone Bed. The bone bed are found also in the lower two levels. sample from 125S, 21W contains a greater mass of bones The first level is a broad exposure of a 27.25 sq m (28%), putting it into the upper range of the bone weights area, including the 7 sq m South Trench excavated in from the East Cental Bone Bed. 1991 and the 20.25 sq m South Excavation Area un- d) Shellfish. Almost identical to the East Central earthed in 1992. As described in chapter 3, the area Bone Bed, shellfish comprise the great bulk of the excavation includes not only the South Bone Bed, but a cultural remains recovered in sediment samples, varying portion of a second bone bed (identified as the Abalone between 66.6 to 74.6 percent by weight The smallest Dump), a linear clay feature, an expanse of rock rubble, percentages of shellfish are from 125S, 21W and one and a row of small wooden posts. The elevation of the sample in 125S, 22W, while the greatest percentages are upper surface of Level 1 varies from about 24.2 to 23.3 m from 125S, 23W and the other sample from 125S, 22W. asl. Appendix 17.3 presents the following information Interestingly, the sediments sampled from the shell for each artifact and faunal specimen mapped in Level 1: concentration identified by field workers during the the catalog number (when collected), item code (keyed excavation of 125S, 22W contain the lowest percentage into the plan maps), artifact/faunal identification, unit, of shellfish by weight. The quantification of the shellfish size (length/width), and three dimensional provenience. taxa using shell weight differs from that based on MNI The second level of the South Bone Bed includes counts (see table 17.1). Mussel umbos and fragments, materials from units 125S, 23W; 125S, 22W; and 125S, again the most common constituents, make up between 21W that were excavated and mapped in the South 29.2 and 42A percent of the cultural materials by weight. Trench during the 1991 field season. The elevation of the Sea urchin spines and fragments are the next most upper surface ranges from 23.48 to 23.22 m asl. Appen- common constituents in 125S, 23W and 125S, 22W, dix 17.4 presents the catalog number, item code, artifact/ comprising 13.7 to 25.6 percent of the culural materials faunal identification, unit, size, and three dimensional by weight. However, sea urchin remains constitute only provenience for each artifact and faunal specimen 6.2% of the cultral materials in 125S, 21W. Abalone, mapped in Level 2. the next most common shellfish type, ranges between 4.1 to 6.2 percent of the cultural materials across the South SouTH BONEBED: LEVEL 1 Bone Bed. Other common constituents include snails a) Mammal (Level 1). Deer and elk bones (figure (1.9 to 6.1%), chitons (.8 to 2.8%), and barnacles (.8 to 17.29), cattle, sheep, and pig remains (figure 17.30), and 2.8%), while limpets and clams exhibit sporadic occur- marine mammal bones, including California sea lions, rences across this deposit. harbor seal, Steller's sea lion, and sea otter elements e) Artifacts. While artifacts constitute only a small (figure 17.31) are characterized by a spatial organization percentage of the cultural materials found in the South similar to that described for the East Central Bone Bed. Bone Bed sediments, the overall artifact frequency is Elements from the same species tend to be associated greater here than in the East Central Bone Bed samples. together in the South Bone Bed, and some of these bone For example, one to two glass beads are found in each of clusters overlap with those of other species, suggesting the sediment samples from the South Bone Bed. Minute that they may have been discarded from one or more fragments of obsidian interior flakes are ubiquitous in all containers during related dumping episodes. the sediment samples. Small slivers of glass fragments Deer elements are distributed in two clusters in the and metal remains are found in three of the four sediment South Bone Bed, near the nw corner of 125S, 23W and in samples from 125S,23W; 125S,22W; and 125S,21W. 125S,22W. The deer elements include 1 humerus, 1 Tiny ceramic pieces and chert interior flakes are observed ilium, 1 lumbar vertebra, 1 radius, 1 scapula, 1 astragalus, in two of the four sediment samples, while a relatively and 1 vertebra (appendix 17.3). Cattle bones are clus- large quantity of worked bone (1.2%) is found in one tered in the NE corner of 125S, 22W, in a north/south sediment sample from 125S, 22W. linear distribution along the eastern half of 125S, 23W and 124S, 23W, and along the southern boundary of 3) South Bone Bed: Spatial Analysis. The spatial 124S, 24W. The eleven cattle elements include five relationship of material remains is considered for the teeth, one 1st phalanx, two 2nd phalanges, one humerus, 382 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood a ! $I - S I . - _ S.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - 1 1 - - - S 1 1 , Sj A * * I .-1 -_~ -n~~ ____ __ ____ xi 1 l - 1 i 1 1 - -4 I1 - 4 1 41 - 1 4} -, 1 0 - A I 4I _I~I _ __1- 4 i -............ . ..... S% M I 1 _ ,1 s 1- - *1_ _ _) _ _ _ E 1 ~~~~~-1 ...... i .1 X1 C a8 e4* S~~~~~ - - C5 u I I < i I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . ,QIX .: ........... .,:.' ...,: : g o ti n .s -. . . ................ , . 0.0 ......~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. ...... . ............. b ' I - wI I - I QI -. a: y' :.' ''.'' ''''": ;f:; C-0:'-'''.'' XI I ' .............. i ....... .... . X 8 : g --d - - W-- 1 R < S S S f L ES s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... - El e ~~~~~~~~~~I - <. I - l I , - I I$Ss . D . ".> su r j t ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 A Ig 41- 1t *gg h r : * (AJ ti I X1 1 _ _ _~~~-V. ' 1 ?. x x Xj X I X | W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C Culture Change and Persi stence 383 1 4 AI Al0 ~I_~ -tt-A I -4 I 0. *4 I A I -4 -41I AI A I 0I ... ..... ~~K~K ~ _ _ IVI VI - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......... AI A Ii I.-. .... .... - _ _ _ _~~~- I A _ _ 1 A l_ _A l_ . ..... A 4 1 ~~~~~~~~~ \ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~[~~~~~~.......... .... C ~~~~-- - E~~~~~~4 (~~ 4 1 A I I 4 '0 384 The Nadve Alaskan Neighborhood WI f _ __1 _0 _11 _11 ,X, ,,1 ,,1 -! * I . I I . l 41 1 -4 1 : 4. V1 A -4 F+ .l 5 4~~~~~~0 z . ^ . . B~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ...... .... ... mT~ ~i11-1;-i 1 - ____ _ s___ -4 ij'~ ; 21K17::7:T_:_ _7_4_ * _ 1 1 41 1 1 ! g1 - 1 . ' , - ;g f f~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I~ ;5 _ __ _ _ __ _ .____ *-- _ _ E ~~ 4} 4! - 41l i # l 1 -< '_ : o 1 al - 1 # ^ ^ X !~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... 4 w SK ~X _ _2- _ < 4z 41 - 41 1 - , 1 41 - 1 11 X; t1 < , ., .,',.,4,.,*, .. ,,,. 1 1 .......... e t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. ........ .... .. ....... S ; s . f . ; .. . .. .. .. ; '. a X B~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ X1 - 1 i i i - i i -e 1 } -e ............................................................ ....... ..... ....... 4 4 } } f ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ . f i f j ~~~~~~~~~~~ / .: ........................................ r . 9 S s~~~~~~~.. .. ......... .... ....... ... .. ...... 1 1 - 1 , -, ! W.-',.,',.,,, . ,,,,, ,.,., '.''.-''"''','""''"'' 1 ' ........... ..... . ... . . ...... .... P -A q | 3 _ -1 _11 _11 _8-3-i-' r 1 | :V;0S z | z 1 ! X >~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~E F-1L t 1 4 I (4 (4 (*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 4 B i 41 - 1 i 1 1 ; i~~~~~~~~~~C * | X7 g t t 1 t t -3 X1 -q' n m q n 41 1 4 1 1 X ai 8~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C. Culture Change and Persistence 385 and two thoracic vetebrae (appendix 17.3). A pig ulna c) Birds (Level 1). Five bird bones, consisting of a and radius are found together in 125S, 22W, while a common murre element, a pelican humerus, 2 gull ulnas, sheep cervical vertebra and me pal re separated by and 1 gull humerus, are distributed in the NW quad and moe than a mete in units 125S5 22W and 125S 23W. central section of 125S, 22W (figure 17.33). Isolated, Marine mamm remains in the South Bone Bed unidentified bird bones are found along the southeast include four harbor seal elements (2 temporal, 1 humerus, edge of the South Bone Bed in 126S, 21W; in the and 1 lumbar verteba) aggregated in the southern half of Abalone Dump (121S, 25W); and east of the South Bone 125S, 23W; six California sea lion bones (1 ulna, 1 Bed in 123S, 20W. The concentadon of bird bones in lwnbar vertebra, 1 axis, 1 metacarpal, 1 scaula, and 1 the middle of the South Bone Bed suggests they were fibula) dispersed along the northem half of 125S, 22W deposited in one or two related dumping episodes. No and the boundary of 125S, 22W and 21W; and two comparison can be made with the East Cental Bone Bed, Steller's sea lion elements (1 humerus and 1 calcaneum) since no bird bones were mapped. in 125S 22W. d) Shellfish (Level 1). Abalone shells are distrib- Similar to the East Centr Bone Bed, the deer, sea uted in three minor concentrations in the South Bone lion, seal, and to a lesser extent, cattle remains are Bed: along the SW corner of 125S, 21W; the border of characterized by a diverse range of animal parts but few 124S, 23W and 124S, 22W; and the southern border of redundant elements. This pattem suggests that only a 124S, 24W (figure 17.34). In addition, abalone shells are few individuals are present The South Bone Bed may pervasive across the Abalone Dump and scattered to the include refuse from the consumption of individual meals north and east of the South Bone Bed on both sides of the that was discarded in discrete dumping events. Further- row of wooden posts. The few other shellfish remains more, some of the cattle, deer, and marine mammal shown in figure 17.35 (mussel, clam, and turban) are elements appear to have been deposited together, mostly isolated specimens found in the South Bone Bed especially along the eastern half of 125S, 22W. This or to the north and east of this refuse deposit. suggests that some animal dishes were prepared, con- e) Worked Bone (Level 1). Only one worked bone sumed and deposited by households in a related sequence specimen, an incised bird bone tube, is mapped on the of events. border of the South Bone Bed (figure 17.36). The The Abalone Dump exhibits simil spatal patterns remaining worked bone pieces, a whale bone harpoon to the East Central and Soutfi bone beds. Whereas six shaft and four flakes, are found in the Abalone Dump. deer bones (1 rib, 1 tibia, 1 tooth, 1 femur, 1 maxilla, and f) Ceramics (Level 1). Only three ceramic sherds 1 ulna) and an elk mandible are dispersed acss the are mapped in Level 1 (figure 17.36): one in the South refuse area, four cattle bones (1 each of a lst, 2nd, and Bone Bed (125S, 23W), and two to the north in units 3rd ange d 1 metatarsal) are clustered in 121S, 123S, 23W and 123S, 22W. No ceramics are mapped in 26W (appendix 17.3). Two discrete clusters of unidenti- the Abalone Dump or along the line of wooden posts. fied marine mammal bones are found along the eastern g) Glass Sherds (Level 1). One piece of window border of 120S, 26W and the southern half of 121S, 26W. glass is found in the Abalone Dump (121S, 26W), and The spatial overlap of estrial game, domesticated another to the north of the South Bone Bed (123S, 21W). animals, and marine mammals occurs in 121S, 26. No glass fragments are mapped in the South Bone Bed The fnal spatial pattern evident in figures 17.29, proper (figure 17.36). 17.30, and 17.31 is the disbursement of deer, catle, and h) Metal (Level 1). Unlike the East Centrl Area, marine mammal bones to the east of the Soutfi Bone Bed, most of the nails (figure 17.37) are located in the South primarily in units 125S, 20E; 125S, 18W; and 124S, Bone Bed, clustered along the SW boundary primarily in 18W. The faunal specimens, clustered in small groups of 125S, 24W. A spike is found along the southern bound- two or three bones or as isolated elements, are found on ary of the Abalone Dump in 122S, 25W, and an isolated both sides of the line of wooden posts Few mammal nail is mapped to the east of the South Bone Bed in 125S, rauis are found to the north of the South Bone Bed or 20W. Other metal artifacts (figure 17.38), including a in the rock mbble area. metal fagment, a hook, and a button, are found in the b) Fish (Level 1). The two fish elements (figure South Bone Bed in 125S, 24W; 125S, 23W; and 125S, 17.32) exhibit a different spatial pattern than those in the 22W, respectively. Two metal fragments are located in East Cental Area in dtat they are associated with other the Abalone Dump, another in the rock rubble of 124S, mammal remains. The cabezon vertebra in the nw quad 26W, and an iron strap and hook to the east of the South of 125S, 23W is associated with a cluster of deer bones Bone Bed in 125S, 21W and 125S, 20W, respectively. and a Californiia sea lion element. The lingcod angular i) Beads (Level 1). One shell beafd (figure 17.36) is element in the se quad of 125S, 22W is found with deer located to thie east of the South Bone Bed in 125S, 20W. and harbor seal remains. No fish remis are mapped in j) Lithics (Level 1). In contrast to te East Central thie Abalone Dump or along the row of posts. Bone Bed, the flaked stone debitage and tools (figure 386 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood - . - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -J 1 i - 0 * * - -A - Lr -A J A 4 I - t - 41 - ____ S _' _ _ _ _ __ _.