8 Glass and Ceramic Trade Beads from the Native Alaskan Neighborhood LESTER A. Ross A RCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS conducted in 1989, 1991, and 1992 at the Native Alaskan Village Site (NAVS) and in 1988 and 1989 at the Fort Ross Beach Site (FRBS) recovered 564 glass and ceramic beads of 79 varieties, including 46 varieties of drawn glass beads, 30 varieties of wound glass beads, 2 varieties of blown glass beads, and 1 of Prosser-molded ceramic beads. The assemblage from Native Alaskan Neighborhood is composed of unique percentages of colors for Native American and Euro-American fur trade sites in the continental western United States. This assemblage contains no beads post-dating 1840, but does date to the period of Russian-American Company (RAC) occupation of Fort Ross, 1812-1841. None of the beads appear to be of Chinese manufacture, some were probably manufac- tured in Bohemia, and most appear to be varieties commonly manufactured in Europe, specifically Venice and Murano, Italy. Many of the beads are similar to varieties recovered from the archaeological site of the Hudson Bay Company's (HBC)1829-1860 western headquarters at Fort Vancouver. On the basis of known historical documentation, it appears premature to attribute the acquisition of beads recovered from the Native Alaskan Neighborhood to Hudson's Bay Com- pany manufacturers sent to the Russian-American Company in New Archangel (Sitka) during 1840-1841. BEAD CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS AND METHODOLOGY The identification and description of beads under consideration in this chapter utilizes procedures based upon a combination of classification systems and strategies developed for archaeologists by Kenneth and Martha Kidd (1970), Karlis Karklins (1982, 1985, 1994), Roderick Sprague (1983, 1985, 1994), and the author (Ross 1994a; Ross with Pflanz 1989). Additional descriptive nomenclature follows various authors who have addressed specific bead shapes, groups, and classes (e.g., Allen 1983; Beck 1928). Colors are identified using a simplified set of color terms for general reference and Munsell color notations for more specific designa- tions (Munsell Color 1994). Prior to identifying colors, bead surfaces were moistened to reduce frosted appear- ances caused by glass deterioration. Beads were ana- lyzed for a variety of attributes, following a four-fold, hierarchic classification scheme: 1. material and manufacturing techniques; 2. stylistic attributes, including color layering, shape, and presence or absence of decoration; 3. stylistic variety attributes consisting of the tpe of decoration; diaphanousness; type of fmish; range of bead color hue, value, and chroma; variability in shape and length; the probable type of original luster, and post-depositional erosion; and 4. bead sizes as defmed from measurements of bead least diameter (LD) and length (L). To easily discuss stylistic types and subtypes of beads in this report, the following code is employed: Manufacturing Technique D = Drawn (glass) W/ = Wound (glass) Ws/ = Wound-and-Shaped (glass) B/= Blown (glass) PM/ = Prosser Molded (ceramic) Type of Layering M = Monochrome P = Polychrome Shape, for example, Bp = Bipyramidal C = Cylindrical 180 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood O = Ovoidal M = Multi-Sided M2 = Molded sides and two rows of ground facets M4 = Molded sides and four rows of ground facets S = Spheroidal T = Toroidal Type of Finishing C = Cut H = Hot-Tumbled Presence or Absence of Decoration D = Decorated Dcl = Combed Loops Db = Banded Df = Faceted Ds = Striped Dsf = Striped and Faceted U = Undecorated Uc = Conjoined (beads of the same variety fused during manufacture) Thus, drawn, monochrome, cylindrical, cut, undeco- rated beads are designated as Type DIMCCU beads. In an attempt to compare bead varieties to earlier bead classification systems of Kidd and Kidd (1970) and Kaldis (1985), comparative class numbers are provided when possible. However, because of the difficulties in comparing varieties witliout precise color notations, no attempt is made to provide the comparative variety numbers employed by Kidd and Kidd (1970). For ease of reference, bead variety numbers used in this report consist of a single unique number (e.g., 1, 45, 64) assigned stricdy for use with Native Alaskan