Bird Remains from the Fort Ross Beach and Native Alaskan Village Sites DWIGHT D. SIMONS MATERIALS AND METHODS U PON RECEIPT OF THE BIRD BONES from the Fort Ross Beach Site (ERBS) and the Native Alaskan Village Site (NAVS), identifiable bones were segregated from unidentifiable specimens. The former were identified to order/family/genus/species level whenever possible. This was accomplished using comparative osteological collections maintained by the Department of Ornithology and Mammalogy, Califomia Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, Califomia, and the Department of Biology, San Jose State University, San Jose, Califor- nia. Following identification, various data were recorded for each specimen. Among these were: (1) taxonomic identity; (2) skeletal element; (3) side of the body or body segment; (4) element configuration, that is, whole element, proximal portion, distal portion, fagment; and, (5) adult, juvenile, or neonatal status. Additional observations included signs of cultural modification, such as intentional breakage, presence of butchering marks, burning, and modification into an artifact If present, signs of non-cultural modification, including animal gnaw marks, weathering, and post-depositional breakage, also were noted for each specimen. After recordation, these data were tabulated and summarized. Skeletal element counts were made for each identified bird taxon by tallying the total numbers of identified skeletal elements assigned to each. Minimum numbers of individuals representing each identified bird taxon were determined by counting the number(s) of the most abundant skeletal element(s). THE FORT Ross AVIFAUNAS Table 13.1 summarizes numbers of identifiable species (NISP) and minimum numbers of individuals (MNI) of bird taxa present at FRBS and NAVS. A total of 16 bird taxa, represented by 500 bones from at least 71 birds, occurred at both sites (see appendices 13.1 and 13.2). At FRBS, 12 bird taxa (loon, shearwater, pelican, cormorant, goose, duck, eagle, chicken, willet, gull, murre, and guillemot) contributed 132 elements, which came from a minimum of 24 birds. A larger avifaunal assemblage, composed of 14 bird taxa (loon, albatross, pelican, cormorant, goose, duck, condor, eagle, chicken, coot, gull, murre, guillemot, auklet) and 368 bones from 47 individuals, occurred at NAVS. Ten bird taxa (loon, pelican, cornorant, goose, duck, eagle, chicken, gull, murre, guillemot) were common to both sites. Common murres are the most abundant birds at both sites (ERBS: n=93, 71%; NAVS: n=260, 71%). Gulls are second at both (FRBS: n=8, 6%; NAVS: n=56, 15%). At FRBS, ducks come in third (n=7, 5%); and at NAVS, pelicans (n=16, 4%). Eagles are in fourth place at FRBS (n=5, 4%), while ducks (n= 12, 3%) occupy this position at NAVS. Thus the sites are similar in that murres and gulls are the first and second most abundant bird taxa, with the percentage representation of murres identical at both. Ducks also are relatively common at both sites. Additionally, domestic chickens occur in comparable numbers at FRBS (n=3, 2%) and NAVS (n=6, 2%). Significant differences, however, characterize compara- tive abundances of all other bird taxa occurring at both sites. All bird taxa from the Fort Ross sites, with the exception of domestic chickens, are or were native to the immediate vicinity of Fort Ross (Bolander and Parmeter 1978; Cogswell 1977; Grinnell and Miller 1944; Small 1974). The California condor (Gymnogyps californianus), represented by a proximal left ulna from Bird Remains 311 Table 13.1 Bird Remainsfrom the Native Alaskan Neighborhood Bird Taxa Loon Sooty Shearwater Short-Tailed Albatross Pelican Cormnorant Goose Duck California Condor Bald Eagle Chicken American Coot Wlllet Gull Comunon Murre Pigeon Guillemot Cassin's Auklet Totals: FRBS NISP/MNI (Gavia sp.) (Puffinuis griseus) (Diomedea albatrus) (Pelecanus sp.) (Phalacrocorax sp.) (AnserlChenIBranta sp.) (AnaslAythyalMelaniual BucephalalMerguslOxyura sp.) (Gymnogyps californianus) (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) (Gallus gallus) (Fulica americana) (Catoptrophorus semipabnatus) (Larus sp.) (Uria aalge) (Cepphus columba) (Ptychoramphus aleuticus) 2/1 2/1 2/1 4/1 2/1 7/2 511 3/1 1/1 8/2 93/11 3/1 2/1 132/24 NAVS NISPIMNI 2/1 1/1 16/2 4/1 3/2 12/2 1/1 2/1 6/2 1/1 56/5 260/26 2/1 368/47 NAVS, occurred historically (Koford 1953; Simons n.d.; Wilbur 1978) and prehistorically (Morejohn and Gallo- way 1983; Simons 1983, and unpublished data) through- out California. Also found at NAVS was the distal left carpometacarpal