*_ _ _ . _ I e= g q~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... - - -IE - _ -> - illj!0- ' S! 1 1 0 1 j R ~~ T _11j A A A l - 4, . . .. ......... .. l| $I ^ . z I I I ,^I 1^ ! I I I ~I 4 2 ....... . . . A l - < _I __I _ t~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 4 -41 4.1 4 Al I A - , A 1 1 -4 4 1 All '4 :..... .......... Us, U .,,,, , ,, , U, U,,.. b _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ t S .- - . . _ _ _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ....... .... .. X 1 1 -. 1 1 - 1 1 - (- . ;. - . ... , , , ; 1 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ..... . ... -....._.. 0 X , ,, w _ _ 0 .......... .... ... .... '.. M I 1 o:: -'- l: ' -' ' ':''::-'-' I l 1 - ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... . } | sit -o$! i l! |( j 0 | [ Sii il! j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... 1s- i " t X 2 j l i j 1 1 n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~lL 1x % I ".". %.1 / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l i 41 4 -, 1 . .... .. | s." s1 A. I | , , X , ! - W~~~~~~~~~61 Wq on xco X Bo C,q X aAl q _ 3 3 > > a >~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7 rA rA9'rAt Culture Change and Persistence 387 A 4 1 4 4. I 4, I0. I* - i- 1 AK I ig IA I 4 ___ __1 S ~- --b-- -~-~ -~-~ 1 5 -- - - ~~~r~~~~~I ~~~~~~~I-~~~~~aI A ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _ _ _ _~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... ~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I __~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .. . . ..... ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~K ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~K~~~~~~~~~~~KK~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ____~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... .. * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 - -41~- -- ...... r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4~~~~~~ ..... . ..... ~ ~ % -4 1 -4 .............. 388 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood -4 ~Il al Al~~I _ _ ~~~K~~~~K ~~~~~t ~~~~~i ~~~~~~K ~~~j -~~~~~~~I 0 : -1 - - - -{ -1 - - .EB I _ _ K K . K i _._ _ _ . . . , _ _ 1 1 1 } -e 1 1 -, mi . . 1 Xt -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... ......... . _ _0_ .0 s _ _ _ , * . _ i . 7041 - 41 . ... ..1! ?i eJ , .I* ~ I * _ _ _ _ __ _ x K1 ~ 7~j 1 _- ! 1 < _< ___ . . _ __ *0 ti~ I t. 1r~ T1T -- -. a S - s - - - - - - . . . .s .. . :: .] .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... ..... . .... . -U---_ _ _ _ , __ ............... ... .......... - _ _n . . m \ 7 . . . 1 u . . / i . .. .. ... ... ... ...... ..... t 0 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ..... . t t I t I t I t j - t I t I - , ................... .: -: . . : I : I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... .. ........ .. .. . *1 A , I 1 - 1 Al U11 t 1 1 - 1 1_- 1 1 - 1 1 - 1 1 - _ _ _ -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I 4 1-4 U2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~W 0 < s I s to I I7 1 - - 3 b4 * *, .S . '" , . k * 4 i 4 } } | 4 |0 Culture Change and Persistence 389 -4 A -41 -4 -41 -1 -4 -41 4i I 41 -14 41 A__ __ _ __1 -4 u-4 4I A I -.I I0 - - _0 41 A _ 4 _ I_ I -Al II ...._ _..I_.. 41K41 1i~ -=K - A4i 4I 4! 4i A 41 /...... ____ ____ _ _ _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i ~~............. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~......... ~~I ~~~~I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~~~~~~~::. 4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2~~~~~~~~~~I ~~~~~~~~~I _ _ _ _ _~~~~~.......!....... I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......-.. . ... ..... ..... ..... ................ A ..............~~~~~~~~~ ........ C -39-0 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood -- -- - -- _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~I 0*1 ~~~~~~~~~~ -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~K ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;::. .i--IO A l A l - 1 --- .- ....... ~~~~~ 2~~~~~~~~~~~~~ J~~~~~~~~~j ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ...... Ii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ K~~~~~~~~~~ i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......... .......j.. ____ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~i ~~~~~~~~~~K ~~~~~~~K ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J2 ~ ~~~~~~~....... ...... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~.... ..... - 1 ~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~............. 42 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ --~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~.............. .. ... ~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2~~~~~~~~~~~~~K ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ____~~~~~~~~~~... ... .......... 4.7 ... . .. ..... ... ..... ..........~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~4 * * * -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ C~.. . ...... . * - - _ _ _ _ _ _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i ~~~~~~~~I ~~~~~~~~I ...... ..... . * + -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.................. . . ..... . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . ........ ........ . U5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~............... .. . . . 0 (*4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . ...... eq~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... .. . c*4eq q e .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . Culture Change and Persistence 391 S -~~~~~~~4 -4 Al - I -_ 0. - ~I 1 I Al A I * _- _1 0l A--4 *-V A K 2 ~ -4 I ___I__ "V3 ~~~~~I ~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~*~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~K ~~~~~~~~~~~J~~~~~~~~I _____ ____~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........... .. ...... . _~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~4 1...... .. ....... _ _1' j -, -, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ?~~............ . . C -~~~~~~~~~~~~~A I,'I ... 'C ....... . ...... ..... ...0.. 392 TeNatiVe Al1askan Neighborhood -i 4 -II -41 - -4 0. * I- _ _ -~~~~~~I 1 -1 4 0 i- Sfl Si ~~~~~~~~ ~~' -i i 'A 4' ~~ K ~ K ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ' _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ ~ - ~ K A'AKA'AKA'AK -Z - , I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -- ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ _ _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~F*1F-IF 4' -' I'~ ~~2I 42 Si Si Si Si Si~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C ~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~j ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ... . - E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L~~~~~~~~~1E~~....... .... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~j ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .. . A l2 ~ ............... - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I~~~~~~~'~~ ..... .. . I~ (II-4I ..... . ........0 (-4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... ..........(- ..... ..- ) ....... .. ...... ..... 0.. .. .. . .. .. . . . . . ....... . .... ............... Culture Change and Persistence 393 1739) tend to be ciated with or near the bone bed Level 1 in the north half of 125S, 22W. A diverse range deposits. One piece of chert shatter and one obsidian of California sea lion elements are illustrated in figure edge-modified flake are located in the South Bone Bed. 17A5, including 2 thoracic vertebrae, metatrsal (4th and Another chert shatter artifact, obsidian projectile point, 5th), 2 teeth, 2 phalanges, a humerus, 1 atlas, 1 pubis, and and chert core fragment are located along the sw bound- a lumbar vertebra (appendix 17A). The distribution of ary of the refuse dump in 125S, 24W. Two chert cores harbor seal elements (1 thoracic vertebra, 2 ribs, and 1 are found in the Abalone Dump (121S, 26W) and rock humerus) in 125S, 22W and the west half of 125S, 21W rubble area (124S, 26W), respectively. An obsidian flake may be related to the 3 seal elements in Level 1 of 125S, is located north of the Souti Bone Bed in 125S, 22W. 22W. Cobbles (figure 17.40) are found primarily in the As in the East Central Bone Bed, the spatial relation- South Bone Bed in several clusters and across most of the ship of mammal remains in the upper and lower surfaces Abalone Dump. They are also watered to the north and of the bone bed suggests that they may have been east of the South Bone Bed. Interestingly, none are deposited together in a few related dumping episodes. mapped in the rock rubble (124S, 26W; 124S, 25W; Thus, it is best to view the excavation levels as arbitrary 123S, 26W; and 124S, 25W). units defimed in the field that do not segregate discrete The fire-cracked rocks (figure 17.41) are concen- dumping or occupation episodes. Level 2 also exhibits trated in great numbers in the South Bone Bed in 125S, evidence of spatial clusters of mixed species. The SW 24W; 125S, 23W; 125S, 22W, and the west half of 125S, quad of 125S, 22W consists of harbor seal, Califomia sea 21W. There is a direct association between the fire- lion, and Steller's sea lion remains. The remains of these cracked rocks and the clusters of deer, domesticated marine mammals are also found along the southern animal, and marine mammal bones described above. boundary of 125S, 22W and 125S, 21W. These mixed Fiecracked rocks also occur in the rock rubble west of groups suggest that some dumping episodes probably the South Bone Bed and east of the refuse dump near the involved the discard of parts of different animals. row of wooden posts. Significandy, few fire-cracked b) Fish (Level 2). One lingcod angular bone and an rocks are mapped in the Abalone Dump. unidentified fish bone are found in 125S, 22W (figure Ground stone "other" artifacts (figure 17.42) are 17.46). The former may be associated with the lingcod found pmarily in the South Bone Bed in 125S, 22W and specimen in Level 1. 124S, 22W; along the southwestern edge of the bone bed c) Bird (Level 2). Most of the bird elements in Level in 125S, 24W; and to the noth of the bone bed in 124S, 2 (figure 17.47) appear to be part of the broader spaial 21W and 123S, 21W. Two ground stone other artifacts distribution of sea bird remains in Level 1. The two gull are also lcated in the rock rubble of 124S, 26W and ulna pieces in the NE quad of 125S, 22W are associated 123S, 26W. The two ground stone tools-a basin with the gull specimens in Level 1. Two pelican humeri millingstone fragment and a pestle fragment-are found fragments in the northern half of 125S, 22W seem to be along the southwestem edge of the South Bone Bed related to the pelican element in Level 1. Similarly, the (figure 17A2). They are both on the edge of the massive manubrium bone of a common murre found in the sw concentration of fire-cracked rocks that make up much of quad of 125S, 22W may be linked to the common murre this bone bed. piece in Level 1. The bald eagle humerus in 125S, 22W is associated with both the pelican and gull remains. SOUTH BONE BED: LEVEL 2 Finally, two pelican (1 tibiotarsus and 1 furcula) elements a) Mammal (Level 2). Similar to the East Centrl and a common murre (carpometacarpus) bone are found Bone Bed, the deer (figure 17.43), cattle (figure 17.44), in 125S, 23W where no bird remains are illustrated in and marine mammal remains (figure 17A5) in both levels Level 1. 1 and 2 of the South Bone Bed appear to be associated d) Shellfish (Level 2). Unlike the mammal, fish, with one another. Several of the deer elements in Level 2 and bird remains, the few shellfish remains in Level 2 of can be linked to the deer concentrations in Level 1 in the the South Bone Bed do not tend to be spatially linked to NW quad of 125S, 23W and the southern half of 125S, shellfish remains in Level 1. The abalone, mussel, clam, 22W. The 6 deer elements illustrated in figure 17.43 and turban (figure 17.48) shells exhibit a relatively include 1 radius, 2 humeri, 1 mandible fragment, I random distribution, especially when the composite thoracic vertebra, and a tibia (appendix 17.4). While the spatial organization of the shellfish are considered cow phalanx in 125S 23W does not appear to be linlked togeffier for both levels. spatially to the cattle remains of Level 1, the lumbar e) Worked Bone (Level 2). One whale bone platter, vertebra in 125S, 22W appears to be part of the large, 1 whale bone core, 1 possible core, 1 worked long bone linear distribution of cattle remains in Level 1. shaft, and a flake comprise a cluster of worked bone Several of thie California sea lion elements in Level 2 artifacts in 125S, 22W (figure 17.49). This group of may be associated with thie group of sea lion bones in worked bone artifacts is comparable to the cluster of 4 34 The Nadve Alaskan Neighborhood _4 __I _l 4 1 4I 4 Al 0 17I I 4I -41 I 791 I .4I ____ - aI -MI -4 *-I* U4 -41 -41 S ig I Al -41 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ - :. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ... . .C AI C 0I -4 -4 I (.4-1 4 A I I. Al 4 AI 4 -c 4 ... .... .......... ... .....a F..T: .: ...::. ..-. .. . ..... . . = Qe Culture Change and Persistence 395 _4 40 - ~~~I ~~~~~~I ~~~~~~I~~~~h ~~4IA ~ ~~~~K ~~~~~~~~~K ~~~~~~~~~~~~~K ~~~~~~~~~i ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ _ _ _ _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......... _ _7_............ - 7IC ~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I _ _ _ _ _ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. ... . o ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~i ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 5 S S ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ...... ~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~~~ .. .. 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... ... .. ......... ... . . S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... .... -5------ : 4 4-......... IR,',A 7 E e 5 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... C3~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 396 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood i o 4 4 1 ' X 1 1 X * i *1 141 -; - -^ I [*. : .I _ . __ _ _ _I n _ ____ _ 4s _____ :1 ii [ Xj::zI - 411 "-51 ~ 11 1 : i _ _ I_ I_,_ _ ___ g jI*I., m 41 t1 X 1 1 X 5 1 11 1 1 1 s 1l 1 X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 -l ______t j .- z -B I -2, -- 1 I I I* _ _ _ __ ,___ _ - 1 A - . .. .... .... ........... c~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C -4 1 1 - 41 Xj 1 1 -, 7X E t n _ _ _ _ _ e _ q _ H ) I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~................ ..... . ...... A |1 !11 .t-0gyF-tt000000;40:: S t | - - ' ; - - - - e - - - . - | t (', ;' '0 t 00000 0 0 | 0 f f d N ! o~~~~~... ... .... . . . L i | ! , 2 2 ! t ij i ! 43 ! j j ! X ! ; tI X 0i il:|-Z0a;.20;ti;00000000 0 ! 0 X 8~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... .... ] _ _ _ _ _ s _ _ _ _ - X X { {~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... .... ....... t I 1 ! < 1 1 X 1 1 q | 1 ~gi e~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' J I I I Al Al -A- w~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 _A 0 F t 1 I q 1 1 f 1 1 1 1 I q 1 I q- - )- - j~~~~~~c Culture Change and Persistence 397 - _ -_ A - S ' - A -Al v- 1 - i Al, 0. - - _ U~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~F Q C4~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 4 I I I - -4I X I i._ _ _ Z 41 t1 - 41 1 1 1 -, 1 . 4} 1 -,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e4 tz _ K~ _ _ _ __ _ _ ____ *______ 1 1 -- 1 1 ~~~~~- 41 1 11 amW -- -- -A -K -I - __ M 4j j \2J? &2 11 4 _____ _________ i -A1 -- 1 Al 1 - 1_1 - ? -l -Xi -414 -01; AI EAlE E -1 -41 - 1 -0 - 1 1 |X g 1 1 -l - ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ J X| 1 7- -4 Iig,|| I!Al -1 ,l A A j l -14 CD e4lq e eq eq eq X1 1 1 1 - 1 1 _ * 41 1 >0 398 The Nadve Alaskan Neighborhood . Figure 17-43 Spadd Distribution ofDeer Elwwnts in Level 2, South Bone Bed . ;.,:. ... . 1. . ..:: =! 7 !:?.-I-;-:'- ?-. O.. - ...'. . ; ...!.,.!.:.:.:.!.:.....:.;.:.:.:.:.:. -? 1 2 4 S :?!--!;--:;:' i - .:,i:l?:?:j:j:i.;':?:i.!:?:?:j:?!?:i:i:!:I:?:,:,::!,:!::?:?:;:,: -:':?:.:?:; ? !.!::::::::i:ji f6:::'::t:'::':-!':. ::..;,::, ' ' ' + -LI!4?.1i;"i??!?? ?-:--.-,-i-,--:.:?.;7?-i--: . ... . . ....... :i - - ' '' .. . ; L : 1:"I I:.::1%-I . .-:-":-i -:- .-.-'-;-.-;-:-6"-i-:-'- t-t-H+ -N.I. ':- ' -'?'??"';`-""' "-1, -.-- : :. : I: :- --!-=:':!:!'-? ..?' .1 --:: ;;:-,- :,:!:!:!:% '.p :-,::r -!:i:!:1:1:j:?:? . i:!:?!:!! !:?:7:?:;:?;? :;!:t:!,:!:i . :: i!!M. .. . . ::;mm ,:::!: :. .m::i.!:!:?. . . . : ! : ! s r . i ..:.:.I: .-ii .-:- :.-fx!:::??.01- :4?::':::Nx!. Mi -? . : . . ? t :':-i.. . ! ?..::ni:nE.-I?E - -.:" . ... .:. :'t: ...:.:.:.::!:,:!.!:,:::?:::;:!:..?.:. in:; ..... :-:-:-T-::::I::" i:,:;:-:;:,-i-?'-131 .:.;":: ' " :? ::? I?Pl' ; i?!.:!?'?.:,.;:i-;:!:;4:;",:,,:;:?r;:;:!:;,i:; I-11 --: :-, I I - ? I....., :.. "I-,-! ... -.1 I I I., ,... ... :j:.::i! ': ...11 ?:?-' , . -m +;;` 1-1. I ?1:- : ?"- ... .-- MNXixMx;:: .:;..-. !.,-?,,-?.-!???!,!,?-;'.?'!?i?i,.;,.i?i..?li.,....: III . I. ..?.:. :.::,.;. 'E 'i ij? '!?E j. .:1-7 ::7 ?:?;': :!?::'::i" :1X .. `.'.i.I-.'I?!: " -;?i.-...?...-i.;;i!..I?i?......:??.i:- ..Iii.;?!...-...,i.,iiiii:i,:?-,'!?,,?1--,.,.,!."? . ;.;.j:? ?- .-.- ??-- -'E". '- ".7E... ;.:.:.:-H:. i?i i!:i...:. .XI . : 4 ..::;:; :-:ij:':;-; ;:'.. 4+11; ' i' ' ' ' ' * ..... i::.: '..; ,;: ...... . ....!-i :.i.j. .-E -- - in"". .,!?.-,i:.".i?L,-.!..-,.,.!-'-.":?:E.'??:;?;?i-.-:.-z'.'i? - - "' -1?, H.- - -.."!?!. ----"?. . . .. i":;:i :- ".-'!?'. 'iiT -"I-= ;-- ; :!-!::jj-:-:I .'4?-i?----il?,-11:i??. !:.. -..,..;.- .-iJi'DIn. !q::"gr!:I , ?il:ri?-.1i?L?:?i:.?.!:?:!:?:;:,.'',:::!::.:""-I?.:,i. 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'b.;....-.! ...... .... ;---. 1 2 5 S ............:.......i... !..- ..... ..... . . ....- ....... ?-- -- 7 ...:... ...7... :..7...:.:.,.?.....?...?...?.:.: ...1.........7 ..... ? :-:- + -: ... .... . .!..,..:.....?.,.+??.:...,..:.!..+....!.!.:.?.! ....... :. 23 W 22 W21 W 2OW Culture Change and Persistence 399 Figun 17.46 Spatial Distribution ofFish Elemnts in Level 2, South Bone Bed 124 S -M,-~ 125 S 23 W 22 W 21 W 20 W D--~ south Bone Bed Fish (FL) F+ Lmgcod (F) [w] Umdentified (FL) N 0 50 100 cm Figure 17.47 Spatial Distribution of Bird Elements in Level 2, South Bone Bed 124 S -~~~~~v MR1,01 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1, ,% M 125 S ~~~~'' ' '..'~. 23 W 22W 21 W 20W South Bone Bed 70 Pelican (BB) Bird (BB) iCom Muse (BB) E| Segl (BB) E agle (BB) 400 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood flakes and 1 tool in Level 1 of the Abalone Dump. remains exhibit a relatively random spatial pattern. f) Ceramics (Level 2). Unlike Level 1, a cluster of 4 In contrast to the East Cental Bone Bed, the South ceramic sherds is located in the bone bed in the southern Bone Bed contains a greater density and diversity of half of 125S, 22W (figure 17.50). They are found in the worked bone artifacts, a geater percentage of glass same location as the worked bone artifacts. sherds from broken window panes, more nails located in g) Glass Sherds (Level 2). No glass sherds are or near the bone bed, and a greater number of chipped mapped, stone artfacts. While the East Cental Bone Bed h) Metal (Level 2). A nail and an unidentified metal contains a slightly higher density of ground stone piece (figure 17.51) are found in 125S, 23W and 125S, artifacts, the South Bone Bed is characterized by more 22W, respectively. The nail may be on the outer edge of cooking stones (fire-cracked rocks, cobbles, and ground the cluster of nails identified in Level 1 of 125S, 24W. stone other). The density and spatial patterns of beads i) Beads (Level 2). No beads are mapped. and ceramics are similar for both the East Central and j) Lithics (Level 2). Two obsidian flakes are located South bone beds. Cobbles are very common in the South in 125S, 22W (figure 17.52). Large numbers of both Area and distributed inside and outside the bone bed cobbles (figure 17.53) and fire-cracked rocks (figure deposits. Fire-crcked rocks, concentrated in the South 17.54) are distributed across Level 2 of the South Bone Bone Bed, are associated with the bone clusters. The Bed. When the composite spatial organization of fire- ground stone artifacts are situated in or on the edge of the cracked rocks is considered for both levels of the bone massive concentration of fire-cracked rocks in the South bed, it is clear that a substantial mass of fire-altered rocks Bone Bed. were deposited in 125S, 23W; 125S, 22W; and the west side of 125S, 21W. Again, the fire-cracked rocks are INTERPRETING THE BONE BED DEPOS1TS assciated direcdy with the clust of mammal and bird We believe that the East Central and South bone bones. Four ground stone other artifacts (figure 17.55) beds were created by people who were cleaning refuse and 2 millingstone fragments (figure 17.55) are also from their kitchen areas in nearby living quarters and found in Level 2. The latter may be associated with the 2 related residential space. Both refuse deposits are ground stone aiacts in Level 1 of 125S, 23W and 125S, characterized by the same basic structure-dense masses 24W. of fire-cracked rocks, cobbles, and ground stones 4) Souh Bone Bed: Summary. Similar to e East associated with the remains of wild game, domesticated Centtal Bone Bed, :he artifact and faunal assemblages artiodactyls, marine mammals, fish, birds, and shellfish. consist primarily of mammal bones, fire-cracked rocks' The spatial organization of the fire-cracked rocks and cobbles, and ground stone artifacts. However, the mammal remains in the East Central Bone Bed suggests ceramic, glass, bone, metal, and chipped stone artifacts that residents tossed food refuse into the trash deposit are more diverse and numerous in the South Bone Bed from containers while standing on the south side of the and a greater density and range of fish and bird speci- bone bed. Trash may have been generated in residences mens also occur here. Wood charcoal is found throughout located a short distance to the south, from which it was the refuse dump, but few charred seeds or nuts are carried directly to the refuse area for disposal. It is also present possible that a barrier existed around the northern edge of Pinnipeds, especially sea lion and seal remains, are the bone bed (structural remains of an abandoned the most common mammal elements in this bone bed. house?), curtailing the dumping of trash from a northerly Deer, cattle, sheep and pig are present, but in lower direction. The toss pattern in the South Bone Bed is less densities than in the East Central Bone Bed. The clear, with materials apparently having been pitched from mammal remains are distributed in bone clusters that link several different directions. related taxa in both excavation levels together. The We idendfy the ree kinds of domestic practices tsat diverse but low fiequency of redundant elements indi- generaed the maority of the trsh in the bone beds. cates that a few butchered individuals are probably They are: a) the processing, cooking, and consumption of represented in the bone bed. Cabezon, lingcod and rock meat dishes, b) the production and maintenance of craft fishes are the most common fish taxa, and isolated goods, and c) the recycling and use of ceramic and glass elements are associated with mammal bone clusters, objects. The following discussion encompasses each Common munres again dominate bird taxa, but a large domestic practice and compares it to relevant household number of gulls (absent in the East Central Bone Bed) are tasks of the late prehistoric and early historic Alutiiq and aLso present. Similar to the East Central Bone Bed, the Kashaya Pomo peoples. most prevalent shellfish taxa, based on MNI counts, are a) Processing, Cooking, and Disposal of Meat small gastropods. Mussels make up the greatest mass of Dishes. As sophisticated maritie peoples, the Alutiit on shell by weight. Abalone are distributed in several Kodiak Island focused their culinary skills primarily on clusters, while the remainder of the mapped shellfish the preparation of marine mammals (whales, pinnipeds), Culture Change and Persistence 401 Figur 17.48 Spatial Distribution ofAbalone, khesel, Clam, and Turban Shells in Level 2, South Bone Bed 124 S .... ... . . ..... .... . . .... . . 125 S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.4 ...W....W...1 W .....0 W ... N D South Bone Bed Cla~~~~~~~~m (L 1245 23 W 22 W 21 W 20 W N El~ SouthiBowe Bed Woke Bone (WBL) 0 50 W~~~~~~~Seifsh7 Form l TolmWB Figure 17.50 Spatial Distribution of CermirPec oe rfcs in Level 2, SuhBn e 124 S 1 2 5 S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4 ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ 23W 22W 21W 20W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... D. ouh.on Bd..sorc.ermi.(C 402 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figur 17.51 Spatial Distribution of Metal Artifacts in Level 2, South Bone Bed 125 S 23W 22W 21 W 20W South Boe Bed Met * Otb(ME) Nails/Spikes Nai (NA) N 0 50 100cm Fige 17.52 Spatial Dstisbution of Chipped Stone Artifacts in Level 2, South Bone Bed 124 S 125 S 23 W 22 W 21 W 20W D South Bone Bed Lithic Debitag (LDB) Obsidian (LDB) Culture Change and Persistence 403 Figure 17.53 Spatial Distribution of Cobbles in Level 2, South Bone Bed 124 S .. . . .0. . . . 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... ... S...... .... 0 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r 125S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... 23W 22W 21W 20W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .. . South Bone Bed Cobble (RC)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Figure 17.54 Spatial Distr~~~~~~~qIbut..on of.. Cakdocsi ee SuhBn e 124S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. ...... 3 a U~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .. .... U .u~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... 125 S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. ..... 2 .W..2.2.W.20 D .South.Bo.. Bed.. ... F.eCrcedRck(C 0 50 100cm~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .. . Figure 17.55 Spatial Distribution of Ground~~~~~~~~~~~~ Stone.... Ar.f.~inLvl2 ouhBn e 124S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~............... 125S 3~~~~~~~~.. ... 23W 2..2W. ... ..21W .. 