9 Lithic Assemblage at the Fort Ross Beach and Native Alaskan Village Sites ANN M. SCHIFF I N THIS CHAPIER, the lithic assemblages at the Fort Ross Beach Site (FRBS) and the Native Alaskan Village Site (NAVS) are described. The analysis focuses on the Native Alaskan Neighborhood as a whole, as well as specific provenience units within each site. The areas of FRBS include the East Profile, the Middle Profile, the West Profile, the FRBS Pit Feature, the Southwest Bench, and the East Bench. NAVS nalysis areas include the South Cental Test Unit, the West Central Trench, the East Central Trench, the South Trench, the East Central Bone Bed, and the South Bone Bed Raw material types, artifact categories, and stratigraphic context are reviewed. Finally, the Native Alaskan Neighborhood assemblage is compared to artifact assemblages collected previously from Fort Ross Region survey sites, as described in Volume 1. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM The classification system used in this analysis consists of two components-a raw material type and an artifact category. Raw materials found at the Native Alaskan Neighborhood include basalt, chert, obsidian, quartzite, sandstone, and schist. This assemblage is typical of the tortured Franciscan geological sequence evident in the North Coast Ranges (Lightfoot, Wake, and Schiff 1991:33-35, 59). A detailed discussion of the geologic history and contemporary geologic complexes of this region can be found in Volume 1 (chapter 3) and will not be repeated here. As outlined in the first volume, black basalts; red, green, and brown cherts; yellow and red sandstone; and "blueschist" are commonly found at Fort Ross. The obsidian present came from four sources in the southern North Coast Ranges: Borax Lake, Annadel, Napa Valley, and Konocti. In addition, slate tools and debris found at Fort Ross are believed to be nonlocal in origin, perhaps aniving in Califomia by way of Native Alaskans in the employ of the Russian- American Company (Aron Crowell, personal communi- cation; Peter Mills, chapter 10). The following discussion summarizes the artifact category classification system used in this analysis; a more detailed review of lithic categories can be found in Volume 1 (also see Baumhoff 1982; Bettinger et al. 1984; Hayes 1985; Jackson et al. 1988; Levulett and Hildebrandt 1987; Shott 1994; Whittaker 1994; Yerkes and Kardulias 1993). Artifact categories include flaked, cobble, fire-cracked rock, and ground stone. The flaked category is subdivided into formal tools, including bifaces (symmetrically shaped with flake scars on both sides), unifaces (symmetrically shaped with flake scars on one side), and projectile points. Point types include notched (small triangular point with basal corner or side notch, including Rattlesnake corner-notched and Gunther Barbed), serrated (small point with distinctive serration along the blade), and lanceolate (large leaf-shaped, shouldered or unshouldered point with a triangular blade, including Excelsior). The notched points are thought to be diagnostic of the Upper Emergent and Historic periods; serrated points are believed to be found in Lower Emergent deposits; and lanceolate points appear to date to the Upper Archaic (Lightfoot et al. 1991:67-68). To the extent that the older points have been reworked, this typological analysis is valid only for the final iteration of the point. Edge-modified flakes, exhibiting secondary modifi- cation (use-related damage or intentional alteration) along the lateral edges, are an additional segment of the flaked category. Finally, chipping debris, resulting from lithic reduction, is classified either as unmodified debitage (including primary and secondary cortical 214 The Natve Alaskan Neighborhood flakes, biface thinning flakes, interior flakes, and cores) or shatter. Primary cortical flakes, initially removed from the core surface, have few or no dorsal flake scars and display more than 90 percent cortex. Secondary cortical flakes are distinguished by two or more scars and about 50 percent cortex on the dorsal surface. Biface thinning flakes exhibit a longitudinal cross section and large platform scars, while interior flakes have many dorsal flake scars and very little or no cortex. Cores are raw material nodules with flakes detached but without evidence of further modification or use. Shatter includes all other lithic debris with no flake characteristics. The cobble category includes battered cobbles, marked by battering along the body of the artifact, and unmodified whole or fragmentary beach cobbles. Some cobbles exhibit evidence of fire-altered surfaces. Many of these fire-cracked cobbles appear to have been "cooking stones" used in underground ovens and in hearths (Barrett 1952:61; Gifford and Kroeber 1937:137). Often, these hot rocks were added to gruels in watertight baskets, effectively boiling the porridge (Barrett 1952:60; Gifford and Kroeber 1937:137). The flre-cracked rock category is composed of noncobble rocks that exhibit evidence of fire-cracking; these are mostly angular sandstone fragments. The ground stone category consists of artifacts shaped by grinding, pecking, and polishing. Formal tools include manos (or handstones), pestles, millingstones (slab and basin), hammerstones, nutting stones, and net weights. Manos, or handstones, are convex, hand-sized tools with one or more grinding surfaces. Pestles are cylinder-shaped ground tools with evidence of battering on the distal and/or proximal end. Millingstones are large slabs that exhibit a one-sided or two-sided grinding surface on a flat or a shallow basin-shaped central area. Hammerstones are cobbles with pecking on one or both ends. Nutting stones are small cobbles with an acorn- sized depression on one side and a flattened underside. Net weights are cobbles with a characteristic pecked or ground groove near one end. Complementing these formal ground stone tool categories is a ground stone "other" category, which includes all remaining artifacts with ground, pecked, or polished surfaces. Many of the latter are broken fragments of ground stone tools, such as handstones or millingstones, that have fire-altered surfaces. These ground stone fragments appear to have been largely recycled as cooking stones. In addition to these individual artifact categories, several functional groupings are analyzed in an attempt to provide insight into activities performed in the Native Alaskan Neighborhood. The flaked artifact group reflects flaked tool manufacture, use, maintenance, curation, and discard activities. A flaked tool to debitage ratio (formal flaked tools and edge-modified flakes vs. all other chipping debris) may indicate the degree to which opposed to being imported in fmished form. This ratio may also reflect tool curation/discard propensities. The proportion of primary and secondary cortical flakes may provide some insight into activity areas and/or debris deposits associated with the initial stages of lithic raw material reduction and flaked tool manufacture. Veg- etable and other raw material processing activities (mashing and grinding) may be reflected by the ground stone tool group. The cooking group (cobbles, other ground stone, and fire-cracked rocks) consists of artifacts that be by-products of food cooking activities. Cooking methods using hot stones to boil gruels in water tight baskets can produce many fire altered rocks, in addition to the rocks used in hearths and underground ovens. Our investigations of nearby Native Californian sites suggest ground stone tool fragments may have been recycled for use as cooking stones, along with unmodified rocks and cobbles. Details of the of Fort Ross Beach and Native Alaskan Village sites lithic assemblage can be found in appendices 9.1 and 9.2. Raw material, artifact, and functional counts are located in tables 9.1, 9.2, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, and 9.8. Corresponding graphic representation is displayed in figures 9.1, 9.2, 9.8, and 9.9 Finally, tables 9.3 and 9.7 list projectile points in the assemblage. FRBS LITHIc ASSEMBLAGE - TOTAL SITE The FRBS assemblage consists of 2,485 artifacts in 27 lithic categories, and 11 raw material types. The majority of the artifacts are obsidian (40.3%), with chert (31.2%) and sandstone (24.4%) artifacts also well represented as raw material types. Basalt, quartzite, and schist each represent about 1% of the total artfacts, with the remaining raw materials comprising about 1% collectively. Flaked artifacts represent 74.5% of the total assem- blage. Within this category, 77.4% are unmodified flakes, 14.5% are shatter, 6.7% are edge-modified, and 1.3% are formal flake tools. Five projectile points, nine projectile point fragments, one biface, eight biface fragments, and one uniface fragment are found in the FRBS assemblage. Diagnostic points and fragments (six are pictured in figure 9.3) include two notched, one serrated, and five lanceolate. A 1:11.4 flaked tool to debitage ratio exists for the site. Primary and secondary cortical flakes make up 4.1% of the total flaked category. About 7% of the total assemblage is ground stone (figures 9.4, 9.5, and 9.6). Of the total ground stone, about 23% is in formal artifact categories: 9 manos, 15 mano fragments, 5 pestles, 3 millingstones, 7 hanmerstones, and 1 net weight. Cobbles comprise 1.1% of the total lithics, and fire-cracked rock accounts for the remaining 16.4%. The ground stone "other," cobble, and fire-cracked rock categories can be viewed together as reflecting cooking activities that took place at flaked tools were produced or modified at the site as 111-71DXBS: this cooking component represents 23% of the The Lithic Assemblage 215 Table 9.1 Fort Ross Beach Site Lithic Assemblage: Raw Material Type Counts Total East Southwest Bench Bench Basalt 30 0 13 Chert 775 26 381 Chalcedony 14 0 14 Graywacke 1 0 1 Jasper 2 0 2 Other 5 0 5 Obsidian 1002 17 704 Pumice 1 0 0 Quartzite 25 0 9 Sandstone 607 30 116 Schist 23 0 22 Total 2,485 73 1267 Note: ninety artifacts with miscellaneous provenience are in the total. Figure 9.1 Fort Ross Beach Site Lithic Assemblage: Raw Material Types 100 .