Neighbor- hood collections. The descriptions accompanying these variety numbers do not correspond to similar numbers used for other sites. Bead data is presented by bead class, type, subype, and variety in tabular fonnat, together with a graphic representation of the bead shape (e.g., figure 8.1). The plates referenced in the figures are on file at the Archaeo- logical Research Facility, Berkeley, California. Bead manufacturing techniques are discussed, and relevant compaative data is provided for the occufrence of similar beads from other dated contexts. This compara- tive information regarding bead varieties in other archaeological contexts is neither exhaustive nor com- plete. Rather, varieties which are regarded as unique or possibly significant for geographical, cultural or temporal affiliations are documentd Bead sizes are defined for the beads analyzed in this study only, using least diameter and length. Sizes were determined by measuring beads withi the smallest and largest least diameters and lengths for probable sizes as observed visually. The scope of the project did not allow for individual measurements to be made for each bead. To obtain more precise data for the sizes perceived tive sample for each variety, will have to be measured. When multiple sizes are reported for a single variety, no beads with measurements outside the sizes reported were observed. Opinions regarding historic values, temporal ascriptions and the frequency of occurrence at archaeo- logical sites are based upon the personal knowledge of the author. Published literature documenting the precise temporal placement of beads in the nineteenth centry for western North America is limited. This does not imply a lack of documentary reports (e.g., see Karklins and Sprague 1980, 1987), but rather the lack of comparable bead classifications and descriptions used by various authors who have written descriptive reports, combined with the lack of tightly dated contexts. No authoritative temporal studies for western North America have been published, and extant interpretations vary considerably based upon the experience of each author. Until a major effort is undertaken to review existing historical and archaeological literature, and to document tightly dated collections using a standard classification system, temporal and functional interpretations for glass beads from western North American sites can only be regarded as infonnative speculation. GLASS BEADS IN THE ASSEMBLAGE The entire assemblage of 564 beads consists of 563 glass beads and 1 ceramic bead. The 563 glass beads were manufacured by three techniques: drawn (n = 510), wound (n = 51), and blown (n = 2). DRAWN BEADS The 510 drawn beads are grouped into 46 varieties of eight types, grouped into four classes. During the nineteenth centry, drawn beads were manufactred from hollow canes drawn from a molten gather of glass. The canes were chopped into bead-length segments for subsequent finishing, sorting, and packaging. Drawn beads are the most common beads, comprising 90.4% of the bead assemblage. Monochrome Beads with Chopped Ends Nine beads of this class are identified and subdivided into two types. Type DIMCCU - Undecorated Cylindrical Beads (n = 7). These are the simplest of the undecorated mono- chrome beads. They have circular cross sections, consist of short to long segments chopped from drawn glass canes, and do not appear to have been fire-polished or hot-tumbled. Five varieties are identified (figure 8.1). Variety 25 beads are also reported from 1829-1860 Hudson's Bay Company Fort Vancouver, Washington (Ross 1990:Variety Ia-tpl-1). Type DIMMCDf - Complex, Mult-Sided Beads with visually, all beads within a variety, or from a representa- Ground Facets (n = 2). The tubes used to make these Trade Beads 181 beads were manufactured from a gather of glass that was probably pushed into a multi-sided mold to create a polyhedral form, and then drawn into a multi-sided, hollow cane. In an earlier report, it was speculated that the multi-sided shape may have resulted from marvering or an extrusion process (Ross 1976:686, figure 338). No historical evidence for these alternatives has been located. Two subtypes are identified by the number of rows of facets presenL Subtype D/MM2CDf - Beads with Two Rows of Ground Facets (n = 1). These are manufactured by