2...W D South Bone ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Ground.....one.Too.. Ground Stone Other (GO) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........... Fragment (MF)...... ..... ... ... .... . [.. Bai.iln so e ( M 404 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood pelagic (cod, halibut) and anadromous fish (salmon), (Bolotov 1977:85 [1794-1799]), a method also com- seabirds, and shellfish (see Clark 1974:70-74, 1984:187- monly employed by the Kashaya Pomo and Coast Miwok 90; Haggarty et al. 1991:82-92; Lisiansky 1814:191-95 to boil meats in soups, gruels, and mushes (Barrett [1805]). While they traded for caribou, mountain goat, 1952:60,71; Lutke 1989:276 [1818]). Neither the and deer skins with neighbors on the mainland (Clark Kashaya nor the Coast Miwok had an indigenous ceramic 1974:47; Haggarty et al. 1991:89), terrestrial mammals tradition. hunted on Kodiak Island in late prehistoric and early Meats were also broiled or barbecued by both the historic times were limited primarily to bear, fox, ermine, Alutiit and Kashaya Pomo on sticks placed over the fire river otter, and ground squirrel (Clark 1974:70, 1984:186; (Kniffen 1939:386; Lisiansky 1814:195 [1805]; Oswalt Heizer 1956:4; Lisiansky 1814:191 [1805]). The 1964:301-303). The Kashaya placed meats directly on Kashaya Pomo exploited a wide range of meats from the coals or embers as well (Gifford 1967:16; Kostromitinov land and shore, including deer, elk, rabbit, terrestrial birds 1974:8 [1830-1838]; LaPlace 1986 [1839]; Oswalt (quail), fLsh (coastal, anadromous, and freshwater), and 1964:301-303). In his excavation report on Alutiiq shellfish (see Barrett 1952; Oswalt 1964; Gifford 1967). dwellings in the Russian-American Company outpost of There is some debate among ethnographers whether or Kurilorossiia on the Kurile Islands, Shubin (1990:434) not the Kashaya Pomo hunted sea mammals at the time suggests that outdoor hearths were used in good weather of Russian contact (see Gifford 1967:16-18; Loeb to cook foods. 1926:169). But in any case, pinnipeds, cetaceans, and While many of the Alutiiq and Kashaya Pomo pelagic fLsh apparently did not play a major role in their methods for preparing and cooking meat dishes over- traditional diet lapped, we believe that the East Central and South bone Despite their somewhat different menus, the Alutiit beds were generated largely from debris cleaned out of and Kashaya Pomo employed similar methods in the specially prepared earth ovens. Furthermore, we believe preparation of many meat dishes. Early Russian observa- this specific kind of earth oven was an indigenous tions reported that the Alutiit consumed some of their culinary practice of the Kashaya Pomo and Coast Miwok foods raw (especially whale blubber, fish or shellfish) or who used a distinctive hot rocks method to slowly bake fermented in berry juices (Bolotov 1977:85 [1794-1799]; and steam mammal, fish, and mollusk meats. After a Davydov 1977:174-75 [1802-1803]; Lisianksy 1814:195 brief ethnographic description of the hot rocks baking [1805], Merck 1980:106 [1790]). Kostromitinov (1974:8 method, we consider the evidence in the archaeological [1830-1838]) made similar observations for the Kashaya record and then offer three lines of evidence that support who consumed some meats and fishes raw. Powers our interpretaion. (1976:189) noted consumption of raw salmon and smelt As described by Barrett (1952:61), Gifford in the early 1870s. Fish, especially salmon, were split (1967:19), and Holmes (1975:22), earth ovens of the and dried by both groups for winter use (Barrett Pomo were small bowl-shaped pits, usually about 30 cm 1952:104; Davydov 1977:173-75 [1802-1803]; Mobley deep, in which fist-sized or larger cooking rocks were et al. 1990:75). heated in a hot fire. The pits were then cleaned of their Several different methods were employed by the contents (ash, coals, and rocks), lined again with the Alutiit to boil sea lion and fLsh. Meats were placed in same fire-heated rocks, and covered by a protective layer ceramic vessels near or directly over the fire (Lisiansky of vegetable matter, usually some type of local foliage. 1814:195 [1805]; Merck 1980:106 [1790]). The produc- Various kinds of foods (acorn breads, mammal and fish tion of ceramics by these people has sparked considerable meats, mollusks, etc.) were then placed on the vegetable interest among North Pacific scholars (de Laguna 1939; covering. Another layer of vegetable matter was laid Dumond and Scott 1991:99; Heizer 1949). Ceramic down, followed by another layer of red-hot rocks. production and use appears to have been limited prima- Alternating tiers of vegetable matter, food, vegetable rily to southwestern Kodiak Island in late prehistoric and matter, and hot rocks were then stacked in the oven until early historic times (Clark 1974:115-27). Some early it was full. A layer of 5 to 15 cm of dirt was finally laid observers suggested that the ceramic cooking pots were over the contents of the pit A fire was then built on the replaced by metal vessels soon after contact with the oven to sustain a constant temperature, and the food Russians (see Bolotov 1977:85 [1794-1799]), Davydov allowed to cook for five to eight hours or sometimes 1977:187 [1802-1803]). However, Aron Crowell's overnight. Isabel Kelly describes similar kinds of earth (1994:176, 188-89) recent investigation of the early ovens for the neighboring Coast Miwok (see Mannion Russian settlement at Three Saints Bay uncovered several and Mannion 1970). ceramic cooking pots in a workcer barracks occupied by Archaeological investigations indicate the long-term Russian workers and possibly Unangas or Alutiiq use of the hot rocks method in northern California, women. In addition, meats were boiled in watertight especially to the south of Fort Ross in the Point Reyes baskets by the addition of red-hot cooking stones and Tomales Bay areas where broadscale areal excava- Culture Change and Persistence 405 tions of coastal shell middens were conducted in the cracked rocks in the East Central and South bone beds is 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. Beardsley (1954:30) and King greater than expected from stone boiling alone, and the and Upson (1970:131) describe earth ovens associated size of many of the fire-altered rocks recovered in the with fire-cracked rocks and faunal remains that date from deposit tends to be larger than those commonly used by sometime before A.D). 1 at the McClure site (MRN-266) either Alutiiq or Kashaya stone boiling chefs. Among the and to the late l500s at MRN-216. Beardsley describes Kodiak Island Alutiit, some cooking stones may have isolated basin-shaped features of baked earth that show been as small as golf-balls (Crowell 1994:226), although little direct evidence of fire. He suggests the basins were most were about fist sized (Donald Clark, Richard built for steaming clams in kelp with hot rocks Knecht, personal communications). (Beardsley 1954:30). The second line of evidence for the deposits repre- Several lines of evidence suggest that the major senting cleaned out ovens is that the majority of the constituents of the bone beds are secondary refuse mammal remains exhibit little evidence of burning. In deposited from KashayavMiwok-style earth ovens. First, the East Central Bone Bed, only 13 of 762 mammal the extensive assemblage of fire-cracked rocks that bones (including 563 identified only as mammal and 199 measures between 5 to 15 cm in diameter would be identified to more specific taxa) or 1.7% of the total produced from this cooking method. The significant mammal assemblage display evidence of burning or association of the fie-cracked rock and mammal bones, charring. In the South Bone Bed, 23 of the 1236 mam- most noticeable in the South Bone Bed, suggests that mal bones (979 identified only as mammal and 257 these ovens were used in cooking large quantities of identified to more specific taxa) or 1.9% of the total meat. The spatial patteming of the rocks and faunal mammal assemblage are burned. The paucity of bumed remains indicates that they were tossed out together, bones indicates either that meat was filleted from the presumably after cleaning the cooking areas. Fire- bone prior to roasting or that cooldng was done in such a cracked rocks and fire-altered ground stone other way that meats did not come in direct contact with fire. artifacts, possibly recycled ground stone tools used as Furthermore, the unburned remains indicate that bone cooking stones (see chapter 9), are a significant compo- was not used as fuel or thrown into an open fire as refuse, nent of late prehistoric and early historic Kashaya Pomo as was observed in the excavation of the artel on the villages in the Fort Ross Region (see Lightfoot, Wake, Farallon Islands (Riddell 1955). By relying on hot rocks and Schiff 1991). as their source of heat, the earth ovens did not employ Fire-altered rocks and bumed slate rubble, often in open flames or embers to bake meats. dense concentrations or piles, are also common constitu- The presence of small quantities of wood charcoal in ents on Alutiiq sites on Kodiak Island. However, most the bone beds is consistent with the earth oven interpreta- archaeologists interpret these as the remains of heated tion. The Kashaya heated the oven rocks in an initial fire, and cracked stone rubble from sweat baths associated and the charcoal from this fire was then dumped else- with Alutiiq houses. The stone rubble is segregated into where. The contents from the oven were apparently distinct lenses and piles (Clark 1974:140-41; Heizer served, consumed, and discarded in a separate place from 1956:23; Jordan and Knecht 1988:273). We have found the main charcoal dump. Although charcoal makes up no evidence that the Alutiit commonly used the rock- between 3.1 to 9.7 percent of the cultural constituents in tiered earth ovens for cooking meats in late prehistoric the two trash dumps by weight, it constitutes, at most, (Koniag phase) or historic times on Kodiak Island. In the less than .1 of a percent of the mass of the bone bed earlier Kachemak phase, cobble-filled hearths and clay- sediments. This small quantity of charcoal may have lined basins with flat cobbles pressed into the clay have been left in the oven from the initial fire and/or represents been reported (Donald Clark, Aron Crowell, and Richard burned residue that was still clinging to the oven rocks. Knecht, personal communications). Interestingly, these The third line of evidence for earth oven cooking is possible cooking features disappear on Kodiak Island the common presence of shellfish in the bone beds, sites dating to the last 500 years. Clay-lined pits are especially the unexpectedly large number of small snails. found in late prehistoric and historic villages on Kodiak The Alutiit on Kodiak Island harvested many of the same Island, but they appear to have been used for storage and/ kinds of shellfish as the Kashaya in northern California, or the fermentation of fish (Richard Knecht, personal including sea urchins, periwinkles, clams, mussels, communication). chitons, and barnacles (Clark 1974:74, 1984:190). The Some of the fire-cracked rocks in the bone bed one major exception to the traditional Alutiiq menu is red deposits may be cooking stones used to boil foods in abalone (Hlaliotis rufescens), a common constituent of the waterproof baskets (see Clark 1974:140-41). Among the bone bed deposits. Shellfish make up 64.5 to 77.5 Kashaya, the stone boiling method was employed percent of the weight of the cultural remains in the East primarily to cook vegetable dishes (acorn mush) that Central and South bone beds, or almost 2 percent of the might be flavored with meat. Yet the quantity of fire- total constituents of some sediment samples. The coast 406 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Pomo and Miwok commonly baked many of the larger South Trench deposits suggests a relatively even occur- species of shellfish, including abalones, chitons, and rence of deer and harbor seal body parts. While rela- mussels in earth ovens as well as in hot ash or under tively few harbor seal elements were mapped in situ, the leaves and hot rocks (Gifford 1967:20-21; Kniffen plan maps of the bone bed deposits show a diverse range 1939:387; Lutke 1989:276 [1818]; Oswalt 1964:301; of deer parts from a few individuals in bone clusters. Stewart 1943:60-61). These data suggest that whole animals were procured and While mussels make up the greatest mass of the butchered by the residents who used the East Cental and shellfish remains in the sediment samples by weight, the South areas as refuse dumps. They were probably most common shellfish represented by MNI counts are a harvesting the animals themselves, or obtaining whole varied assortment of other small snails (table 17.1). animals from the interior through their Native Californian Some of these small snails were probably riders attached kin ties. to other mollusks. Yet the quantity of small shells is In contrast to the deer and seal elements, Wake greater than expected for mollusk riders alone, based on (chapter 12) found an uneven distribution of California Jones and Richman's (1995:46-49) recent investigation of sea lion remains throughout the trench units, in both bone mussel harvesting methods. While some of these small bed and non-bone bed deposits. In the East Central and snails may have been collected by NAVS residents, we South trenches only five of the nine element categones believe most were additional riders attached to seaweed, are represented. However, when only the bone bed sea grass, or kelp that was cooked in earth ovens. deposits are considered, especially those elements Various species of Porphyra (P. perforata or P. laciniata) mapped in situ, a relatively diverse range of bone parts and at least two species of kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera, are represented. These include teeth, arm and leg bones, Postelsia palmaeformis) were gathered from rocks at low pelves, vertebrae, and flipper elements. The data from tide and eaten as a delicacy by the coastal Pomo in a raw only the East Central and South bone beds suggest that a state or cooked (Barrett 1952:94-95; Kennedy 1955:108; few whole