*- - - --- 1 0 ...... ...... ........ 60- ..... 60 . ....... 40 ....... 20 ? % ToW Sitc SW Bacuh Wea Profile Middle Profile East Beach East Profile 4 239 0 0 0 0 111 0 14 333 0 701 Middle Middle Profile 7 75 0 0 0 0 93 0 63 0 239 West Profile 4 37 0 0 0 0 63 0 10 0 115 ................................................................................. I But Proni I 216 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Table 9.2 Fort Ross Beach Site Lithic Assemblage: Artifact Category Counts Cobble Cobble Fragment Slab Millingstone Hammerstone Mano Mano Fragment Net Weight Pestle Fire-Cracked Rock Gun Flint Ground Stone Other Other Biface Fragnent Biface Edge-Modified Flake Projectile Point Projectile Point Fragment Uniface Biface Thinning Flake Core Fragment Core Interior Flake Linear Flake Primary Cortical Flake Secondary Cortical Flake Shatter Total Total East Bench 26 0 2 0 3 0 7 0 9 0 15 1 1 0 5 0 407 28 2 0 136 1 20 0 8 0 1 0 125 3 5 0 9 1 1 0 701 9 22 0 2 0 631 10 3 0 32 0 43 0 269 20 2,485 73 Note: 90 artifacts with miscellaneous provenience are in the total. Table 9.3 Fort Ross Beach Site Diagnostic Projectile Points FRBS Catalog # Unit Raw Length Width Thickness Type Material (mm) (mm) (mm) FRBS-6/1 7/88-4-L-1 FRBS-6/17/88-1 5-L-1 8 FRBS-6/17/88-1 5-L-19 FRBS-6/19/89-1 7-L-1 FRBS-6/2 1/89-3 1 -L- I FRBS-6/2 1/89-41 -L- I FRBS-6/23/89-1 I -L-1 FRBS-6/24/88-38-L-2 P08 P08 P08 P27 8S, 18W P28 8S, 17W P13 OB CH CH OB OB OB OB CH 47.50 45.60 24.60 16.25 21.20 18.75 26.70 22.80 17.40 20.30 23.00 10.00 18.80 16.30 27.85 20.30 9.60 7.50 10.80 2.40 4.20 Lanceolate Lanceolate Lanceolate tip Notched tip Serrated 4.00 Notched 9.30 Lanceolate midsection 7.60 Lanceolate tip Southwest Bench 4 0 0 2 0 1 0 101 3 16 3 0 74 0 4 486 6 0 446 0 7 14 97 1267 East Profile 16 2 2 4 9 9 0 3 193 0 98 0 1 0 21 5 0 0 101 9 2 104 0 17 12 93 701 Middle Profile 5 0 1 1 0 1 1 11 36 1 20 0 I 0 1 1 0 0 68 4 0 36 3 2 6 40 239 West Profile 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 3 4 0 14 0 3 0 29 2 0 27 0 3 8 12 115 The Lithic Assemblage Table 9.4 Fort Ross Beach Site Lithic Assemblage Total Site East Southwest East Profile Middle West Profile Bench Bench Profile Flaked Artifact 74.5 % 58.9 % 89.8 % 52 % 72 % 86.1 % Ground Stone Tool 1.6 % 1.4 % .3 % 3.9 % 2 % 0 % Fire-Cracked Rock 16.4 % 38.4 % 8 % 27.5 % 15.1 % 7 % Cooking 23 % 39.7 % 8.5 % 44.1 % 25.6 % 10.5 % Flaked Tool/ 1:11.4 1:9.8 1:12.9 1:12.5 1:12.2 1:4.5 Debitage Ratio Cortical Flake 4.1% 0% 1.9% 8.1% 4.7% 11.5% Chert 31.2 % 35.6 % 30.1% 34.1% 31.4% 32.2 % Obsidian 40.3 % 23.3 % 55.6 % 15.8 % 38.9 % 54.8 % Sandstone 24.4 % 41.1 % 9.2 % 47.5 % 26.4 % 8.7 % Raw Material 11 3 10 5 5 5 Categories Artifact Categories 27 8 19 19 19 13 Total Count 2485 73 1267 701 239 115 Formal Tools (%) 64 (2.6%) 2 (2.7%) 12 (.9%) 33 (4.7%) 7 (2.9%) 4 (3.5%) Figure 9.2 Fort Ross Beach Site Lithic Assemblage: Functional Groups 40 111Cooking % Oround Stone Too % FlukeSd Artifct S% Total SiSt SW Bench Went Profile Middle Profile East bench Ent Profile 217 218 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood total lithic assemblage. Of the entire 2,485 lithic artifacts found at FRBS, 64 can be classed as fornal tools, either flaked or ground stone. This represents 2.6% of the total assemblage. Two gun flints are also found in the FRBS materials (figure 9.7). Since considerable diversity in sediment strata is found across the site, a complete analysis of statigraphic patterns can be conducted only within specific locations of the site. However, an aggregate site-wide analysis of midden and clay levels (the only two soil levels common across the site), provides several interesting observations. Midden areas typically exhibit greater proportions of sandstone (55.3%), larger cooking components (53.2%), and higher tool to debitage ratios (1:13.3). Clay levels exhibit more chert and obsidian (41.4% and 32.9%), greater proportions of flaked artifacts (74.6%), and lower tool to debitage ratios (1:20.6). LITHIC ASSEMBLAGE - EAsTBxjcCH Excavations at unit ON, 12W on the eastern side of the bench produced 73 lithics in eight categories. Three raw material types are in evidence. The majority of the artifacts are sandstone (41.1%), with chert (35.6%) and obsidian (23.3%) representing the remaining raw material types. These proportions of sandstone and obsidian are the opposite of that found in the site as a whole. Addi- tionally, there is much less diversity in raw material types (3 vs. 11) and lithic categories (8 vs. 27) on the eastern side of the bench than for the entire site. In fact, this area evidences the lowest diversity at FRBS, but this may only be a reflection of the small sample size. Flaked artifacts represent only about 59% of this assemblage, significantly less than the 75% proportion for the entire site. Within the flaked category, 44% are unmodifled flakes, 46.5% are shatter, 7% are edge- modified, and about 2% are formal flaked tools. Only one projectile point fragment is found in the ON, 12W assemblage. Although the tool to debitage ratio for this area is higher than for the entire site (1:9.8 vs. 1:11.4), there is a much larger representation of shatter (46.5% vs. 14.5%). There are no cortical flakes found in this area. Only 2.8% of this unit's assemblage is ground stone, compared to 7% for the site as a whole. Formal ground stone tools are represented by a single mano fragment. There are no cobbles, but a much larger percentage of fire-cracked rock (38.4%) is present than for the total site (16.4%). Actually, this is the highest occurrence of fire- cracked rock at FRBS. Although cobbles and ground stone are underrepresented, the higher occurrence of fire- cracked rock results in a food cooking component of almost 40%, compared to 23% for the total site. The two formal tools recovered in ON, 12W, a projectile point fragment and a mano fragment, account Figure 9.3 Fort Ross Beach Site Projectile Points b -o If~TI ?c a. FRBS 6/21/89-41-L-1 Notched, obsidian. b. FRBS 6/21/89-31-L-1 Serrated, obsidian. c. FRBS 6/17/88-15-L-18 Lanceolate, chert. d. FRBS 6/24/88-38-L-2 Lanceolate, chert e. FRBS 6/17/88-4-L-1 Lanceolate, obsidian. f. FRBS 6/23/89-11-L-1 Lanceolate, obsidian. (Illustrations by Judith Ogden) 5cm The Lithic Assemblage Figure 9.4 Fort Ross Beach Site Ground Stone a b -5cm yo a. FRBS 6/17/88-9-L-1 Pestle. b. FRBS 6/28/88-42-L-1 Pestle. c. FRBS 6/24/88-23-L-1 Mano. (Illustrations by Judith Ogden) 219 220 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 9.5 Fort Ross Beach Site Ground Stone b -5cm a. & b. FRBS 6/24/88-7-L-6 Manos. (ilustrations by Judith Ogden) for 2.7% of the area total assemblage, a proportion comparable to the entire site percentage of formal tools (2.6%). A review of the raw material types by soil strati- graphic levels suggests that, although the percentage of obsidian remains constant, the proportions of chert and sandstone change by level. In the topsoil level, chert dominates (71.4%); in the midden level, sandstone is more pervasive (55%). This correlates with a review of artifact categories by level. The topsoil contains mostly flaked artifacts (93%), with little ground stone or fire- cracked rock; the midden has a cooking component of almost 55%. Of interest, the midden contains both of the formal tools recovered in the unit. LrrHJc ASSEmBLAGE - SOUTHWESTBEjVCH Excavations at the Southwest Bench occurred in six units: 7S, 17W; 7S, 18W; 7S, 19W; 8S, 17W; 8S, 18W; and 8S, 19W. The assemblage consists of 1,267 lithics in 19 categories. Ten raw material types are represented. Over 55% of the artifacts are obsidian, with chert (30o), sandstone (9.2%), and schist (1.7%) comprising the majority of the remaining raw material types. This represents a greater proportion of obsidian (the highest on the site) and a lesser proportion of sandstone than is found for the site as a whole. The Southwest Bench has greater raw material diversity than any other area and is similar to the site total (10 vs. 11 types). Moderate diversity in lithic category types (19 vs. 27) is in evi- dence. Almost 90% of the entire assemblage is flaked, which is a much higher percentage than the 75% found for the site as a whole; the Southwest Bench exhibits the highest proportion of flaked artifacts at FRBS. For the total flaked category, about 84% are unmodified flakes, 8.5% are shatter, 6.5% are edge-modified, and .7% are formal tools. The formal flaked tools include four projectile point fragments, one uniface fragment, and three biface fragments. Diagnostic points include the only FRBS serrated point (FRBS 6/21/89-31-L-1) and c o The Lithic Assemblage 221 Figure 9.6 Fort Ross Beach Site Ground Stone a b 0 5 10cms a. FRBS 6/24/88-3-Ll Slab millingstone. b. FRBS 6/23/88-28-L-1 Ground stone other. (Illustrations by Judith Ogden) one lanceolate point (FRBS 6/23/89-1 1-L-l). Although shatter represents a lesser proportion of the flaked category than in the total site (8.5% vs. 14.5%), unmodi- fied flakes are more frequent (84% vs. 77%). This mix results in a lower tool to debitage ratio for this area (1:12.9 vs. 1:11.4). The primary and secondary cortical flake proportion (1.9%) is less than half that found in the overall site. The Southwest Bench reveals a much lower propor- tion of ground stone than the total site (.5% compared with about 7%); actually, this area has the lowest percent- age of ground stone of any at FRBS. Fire-cracked rock occurs with about half the frequency (8% vs. 16%). The resulting food cooking component is only 8.5% com- pared to a 23% site component; this bench has the smallest cooking component at the site. Formal ground stone tools include one pestle, one mano fragment, and two hammerstones. Twelve artifacts from the Southwest Bench can be classed as formal tools; these represent about 1% of the Southwest Bench assemblage, compared to a 2.6% FRBS formal tool component. One of the two gun flints at the site is found in this area. A stratigraphic analysis of the assemblage indicates I I 222 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 9.7 Native Alaskan Neighborhood Gun Flints