of a probable Short-Tailed Albatross (Diomedea albatrus). Remains of this largest of California's marine birds occur in a number of prehistoric coastal sites (Bleitz 1993; Guthrie 1980, 1993; Morejohn and Galloway 1983; Porcasi 1995a, 1995b; Simons 1990a:40-1). Until its numbers were decimated in the early 1900s as a consequence of overhunting for the feather trade (Austin 1949; Greenway 1958; Hasegawa and DeGange 1982; Sanger 1972), it was relatively common along the coast of California. DISCUSSION PLACES OF PROCUREMENT Preferred habitats of FRBS and NAVS bird taxa are presented in table 13.2. Based on habitat preferences, behavior, and taxonomic assignment, birds from the two sites belong to one of seven groups. These include: oceanic birds; colonial nesting seabirds; anseriform waterfowl; other marine waterfowl; shorebirds; raptors; and domestic poultry. Numbers of bird bones assigned to each of these categories at FRBS and NAVS are found in table 13.3. Inspection of data contained in table 13.3 reveals the majority of bird remains at both of these sites comes from colonial nesting seabirds (i.e., cormorants, gulls, murres, and other alcids). Taken together, anseriform (geese, ducks) and other marine waterfowl (loons, pelicans, coots), make up the second most abundant group. Oceanic birds, shorebirds, raptors, and domestic poultry make up the rest of the avifaunal assemblages from these sites. Deternination of possible places from where these bird taxa probably were taken can be made using historical records and modem bird population data. Information contained in Sowls et al. (1980:142-79) and the Santa Rosa, 1:250,000 scale, Pacific Coast Ecological Inventory Map (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1981) suggests cormorants, gulls, and guillemots could have been hunted on a number of offshore rocks arrayed along the outer Mendocino, Sonoma, and Marin county coasts from Point Arena in the north to Tomales Point in the south. Localities of particular note within an approxi- mate 15 km radius of Fort Ross include, from north to south: Cannon Gulch to Stump Beach, Gerstle Cove to Stillwater Cove, Russian Gulch, the Russian River Rocks, Peaked Hill Rock, and Gull Rock. Loons, pelicans, geese, ducks, raptors, coots, and shorebirds probably had population concentrations centered around the mouth of the Russian River, and the lowermost 5 km of the Russian River estuary (Bolander and Parmeter 1978:75-76; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1981). These birds also likely occurred to some extent along the outer coast in the immediate vicinity of Fort Ross (Bolander and Parmeter 1978:75-77). Fort Ross fowling also probably took place farther afield. Currently, no Common Murre or Cassin's Auklet nesting colonies occur in the vicinity of Fort Ross (Sowls et al. 1980:142-79). The closest murre colony of note is found on rocks immediately off of Point Reyes, in central Marin County (Sowls et al. 1980:182-83). Others are - 312 The Natve Alaskan Neigborhood Table 13.2 Habitat Preferences of Birds from the Fort Ross Sites Habitat Preferences Loon Sooty Shearwater Albatross Pelican Cormorant Goose Duck California Condor Bald Eagle American Coot Willet Gull Common Murre Pigeon Guillemot Cassin's Auklet Open ocean; bays Offshore waters; open ocean and communuicating channels; flocks frequently come close inshore Open ocean; pelagic Open ocean; seacoast, just outside surf-line; larger bays; nests on coastal islands and rocks of small to moderate size Inshore belt of water and islets; just within or outside surf zone; sometimes bays, estuaries, harbors; islets/islands and cliffs for breeding Coastal bays and lagoons; freshwater marsh near seacoast; marshy ponds; grassy flats and hill slopes; near-shore ocean Coastal bays and estuaries; adjacent marshes; ocean littoral/surf-line; beaches Formerly had an extensive foraging range over mountains, grasslands, savannahs, and coast Seacoast; islands; sea cliffs; coastal lagoons Coastal bays and estuaries; adjacent marshlands Open coastal salt marshes; sandy sea beaches; mud flats; estuaries Open ocean; seacoast; bays; harbors; lagoons; estuaries; beaches; offshore islands/islets for breeding Chiefly offshore waters; open ocean; offshore islands/islets for breeding Seacoast and adjacent ocean waters; coastal seacliffs and offshore islands/islets for breeding Open ocean, mostly well-offshore; offshore islands/islets for breeding Data Sources: Cogswell (1977); Grinnell and Miller (1944); Small (1974) Table 13.3 Major Groupings of Birds from the