grinding two rows of facets, one facet on each corner of each end. These facets are probably ground before the individual beads are snapped or chopped from their glass cane. With this technique, a 6-sided bead will have 18 flat surfaces, consisting of 6 molded sides and 12 ground facets. Both Subtype D/MM2CDf beads and their polychrome counterparts (Subtype D/PM2CDf below) are referenced incorrectly, as "Russian," "Bristol," "Hudson's Bay," "chief," and "ambassador" beads. They also are described as "comerless hexagonal, septagonal or octagonal," "short bugle," "multi-faceted," or "cut" beads (e.g., Mille 1975; Pfeiffer 1983:209-10; Woodward 1965:12). One variety of a 6-sided, transparent beads is identified (figure 8.2). Variety 12 beads are also reported from 1829-1860 Hudson's Bay Company Fort Vancouver, Washington (Ross 1990:Variety If-d6/7tps/1-2). In the Pacific Northwest, these beads along with their polychrome equivalents (Subtype D/PM2CDf beads) have been identified incorrectly as "Russian" faceted beads, due to their late 18th and early 19th century introduction into the Alaskan region by Russian fur traders. The Russian-American Company did trade these beads, but the Russians probably did not manufac- ture them. Arthur Woodward (1965:9) stated that Other beads, such as the large ultra marine blue faceted beads found along the coast of southern Alaska and British Columbia and as far south as Washington and Oregon, became "Russian beads", in spite of the fact that original packages of these beads, wrapped in grey coarse paper, were found unopened in the warehouse of the Russian American Fur Company at Sitka in 1867, marked "Brussels". In the latter case it was probably a repackaging job done by an export company in the Belgian city. Figure 8.1 Drawn, Cut, Undecorated Beadsfrom the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (n = 12) ? to) Type D/MCCU DECORON cDMMENS DWH,IY PATIN LAYW4 COLOR MLISaL NDrANID fNSH SIZE LEAST DIAMErER x LECGH (MM) PLME M)BE QWARnVE COPPB 25 Undecorated Tranpa t Nonoobrese Cyldical 31 x 5.4 Plate la rAds' la I Fibrous clw Long Patina No N 50/ Cut - Strck 44 Undecorated Tranpart Monochrome Cylidrical 20 x 3.2 Plate lb ]idds' h I Siny Yefoud}a-gree Lon Patin No lOGY 5/8 Cut 11 Undecorated Tranpart ono e Cyl 2.0-2.4 x 2.9-&4 Plate Ic rIdds' Ia 2 Sbiny Bul-gree Lg Patina: No 7.5G 4/8 Cut - Struck 68 U te Tra e Cyni 25-1 x 2.1- Plate Id ' a 2 Some beads may be bot tumbled. DU Short rreular and this varety may be a Patnaf: No 5BG 4/6 Cut ariaion of Varity 5. 78 U ed Transhcent no e Cydrial 4.2 x 3.7 Plate c le idds' la I Cut edges are slitly rommded. Dull Ble Short bead may be hot twmbled. Patina: No 7.5B 4/8 Cut () )to I Type D/PCCU 24 Undecorted Translent on Polychrome (2) Cylind Some beads may be ho tmmbled. Transluet Y. I. Yellodi-hite Short to Lng Dull lOY 9/1 cut - Suck Patin No V. L. Yellowish-white lOY 9/1 2.8-.0 x 2.4-2.5 2.8-2.9 x 4.1-4.4 38 X 5.9 Plate 1! KGdds Mla l 6 VAREY NMAWR 182 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 8.2 'Drawn, Faceted Beads from the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (n = 6) Type D/MCHDf DECORATlON cDMs Deoorsted 5-11 random ground fceftt PARNW LYUEG SHP UVER COLOR NTH LEASr I PATNA MUNSELL NOTATION FNSH Transpa t Monochrome Cylndrical Dan to Shiny V. Dk. Pulish-red Short & Patina: No 2.5 2/2 Hot Tumbled Subtype D/MM2CDf 12 Decorated; Hiugal ith ome row Transpart Monochrome CyndrIa &2 x 7.9 Plate 2b Xd f dof molded siddsan 2 r ow of Opaqu V.YePrpish-redn 1ong grin faes ad 2 row oX Dull 2.R2/ - ocina face Pati No OYR 4/8 (12 gomd facets). Subtype D/MM4CDf 7.7 Decorated; Nezag it oe rw fransernt o b Cy da 6. s .0 x Plate 24 Idd 1 at e molded sies 2 rm at ?Pm V. Dic. Pm?B-red b,m faes d 2 row of Doul U@R 2/2 Cut Vmd oon faods PdIRUM No (24 Vmd bt)- Subtype D/PM2CDf 74 Decoated; lil it apw vt am rw (V xi tI Phte 2d Odde MfX ot 6 dIdes and 2 rows of Translcnt Purs-blue grond oma f9es shiny 7.5PB 3/8 (12 grud faets Pata: No on IL PrbpXli-bu 7.5PBS 5/8 Cd James Hanson (1994:7) commented on a string of blue, green, and red cut beads of this subtype: ... they are often referred to as Russian beads, even though they were made in Venice [probably Bohemia rather than Venice]. When Governor Etolin of the Russian American Company [govemor from 1840 to 1845] donated a dazzling chandelier