individuals were butchered and cooked by Loeb 1926:192; Stewart 1943:61). Seaweed and kelp nearby residents. were also harvested by the Alutiit on Kodiak Island Wake (chapter 12) notes that an uneven representa- (Gideon 1977:100 [1804-1807]; Haggarty et al. 1991:90- tion of cattle and sheep elements are found in the 92), although Clark (1974:74) notes that the evidence is combined deposits in the East Central and South not well documented. We suspect that delectable marine trenches. This observation holds for the bone bed plants, particularly the palm-shaped leaves of Postelsia deposits as well. Cattle elements mapped in the East palmaeformis, served two purposes in earth ovens. They Central Bone Bed are represented primarily by vertebrae were both a source of food, and the vegetable covering and long bones and in the South Bone Bed by toes, teeth, that separated the meat dishes from the hot rocks. vertebrae, and long bones. Sheep consist mostly of head, The contents of the earth ovens provide four insights scapula, vertebrae, and metacarpal bones in the East into the households using the bone beds for refuse Central Bone Bed and vertebrae and metacarpal bones in disposal. First, some foods were readily accessible to the the South Bone Bed. In these bone bed deposits, the NAVS residents associated with the East Central and limited kinds of elements from animals raised at Fort South bone beds, while other meats may have been Ross suggests that individual meat packages were either rationed out to or exchanged with individuals and procured as rations from the Russian-American Com- households. The most accessible foods were shellfish pany, purchased from the Company store, or obtained that could have been harvested by almost anyone in local through exchange with other members of the greater Fort intertidal waters, as well as the various types of rock Ross community. fishes that could have been captured from nearby It is also possible, as Wake thoughtfully presents in shorelines using hook and lines that were part of the chapter 12, that the differential occurrence of body parts traditional fishing equipment of both the Alutiiq and in the bone bed such as pinniped flippers may relate to Pomo peoples (e.g., Clark 1974:59-60; Kniffen 1939:387; dietary preferences of one or more ethnic groups. Loeb 1926:168). The ubiquitous distribution of shellfish The second insight is that terrestrial game, domesti- in the bone beds suggests that they were cooked in earth cated mammals, and marine mammals were prepared, ovens with other foods as well as prepared individually, cooked, and consumed in similar ways. That deer were possibly as separate meals or as snack foods collected cooked in conventional Kashaya/Coast Miwok earth during low tides. The spatial distribution of the fish ovens is not surpnsing since the Alutiit probably had elements, though few in number, indicates they may have little prior experience with thie preparation of venison on been cooked with other foods or prepared as separate Kodiak Island, except that obtained through off-island meals as well. trade. Cut marks on the bones from steel tools indicate Wake's analysis of mammal remains in chapter 12 that both dismemberment and filleting of deer meat took (also Wake 1995:217-26) from the entire East Central and place. Furthermore, the deer bones exhibit evidence of Culture Change and Persistence 407 marrow extraction, including proximal or distal impact The final insight is that the food refuse and artifacts points and flake scars, a characteristic consumption in the bone beds may be the product of special feasts and pattern of the Kashaya. community wide ceremonies hosted by NAVS house- That domesticated artiodactyls, such as cattle and holds. We suspect that a winter cycle of feasts and sheep, were cooked in the same manner as black-tailed ceremonies may have been initiated with the homecom- deer makes perfectly good sense from a Kashaya per- ing of the Native Alaskan men at the conclusion of the spective. The cattle elements exhibit the same kinds of hunting season. The Ross hunters were frequently absent evidence for dismemberment and marrow extraction as from NAVS on hunting trips from spring to fall (see the deer bones. While the Kashaya had little experience Khlebnikov 1976:108,131; Golovnin 1979:162 [1818]). with domesticated mammals prior to the establishment of While Native Californian women and children who Fort Ross, they probably would have treated them like remained at NAVS may have served communal meals any other large terrestrial mammal food. It does not among themselves, the chronic food shortages reported appear that Alutiiq meat roasting or boiling methods were for these Ross denizens (see chapter 1) suggest that commonly employed, even though they had prior feasting was not common (or even possible) until the late experience with domesticated meats, having grown up in fall or winter. At this time, the NAVS households would Russian outposts where beef was consuned. probably have celebrated the hunters' return with their What is somewhat unexpected is that manne share of meat and (hopefully) some credit at the Com- mammals were treated in the same manner as terrestrial pany store by sponsoring feasts and ceremonies. game. Both appear to have been cooked together in earth Among both the Alutiit and Kashaya Pomo, the ovens and both show similar dismemberment patterns annual cycle of ceremonies included lavish feasts along and filleting marks. The Alutiit were sophisticated sea with dancing, visiting, gift exchanges, gambling, shaman- mammal hunters and well versed in their traditional istic healing, sweat baths, and religious observances. methods of preparing and cooking seals and sea lions. In Pomo households contributed to a common supply of contrast, the Kashaya Pomo hunted these animals rarely food that was distributed by leaders (headmen) at village- and consumed little of their flesh compared to terrestrial financed ceremonies, or individual families sponsored game. Yet Kashaya conventions appear to have been ceremonies to celebrate good tidings, such as the recov- used in the processing of the marine mammals, as ery of a sick person (Barrett 1952:64). Some of the many opposed to treating them separately and preparing them feasts and ceremonies throughout the year included in a fashion more consistent with Kodiak Island conven- various harvest and winter celebrations and commemora- tions, such as boiling or barbecuing the meat. Other food tions (Barrett 1952:51-59; Kostromitinov 1974:10 [1830- refuse in the bone beds, such as sea urchins and sea birds, 1838]; Powers 1976:193-94; Kniffen 1939:385-86) not commonly consumed by the Kashaya but actively Among the Alutiit, individual households and related harvested by the Alutiit in their homeland, also appear to families tended to underwrite ceremonies as public have been cooked in earth ovens according to Kashaya displays of wealth and status, especially to enhance the practices. prestige of their leaders (Crowell 1992:19-20). On The third observation involves the sparse evidence Kodiak Island, they observed their most important for the processing or consumption of terrestrial plant ceremonies during the early winter months beginning in foods in the refuse dump. While their rarity may relate to November or early December when magical rites and taphonomic problems, it seems likely that charred acorn, rituals were performed to insure hunting success for the seed, or grain remains would preserve in the bone beds. following year. Winter ceremonies were commonly The chemical tests reported by Price in chapter 4 indicate hosted by toions until the 1880s when sea otter hunting, that the neutral to slightly aLkaline sediments should no longer a viable enterprise, was replaced by the cash provide an excellent context to recover charred floral wage cannery economy (Crowell 1992:30). Preparation remains. We believe that either the refuse from process- for the ceremonies involved building up household ing terrestrial plants was disposed of elsewhere, or that surplus from which feasts were supported until food the activities that contributed to the bone beds did not stores ran out sometime in late winter or early spring include much plant processing. A small assemblage of (Bolotov 1977:85 [1794-1799]; Clark 1974:76, 1984:193; ground stone tools, including pestles, handstones, and Crowell 1992; Davydov 1977:173,183 [1802-1803]; millingstone slabs, were recovered from both bone beds, Gideon 1977:93 [1804-1807]; Jordan 1994:151-53; suggesting that the households associated with the refuse Lisiansky 1814:209-10 [1805]). areas did process nuts, seeds, and/or grains. On the other The feasting interpretation explains several unique hand, it is also possible that some of these ground stone chaacteristics of the bone beds, including the large implements may have been recycled from elsewhere amounts of mammal, fish, and shellfish foods cooked in solely for use as cooking stones in the unlderground earth ovens, the rapid deposition of trash in related ovens. dumping episodes, and the subsequent capping of the 408 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood refuse deposits with sediments. In addition, the presence obsidian artifacts in the four levels of the South Bone of California condor and bald eagle remains in the East Bed resulted exclusively in prehistoric readings. Only Central Bone Bed and South Bone Bed, respectively, are one of the three obsidian flakes submitted for hydration suggestive of magical rituals practiced by North Pacific analysis from Level 1 of the East Central Bone Bed peoples (Okladnikova 1983). Russian observers noted yielded a historic date. We find little evidence of historic that eagle feathers were prominent elaborations of period chipped stone tool manufacture in either bone bed dancers' costumes on Kodiak Island (Davydov 1977:111 with the exception of some minor maintenance and [1802-1803]; Lisiansky 1814:184 [1805]). retouch. Most of the obsidian artifacts are interpreted as scavenged prehistoric artifacts that were recycled as tools b) Production and Maintenance of Native Craft and flakes by NAVS- residents. The few formal tools, Goods. Household production of traditional crafts is such as notched projectile points, that are historic in age differentially represented in the two bone beds. The were probably manufactured elsewhere, while the late South Bone Bed contains evidence of all stages of bone prehistoric points were either curated by Kashaya tool manufacture. Davydov (1977:187 [1802-1803] families or picked up from prehistoric archaeological observed bone tool production on Kodiak Island that deposits. Flakes were probably scavenged from nearby corresponds closely with the kinds of activities that sites for expedient reuse by NAVS households. probably contributed to the bone debitage in the South Finally, there is some reason to believe that Bone Bed. Wake's (1995, chapter 11) careful analysis kamleikas and birdskin parkas were produced at NAVS. suggests that most of this debitage resulted from the In his 1818 visit to Port Rumiantsev, Lutke (1989:278) production of diagnostic Alutiiq and Unangan points and met a Native Califomian women who had learned to sew fish hooks used in marine mammal hunting kits and whale gut kamleikas in an interethnic household at the fishing gear. In addition, Wake describes bone tubes that Ross settlement (probably NAVS). Kamleikas are were incised using Native Californian designs. In waterproof pullovers that the Alutiit produced from the contrast, the East Central Bone Bed is associated with intestines and throats of whales, seals, and bears, or from minimal evidence of bone tool production, yielding only the skin of whale tongues or livers (Davydov 1977:152 1 worked bird ulna, 7 flakes, 13 amorphous bone chunks, [1802-1803]; Gideon 1977:100-101 [1804-1807]; Merck and 2 worked antler pieces. 