c a ,7VP ___ b 1 I I I I I 0 5cm a. NAVS 7/31/91-21-L-1. b. NAVS 8/13/914-L-5. c. FRBS 6/15/89-25-L-3. (Illustrations by Judith Ogden) little difference in raw material types in the mottled clay levels, but obsidian is less prevalent and sandstone more frequent in the topsoil levels. The lithic category distribution in the topsoil level results in a greater food cooking component (42%). The type and distribution of artifacts between the mottled and highly mottled clay levels exhibit minimal differentiation. All of the formal tools, except the pestle, were found in the mottled clay levels. LrTHIC ASSEMBLAGE - EAST PROFILE Excavations on the East Profile included nine units: P1 through P9. A total of 701 lithics in 19 categories comprises the assemblege from this area. Five raw material types are present. The largest proporton of sandstone for any area in the entire site (47.5%) occurs in the East Profile, almost double the 24.4% for the site as a whole. This is in contrast to the lowest occurrence of obsidian (15.8% vs. 40.3%) in the site. While diversity of raw material types is moderate (5), the 19 lithic category Wpes represent moderate to high diversity for the sample size. Flaked artifacts represent 52% of the East Profile assemblage, the lowest proportion on the entire site and significantly lower than the 74.5% site average. Within the flaked category, the proportions of modified flakes (5.8%) and formal tools (1.7%) approximate the site distribution, while unmodified flakes (67%) occur with less frequency and shatter (25.5%) occurs with greater frequency. This results in a lower tool to debitage ratio (1:12.5 vs. 1:11.4) in the East Profile. Notably, the proportion of cortical flakes (8.1%) is twice the site average. Five projectile points and one biface fragment are found in the assemblage, including three diagnostic lanceolate points (FRBS 6/17/88-4-L-1, FRBS 6/17/88- 15-L-18, and FRBS 6/17/88-15-L-19). The highest proportion of ground stone for any area in the site (17.9%) is found in the East Profile, as well as higher proportions than the site averages of fire-cracked rock (27.5% vs. 16.4%) and of cobbles (2.6% vs. 1.1%). Twenty-seven formal ground stone tools are found in the assemblage: 9 manos, 3 pestles, 2 slab millingstones, 9 mano fragments, and 4 hammerstones. The food cooking component for this area is the highest in the entire site (44.1%) and is almost double the component percentage for the site as a whole (23%). A total of 33 formnal tools in the East Profile excava- tion materials represents 4.7% of the entire area assem- blage, which is almost twice the proportion found for the entire site (2.6%). Of interest, these 33 artifacts represent more than half of all the formal tools found at FRBS. Raw material Wes and lithic categories each evidence different degrees of diversity by stratigraphic level. The diversity is greater in the midden levels, with a smaller assemblage size, than in the clay strata. In addition, the clay levels contain three times the fire- cracked rock that appears in the midden levels (30.7% vs. 10.7%), whereas the midden levels exhibit a greater proportion of ground stone than the clay levels. A higher percentage of obsidian occurs in the midden, with a corresponding lower occurrence of sandstone and chert. The midden contains the second highest tool to debitage ratio in the entire assemblage (1:5.4), whereas the clay strata was the lowest (1:31.7). All of the flaked formal tools were found in the midden; ground stone formal tools were equally present in both strata. LITHIC ASSEMBL4GE - MIDDLE PROFILE Excavations on the Middle Profile included eight units (Pl1 through P18) and produced 239 artifacts in 19 lithic categories. This lithic class diversity is high, considering the relative assemblage size. Raw material The Lithic Assemblage 223 diversity is moderate to high. The proportions of chert (31.4%), obsidian (38.9%), and sandstone (26.4%) mirrored the overall site distribution more closely than any other area excavated. In addition, this site-total pamllel distribution is also found in the proportions of flaked artifacts, ground stone, fire-cracked rocks, and processing tools. Flaked artifacts represent 72% of the entire assem- blage, compared to 74.5% for the total site. Within the flaked category, 69% are unmodified flakes, 23.3% are shatter, 6.4% are edge-modified, and 1.2% are formal tools. One diagnostic lanceolate projectile point frag- ment (FRBS 6/24/88-38-L-2) and one biface fragment are found in the artifacts. Curiously, although these distibution similarities exist, the Middle Profile contains a lower tool to debitage ratio than for the entire site (1:12.2 vs. 1:11.4). This area's proportion of cortical flakes (4.7%) approximates the site average. Ground stone represents 10.4% of the total assem- blage. Five formal ground stone tools are present a net weight, a pestle, a slab millingstone, a mano fragment, and a hammerstone. Cobbles comprise about 2% of the total artifacts, a little higher than the proportion for the site as a whole (1.1%), and fire-cracked rock makes up 15.1%. All in all, this combination results in a cooking component of 25.6%, approximating the site cooking component of 23%. The seven formal tools in the Middle Profile represent 2.9% of the total area assemblage, which is higher than the 2.6% site proportion. One of the two gun flints found at FRBS is from this profile area. An examination of raw material types and lithic categories by stratigraphic level suggests some interest- ing differences. The midden contains a greater propor- tion of sandstone than the lower clay levels; inversely, the clay strta contain a higher percentage of obsidian than the midden. As is consistent with the patterning of raw materials, there is a differential distribution of flake and ground stone artifacts by stratum: the topsoil and midden levels contain all of the ground stone whereas the clay levels contain twice the proportion of flake artifacts that the midden contains, as well as both of the formal flake tools. Cooking component percentages range between 33% and 49% for the topsoil and midden, but only between 9% and 10% for the lower clay levels. The lower clay levels also contain a significantly smaller proportion of fire-cracked rock than the midden level. LrTHIC ASSEMBLAGE - WEST PROFILE Excavations on the West Profile included 11 units: P20 through P30. A total of 115 lithic artifacts in 13 categories constitutes the assemblage from this area. Five raw material types are present and represent a high diversity for the collection size. The 13 lithic categories in evidence, however, suggest lower diversity in this considering the size of the assemblages. The lowest proportion of sandstone for any area at FRBS occurs in the West Profile (8.7%), as does the second highest percentage of obsidian (54.8%). This distribution is similar to the sandstone/obsidian occurrence in the Southwest Bench. A higher proportion of flaked artifacts is present in this area than in the site as a whole (86% vs. 74.5%). Additionally, the West Profile exhibits a greater occur- rence of edge-modified (14% vs. 6.7%) and formal tools (4% vs. 1.3%) in the total flaked category than does the site in its entirety. This distribution results in the highest tool to debitage ratio (1:4.5) at the site. The West Profile also evidences the highest cortical flake proportion at FRBS (11.5%), almost three times the site average. Three projectile point fragments, including the only two diagnostic notched points at FRBS (FRBS 6/21/89-41-L- 1 and FRBS 6/19/89-17-L-1), and one biface fragment are found in the assemblage. Also, in concordance with the artifact distributions at the Southwest Bench, the West Profile compared to the site as a whole contains low proportions of ground stone (2.6% vs. 7.1%) and fire-cracked rock (7% vs. 16.4%). The occurrence of fire-cracked rock in the West Profile is the lowest in the entire site. There are no formal tools in the ground stone assemblage and only one cobble. The cooking component, as can be predicted from the above, is a low 10.5%, less than half the FRBS cooking compo- nent. The four formal flaked tools represent a greater proportion of the area assemblage (3.5%) than is found in the total site (2.6%). This is the only area at FRBS without any formal ground stone tools. A stratigraphic review of this area reveals small sample sizes in each level, and much mixing across levels. Raw materials vary by level, with the mottled clay levels exhibiting a larger proportion of obsidian to sandstone, whereas the lower beach gravel contains the reverse distribution. All levels appear to have high tool to debitage ratios. Lithic category and raw material diversity are similar across levels; the higher lithic category diversity in the mottled clay level is perhaps a function of assemblage size. In addition, flaked artifacts were more prevalent in the mottled clay levels than the beach gravel levels. LrrHic ASSEMBLAGE - FRBS PIT FEATURE Excavations in the FRBS Pit Feature produced 42 lithic artifacts, 38 from the fill and 4 from the pit floor. The fill contains 7 artifact categories and 4 raw material types; the pit floor artifacts represented 3 categories and 2 raw material types. The small sample makes compan- sons between areas difficult, but a cursory review results in no glaring differences. Within the fill, 55.3% of the artifacts are flaked, section of the profile than in the other two sections, even 34.2% are fire-cracked rock, and 10.5% are ground stone. 