to the Russian Orthodox church in Sitka, the glittering robes and pendants of colored crystal were made from this type of bead. Even though the church has bumed down twice, the chandelier has survived and is preserved in the Alaska State Museum at Juneau. Subtype D/MM2CDf and D/PM2CDf beads prob- ably represent items manufactured in Bohemia or possibly Venice, but are of doubtful Russian manufacture. The Russian-American Company was not the primary source of these beads for the Pacific Northwest, at least not for areas beyond Alaska and the region of northern California near the Russian trading site of Fort Ross. In the Pacific Northwest, these bead types are associated primarily with post-1820 fur trade and Native American sites, none of which were associated with the Russian trade. It would be just as incorrect to identify them as "Roman" beads because of their association with the Late Roman period site of Corinth in southem Greece (Davidson 1952:294, pl. 122) or as "Viking" beads because of their association with tenth-century Viking sites in Europe (Klindt-Jensen 1970:170-71). Subtype D/MM4CDf - Beads with Four Rows of Ground Facets (n = 1). These beads are manufactured by grinding four rows of facets, consisting of two rows with a facet on each corner of each end and two rows between the end rows and the molded sides. This results in a 6- sided bead having 30 flat surfaces, consisting of 6 molded sides and 24 ground facets. One variety is identified (figure 8.2). No examples of Variety 77 beads are known for other western North American contexts. Polychrone Beads with Chopped Ends Six beads of this class are identified and subdivided into two types. These beads have multicolored layers produced in at least two manners: 1) when one or more NAM 28 SD E NAMOTR X LNT (m) gI Qin 2.1 x 1.4 3.9.0 x 3.0-3. i Trade Beads 183 layers of glass were applied tb a central core and 2) when layers were fortuitously created. Beads with applied layers were drawn from a gather of glass of one color, covered with one or more layers of differently colored glass. Beads with fortuitous layers appear to have been produced from a gather of one color, which upon cooling created multicolored layers (generally of the same color hue, but with a different chroma, color value, and/or diaphanousness). It is speculated that this phenomenon results as glass cools from its surface to its interior, causing different chemical elements to migrate slower or faster. As coalescing elements "ffreeze," concentric layers which are brighter or duller, lighter or darker, or more opaque, translucent, or transparent than adjacent layers are created. Whether or not beadmakers consciously created polychrome beads to exhibit these traits remains unknown, but because beads of this class have fortuitous layers that are easily distinguished, they are classified as polychrome beads. Once cooled, the polychrome canes were chopped into bead-length segments for subsequent sorting and packaging. Beads of this class do not appear to have been fire-polished or hot-tumbled. Two types are identified. Type DIPCCU - Undecorated Cylindrical Beads (n = 5). These beads have a circular cross section with a central core and an outer covering that can be of a color either similar to or different from the color of the core. One variety (Variety 24) is identified (figure 8.1). Similar examples are not known from other western North American contexts. Type D/PMCDf - Complex, Multi-Sided Beads with Ground Facets (n = 1). This fortuitously layered, polychrome bead is ceated in the same manner as the equivalent Type D/MMCDf discussed above. The single bead idendfied belongs to the following subtype. Subtype D/PM2CDf - Beads with Two Rows of Ground Facets. It is a transparent on translucent bead (figure 8.2). For further discussion on this bead subtype, its sizes, and cultural affiliation, see the discussion above for Subtype D/MM2CDf beads. Variety 74 beads are reported from 1829-1860 Hudson's Bay Company Fort Vancouver (Ross 1990:Variety IIIf-d6/7p/tls-2). Monochrome Beads with a Hot-Tumbled Finish Of this class, 271 beads are identified and subdivided into two types. They are hot-tumbled versions of monochrome beads with chopped ends. Some specimens may exhibit a second layer of glass similar in color to its principal color (Kidd and Kidd 1970:48-49). Even