1980:102 [1790]). Eight kamleikas could be cut and The evidence for ground slate tool production in sewn from a single whale tongue. Kamleikas were an either bone bed deposit is nonexistent Ground slate indispensable component of the baidarka equipment used artifacts make up significant components of late prehis- for hunting marine mammals in rough seas, as they toric and early historic Alutiiq archaeological assem- provided the waterproof outer covering that sealed the blages on Kodiak Island. These include ulu blades, hunter into his boat (Davydov 1977:152 [1802-1803]). adzes, oil lamps, various kinds of knives and scrapers, Birdskin parkas were made from murres, puffins, and slate debitage (see Clark 1974; Heizer 1956; Knecht and cormorants by Alutiiq women on Kodiak Island. The and Jordan 1985; Jordan and Knecht 1988; Mobley et al. fat clung to the skins; after being smeared with fermented 1990). Ground slate artifacts are extremely rare in eggs, it was scraped off, and the skins squeezed dry precontact Kashaya Pomo assemblages. As Mills details (Davydov 1977:150-51 [1802-1803]). The feathers were in chapter 10, only 11 ground slate objects have been left in the skin, and during inclement weather they were recovered from NAVS, including 7 in the East Central worn outside to keep water off the coat. Cormorant neck Area; only 1 artifact, a polished tabular fragment, was feathers were the most highly regarded for maldng found in the bone bed proper. A single artifact, a ground parkas, followed by puffins and murres. It took between slate rod, was found in the South Area, and none were 35 to 40 birds to make a large parka. The high value of unearthed in the South Bone Bed proper. the birdskin coats is evident when Gideon (1977:101 Chipped stone tools were used by the households [1804-1807) reported that the Russian-American Com- who contributed to the bone beds. Chipped stone tools pany required old men and boys on Kodiak Island to hunt are a relatively minor component of late prehistoric and enough sea birds to produce seven parkas, which were early historic archaeological assemblages on Kodiak then sewn into coats for the Company by Alutiiq women. Island (Clark 1974; Jordan and Knecht 1988:268; Knecht The large numbers of seal, common murre, and gull and Jordan 1985:29), but represent a major component of elements in the South Bone Bed, and the common all Kashaya Pomo assemblages (both prehistoric and occurrence of seals and murres in the East Central Bone historic) in the Fort Ross Region (see Lightfoot, Wake, Bed, are interpreted primarily as food refuse, but some and Schiff 1991). Tshe density of chipped stone debitage body parts also may have been used to produce kamleikas is more than six times greater in the South Bone Bed than and birdskin parkas. In addition, the California and the East Central deposit (table 17.1). However, as Steller's sea lion remains in both bone beds may have reported in chapter 16, the hydration dating of 21 contributed skins for the repair and construction of Culture Change and Persistence 409 baidarkas and baidaras. On Kodiak Island, the sewing associated with the East Central Pit Feature, possibly and repair of the outer shell of these boats were com- outlining the edges of the earlier house structure. Since pleted by women in spring before the annual Company the window glass fragments in the East Central Area are sea otter hunts (Gideon 1977:100 [1804-1807]). The not spatially related to the nails and spikes, we suggest conical bone points and awl tip found in the South Bone that window panes may not have been associated with the Bed could be part of the sewing kit used in making and earlier subterranean structure or that the fragments were repairing clothing and skin boats. collected and recycled as a source of raw material. Some of the sea birds and sea lions that ended up in the bone bed may have been hunted at the Farallon Pff FEATURES Islands artel by Native Alaskan men and Native Califor- nian women who were stationed there (see Comey In this secion current information on the three pit 1896:74A, Riddell 1955; Khlebnikov 1976:122-23; features is synthesized. First, the possible use of the Bancroft 1886:633). Meat from the Farallon Islands was FRBS Pit Feature as a furnace and stone stove in a shipped to Fort Ross for consumption by the Ross wooden bathhouse is discussed. Sincthe is feature was workers, and the skins were used for the manufacture of swept clean prior to abandonment, little is known about clotfiing and skin boats (Golovnin 1979:154 [1818]). its floor contents. We then consider the NAy S pit Lisiansky (1814:205 [18051) and Gideon (1977:100- 101 features, and undertake a spatial analysis of the floor [1804-1807]) described how seabirds were netted for contents of the East Central Pit Feature. Unfortunately, food and parkas on cliffs and rocks along Kodiak Island, the small areal exposure of the South Pit Feature pre- and we presume similar methods were employed on the cludes a similar analysis. We conclude with several Farallon Islands and the broader Fort Ross Region. observations of NAVS structures by considering the trash disposal practices of the Alutiit and Kashaya Pomo in and c) Recycling of Ceramic and Glass Objects. The around residential spaces. ceramic and glass assemblages from both the East Central and South bone beds are characterized by small, FRBS PIT FEATURE fragmentary pieces from multiple vessels or window A full description of the FRBS Pit Feature is panes. The households contributing to these deposits presented in chapter 2. A 2-by-1.5 m exposure of the were not discarding whole ceramic or glass objects into feature took place in 1989. While archaeological dating the trash. This pattern suggests that vessels or panes of the feature is somewhat ambiguous (see chapter 16), broken by NAVS families were recycled for other eyewitness accounts suggest the feature was used at least purposes, and/or that they were scavenging ceramic and during the years of 1822 to 1833. The feature consists of glass fragments from other Fort Ross locations to reuse a concavely shaped, clay-lined pit at least 2-by-1.5 m in as sources of raw material. size in which a stone bench was constructed. The clay Although the majority of the ceramic forms are surface had been thermally altered, indicating that the identified as plates and saucers in the East Bone Bed and entire pit had been fired at a very high temperature. The tea cups, saucers, and plates in the South Bone Bed, we dimensions of the pit and the large stone bench are unlike question whether they served these functions in the any Russian, Alutiiq, or Kashaya Pomo residential residences associated with the refuse dumps. They structures mentioned in the sources above. It does match appear to be isolated pieces that were selected for very closely the stone bench of the bathhouse described modification into tools or ornaments. One of the ceramic by Mariano Payeras in 1822 near the mouth of Fort Ross sherds (from the South's deposit) exhibits evidence of Creek. being worked or modified. Some of the glass fragments When I mention the bathhouse, be aware that I believe exhibit evidence of use, and a projectile point of glass they are like those used by our Indians. Inside the was recovered in the East Central Bone Bed. The bathhouse, they have built a rectangular stove of stone, discovery of microdebitage (tiny slivers) of ceramics and like those in which they bake bread. Above are two glass in flotation samples of bone bed deposits lends high rooms which have iron grates. On these are set adffitional support for the working of these objects in stones like those the Indians use to cook their acom NAYS households. gruel. These stones are heated until they become red NAVS housignificantldifference betweenthetwobonebedhot. In this state, they sprinkle them with water until A significant difference between the two bone beds the steam rises through the upper openings of the two is the large percentage of window glass in the South mentioned rooms. They enter naked and soon begin to Bone Bed. When considered in combination with the sweat oceans. Those that are situlated on tiered clustetr of nails found in Level 1 of 125S, 24W, it may benches to the side of the oven, amnuse themselves indicate trash from an architectural feature. In contrast, with colorful stories (Payeras 1979:2.3 [18221). the spatial pattern of nails and spikes along the outer edge Wrangel (1969:207 [1833] and Bancroft (1886:630) also of the East Central Bone Bed indicates they may be mention the same bathhouse along Fort Ross Creek. 410 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Shubin (1990:432-33) unearthed a similar stone c) Bird. No bird remains were mapped. bench in the excavation of a Russian bathhouse in the d) Shellfish. No shellfish remains were mapped. Russian-American Company outpost on the Kurile e) Worked Bone. One worked bone flake (figure Islands. He notes that a fire box was built into the stone 17.57) is found in 75S, 2E. stove that contained ash and charcoal. We suggest that f) Ceramic. One sherd (figure 17.57) is located in the Fort Ross bathhouse was constructed using a some- 75S, IE. what different design, whereby a sweltering fire was built g) Glass Sherds. Two bottle glass sherds and two around the stone bench within the clay lined pit. The fire window glass sherds are distributed across 75S, IE, and was probably allowed to die down to embers, keeping the one worked glass sherd is on the floor in 75S, 3E (figure stone bench red hot Water could then be sprinkled on 17.57). the stone bench to produce steam, as indicated by the h) Metal. Four nails and one spike are situated on fire-cracked appearance of rocks associated with the the surface of the pit feature in 75S, 2E; 75S, 3E; and stone bench. The Fort Ross bathhouse probably had a 75S, 4E (figure 17.58). wooden structure with benches built into the side of the i) Bead. One glass bead (figure 17.57) is found in hill, similar to the one described by Shubin, in which the the sw quad of 75S, IE. pit furnace and stone stove were constructed. The pit j) Lithics. One sandstone flake and a nutting stone feature was probably regularly maintained by cleaning are found in 75S, IE (figure 17.57). out ash and charcoal. It appears to have been swept clean prior to abandonment, as only a fine film of charcoal was INTERPRETING THE NAVS PIT FEATURES observed on the floor during excavation. It is not clear how the NAVS houses were con- NAVS Prr FEATURFS structed or what they looked like above the ground surface. They may have resembled small wooden cabins Detailed descriptions of the East Cental and South or Russian-style log houses, as suggested by eyewitness pit features are presented in chapter 3. The former was accounts in chapter 1. They may have been shallow, unearthed in a 1-by-5 m trench exposure in 1991, while semi-subterranean houses similar to the Alutiiq structures the latter was exposed only in a 25 cm wide exposure described by Shubin (1990) on the Kurile Islands. when the South Trench wall was profiled in 1992. No However, given the limited archaeological exposure of hearths or other intemal features are reported for either these structures, we can not rule out a likeness to local structure. The exact dimensions of both features are Native Californian semi-subterranean houses built during unknown, but the East Central structure was at least 5 m the winter months and described by Corney (1896:33-34 in length and the South pit, 3.4 m in diameter. The East [1814]) and Kostromitinov (1974:8 [1830-1838]). Central structure was shallow in depth, dug only about .3 The scarcity of material remains on the floor of the m below the former ground surface as described in East Central Pit Feature, especially animal bones and chapter 3. It is not clear how deep the South Pit Feature shellfish, suggests it was relatively clean, at least when was excavated below the historic ground surface. Both abandoned. Although only a small area of the South Pit features were used prior to or during the 1820s and 1830s Feature was tested, the plan view and profile of the floor (see chapter 16). suggest it was relatively sterile as well. We believe these The materials mapped in situ in the East Central Pit observations are particularly revealing in light of how the Feature were not recovered on a prepared floor surface, Kodiak Island Alutiit and Kashaya Pomo disposed of suggesting that either a packed dirt surface or wooden trash in and around residences. boards were used. Two intact redwood posts were In Kodiak Island houses, considerable trash accumu- recovered in 75S, 4E; although we think they were part lated in the large central room that served as a combina- of a fence constructed later in the American Period (post tion living room, kitchen, and workshop, while the 1846). The elevation of the bottom surface of the East adjoining small rooms used as sleeping areas, storage Central Pit Feature ranges from 25.48 to 25.26 m asl. space, and steam baths for one or more families were Appendix 17.5 lists the following inforrnation for each kept relatively clean (see Clark 1984:191). The discrete artifact and faunal specimen mapped on the floor of the segregation of trash in Alutiiq houses on Kodiak Island is East Central Pit Feature: catalog number, item code described by both Lisiansky and Davydov. Lisiansky (keyed into the plan map), artifact/faunal identification, (1814:212-14 [1805]) observed the large central rooms unit, size (length/width), and three dimensional prove- being used for dances, for the cleaning and drying of fish, nience. Materials mapped In situ include: and for building baidarkas. He reported that they are a) Mammals. Mammal bones (figure 17.56) include "never cleaned, except that now and then some fresh a deer ilium on the border of 75S, lE and 75S, 2E; and an grass is thrown over the floor, to give it a sort of decent unidentified element of an eared seal in 75S, 4E. appearance." Davydov (1977:154-55 [1802-1803]) b) Fish. No fish remains were mapped. Culture Change and Persistence 411 Figure 17.56 Spatial Distribution of Mamal Elementsffrom the Floor of the East Central Pit Feate 74 S- 75 S OE IE 2E 3E 4E 5E N B East Centa Pit Feature Deer/Elk Marine Mmmal (MM) [ Deer (DE) 1Piniped (MM) Figure 17.57 Spatial Distibution of Worked Bone Artifacts, Ceramic Pies, Gloss Sherds, Glass Beads, and Lithic Artifacts from the Floor of the East Central Pit Feature 74 S tO '' '' <<. < ,D, ,' o t , . xxx 75 S OE 1E 2E 3E 4E SE East Central Pit Feare Glass Lithic Debitage 7 Beads (BE) 7 Bottle Glas (BG) [N] Umdified Flake, stone(STh) Liffic Tools (LT) Wmdow Gl (WGL) Workd Bone (WB) E] Nutting Stone (NS) * Worked Glas (WG) Debitage,Core, Baton (WB) Histoic Camic (HC) Figure 17.58 Spatial Distibution of Metal Artifacts from the Floor of the East Central Pit Feature 745Sjx 755S OE 1E 2E 3E 4E 5E noEast t Pit Feate Nails/Spikes b Nails (NA) O 50 100mW mSpies(SP) E_EI_.I. 412 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood commented that the central room "is always dirty and tively clean, containing primarily lithic artifacts, while presents an unpleasant spectacle to a European, for the the midden deposits containing animal bones and food waste, fish bones, and shells are very rarely re- shellfish