224 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood About 42% of the assemblage in the fill is sandstone, with most of the remaining artifacts split between obsidian (29%) and chert (26%). Of the four artifacts found on the floor, three are obsidian flakes and one is a sandstone mano fragment This mano fragment is the only formal tool found in the pit feature assemblage. Ground stone and fire-cracked rock occur in the fill with greater frequency than in the site as a whole, and corre- spondingly, the food cooking component of about 45% is the highest found on the site. Overall, this assemblage exhibits more similarity to the artifacts in the East Bench and the East Profile than to the assemblage in the Middle Profile, of which it is part. The lower frequency of flaked artifacts, the higher occurrence of sandstone, and the greater cooking compo- nent in the pit feature are all mirrored in both the East Bench and East Profile. FRBS LrrHIC ASSEMBLAGE - SUMMARY A review of the various artifact distributions in different areas of the site reveals several pattems. The West Profile and the Southwest Bench both exhibit the highest concentrations of flaked artifacts and artifacts made from obsidian. Also, the West Profile contains the highest tool to debitage ratio, the highest cortical flake proportion, and the only two late period corner-notched points at FRBS. All three profile areas display signifi- cantly greater proportions of cortical flakes than do the bench areas. The lowest sandstone and fire-cracked rock proportions in the site are found in the West Profile, followed closely by the Southwest Bench. The South- west Bench manifests the smallest percentage of ground stone in the site. In addition, both areas reveal the lowest food cooking components found in FRBS. In contrast, the East Bench and East Profile exhibit great amounts of fire-cracked rock, high proportions of sandstone artifacts, and large food cooking components. The East Profile has the largest ground stone component, and the East Bench contains the greatest amounts of fire- cracked rock of any area in the site. Both locations have smaller proportions of flaked artifacts and fewer obsidian artifacts than other site areas. The East Profile contained half of all the formal tools found at FRBS. The Middle Profile assemblage reflects most closely the total site distributions for both raw material types and lithic categories, but the FRBS Pit Feature located in it seems to more closely resemble the East Bench and East Profile areas. Also of interest is the relatively constant distribution of chert across the site (30.1% to 35.6%), compared to large deviations in obsidian (15.8% to 55.6%) and sandstone (8.7% to 47.5%). The assemblage exhibits large percentage variations in flaked artifacts (52% to 89.8%), fire-cracked rock (7% to 38.4%), and cooking components (8.5% to 44.1%) across site areas. With the varies between 1:9.8 and 1:12.9. Formal tool proportions range from 1% of the area assemblage to almost 5%. Given the depositional history and geological context of FRBS, it is difficult to reach firm conclusions about the spatial and temporal associations of materials in this site. Even so, the site artifact distributions reveal areas possibly associated with food cooking (East Bench and East Profile), as distinct from areas associated with flaked tool activities (Southwest Bench and West Profile). Artifact distributions in the boundary area (Middle Profile) reflect a mix of the two and the site as a whole. The assemblage distributions also suggest a greater incidence of initial lithic raw material reduction activi- ties/debris deposition in the profile areas than in the bench areas. A close association between the West Profile area and the historic Native Alaskan Village on the bluff above FRBS may be indicated by the occurrence of the only two later period projectile points in the West Profile deposit. In addition to the horizontal spatial and temporal patterns, a tentative vertical distinction is in evidence between the midden and clay levels at the Fort Ross Beach Site. Midden levels appear to be associated with the Native Alaskan Village on the bluff above, as reflected by artifact constituents indicative of food cooking and lithic manufacture/use activities. As with the NAVS assemblage, the large proportion of cobbles, ground stone, and fire-cracked rock associated with cooking represents various daily activities of the Village residents. In addition, a higher tool to debitage ratio may reflect a more comprehensive spectrum of flaked tool activities of Village inhabitants, including tool discard. The activities of the residents of the habitation site located on the bluff above can be indirectly perceived through the character of the FRBS lithic assemblage. On the other hand, the clay levels suggest a prehis- toric component unrelated to the Village, with lower food cooking components, lower tool to debitage ratios, and higher flaked artifact proportions. The character of this assemblage suggests an archaeological place used for sporadic, special purpose visits, over long periods, by Native Californians from residential bases located in the hinterlands. We argued in Volume 1 (pp. 110-12) that this may have been a common use of the coastal terraces in prehistoric times. Intermittent sojoums to the beach would result in few tools deposited, but many perhaps used and retouched or otherwise maintained, depositing more flaked debris relative to flaked tools. These short stays would not be conducive to prolonged plant product or other raw material processing, and most intensive food cooking activities would be conducted at the residential location. Hence, these clay deposits are characterized by the relative infrequency of ground stone vis a vis flaked artifacts, and a low proportion of cobbles, ground stone fragments, and fire-cracked rock. In addition, the clay exception of the West Profile, the tool to debitage ratio deposits contain over 80% of the FRBS primary and The Lithic Assemblage 225 secondary cortical flakes, suggesting a prehistoric time frame for the initial lithic raw material reduction and manufacture activities at the site. A temporal analysis of the diagnostic projectile points found in the FRBS assemblage reveals that the majority of the points are lanceolate, dating to the Upper Archaic, and that one serrated point may date to the Lower Emergent (table 9.3). The two corner-notched points found at FRBS are thought to be diagnostic of the Upper Emergent and Historic periods. This range of point types and associated temporal indications are consistent with bohi the NAVS related historical midden and the prehistoric clay deposit components of FRBS, as discussed earlier. Of note, all lanceolate and serrated points are found in the clay and clay/midden interface levels, providing another line of evidence supporting the prehistoric component at FRBS. NAVS LITHIC ASSEMBLAGE - TOTAL SrIE For this analysis, the NAVS total site assemblage is defined as artifacts from the South Central Test Unit (llOS, 11W), the West Central Trench (75S, 16W; 75S,18W; and 75S, 20W), the East Central Trench (75S, 04E), and the South Trench (125S, 18-24W). This assemblage contains 1,838 artifacts in 25 lithic catego- ries, and reveals 9 raw material types. Almost half of the artifacts are made from obsidian, with the bulk of the remainder split between chert (25.3%) and sandstone (23.2%). Basalt represents 1.4%, while schist, graywacke, quartzite, and slate together comprise about 1% of the total artifacts at NAVS. Rlaked tools represent 74.6% of the total lithic artifacts. Within this category, 1.7% are formal flaked tools, 3.7% are edge-modified, 73.2% are unmodified flakes, and 21A% are shatter. Fonnal tools include six biface fragments, one biface, eight projectile point fragments, eight projectile points, and one uniface fragment. Tirteen diagnostic points and fragments are all of the notched Wpe (six are shown in figure 9.10). A 1:17.3 flaked tool to debitage ratio can be calculated for the site. Primary and secondary cortical flakes represent 2.3% of the total flaked category. Almost 3% of the total lithic assemblage is ground stone. More than half of the ground stone occurs as formal tools: he basin millingstone fragments, six slab millingstone fragments, nine pestle fragments, one pestle, three mano fragments, two hammerstones, and two nutting stones. Several are illustrated in figures 9.11, 9.12, and 9.13. Cobbles account for 14.8% of the total lithics and fire-cracked rock makes up the remaining 6.7%. NAVS exhibits a total food cooking component (cobbles, fire-cracked rock, and ground stone other) of 22.9%. The NAVS assemblage contains 50 formal tools, which are split almost equally between flaked tools and ground stone tools. These formal tools represent 2.7% of all lithic artifacts. Ten gun flints (two are pictured in figure 9.7), one quartz crystal, three slate artifacts, and two whetstones/hones are also found in the NAVS assemblage under consideration. LrrHIc ASSEMBLAGE - SOuTH CENTRAL TEST UNiT Excavations at l iOS, 11 W produced 138 lithics, representing 8 lithic categories and 5 raw material types. Half of the artifacts are obsidian, 44.2% are chert, and 3.6% are sandstone; basalt and schist comprise the remaining 2%. Although the area contains about the same proportion of obsidian as does the site, this test unit has almost twice the chert and only about a sixth of the sandstone. The South Central Test Unit has the lowest proportion of sandstone of any area in the site. The lithic categories demonstrate much less diversity than the total site, but this is partly a function of the small assemblage size. On the other hand, even considering the sample size, raw material diversity is moderate. Flaked artifacts represent almost 95% of the entire assemblage, which is significantly more than the 74.6% value for the overall site. This is the highest percentage of flaked artifacts of any area in the entire site. Within the flaked artifact category, .8% are formal tools, 4.5% are edge-modified flakes, 64.1% are unmodified flakes, and 30.5% are shatter. One nondiagnostic projectile point fragment is the only formal tool, flaked or ground stone, found in this unit, resulting in the lowest total formal tool proportion at the site (.7% vs. 2.7%). How- ever, the flaked tool to debitage ratio (1:17.7) is still comparable to the site total (1:17.3). Cortical flakes represent 4.6% of the total test unit flake assemblage. The South Central Test Unit is the only area that contains no ground stone and no cobbles, a significant deviation from artifact distributions across the rest of the site. In addition, it exhibits only half of the site propor- tion of fire-cracked rock (2.9% vs. 6.7%) and a signifi- cantly lower food cooking component (2.9% vs. 22.9%). Both the fire-cracked rock and cooking proportions represent site lows. Of interest, this assemblage contains three of the ten gun flints found at NAVS, a far greater proportion than one would expect based on relative sample size. A stratigraphic analysis of the assemblage reveals little deviation in raw material types by soil types; all levels have high proportions of chert and obsidian and low amounts of sandstone. The lower rock rubble/clay levels contained no sandstone artifacts at all. Lithic category distributions, however, do vary among soil types. The topsoil levels contained the one formal tool, all edge-modified flakes, all three gun flints, and all fire- cracked rocks in the unit. In contrast to this, unmodified flaked and shatter are the only artifacts found in the lower rock rubble/clay levels. 