Native Alaskan Neighborhood Bird Group FRBS NAVS Oceanic Birds 2 (1.5%) 1 (0.3%) ColonialNestingSeabirds 108 (81.8%) 324 (88.0%) Anseriform Waterfowl 9 (6.8%) 15 (4.1%) Other Waterfowl 4 (3.0%) 19 (5.2%) Shorebirds 1 (0.8%) Raptors 5 (3.8%) 3 (0.8%) Domestic Poultry 3 (2.3%) 6 (1.6%) Totals 132(100%) 368(100%) located to the south along the Marin County coast at Point Resistance and Double Point Rocks (Sowls et al. 1980:184-85, 196-97). The largest Common Murre nesting colonies are found on the Farallon Islands, along with large cormo- rant, gull, guillemot, and Cassin's Auklet colonies (Ainley and Boekelheide 1990; DeSante and Ainley 1980; Sowls et al. 1980:188-9 1). The history of marine bird populations on the Farallons is profiled by Ainley and Lewis (1974) and Doughty (1971). Both focus upon the American Period egg collecting era which lasted from about 1849 to 1909. Unfortunately, little attention is paid to Russian activities during the early 1800s. Ainley and Lewis (1974:433-34) note in passing that the impact of Russian marine mammal hunters on Farallon bird populations is not known, except that they used birds and their eggs for food. Doughty (1971:560) observes: The Russians remained on the Farallons for about twenty-five years, during which time they continued to hunt fur seals - almost to the point of extinction by the end of the 1830s - and supplied their mainland settlement of Fort Ross with seal skins, sea-lion meat, and the feathers and down of sea birds. It seems likely some of the bird remains present at FRBS and NAVS are those of birds hunted on or near the Farallons. Hunting forays to other sites situated at a distance from Fort Ross, such as Point Reyes, Point Bird Taxa Bird Remains 313 Resistance, and Double Point in Marin County, and San Pedro and Devil's Slide Rocks in San Mateo County (Sowls et al. 1980:192-93) also may have taken place. Primary prey in these long-distance hunting rounds probably included murres and gulls, with cormorants, guillemots, and auklets taken as well. Oceanic birds (i.e., shearwaters, albatrosses), anseriform waterfowl, and other marine waterfowl (i.e., loons, pelicans) probably were taken if they were encountered and circumstances warranted. The overall fowling strategy practiced by Native Alaskan hunters from Fort Ross possibly re- sembled the co-harvesting strategy postulated by Yesner (1976:274-75; 1981:162) and Yesner and Aigner (1976:102) for prehistoric peoples hunting birds in the Aleutians. This highly opportunistic method of fowling undoubtedly made use of a wide variety of hunting implements, including nets, javelins, spears, darts, snares, and baited hooks and lines (Yesner 1976:275; Yesner and Aigner 1976:99; see also Clark 1984:189). Seasonal availability of birds in the Fort Ross avifaunas varies according to taxa (Bolander and Parmeter 1978; Cogswell 1977; Grinnell and Miller 1944). Year-round residents include cormorants, con- dors, and eagles. Population sizes of other year-round residents differ through the year. Ducks, for example, reach their annual population high from September/ October to April, with their population nadir occurring from June to August. Coots also attain their annual population peak from mid-fall until mid-spring. Willets are common throughout the year, except from mid-May to mid-July. Gulls are most numerous from October through April, decline in numbers in May, hit their annual low point in June, and increase thereafter. Cassin's Auklet reaches its annual population high in December- January, and is fairly common for the remainder of the year. Murres commonly occur from May to January, and are rare from February to April. Guillemots are most abundant from mid-April to mid-October, and are fairly common for the rest of the year. Shearwaters are commonest from April through October, and not uncom- mon at other times. Loons are abundant from roughly September/ October through April, and all but absent during the summer. Geese have a highly similar annual pattern. In contrast, pelicans are common from June/July to Decem- ber/January, and are gone from February through May. Breeding seasons of colonial nesting seabirds (i.e., cormorants, gulls, murres, guillemots, auklets) last from approximately the beginning of March until the end of September (Cogswell 1977; Sowls et al. 1980). A peak of breeding activity occurs from late April until the start of September. Taking seasonality data into account, one notes at FRBS, 81.8% of the avifaunal assemblage is composed of colonial nesting seabirds, while 75.8% consists of birds (including some of the colonial nesters) that are most abundant from mid-late spring to early-mid winter. At NAVS, 80.0% are colonial nesters, and 75.5% are birds most likely to reach their annual population highs in the summer and fall. Therefore, people inhabiting the Native Alaskan Neighborhood were exploiting birds occurring in greatest numbers during the spring, summer, and fall. This, of course, is the part of the year relatively free of storms and adverse weather, when fowling could have been conducted most effectively and safely. AN ETHNIC SIGNATURE? As Simons (1992:4.81-4.82) notes, the study of ethnicity and social status has been a dominant interpreta- tive theme in the zooarchaeology of Californian historic sites. Particular attention has been given to American Chinese sites (Collins 1987a, 1987b; Dansie 1979; Greenwood 1980; Gust 1982a, 1984, 1993; Langenwalter 1980, 1987; Langenwalter and Langenwalter 1987; Schulz 1982a, 1984 [see also Colley 1990:225-26]; Simons 1984). Crabtree (1990:178) regards Langenwalter's (1980) work as a trend-setting "classic" in zooarchaeological studies of ethnicity. Spanish/Mexican ethnicity also has been investigated by zooarchaeologists working in California. Langenwalter and McKee (1985), McKee and Langenwalter (1985), and Salls (1989) have analyzed faunal remains obtained from deposits associated with Califomia's missions. Others (i.e., Gust 1982b; Simons and Gust 1985) have studied bones from Hispanic household deposits. Zooarchaeological remains from Mexican-American sites have been reported upon by Felton and Schulz (1983), Schulz (1987), and Schulz et al. (1987). The zooarchaeology of a southern Califomia Basque site is summarized by Whitney-Desautels (1983). Historic Period social status has been extensively studied at several localities in Califomia. Largely focused upon Euroamerican sites, this work includes Schulz's (1979) prototypic analysis of diet and status in Panamint City, a 19th century Califomia boomtown; and Praetzellis and Praetzellis's (1983) and Simons's (1989) work with bones derived from household deposits in Santa Rosa. The most detailed, exhaustive zooarchaeological studies of historic period ethnicity and social status in California have been undertaken in Sacramento. Overview statements are provided in Gust (1983) and Schulz (1982b). These investigations began with analysis and interpretation of fish (Schulz 1980), bird (Simons 1980a), and mammal (Gust and Schulz 1980) remains from deposits occurring on the Golden Eagle Hotel block. Based on this and other analyses of mammal remains from additional Historic Period Euroamerican deposits located in downtown Sacramento, Schulz and Gust (1983a, 1983b) conclusively demon- strated the utility of combining historical documentation with data derived from faunal analysis (cf. Thomas 1989:375-77)- 314 The Native Alaskan Neigborhood Focusing specifically upon studies of ethnicity and social status conducted via analysis of Historic Period avifaunal assemblages in California, Simons (1980a, 1982, 1984, 1989, 1990b, see also Schulz 1982b:245-46) observes that a combination of wild anseriform and domestic galliform birds commonly occurs in late 19th century Euroamerican sites in Sacramento and other localities in central California. This results from a pattern of poultry consumption, which emphasized use of poultry products produced from the market hunting and egging of wild birds and harvesting of domestic fowl. As time progresses, domestic poultry increasingly dominates Euroamerican avifaunal assemblages. Studies of American-Chinese avifaunal assemblages (Simons 1984) reveal an emphasis on use of domestic fowl, with less utilization of wild birds than occurs at contemporary Euroamerican sites. Distinctive poultry butchering patterns, consistent with cookbook and present-day American-Chinese culinary practices, were noted. It was concluded from these studies of avifaunal assemblages from American Chinese and Euroamerican sites that both types of assemblages were characterized by strong "ethnic signatures," manifesting themselves in the representation of particular species of birds con- sumed, and/or the ways in which they were prepared. Consideration of the composition of the avifaunal assemblages from FRBS and NAVS raises the question of whether the Alutiiq people living and working at these sites left an "ethnic signature" comparable to those characterizing archaeoavifaunas from mid to late nine- teenth century American-Chinese and Euroamerican sites in central California. The high numbers of