remains were located downslope. Ongoing moved." He further noted that the sleeping areas "are excavations of architectural structures and midden kept clean; they have a board floor if wood is readily deposits at the Tomato Patch Site near Fort Ross suggest accessible, otherwise dried grass or clean bast matting are a similar pattem (see Martinez 1995). Structures appear used." Davydov (1977:155) concluded his description by to have been regularly swept clean of refuse. The noting "what is more revolting than all else is the filth upslope residential zone is relatively free of animal bones around their huts, for the islanders do not go far away to and shellfish with the refuse concentrated in downslope do anything-and this gives one a very bad impression of midden deposits that are over one meter deep. Other their tidiness." excavations of late prehistoric and historic Pomo villages, Excavations of late prehistoric and early historic including the Masut Pomo hamlet of Nightbirds' Retreat semi-subterranean houses on Kodiak Island support the and the Mitom Pomo camp of Three Chop Village (see above eyewitness accounts. The floors of house struc- Layton 1990), indicate that each structure did not tures are often 20 to 30 cm deep, composed of highly accumulate much garbage during its use life, although compressed matrixes of vegetable matter, food bones, refuse was occasionally dumped into abandoned houses. shellfish, matted grasses, hair, artifacts, wood chips, ash, We argue that Pomo/Miwok conceptions of cleanli- charcoal, fire-cracked rocks, and bits of fur (see Clark ness and refuse disposal were implemented in some 1974:155-56; Heizer 1956:18; Jordan and Knecht NAVS residences, most likely by Kashaya and Coast 1988:256-62; Knecht and Jordan 1985). These excava- Miwok women in interethnic households. While the tions also reveal a common pattern whereby old house house structures may have resembled small wooden floors and their accumulated trash were intentionally cabins, shallow modified forms of Alutiiq semi-subterra- covered over by new floors. Jordan and Knecht's nean houses, or even the winter houses of Native (1988:256-62) work on one Koniag phase house structure Californians, the day-to-day domestic practices involving at KAR-1 yielded ten different house floors separated by the care and maintenance of these places followed the thick deposits of floor debris and sod roofs. Clark's organizational principles of Kashaya Pomo/Coast (1974:155) excavation at the Rolling Bay site unearthed a Miwok. Garbage from residential tasks, such as prepar- house structure in which the underlying debris was ing, cooking, and consuming meat dishes, was swept up capped by a clean sand layer which evens up underlying and placed in discrete midden areas, such as in bone beds irregularities and overlays rubbly site deposits and or down the side of the marine terrace. In contrast, major midden. modifications to the NAVS landscape, such as the filling In contrast to the Kodiak Islanders, the Kashaya of abandoned houses with rubble and dirt, appears to Pomo apparently observed relatively strict rules in the follow traditional Alutiiq practices of covering old used disposal of trash in and around residential structures. surfaces with clean new ones. Rather than removing Eyewitness accounts of Pomo and Coast Miwok houses trash to another location, the Kodiak Islanders would often emphasize the spartan contents, general tidiness, or simply bury the accumulated deposits and create a new "orderly fashion" of their dwellings (Schabelski 1993:10 surface. The deposition of the bone beds represents an [1822-1823]; Wrangel 1974:3-4 [1833]). Since most of interesting interplay of KashayafMiwok and Alutiiq these observations are made of the open thatch-and-pole practices. New surfaces were created when shallow pit summer houses, and not the more permanent semi- structures were abandoned and filled in. The new subterranean bark covered structures used in winter, we surfaces were then used for the disposal of residential recognize that the apparent cleanliness of the camps may trash. reflect the season and brevity of occupation. However, Kostromitinov (1974:8 [1830-1838] who observed both THE SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF THE summer and winter residences while Company manager NATIVE ALASKAN NEIGHBORHOOD at Fort Ross described the sparse contents of Kashaya houses that included only clothing, bedding, "a bow, As outlined in chapter 3, the surface landscape of arrows, a large pot, and sometimes fishing nets." A NAVS consists of 13 shallow surface depressions or similar perspective on the orderly organization of leveled platforms oriented in roughly a north/south line residential space is depicted in Mikhail Tikhanov's parallel to the eastern edge of the marine terrace. The watercolor of the inside of a Coast Miwok house at surface density of artifacts and faunal remains suggests a Rumiantsev Bay in 1818 (see Wiswell 1979:327). tripartite division for the site. The northi and south areas In our first volume, we noted that late prehistoric and Of the site are characterized by high densities of cultural historic Pomo villages were spatially segregated into materials, while the central area is relatively sterile residential and midden space (Lightfoot, Wake, and except along the eastern edge of the marine terrace where Schiff 1991:116-19). The residential areas were rela- artifact clusters occur. The surface features and associ- Culture Change and Persistence 413 ated artifact concenations may represent the remains of and may have included a large barracks building as NAVS house structures with household refuse deposited identified in the geophysical survey. This probably around their perimeters. corresponds to the original location of NAVS as sketched The tripartite division for NAVS is supported in the 1817 map. In the central area, the linear distribu- independently by Tschan's geophysical survey data In tion of houses was probably only one or two tiers deep chapter 5, he reports barnlike structures and corrals in the along the terrace edge. Beyond this narrow residential north area, probably dating to the later American Period. zone, the central area appears to have been largely open, The central area is relatively empty-the only significant possibly serving as a "communal place" or even village resistance anomalies are distinct lines (probably well trod "plaza." The linear distribution of house structres paths) and a few rectangular and circular features. In continues into the north area, ending not far from the Tschan's interpretation, the majority of the early 19th south Stockade wall. It is possible that several rows of cenury Village is situated in the south area where he NAVS houses extended north of the central area. Unfor- mapped a large rectangular feature with internal divi- tunately, later American Period agricultural buildings and sions, multiple circular structures, and a spider-shaped more recent structures, including a store and gas station, anomaly. complicate any interpretation of the north area. Subsequent fieldwork in the central and south areas Refuse disposal was highly structured in the Native clarifies the above interpretations. Excavations in the Alaskan Neighborhood. Household trash appears to have East Central and South areas show a positive association been dumped into abandoned structures or over the side between surface features and semi-subterranean house of the marine terrace. The excavations of the East structures. However, the dense concentrations of artifacts Central and South areas indicate that most trash was and faunal remains associated with surface features may swept from house structures and cleaned up in related be related primarily to bone bed deposits in the fill of extramural space. The dumping of food waste appears to structures. That is, the surface pattern of cultural have been restricted in the central "communal place," materials may not relate to household garbage from although the area's acidic sediments may have compro- structures while they were still occupied, but rather later mised the recovery of organic remains and biased our dumping events that took place after houses were interpretation. abandoned. According to this interpretation, the strong FRBS is interpreted mainly as a secondary refuse correlation between surface features and artifact concen- deposit for materials discarded by NAVS households over trations along the terrace edge suggests that many of the the terrace edge. Erosional processes, bioturbation, and structures at NAVS were used as refuse dumps once they downward transport have created an extensive colluvial were vacated. We predict that many more bone beds will deposit of artifacts, faunal remains, and sediments along be found in abandoned houses at NAVS. the base of the terrace. Some lithic artifacts were The South Central Test Unit was placed along the deposited in prehistoric times, while the remaining linear distribution of tash at the edge of the terrace materials date primarily to the Russian Period of Fort between the East Central and South areas. It reveals Ross. relatively high densities of mammal, fish, and shellfish The close affinity between the NAVS and FRBS remains. Compared to the East Central and South areas assemblages suggests that they derived largely from the (see table 17.1), this test unit contains high concentra- same source. Similar kinds of mammal, bird, fish, and tions of glass pieces, ceramic sherds, and metal objects, shellfish remains are found, as well as ceramic, metal, and a moderate density of worked bone artifacts and glass, and lithic artifact types (see table 17.1). A major lithics. difference is the absence or relative scarcity of many The West Central Trench demonstrates that few small items at FRBS, some of which are quite fragile, mammal, fish, bird, and shellfish remains are found in the such as snails, sea urchin spines, glass beads, and worked central area beyond the terrace edge (table 17.1). The bone debitage. Taphonomic processes involving the very low numbers of faunal remains may be a function of transport of materials downslope from NAVS may preservation, however, since the highly acidic sediments explain this pattern. Small, lightweight materials are less in this area of the site would create a poor context for likely to have reached the colluvial toe of FRBS than sustaining organic materials (see chapter 4). No worked heavier objects, such as lithics. bone artifacts were recovered. Moderate densities of The limited number of small objects in the FRBS ceramic and lithic artifacts are found as well as a rela- assemblage can not be attributed to differential preserva- tively large number of glass fragmnents, mostly from tion or recovery methods. The midden sediments in window panes. FRBS units tend to more neutral or mildly alkaline than The spatial model for NAVS is a linear distribution most NAYS deposits (chapter 4). In considering the of houses along the terrace edge that opened into an L- recovery of small materials, the Southwest Bench at shape in the south area. The house structures were FRBS served as te control units for FRBS: 60% of the probably arranged several rows deep in the south area levels were wet screened through 1/16" mesh. In 414 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood comparison, only 25% of the NAVS sediments were wet climb the roofs and sit there scanning the sea, especially screened through 1/16" mesh. While the Southwest at sunrise when decisions were made to go to sea or to Bench is characterized in general by lower densities of stay home (Clark 1984:191, Davydov 1977:156 [1802- many cultural materials compared to the East Central 1803]; Lisianksy 1814:182-84 [1805]). Area, South Area, and South Central Test Unit, it The linear arrangement of houses along the marine contains no sea urchin spines or fragments and no terrace in the Native Alaskan Neighborhood fits some of Olivella shells. Furthermore, the Southwest Bench the spatial conventions of traditional Kodiak Island contains abnormally low densities of identifiable turban villages. NAVS is located on a marine terrace in a very and other small snails, worked bone debitage, and glass exposed location on a small cove overlooking the ocean. beads (see table 17.1). In contrast, this bench has the Houses were situated so that NAVS residents had a clear highest lithic density in the Native Alaskan Neighbor- view of the Pacific Ocean and of their baidarkas stored hood with the exceptions of the South Trench and South below in the Fort Ross Cove. Subsistence-related Bone Bed at NAVS. activities involving the skin kayaks were focused on Fort We recognize that some FRBS materials were Ross Cove, while domestic, political, and religious probably deposited in situ by people working and practices took place at NAVS proper. Most of the dead relaxing in the Fort Ross Cove. The colluvial bench were apparently buried at the Fort Ross Cemetery overlooks the area where baidarkas are reported to have situated to the northwest of the Village on high ground been stored in the Cove. Native Alaskan and Native (see Goldstein 1995). While Kodiak Island villages tend Californian workers may have used the colluvial bench to be located on the shoreline with direct access to water, (especially the East Bench) to undertake tasks involving the specific location of NAVS on the elevated marine the care and maintenance of skin boats, fishing gear, and terrace may have been dictated by the Russians, who hunting tools. Architectural features may be buried in the wanted to