226 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Table 9.5 Native Alaskan Village Site Lithic Assemblage: Raw Material Type Counts South Central West Central East Central East Central South South Total Test Unit Trench Trench Bone Bed Trench Bone Bed Basalt 25 2 1 6 4 16 3 Chert 465 61 30 80 7 294 34 Graywacke 5 0 0 0 0 5 4 Other 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 Obsidian 903 69 25 70 9 739 68 Quartzite 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 Sandstone 427 5 8 150 100 264 158 Schist 6 1 0 0 0 5 1 Slate 3 0 2 1 1 0 0 Total 1,838 138 67 307 121 1,326 268 Figure 9.8 Native Alaskan Village Site Lithic Assemblage: Raw Material Types 100 80 60 40 20 L Cht en % Total Site SC Test Unit WC Trench South Trench EC Trench South Bone Bed EC Bone Bed The Lithic Assemblage 227 Table 9.6 N&tive Alaskan Village Site Lithic Assemblage: Artifact Category Counts South Central West Central East Central East Central South South Total Test Unit Trench Trench Bone Bed Trench Bone Bed Cobble 48 0 0 12 7 36 25 Cobble Fragment 224 0 2 70 53 152 76 Basin Millingstone Fragment 3 0 0 1 1 2 2 Hammerstone 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 ManoFragment 3 0 1 0 0 2 1 Nutting Stone 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 Pestle 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 Pestle Fragment 9 0 0 6 3 3 1 Slab Millingstone Fragment 6 0 0 6 6 0 0 Ground StoneOther 25 0 1 8 8 16 8 Fire-Cracked Rock 123 4 3 48 26 68 56 GunFlint 10 3 2 3 0 2 0 Other 10 0 3 3 0 4 1 Biface Fragment 6 0 0 0 0 6 1 Biface 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 Edge-Modified Flake 51 6 5 12 0 28 1 Projectile Point 8 0 2 4 1 2 0 Projectile Point Fragment 8 1 0 1 0 6 1 Uniface 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 Core Fragment 4 0 0 1 0 3 1 Core 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 Interior Flake 966 78 22 74 10 792 79 Primary Cortical Flake 12 2 4 4 0 2 0 Secondary Cortical Flake 19 4 0 9 2 6 0 Shatter 293 40 22 40 3 191 15 Total 1,838 138 67 307 121 1,326 268 Table 9.7 Native Alaskan Village Site Diagnostic Projectile Points NAVS Catalog # Unit Raw Material Length Width Thicknes Type (mm) (mm) (mm) NAVS 7/31/91-22-L-1 NAVS 8/2/91- 1O-L-l NAVS 813/91-4-L-1 NAVS 8/5/91-3-L-1 NAVS 8/5/91-17-L-1 NAVS 8/6/91-10-L-1 NAVS 8/6/91-37-l -1 NAVS SJ//9142-L-1 NAVS 8/8f9 1-22-1L- I NAVS 8/9/91 -17-L-3 NAVS 8/9/91-38-L-1 NAVS 8/15/91-10-IJ-I NAVS 8/16/91-1-L-1 75S. 20W 75S, IE 75S. 2E 125S, 18W 125S, 22W 125S, 22W 125S, 24W 125S. 22W 125S., 24W 125S, 18W 75S, 3E 125S, 23W 75S 2E- CII OB OB OB OB OB OB CH OB OB OB OB OB 25.00 26.60 19.35 8.40 8.35 14.50 8.20 25.20 11.00 21.50 22.20 23.60 18.75 15.50 17.80 13.00 6.20 4.75 11.25 4.40 14.40 9.10 1 3.40 13.65 17.35 12.65 4.10 4.35 3.80 2.00 2.00 4.00 1.70 4.20 4.00 3.60 4.60 4.20 4.20 Notched Notched Notched fragment Notched tip Notched tip Notched fragment Notched tip Notched Notched fragmenit Notched Notched Notched Notched - - 228 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Table 9.8 Native Alaskan Village Site Lithic Assemblage Total Sout Central West Central East Central East Central South South Site Test Unit Trench Trench Bone Bed Trench Bone Bed Flaked Artifact 74.6% 94.8% 82.1% 48.1% 13.3% 78.5% 36.7% Ground Stone Tool 1.4% 0% 1.5% 5% 9.1% .9% 1.5% Fire-Cracked Rock 6.7% 2.9% 4.5% 15.6% 21.5% 5.1% 20.9% Cooking 22.9% 2.9% 9% 44.9% 77.7% 20.5% 61.6% Flaked Tool/ 1:17.3 1:17.7 1:6.9 1:7.7 1:15 1:22.6 1:31.7 Debitage Ratio Cortical Flake 2.3% 4.6% 7.5% 9.1% 13.3% .8% 0% Chert 25.3% 44.2% 44.8% 26.1% 5.8% 22.2% 12.7% Obsidian 49.1% 50% 37.3% 22.8% 7.4% 55.7% 25.4% Sandstone 23.2% 3.6% 11.9% 48.9% 82.6% 19.9% 59% Raw Material 9 5 6 5 5 8 6 Categories Artifact Categories 25 8 11 19 12 22 14 Total Count 1838 138 67 307 121 1326 268 Formal Tools (%) 50 (2.7%) 1 (.7%) 3 (4.5%) 20 (6.5%) 12 (9.9%) 26 (1.9%) 6 (2.2%) Figure 9.9 Native Alaskan Village Site Lithic Assemblage: Functional Groups 100 60 40 20 Legend E Cooking % Ground Stone Tool _ _ _ _ _ Flaked Aetifact % Total Site SC Test Unit WC Trench South Trench EC Trench Sooth Bone Bed SC Boone Bed The Lithic Assemblage 229 Figure 9.10 Native Alaskan Village Site Projectile Points d , f I I I I I I 0 5cm a. NAVS 8/2/91-10-I1 Notched obsidian. b. NAVS 817/91-42-L-1 Notched chert. c. NAVS 8/9/91-17-L-3 Notched obsidian. d. NAVS 8/9/91-38-L-1 Notched obsidian. e. NAVS 8/15/91-10-L-1 Notched obsidian f. NAVS 8/16/91-1-LA Notched obsidian. (Illustrations by Judith Ogden) LJTHic ASSEMBLAGE - WEsT CEvTRAL TRENCH Excavations in the West Central Trench occurred in three units: 75S, 16W; 75S, 18W; and 75S5 20W. Artifacts recovered include 67 lithics in 11 lithic catego- ries and 6 raw material types. Almost 45% of the lithic artifacts are chert, representing a proportion much higher than the total site (25.3%) and, indeed, the highest of any individual area. Both obsidian (37.3%) and sandstone (11.9%) artifact proportions are lower than for the entire site. Basalt accounts for 1.5% of the artifacts. Two of the three slate artifacts found in the NAVS assemblage under consideration are from this area ( NAVS 7/31/91-2- L-1 and NAVS 7/31/91-19-L4). This is especially notewordty considering that the West Cental Trench is the smallest collection at NAVS. The diversity of raw materials is moderately high considering the small sample size, and the lithic categories are also well represented. Over 82% of the entire assemblage is flaked, which is higher than the 74.6% site proportion. In the flaked category, 40% are shatter, 47.3% are unmodified flakes, 9.1% are edge-modified flakes, and 3.6% are formal tools. Two projectile points, including one diagnostic corner-notched point (NAVS 7/31/91-22-L-1), are the only formal flaked tools recovered. These two, repre- senting a quarter of all the points recovered at NAVS, are of note considering the relatively small sample size for the area. Although shatter represents a larger proporton of the flaked category (40% vs. 21.4%), unmodified flakes are less frequent (47.3% vs. 73.2%). This mix, in conbination with greater proportions of tools and edge- modified flakes, results in a higher tool to debitage ratio for this area (1:6.9), compared to the site as a whole (1:17.3). The primary and secondary cortical flake proportion (7.5%) is over three times the site average. Although ground stone proportions in this area are similar to site totals (3.0% vs. 2.8%), the West Cental Trench evidences less fire-cracked rock (4.5% vs. 6.7%) and fewer cobbles (3% vs. 14.8%). The resulting food cooking component is only 9% compared to a 22.9% site component. One mano fragment was found in the assemblage. Three artifacts from the West Central Trench can be classed as fonnal tools; these represent 4.5% of the total area assemblage, compared to a 2.7% entire site formal tool componenL Two of the ten NAVS gun flints are found in this area, which is another high proportion in light of the small sample size. Stratigraphic analysis of the assemblage provides two additional insights. First, all four of the artifacts in the topsoil level are chert shatter. Second, two of the three slate artifacts from the NAVS assemblage consid- ered in this chapter and two of the eight projectile points are found in the dark sandy loam levels of two units: 75S, 16W and 75S, 20W. LrrHIc ASSEMBLAGE - EAsT CENTRAL TRENCH Excavations in the East Central Trench included five units: 75S, OE; 75S, IE; 75S, 2E; 75S, 3E; and 75S, 4E. A total of 307 lithic artifacts composed of 5 raw material types comprises the assemblage, demonstrating moderate to low raw material diversity. Given the relative size of the assemblage, the lithic category diversity of 19 is moderate to high. While the proportion of chert in this area is comparable to the total site (26.1% vs. 25.3%), the proportions of obsidian and sandstone are reversed. The East Cental Trench has more than twice the sandstone (48.9% vs. 23.2%) and less than half the obsidian (22.8% vs. 49.1%). This proportion of sandstone is the highest for any area in NAVS. Basalt accounts for 1.9% of the assemblage. One slate artifact occurs in this trench. c I 11- b 230 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 9.11 Native Alaskan Village Site Ground Stone a 0 -5cm a. NAVS 8/12/91-35-L-1 Mano. b. NAVS 7/13/92-26-L-1 Pestle. (Illustrations by Judith Ogden) Flaked artifacts represent only 48.1% of the assem- blage, the lowest proportion at the site and significantly lower than the 74.6% site percentage. Within the flaked category, the proportion of unmodified flakes (61.5%) is less than for the site as a whole, while shatter (27%) is a larger proportion. Both formal tools (3.4%) and edge- modified flakes (8.1%) occur with two or more times the frequency in the East Central Trench assemblage. This results in a higher tool to debitage ratio of 1:7.7, com- pared to 1:17.3 site ratio. Interestingly, the East Central Trench exhibits the highest cortical flake prportion (9.1%) of any area in the site. One projectile point fragment and half of all projectile points are found in this area, including four diagnostic notched points: NAVS 8/ 2/91-10-L-1, NAVS 