though these might be described as double-layer poly- chrome beads (e.g., Type D/PCHU beads), they appear to represent fortuitous coloration perhaps due to the cooling of the glass. Whether or not beadmakers consciously created these polychrome beads to exhibit these traits remains unknown, but due to the fortuitous layers that are as monochrome beads (e.g., D/MCHU beads). After drawn canes were cut into bead-length segments, these segments were tumbled over a fire in a rotating container or drum that, during the mid-19th century, may have contained ash and sand (Hoppe and Homschuch 1818), lime and charcoal (Anonymous 1835; Bussolin 1847; Carroll 1917; Karklins with Adams 1990:72), or plaster and graphite or clay and charcoal dust (Francis 1979:10). This method of rounding sharp edges of beads cut from a drawn cane was invented by the Italian Luigi Pusinich and perfected in 1864 by Antonio Frigo (Gasparetto 1958:198). Prior to the invention of hot tumbling, or the rotating-drum method, a less efficient furnace method was used: In this process, the tubes [cut bead segmrents] were placed in a large copper pan with a mixture of powdered charcoal or ash and sand. The pan was placed in aferraccia (ferrazza) fuinace and the contents stirred until the tube segments were suffi- ciently rounded (Karklins and Adams 1990:72-73; Karklins and Jordan 1990:6). Although this method was used to round large and very large beads as well (Karklins and Adams 1990:73), it was a tine- consuning operation as it took a long time for the thick tube segments to soften and become rounded (Karklins 1993:27). It is difficult to impossible to distinguish furnace- rounded and hot-tumbled beads from one another. Most rounded drawn beads manufactured prior to the adoption of hot tumbling were assumed to be generally larger and sometimes exhibited flat surfaces caused by contact of bead surfaces with the rounding pan. Hot-tumbled beads also can have flattened surfaces, generally created when a hot and plastic drawn cane was placed too quickly on a cooling floor or table. An earlier process for rounding drawn beads was in use at least from the early seven- teenth century to the late eighteenth century. This method, called the a speo method, is used to round bead segments generally larger than 4 mm in diameter (Karklins 1993). For western North American sites, a speo-rounded beads have yet to be recognized from archaeological assemblages. Type D/MCHU - Undecorated Cylindrical Beads. Of this type, 268 beads are identified. They represent the simplest type of finished, monochrome, drawn beads, an undecorated type with a circular cross section. This is the most common type in western archaeological sites, and in the Native Alaskan Neighborhood where it makes up 47.5% of the bead assemblage. It exists in two forms- short (with a torus to round shape) and long (with a rounded cylindrical shape)-and was manufactured from transparent, translucent, and opaque glass. Twenty-eight varieties are identified (figures 8.3 and 8.4). Many of these varieties are reported from other western North American contexts, but because of subtle variations in difficult to distinguish in these beads, they are classified colors and the difficulty in comparing reported colors, it 184 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood is not possible to provide accurate comparative data among sites. From the analysis of beads from other archaeological sites (e.g., Ross 1990), it has been ascertained that bead sizes can occur at regular intervals (e.g., 0.454.56 and 0.8-mm intervals). For beadmakers to obtain sizes measured to such fine intervals, they sorted beads by sieving, using stacked, graded wire screens (Bussolin 1847; Karklins with Adams 1990:73) with mesh openings decreasing 0.4 to 0.8 mm per screen. Hand-sorting might have resulted in the creation of these subtle and regular sizes, but it would have been labor intensive, more costly, and perhaps not as accurate. Multiple sizes appear to exist for a few of the varieties at the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (e.g., Varieties 2, 16, and 19), but because of the low frequencies of beads for each size, it is premature to define size sorting intervals. Type D/MCHDf - Cylindrical Beads with Ground Facets (n = 3). These monochrome "seed" beads (Type D/MCHU beads) have 5 to 11 randomly ground facets. One variety is identified (figure 8.2). Variety 28 beads are also reported from 1829-1860 Hudson's Bay Company, Fort Vancouver, Washington (Ross 1990: Variety IIf-tps- 2). Figure 83 Drawn, Hot-Tumbled, Undecorated Opaque and Translucent, Monochrome Beads from the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (n = 153) to}.7D Type aSDR ON D/MCHU DECa31ON Cwmm Undecorated Bmd o col. thisnvA may Include Variei 2. 