keep a close eye on the Village from the East Bench, a possibility that needs to be explored in the Stockade. Alternatively, the marine terrace may have future. Another location of activity at FRBS was the been viewed as a readily defensible location by both the bathhouse constructed into the colluvial deposits of the Russians and native workers (Aron Crowell, personal Middle Profile, of which all that remains today is the clay communication). lined furnace and stone bench. Here boti Native Califor- In companrson, the location and layout of the Native nians and Native Alaskans could have soothed and Alaskan Neighborhood contadicts many of the basic purified their bodies while taking steam baths, followed organizational principles of Kashaya Pomo villages in the by a quick dive in the ocean, an important part of the Fort Ross Region. The archaeological survey reported in purification and cleansing process (see Barrett 1975:44- Volume 1 indicates that late prehistoric Kashaya Pomo 45; Davydov 1977:154,158 [1802-1803]; Kostromitinov villages are situated primarily on the first and second 1974:8 [1830-1838]; Payeras 1979:2-3 [1822]). ridge systems at elevations of several hundred meters above sea level and several kilometers from the coast. A CONSIDERATION OF THE SPATIAL ORGANIZATION Village locations are chosen that provide protection from OF THE NATIVE ALASKAN NEIGHBORHOOD the fog and wind of the coast, that afford good sources of The overall physical setting and spatial organization fresh water, and that are strategically placed to take of the Native Alaskan Neighborhood resembles a Kodiak advantage of both coastal and interior resources (see Island village (see Schiff 1995). The spatial pattern of Lightfoot et al. 1991:112-15). The spatial organization of archaeological sites on Kodiak Island indicates that house structures varies greatly between villages, many villages were situated along slight embayments and coves with no coherent plan. The houses often tend to be (Clark 1987:124-29). Davydov (1977:155 [1802-1803]) arranged in a roughly semi-circular or circular manner observed that village locations were placed near shores with the large assembly or dance house towards the and/or streams to obtain easy access to shellfish and fish. center (Barrett 1975:45; Kniffen 1939:386). Houses were arranged in a long linear pattern along an In the Russian Period (1812-1841), population expansive beach or coastal strip (Knecht and Jordan aggregation took place around the Fort Ross settlemenL 1985:21-23; Jordan 1994:148; Jordan and Knecht Some Kashaya Pomo villages were relocated from the 1988:232-36). As Jordan (1994:148) notes many of the ridgetop to the upper marine terrace north of the Stock- subsistence-related tasks took place along the shore; ade (Lightfoot et al. 1991:115-16). However, the same domestic, social, political, and ceremonial activities kinds of organizational conventions continued to be tended to occur in the central strip of structures; and the reproduced in these new locations. Some historic dead were buried behind the village. Early eyewitness compounds or villages, such as the CA-SON-670, were accounts stress that Alutiiq structures were situated so placed in secluded locations some distance from the coast that houses had clear views of the ocean. Men would that provided protection from fog and wind. Culture Change and Persistence 415 CONCLUSION Miwok manner. The analyses of the bone bed deposits, pit features The organizational principles underlying trash and internal spatial organization of the Neighborhoods f disposal in the Neighborhood followed Pomo/Miwok indicate that different kinds of organizational principles conventions of cleanliness and order. Native Californians and operational stategies were employed by NAVS probably swept houses clean on a regular basis and kept residents. At the level of the household, it appears that nearby extramural space clear of debris. Food waste and many of the domestic practices followed distinctly artifacts from kitchen areas and related residential space, Kashaya Pomo/Coast Miwok conventions. Here one can especially after special feasts, were tossed in refuse clearly see the multiple influences and practices of the dumps in abandoned structures. Other household refuse Native Californians, mostly women who cohabited wifth was discarded over the edge of the marine terrace, Native Alaikan men. At a broader scale, when one con- creating (in large part) the archaeological deposit at Naders the internal arrangement of space in the greater FRBS. Neighborhood, Alutiiq ideals appear to have structured We found relatively little evidence of traditional the locaion and layout of residential and work space. Kodiak Island household equipment or furniture as The menu served at NAVS was neither Kashaya/ summarized by Clark (1974:112-27) at either NAVS or Coast Miwok nor Alutiit. The Kodiak Islanders experi- FRBS, including stone lamps; ground slate ulus, adzes, enced the taste of venison, abalone, and new kinds of and other accoutrements; bone spoons or ladles; pottery; rock fishes, while the Pomo/Miwok were treated to seal or hollowed whale vertebrae platters (one was found in and sea lion stles and oven-roasted beef. Some foods, the South Bone Bed). Most of the Alutiiq practices such as shellfish and rocky intertidal and subidal fish, observable in household refuse were clearly oriented were readily accessible to anyone at NAdS. Wild game towards producing and maintaining their sophisticated and marine mammals, such as venison, harbor seal, and marine hunting equipment. Some of this work may have sea lion, appear to have been hunted or obtained as whole included the manufacture of bone tools, the sewing of meat packages by NAVS residents. Meats raised at Fort kamleikas and birdskin parkas, and the possible repair of Ross, such as beef and mutton, were probably rationed by baidarkas. Other kinds of materials and tasks represented the Company or obtained through trade in the wider Ross in the bone beds are either associated with Kashaya community. Pomo/Coast Miwok practices (cooking, ground stone We interpret some of the bone bed refuse as the implements, projectile points) or involve innovative remains of diverse meat dis he fom e land and sea that developments, such as the recycling of prehistoric stone were prepared and cooked using a "hot rocks" method implements, historic ceramic sherds, and glass pieces for according to traditional Kashya Pomo/Coast Miwok use as raw materials in the production of tools and conventions. In these earth ovens, terrestial game, ornaments. domesticated meats, and marine mammals were treated in New developments were also taking place in a similar manner. Special cuts of meats, such as seal and landscape modification and garbage disposal at Fort sea lion flippers, were prepared, but marine mammals Ross. While traditional Kodiak Island practices of were not cooked (boiled or roasted) according to Alutiiq covering refuse in house structures and other "old" practices. Other domestic refuse was also dumped into surfaces with "new" surfaces (straw, clean sand, etc.) the trash deposits, most likely from cleaning up kitchen were not observed, we suspect that Native Alaskan and related spaces in nearby houses. conventions were in operation when people filled in The bone beds may represent the discrete remains of abandoned house structures with stone rubble and dirt to special meals and related activities hosted by NAVS create new surfaces. Some of these prepared surfaces households, possibly to celebrate the homecoming of were then used as refuse dumps, an enterprise influenced Native Alaskan hunters. Feasts were essential elements by Pomo/Miwok practices of order and cleanliness. of both the Kashaya and Alutiiq ceremonial and Alutiiq organizational principles are best observed at celebratory cycles. Little is known about ceremonies at the scale of the settlement layout From a distance, the NAVS, but it is possible that the most important gather- Neighborhood resembled a historic native village on ings took place in winter months after major sea otter Kodiak Island. Domiciles that probably included wooden hunts had concluded for the year. While speculative, we cabins, small shallow Alutiiq structures, and some feel there is some evidence that Native Alaskans and Russian log houses as described by Tikhmenev Native Califomians participated together in some of the (1978:134), were arranged in a linear fashion along the feasts, dances, and ritual observances. A synergistic marine terrace. The exposed location of the houses development may have been taking place at NAyS, provided an excellent view of the ocean and the skin where Kodiak-style winter feasts involving rituals for boats stored along Fort Ross Cove. hunting success and veneration to large birds of prey The layout of NAYS may deviate from traditional were being prepared in a uniquely Kashaya Pomo/Coast Alutiiq settlements in that it probably contained a central 416 The Natve Alaskan Neighborhood "communal place," an open area where dances, feasting, ing to identify with the culture of their homeland. In and other ceremonies may have taken place. Kashaya each of the domains they commanded, the Native villages did not usually contain central open areas either. Alaskans and Native Californians largely reproduced or However, the backside of Kodiak Island villages often replicated their respecive cultural practices in new social served as an open area where communal gatherings could contexts. take place. 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Curtis Mannion University of California, Berkeley. 1970 Abstracts from the Kelly Manuscript: Coast Miwok Material Culture. In Contributions to the Archaeology of Kostromitinov, P. Point Reyes National Seashore: A Compendium in Honor 1974 Notes on the Indians in Upper Califomia. In Ethno- of Adan E. Treganza, edited by Robert E. Schenk, pp. 65- graphic Observations on the Coast Miwok and Pomo by 95. Treganza Museum Paper No. 6. San Francisco State Contre-Admiral F. P. Von Wrangell and P. Kostromitinov of College, San Francisco. the Russian Colony Ross, 1839, pp. 7-18. Translation and editing of original 1839 publication by Fred Stross and Martinez, Antoinette Robert Heizer. Archaeological Research Facility, 1995 Blurred Boundaries of the Nineteenth Century Kashaya University of California, Berkeley. Pomo. Paper presented at 29th Annual Meeting of the Society for Califomia Archaeology, Eureka, Califoria. LaPlace, Cyrille 1986 Description of a Visit to an Indian Village Adjacent to Merck, Carl Heinrich Fort Ross by Cyrille LaPlace, 1839. Translation and 1980 Siberian and Northwestern America 1788-1792: The editing of 1854 original French publication by Glenn Journal of Carl Heinrich Merck, Naturalist with the Faris. Appendix B in Cultural Resource Survey at the Russian Scienific Expedition Led by Captains Joseph Fort Ross Campground, Sonoma County, California, by Billings and Gavriil Sarychev. Translated by Fritz Glenn Farris, pp. 65-80. On file, Cultural Heritage Jaensch. Edited by Richard A. Pierce. Limestone Press, Section, Archaeology Laboratory, Califomia Department Kingston, Ontario. of Parks and Recreation, Sacramento, Califomia. Mobley, Charles M., J. C. Haggarty, C. J. Utermohle, M. Layton, Thomas N. Eldridge, R. E. Reanier, A. Crowell, B. Ream, D. Yesner, J. 1990 Western Pomo Prehistory: Excavations atAlbion Head, Erlandson, P. Buck Nightbirds' Retreat, and Three Chop Village, Mendocino 1990 The 1989 Exxon Valdez Cultural Resource Program. County, California. Monograph 32. Institute of Archaeol- Exxon Shipping Company and Exxon Company, Anchor- ogy, University of Califomia, Los Angeles. age, Alaska. Lightfoot, Kent, and Antoinette Martinez Okladnikova, E. A. 1995 Frontiers and Boundaries in Archaeological Perspective. 1983 The California Collection of I. G. Voznesensky and the Annual Review of Anthropology 24:471-92. Problems of Ancient Cultural Connections Between Asia and America. Journal of California and Great Basin Lightfoot, Kent, Thomas Wake, and Ann Schiff Anthropology 5:224-39. 1991 The Archaeology and Ethnohistory of Fort Ross, California, Vol. 1: Introduction. Contributions of the Opolovnikov, A., and Y Opolovnikova University of California Archaeological Research Facility 1989 The Wooden Architecture of Russia: Houses, Fortifica- No. 49. Archaeological Research Facility, University of tions, and Churches. Henry N. Abrams, New York. California, Berkeley. Oswalt, Robert L. Lisiansky, Urey 1964 Kashaya Texts. University of California Publications in 1814 A Voyage Rowud the World in 1803, 4, 5, and 6; Per- Linguistics Vol. 36. University of California, Berkeley. formed By Order of his Imperial Majesty, Alexander the First, Emperor of Russia, in the Ship Neva. John Booth, Payeras, Mariano London. 1979 (entry for October 11, 1822) Diary of Mariano Payeras, Travels of the Canon Femandez de San Vincente to Ross. Loeb, E. M. Translated by Michael S. Tucker and Nicholas Del Cioppo. 1926 Pomo Folkways. University of Califomia Publications in Submitted for distribution at the Conference on Russian American Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 19, No. 2. America at Sitka, Alaska in 1979. Copy on file, Ftort Ross University of Californvia, Berkeley. Interpretive Association Library, Fort Ross, Californa. Lutke, Fedor P. Powers, Stephen 1989 September 4-28, 1818. From the Diary of Fedor P. Lutke 1976 Tribes of California. University of California Press, during his Circumnnavigation Aboard the Sloop Berkeley. (Originally published in 1877 in Contributions to