8/3/91-4-L-1, NAVS 8/9/91-38-L-1, and NAVS 8/16/91-1-L-1. The highest proportion of ground stone at the site (7.6%) is found in the East Central Trench, along with the highest site percentages of cobbles (26.7%) and fire- cracked rock (15.6%). The cooking component for this area (44.9%) is the highest at NAVS, almost twice the proportion as is found in the total assemblage. Fifteen formal ground stone tools are in evidence in the assem- blage: one basin millingstone fragment, six slab millingstone fragments (the total for the entire site), six pestle fragments (two-thirds of the entire site total), and both of the nutting stones in the site assemblage. A total of 20 formal tools in this trench represents 6.5% of the area assemblage, which is almost 2 1/2 times the proportion found for the entire site (2.7%). Forty percent of all NAVS formal tools occur here, including almost 60% of the total formal ground stone tools, two- thirds of the pestle fragments, all of the slab millingstone fragments, both nutting stones, and half of the projectile points. This distribution is even more interesting considering that the East Central Trench assemblage is only 16.7% of the total lithic artifacts in the NAVS collection. In addition, the two sandstone hones or whetstones (NAVS 7/31/91-13-L-1 and NAVS 8/6/91-46- L-1) found at NAVS occur in this trench, as do 3 of the 10 gun flints. Raw materials display variation across soil strati- graphic levels. Higher proportions of obsidian and chert occur in the topsoil and then again in the pit/mottled fill levels; the dark sandy loam, on the other hand, exhibits a greater proportion of sandstone and the one slate artifact. Lithic categories likewise vary by level: the dark sandy loam contains all but one ground stone artifact, a greater I I The Lithic Assemblage 231 Figure 9.12 Native Alaskan Village Site Ground Stone a b -5cm a. NAVS 8/114/91-23-L-1 Slab milingstone. b. NAVS 8/14/91-109-L-1 Basin millingstone. (Illustrations by Judith Ogden) proportion of cobbles and fire-cracked rock, and a 76.6% cooking component. The topsoil and fill levels, bracket- ing the loam, display no ground stone, few cobbles, little fire-cracked rock, and cooking components between 16% and 25%. In addition, these levels reveal flaked artifact proportions of 70%o to 75%, whereas the dark sandy loam contains only 31.9% flaked arfifacts. All of the formal flaked tools occur in the dark sandy loam and fill levels. In the lower levels, the sandy loam evidences high lithic category diversity, considering the small sample size, whereas the clay level contains only one obsidian flake. No fire-cracked rock is found in either level, and only one ground stone and two cobbles were recovered from the lower strata. LITHIC ASSEMBL4GE -EAST CFEfrRAL B ONE BED Excavations in the East Central Bone Bed occurred in three units at the western end of the East Central Trench (75S, OE; 75S, IE; and 75S, 2E) and extended across two 10 cm levels (20-30 cm and 30-40 cm). The assemblage consists of 121 artifacts in 12 lithic catego- ries and 5 raw material types. This represents moderate I I 232 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood diversity, considering the smill sample size. An over- whelming percentage of artifacts are sandstone (82.6%), compared to the trench (48.9%) and site total (23.2%) proportions. Conversely, the East Central Bone Bed exhibits low proportions of chert (7.4%) and obsidian (5.8%). Basalt accounts for 3.3% of the assemblage. The one slate artifact (NAVS 8/14/91-73-L-3) from the East Central Trench assemblage is found in this bone bed. Flaked artifacts represent only 13.3% of the entire assemblage, a very low proportion relative to the East Central Trench (48.1%) and overall site (74.6%). Within the flaked category, 75% are unmodified flakes, 6.3% are formal tools, and 18.8% are shatter. There are no edge- modified flakes in the deposit. This flaked artifact distribution, although reflecting a lower proportion of the bone bed assemblage, approximates the site flaked artifact mix more closely than the trench mix. In addition, the tool to debitage ratio for the East Central Bone Bed (1:15) is closer to the site ratio (1:17.3) than to the trench ratio (1:7.7). As in the parent trench deposit, a higher proportion (13.3%) of primary and secondary cortical flakes occurs here than in the total site. One notched projectile point (NAVS 8/3/91-4-L-1) is found in the East Central Bone Bed collection. Ground stone represents 15.7% of the tota assem- blage, more than twice the trench proportion (7.6%) and a significantly greater proportion than in the site (2.8%). Eleven of the 15 East Central Trench ground stone formal tools are found in this bone bed, including 1 basin millingstone fragment, 6 slab millingstone fragments, 3 pestle fragments, and 1 nutting stone. This represents all of the millingstone fragments and half of the pestle fragments recovered in the East Central Trench. In addition, the East Central Bone Bed reveals almost twice the cobbles (49.6%) and a higher proportion of fire- cracked rock (21.5%) than the trench. This mix results in a cooking component of 77.7% for the East Central Bone Bed, tfie highest for any collection at NAVS. The 12 formal tools in this bone bed constitute 9.9% of the assemblage, by far the highest proportion at NAVS. Although the artifacts from this area are only 6.6% of the NAVS collection (121/1838) and 39% of the East Central Trench collection (121/307), they represent 24% of the NAVS tools (12/50) and 60% of the East Central Trench tools (12/20). This distribution is skewed in favor of ground stone tools: the total East Central Bone Bed/ NAVS tool component breaks down into 42% ground stone (11 of 26 NAVS ground stone tools) and 4% flaked (1 of 24 NAVS flaked tools). When compared to NAVS totals, the East Central Bone Bed reflects with greater intensity several East Central Trench patterns. The proportion of flaked artifacts is lower in this bone bed than in the East Central Trench, and lower in the East Central Trench than in the NAVS assemblage. Similarly, the proportions of fornal are all higher in the East Central Bone Bed than in the East Central Trench, and higher in the trench than in the NAVS assemblage. One curious exception to this pattern, however, can be seen in the tool to debitage ratio. Although the East Central Trench ratio is higher than the NAVS ratio (1:7.7 vs. 1:17.3), the East Central Bone Bed ratio (1:15) is lower than that of the trench, approxi- mating the NAVS ratio. This is a function of the presence of only one flaked tool and the absence of any edge- modified flakes in the bone bed assemblage. LrrHIc ASSEMBLAGE - SOUTH TRENCH Excavations in the South Trench included seven units: 125S, 24W; 125S, 23W; 125S, 22W; 125S, 21W; 125S, 20W; 125S, 19W; and 125S, 18W. A total of 1,326 lithic artifacts in 22 categories constitutes the assemblage from this area. Eight raw material types are present, and, with the lithic categories in evidence, represent diversity comparable to the total NAVS collection. The highest proportion of obsidian for any area at NAVS occurs in the South Trench (55.7%); conversely, the lowest percentage of chert is exhibited in this area (22.2%). The incidence of sandstone (19.9%) is also lower than in the site as a whole. No slate artifacts are found in the South Trench, but one quartz crystal appears in the assemblage (NAVS 8/5/91-25-L-3). Flaked artifacts occur in similar proportions to the total site (78.5%). Unmodified flakes (77.3%) constitute a larger proportion of the flaked category than in the total assemblage, whereas shatter (18.4%), flaked tools (1.5%), and edge-modified flakes (2.7%) represent smaller constituencies. The resulting tool to debitage ratio (1:22.6) is the lowest at NAVS. This area's propor- tion of cortical flakes is less than 1%. Sixteen formal flaked tools are found in the assemblage: 6 biface fragments, 1 biface, 6 projectile point fragments, 2 projectile points, and 1 uniface fragment. Eight diagnos- tic notched points or fragments are evident in the deposit NAVS 8/5/91-3-L-1, NAVS 8/5/91-17-L-1, NAVS 8/6/ 91-10-L-1, NAVS 8/6/91-37-L-1, NAVS 8/7/91-42-L-1, NAVS 8/8/91-22-L-1, NAVS 8/9/91-17-L-3, and NAVS 8/15/91-10-L-1. Proportions of cobbles (14.2%), ground stone (2.1%), and fire-cracked rock (5.1%) exhibited by the South Trench are similar to total site percentages. The cooking component (20.5%) is only slightly lower than the NAVS component (22.9%). The assemblage contains 10 fonnal ground stone tools: 2 basin millingstone fragments, 2 hammerstones, 2 mano fragments, 3 pestle fragments, and the only complete pestle in the NAVS collection. The 26 formal tools represent 1.9% of the South Trench artifact universe, less than the 2.7% found for the total site. Although this area accounts for 72% of the total NAVS artifacts, it contains only 52% of the formal tools, ground stone, cobbles, and food cooking artifacts tools. In addition, this reduced occurrence of tools The Lithic Assemblage 233 Figure 9.13 Native Alaskan Village Site Ground Stone a -5cm - I b a. NAVS 8/13/91-75-I1l Nutting stone. b. NAVS 8/14/91-303-L-1 Slab millingstone. (Illustrations by Judith Ogden) reveals a reversed share of ground stone and flaked tools: 62% flaked and 38% ground stone in the South Trench in comparison to 48% flaked and 52% ground stone in NAVS. A stratigraphic review of this area reveals a topsoil level with high proportions of flaked artifacts (97%) and obsidian (70.5%), and low proportions of sandstone (2.5%), ground stone (.5%), fire-cracked rock (1%), cobbles (1.5%), and cooking artifacts (2.5%). The dark sandy loam stratum provides the opposite distribution: lower proportions of flaked artifacts (70.8%) and obsidian (50.5%), and higher percentages of sandstone (26.7%o), fire-acked rock (7.4%), cobbles (18.6%), ground stone (2.7%), and cooking artifacts (27.8%). Seventy-one percent of the fonnal tools in the South Trench are found in the dark sandy loam level, as well as 68% of the total trench artifacts. The pit fill level exhibits a high tool to debitage ratio compared to