colonial nesting seabirds, especially murres and gulls, support such an inference. Overall composition of the avifaunal assemblages from both of these sites matches what one expects would result from the fowling activities of far- ranging marine vertebrate hunters. These people would have encountered and taken a wide variety of marine waterfowl through their use of ocean-going watercraft, combined with the use of a sophisticated marine verte- brate hunting technology and techniques. This conclusion is supported when the Fort Ross avifaunas are compared with those derived from prehis- toric Native American sites located along the central California coast in Mendocino and Sonoma counties to the north (Schwaderer 1992; Simons 1990a; Greg White, unpublished data) and the San Francisco Bay Area to the south (Simons 1979, 1980b, 1981,1985). For the most part, these avifaunas are consistently dominated by remains of anseriform waterfowl. Marine waterfowl (especially loons, grebes, pelicans, cormorants, shore- birds, gulls, and murres) frequently are common also, but generally do not overwhelmingly dominate the avifaunal assemblages as is the case at Fort Ross. Interestingly, dominance of prehistoric Native American avifaunal assemblages by non-anseriform manrne waterfowl occurs at Channel Island sites in southern Califomia (Bleitz 1993; Guthrie 1980; Porcasi 1995a, 1995b). These were inhabited by marine hunters and fishers, using sophisti- cated marine vertebrate hunting strategies dependent upon use of ocean-going watercraft. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, analysis of the avifaunal assemblages from FRBS and NAVS indicates their Native Alaskan inhabitants exploited a number of marine waterfowl, with a particular focus upon colonial nesting seabirds, murres and gulls especially. It is very possible that Native Californians who resided in interethnic households in the Native Alaskan Neighborhood, as well as on the Faallon Islands artel, also participated in the harvesting and processing of marine waterfowl. Spring, summer, and fall probably were preferred times for fowling. These birds may have been taken locally, or in forays to the Farallon Islands and/or other seabird colonies located near the entrance of San Francisco Bay. Overall configu- ration of the Fort Ross avifaunas suggests they contain an "ethnic signature," resulting from Native Alaskan fowling practices that are reflected in an abundance of particular bird taxa, especially colonial nesting seabirds. The preceding account is a preliminary analysis and interpretation of the Fort Ross avifaunas, focused upon conclusions mainly drawn from analysis of the avifaunas themselves, and what they can reveal directly regarding Native Alaskan fowling practices during the first decades of the 19th century in central California. To expand these interpretations, further work is needed. This includes: 1. Comparison of the Fort Ross avifaunas with those from prehistoric and Historic Period sites on Kodiak Island and adjacent portions of the Alaskan mainland to confirm the validity of the apparent 4"ethnic signature" displayed by the former. 2. Summarization of ethnohistoric and historic accounts regarding fowling techniques practiced by Native Alaskan hunters in southem Alaska and Fort Ross 3. Investigation of how El Nifno/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events affected waterfowl abundance, availability, and procurement during the early part of the 19th century at Fort Ross. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to extend my deep appreciation to Kent Lightfoot for allowing me the opportunity to study the Fort Ross avifaunas, and having the patience to endure what at times probably seemed an interminable wait for tangible results! Thanks also are given to Ann Schiff and Tom Wake for sharing data and insights concerning the Native Alaskan occupancy of Fort Ross. This work was supported in part by a National Science Foundation grant, (SBR-9304297) administered by the Archaeological Research Facility, University of Califomia, Berkeley. Bird Remains 315 REFERENCES Ainley, David G., and Robert J. Boekelheide, editors 1990 Seabirds of the Farallon Islands: Ecology, Dynam- ics, and Structure of an Upwelling-System Community. Stanford University Press, Stanford. Ainley, David G., and T. James Lewis 1974 The History of Farallon Island Marine Bird Populations, 1854-1972. Condor 76:43246. Austin, 0. L., Jr. 1949 The Status of Steller's Albatross. Pacific Science 3:283-95. 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