the upper levels (1:13.7 vs. 1:26.7 and 1:30.7). In addition, the pit fill reveals artifacts in almost twice the number of lithic categories as in the topsoil level (14 vs. 8), which would suggest a significantly greater diversity for comparable sample sizes. LrrTHc ASSEMBLAGE - SOuTH BONE BED Excavations at the South Bone Bed occurred in three units near the west end of the South Trench (125S, 23W; 125S, 22W; and 125S, 21W) and extended across two 10 cm levels (20-30 cm and 30-40 cm). The assemblage consists of 268 lithics in 14 categories. Six raw material types are in evidence. Almost 59% of the artifacts are made from sandstone, with obsidian (25.4%), chert (12.7%), and basalt (1.1%) comprising most of the remaining raw material types. This mix reflects a significant difference from the South Trench assemblage as a whole: more than three times the sandstone, but only about half the chert and less than half the obsidian. Far fewer flaked artifacts (36.7% vs. 78.5%) occur in the South Bone Bed than in the South Trench as a whole. In the flaked category, about 82% are unmodified flakes, 15.6% are shatter, 1% are edge-modified, and 2% are formal tools. Compared with the entire South Trench assemblage, the higher South Bone Bed proportions of unmodified flakes and formal tools are offset by lower shatter and edge-modified percentages. This mix ultimately results in a low tool to debitage ratio (1:31.7). In fact, the South Bone Bed exhibits the lowest ratio at NAVS. This is the only area at NAVS, however, without any primary or secondary cortical flakes in the deposit. One biface fragment and one notched projectile point fragment (NAVS 8/15/ 91-10-L-1) are found in the collection. In comparison with the South Trench as a whole, the South Bone Bed reveals twice the ground stone (4.5% vs. 2.1%), more than twice the cobble (37.7% vs. 14.2%), and four times the fire-cracked rock (20.9% vs. 5.1%). These latter two proportions contribute to a 61.6% food cooking component, which is the second highest at O0 234 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood NAVS after the East Central tone Bed. Four formal ground stone tools include two basin millingstone fragments, one mano fragment, and one pestle fragment. The six formal tools represent 2.2% of the South Bone Bed assemblage, which is greater than the South Trench proportion of 1.9%. Of note, this bone bed demonstrates a reverse proportion of flaked and ground stone formal tools relative to the South Trench: the trench contains 62% flaked tools and 38% ground stone tools, whereas the bone bed exhibits 33% flaked and 66% ground stone. Additionally, only 12% of the South Trench flaked tools are found in its bone bed, while 40% of the former's ground stone tools occur in the latter. NAVS LrrHIc ASSEMBLAGE - SUMMARY A review of the assemblages from various areas of the site provides several observations. Areas with the highest proportions of flaked artifacts are those spatially distinct from the bone beds: the South Central Test Unit and the West Central Trench. The South Trench percent- age of flaked artifacts is smaller, and the East Central Trench has an even lower proportion of flaked artifacts. The bone beds reveal even further reductions in the percentages of flaked artifacts, with the East Central Bone Bed evidencing the lowest flaked artifact compo- nent at NAVS. This inverse relationship between flaked artifact proportions and proximity to the bone beds suggests flaked tool activities or deposition of flaked artifacts at NAVS occurred at locations spatially removed from the bone beds. It is also possible that this greater incidence of flaked artifacts is a product of prehistoric use of the area. The opposite relationship can be observed in the patterning of the food cooking component, which consists of artifacts that may be by-products of various cooking activities. Cooking components are greatest in the bone beds, with the East Central Bone Bed compo- nent higher than the South Bone Bed. Both areas associated with the bone beds (the South Trench and the East Central Trench) have higher cooking constituencies than the locations physically removed from the bone beds (the South Cental Test Unit and the West Central Trench). These distributions reflect tendencies for the residues of cooking activities to be deposited in the bone beds. In addition to these patterns of cooking activities associated with the bone beds and flaking activities occuning elsewhere, a more fine-grained observation is provided by the flaed tool to debitage ratios. The areas to the south of NAVS (the South Central Test Unit and the South Trench) have flaked tool to debitage ratios significantly lower than areas central to NAVS (the West Central and East Central trenches). Within the trench areas, the bone bed ratios are likewise lower, with the South Bone Bed exhibiting a site low. These ratios ties. First, more manufacture and maintenance activities may have occurred in the southern areas than in the central, and within the bone beds as compared to non- bone bed areas, resulting in a greater portion of debris to tools in the southern and bone bed assemblages. In addition, it is a possibility that more tools were curated and fewer discarded in the southern areas than in the central, which would also result in a larger proportion of debris to tools in the southem assemblage. Conversely, the higher ratios in non-bone bed and central NAVS areas suggest less manufacture (importation?) and mainte- nance, perhaps coupled with less curation and/or greater discard propensities. The patterns of low bone bed flaked artifact propor- tions and low bone bed flaked tool to debitage ratios could also indicate another scenario. Perhaps tool manufacture and maintenance activities never actually occurred at the historic bone bed locations, resulting in deposits that originally contained neither flaked tools nor debitage. Over time, depositional factors mixed some debitage from prehistoric flaking activities into the bone bed deposit. This would result in the low flaked artifact proportions and low tool to debitage ratios observed in the bone beds. As with the tool to debitage ratios, the proportion of primary and secondary cortical flakes is significantly lower in the southem areas of NAVS (South Central Test Unit and South Trench). In fact, the South Bone Bed deposit does not contain any cortical flakes. This suggests that NAVS residents were not involved in initial lithic reduction activities in the southern areas of the site. By way of contrast, the East Central Bone Bed reveals the highest percentage of cortical flakes at NAVS. While the tool to debitage ratios suggest higher overall lithic manufacture and maintenance activities in the south, the cortical flake proportions indicate that specific initial lithic raw material reduction and manufacture activities were occurring with greater frequency in the central NAVS areas, especially the East Central Bone Bed. Artifact densities reveal varying rates of lithic deposition across the NAVS landscape. The southern area has higher densities than the central area and both bone beds have higher densities than the surrounding trenches. In the central area of NAVS, lithic artifacts occur at the rate of 61 and 88 per cubic meter in the West Central Trench and the East Central Trench, respectively. By contrast, the density rate for the South Trench is 402 artifacts per cubic meter. This central/south density pattern holds true also within the bone beds: 242 artifacts per cubic meter in the East Central Bone Bed and 536 artifacts per cubic meter in the South Bone Bed. Formal tool distributions vary greatly by area. The largest proportions of formal tools to total artifacts occur in the central area, with almost a quarter of all NAVS tools found in the East Central Bone Bed assemblage. A reflect two different, but not mutually exclusive, activi- density of 24 formal tools per cubic meter in the East The Lithic Assemblage 235 Central Bone Bed is twice the South Bone Bed formal tool density. This contrasts markedly with the overall higher artifact densities in the South Bone Bed vs. the East Central Bone Bed, as noted above. Additionally, this pattern holds true to an even greater degree for ground stone fonnal tools; over forty percent of all NAVS ground stone tools are located in the East Central Bone Bed. Of interest, no gun flints are found in the bone beds. Raw materials exhibit differing distributions in separate areas of the Village. All of the slate and both of the sandstone whetstones are found in the central area, perhaps reflecting places where the Native Alaskans worked and/or deposited slate tools. Sandstone propor- tions are highest in the bone beds and in the East Central Trench, which corespond with the distribution of cooking artifacts at NAVS. Obsidian is in evidence with greater frequency in the southern areas, accouniing for over half the artifacts in the South Trench and the South Central Test Unit. Chert occurs less frequently in the bone bed areas, while basalt proportions remain fairly constant across the site. Some similarities and differences in the stratigraphy of NAVS follow. Artifact distributions in the dark sandy loam levels in the East Central Trench and the South Trench are equivalent. The dark sandy loam level reveals higher proportions of cobble, ground stone, fire-cracked rock, sandstone, and cooking artifacts, and lower propor- tions of flaked artifacts, than in the remainder of the trench. The two bone beds exhibit many dissimilarities: the proportions and types of formal tools, the tool to debitage ratios, the raw material types, the proportions of flaked to ground stone artifacts, and overall artifact densities. Of note, all diagnostic projectile points and fragments are found in the upper stratigraphic levels, and these notched points appear to date to the Upper Emer- gent and Historic periods (table 9.7). COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS - FRBS AND NAVS A comparison of the artifact and raw material distributions from the two Native Alaskan Neighborhood sites reveals several patterns. Although raw material distributions are similar, FRBS exhibits higher propor- tions of ground stone and fire-cracked rock, while NAVS displays a greater portion of cobbles. These distributions may reflect a greater occurrence of dumping activities at FRBS, with spent ground stone and fire-cracked rock making their way over the cliff and into the beach deposit. Cooking tasks involving underground ovens, hearths, and the stone boiling method would traditionally take place in the residential areas at NAVS, resulting in greater proportions of reusable cobbles in the Village deposit Both sites have comparable overall proportions of flaked artifacts, formal tools, and cooking components, suggesting that, eventually, all categories of artifacts resting place at FRBS. The tool/debitage ratio is higher at FRBS, reflecting either a greater occurrence of tool discard and/or a reduced instance of tool manufacture/maintenance activities. The resulting deposit is consistent with both a historic refuse disposal site associated with the Village and an earlier, sporadic-use special purpose site. At NAVS, the situation is reversed, with a lower tool! debitage ratio suggesting pronounced curation propensi- ties, more intense tool production/repair, and/or a smaller prehistoric flaked artifact component. Residents of NAVS perhaps engaged more frequently in tool manufac- ture or maintenance while "at home" rather than "on the road." Additionally, raw material shortages and/or traditional cultural practices may have encouraged retention of previously manufactured tools, for either sentimental or utilitarian reasons. Overall cortical flake proportions at FRBS are almost twice those found at NAVS, suggesting significant differences in initial lithic raw material reduction and manufacture activities and/or deposition between the two sites. This discrepancy appears to be temporal, and, as discussed earlier, may be explained by the prehistoric component at FRBS, where over 80% of the cortical flakes are deposited. Although three slate artifacts (no tools) and two whetstones were recovered from the deposits at NAVS, none are evident in the FRBS collection. If slate arrived at Fort Ross with the Native Alaskans, and there were no alternative local sources, the slate in the Villagers' possession would be the sum of a limited supply. Assum- ing the slate tools would still be of value in traditional cultural venues, Native Alaskan residents would be less likely to discard them and maintenance debris would be scarce. A sentimental value might also accrue to the slate-a reminder of a far away home. Alternatively, Native Californians may have considered the new raw material and tools curious; any discarded tools or debris perhaps were recovered and saved by the locals. Either or both of the above scenarios would account for the dearth of slate in the Neighborhood deposits. A separate review of the bone beds at NAVS suggests several distinct differences between them and the overall FRBS and NAVS deposits. The cooking component in the bone beds is, on average, more than three times the proportion found in the aggregate collec- tion. It is not surprising that cooking activities would be concentrated in distinct locations within the residential base, coincident with numerous faunal and shellfish remains. In addition, the East Central Bone Bed exhibits over six times the proportion of formal ground stone tools than is found in the general accumulation. This indicates that, as with cooking, the processing of food and other raw materials took place with greater frequency in this bone bed location. Corresponding to these greater evident at NAVS had an equal chance of finding a final processing and cooking constituents, the bone beds reveal 236 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood over three times the proportion of sandstone than found in the total deposits at NAVS and FRBS. This is to be expected, considering that sandstone is the major raw material found in each of the processing and cooking artifact groups: ground stone tools, cobbles, ground stone other, and fire-cracked rock. The proportion of flaked artifacts in the bone beds is only one third that of the complete Neighborhood collection, suggesting that tool maintenance, production, and discard took place in locations discrete from the food cooking areas. Indications of flaked tool discard activi- ties are especially lacking in the bone beds, as evidenced by low tool/debitage ratios: the South Bone Bed has the lowest ratio in the Neighborhood. However, this pattern may simply reflect a temporal distinction: debris from prehistoric flaking activities is more common in all Neighborhood locations outside the historic bone bed deposits. A comparison of diagnostic projectile points and fragments reveals that, while the NAVS assemblage has only the more recent notched points, the FRBS deposits contain earlier serrated and lanceolate points, as well as corner-notched points (tables 9.3 and 9.7). The greater temporal span of FRBS is not only indicated by diagnos- tic projectile point types but also confirmed by strati- graphic deposits from prehistoric (Lower Emergent and Upper Archaic), protohistoric (Upper Emergent), and NAVS associated (Historic) activities. As discussed earlier, all diagnostically early points at FRBS are found in the lower clay levels. NAVS deposits excavated to date, however, appear to originate in protohistoric and historic periods only. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS - FRBS, NAVS, AND SURVEY SITES Two related trends are apparent from a review of the Ross Region sites. First, many sites on the coastal terrace appear to be part of broad, low density lithic scatters. These prehistoric deposits exhibit long use durations and are part of an extensive nonsite manifestation. Hunting and gathering endeavors, taking place across an extended plant and animal resource area, result in occasional loss, discard, and/or limited maintenance of various tools. Evidence in the deposits for plant and raw material pro- cessing is slight, as are indications of cooking activities. Site deposits reveal large flaked artifact components and corresponding small ground stone constituents, as well as low proportions of sandstone raw materials. In addition, these prehistoric nonsite manifestations evidence almost twice the proportion of cortical flakes than habitation sites. Several survey sites discussed in Volume 1 have deposits consistent with prehistoric nonsite collections: CA-SON-1453, CA-SON-228, CA-SON-1454/H, and CA-SON-1880. Each displays a major flaked artifact component with little ground stone. Excavations at FRBS and NAVS expose deposits comparable with this prehistoric pattem. Each site contains an overall 75% flaked artifact component. At FRBS, the clay levels demonstrate the highest flaked arti- fact proportions coupled with low ground stone, proces- sing, and cooking components. Non-bone bed areas at NAVS display these same higher flaked artifact distribu- tions. The overall cortical flake proportions at FRBS are almost twice those at NAVS, with the great majority of the FRBS cortical flakes being found in the lower clay levels. Sporadic prehistoric activities on the coastal terrace may be responsible for these high flaked artifact proportions in the Neighborhood sites. While the location of the deposits in the low clay levels at FRBS could be predicted, the NAVS deposits, both separate from and in some cases above the discrete bone bed, suggest some mixing of deposits outside the "sealed" bone bed. The second trend in evidence is a corollary to the prehistoric, nonsite lithic scatters. Native Californian residential areas in the Ross Region exhibit large ground stone components, reflecting processing and cooking activities. In Volume 1, three sites were discussed that appear to be habitation areas, one close to the Fort and two on the ridge top: CA-SON-1886/H, CA-SON-1883, and CA-SON-1884. Each displays high proportions of ground stone (about 60%). This is a direct reversal of the nonsite patterns. The bone beds at NAVS reveal similar high processing and cooking components, at the expense of the flaked artifacts. While both NAVS and FRBS as a whole are suggestive of the coastal terrace patterns, it is clear that the discrete bone bed areas at NAVS are more reflective of residential activities, including processing and cooking. Excavations are currently underway on Native Californian habitation areas; the deposits revealed will produce a comparative base and provide further insight into these trends. ACKNOWLEDGEMENrTS I thank Roberta Jewett, Kent Lightfoot, and Antoinette Martinez for their constructive comments on earlier drafts of this chapter. In addition, I thank Allan Brarnlette for his insightful suggestions on projectile point typology. I thank the many people who have sup- ported or participated in the Fort Ross Archaeology Pro- ject since its inception in 1988, including UCB field school participants, laboratory analysts, and Archaeologi- cal Research Facility personnel. I am especially indebted to the many people at the Fort Ross State Historic Park and the archaeological staff of the California Department of Parks. I am most grateful for the continuing encour- agement and patronage of Kent Lightfoot. Finally, I thank Robert Schiff for his steadfast support and unwa- vering optimism. The Lithic Assemblage 237 REFERENCES Barrett, S. A. 1952 Material Aspects of Pomo Culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee vol. 20, part 1. Baumhoff, Martin A. 1982 North Coast Point Types in Cultural Resource Overview for the Mendocino National Forest and East Lake Planning Unit, BLM, California, edited by H. McCarthy, W. Hildebrandt, and L. Swenson, pp. 1-43, Appendix A, Califomia Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Bettinger, R., Delacorte, M., and McGuire, K. 1984 Archaeological Investigations at the Partridge Ranch Site, Inyo County, (CA-INY-2146). Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc. Gifford, E. W., and Kroeber, A. 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