32, ad 4. Baed on diaphanefty. this vwty may biclded V.ri. 17 ed 45. Undecorated BDeds my be asl-aaimed. Band on cslsr. ibi varity way bea vw is d VarIty 16. Undecorated Dead may be uol-staised. Basd on esle. tbi vaity may be a vatiua d Varty 1& UndecoraW Beeds may be goa-daand. 1und o eceor. thi veAy may va vaidis d arlety 16& A few beads bae" feretim feets prndInto their smurfa Undecoated Undecorated Undcr ted Undecorated Undeorted Based on finih thin variety may twlde Varity 66 boed Bamed on solor. thi vrty may include Vaty 26 bead Undecorated Busd on color. thi vety may be a vaties at Varid y 5. Udecated ILt PAUS saZ LEwSr omM x UIH (mm) i i~ ~~~~ i i 4 i - 4 opwec DU1 opau Dtm1 to Pitted PaUDi No Do Patiac NO Pie PWA Patina: No Oto Dun to Noisy PNo OP" Op_qe DoB PN Dd Paktina Ton Trandomcot hit DuD Patia: NO Del Patina: No hi Patinc: NO N 9.5/ IL. Graym-whie I~ 1N 8/ Nomecbrona IL Yedlwim-white lOT 9/1 tol N 1.25/ DL & - 7UR 3/4 DIL O-dL- 7.2t 3/2 IL ash-blue 2.5F 6/4 Moneefrem 101 5/8 S@G 4/2 MEonobraem Gr5nlCh-ble8 7.51 4/8 Hmonechome Greenish-bhme 126C 4/6 Dr. GrsonMs-blue 2. 4/8 But Tumbled CHdri?l Shet to la" Eot TuMbled Shet Bat Tumbled Cybdia Sheet -nal Bet Tumbled Sbhet to teg Bat Tumbled Shet Bd Tumbled w Tbdrk Bot Tumbled lot Tumbled lot Tmbled Cylinricl Short Edt Tumbled lot TSombled short Bat Tumbled 1.7-1.9 s 0.6-1.1 2.0-&Ox Is.-ac &50-9 x 2.4-28 4I. z52 5.2 x 2.5 22-2.6 x 13-1.4 53-3.5 1-57 5.9 x 21 28 2.1 sx 25 &5-41 I x.3-26 3.3-4.0 s 1.7-4.0 U-5.0 s &I-3.3 2.5-5. x 1.1-24 3.2s 1.5 32-.4 s 1.4-1.9 3.2 i 2.0-29 24-5.0 x 1.7-2.9 .39 x 565 2.63.3 s 2.6-3.6 NAE 16 2 52 46 4 51 23 27 31 52 2 26 53 Plate s. Plate 3b Plate Sc Plate 3d Pate So Plate St Plate 3S PlIA ml Plate S Pate Sj Mate 3k Plate a Pate 3m CWM7K I D W' 26 21 4 as 22 3 2 dds' b KdW a rbddse Da rddi Da lwdd Ha 14 I idwdia KWdd Kldin Ha X ddi Ha 16Wd Ba Kiddo' Ha JUdd Ha i i i I I I I I I Trade Beads 185 Polychrome Beads with a Hot-Tumbled Finish Of this class, 224 beads are identified and subdivided into one type (D/PCHU). They are hot-tumbled versions of polychrome beads with chopped ends, finished in the same manner as the monochrome beads with a hot- tumbled finish. Only polychrome beads with distinctive layers of color are included within this class. This is the second most common bead tpe recovered from western archaeological sites. In the Native Alaskan Neighbor- hood, it makes up 39.7% of the bead assemblage and consists of eight varieties (figure 8.5). The brownish-red on light green (Variety 3) and red on white (Variety 56) varieties are often termed "comaline d'Aleppo" or "Hudson's Bay Company" beads (e.g., Jenkins 1975; Mile 1975). They are frequently associated with Native American sites and are especially common in the early and mid-19th century. Beads of this type are reported from a variety of relatively tightly dated, western North American contexts: Variety 45 Beads (opaque white on opaque white) * 1829-1860 Hudson's Bay Company Fort Vancouver, Washington (Ross 1990:Variety IVa-op/ops-1) * post-1812 Fort Ross, Califomia (Smith 1974:Items 20-33) * post-contact to ca. 20th century San Buenaventura Mission site (CA-VEN-87), Ventura, California (Gibson, R. 0. 1975:Types C4a) * ca. 1784-early 20th century Mission Santa Clara de Assis, Santa Clara County, California (Bone 1975:Type C4a and C4f) * 1885-1900 context in Old Sacramento, Califomia (Motz and Schulz 1980:52, Type 13, figure 3b) * 1809-1868 Mission San Jose (CA-ALA-1), Fremont, California (Dietz 1983) * post-1838 CA-CAL-S-286 and post-1856 CA-TUO- 395, New Melones Reservoir, California (Van Bueren 1983:Type IVa2O) Variety 3 Beads (opaque brownish-red on very light green) * 1829-1860 Hudson's Bay Company Fort Vancouver, Washington (Ross 1990:VaIiety IVa-op/tps-1) * post-1812 Fort Ross, California (Smith 1974:Items 34-36) * ca. 1771-ca early 20th century Mission San Antonio (CA-MNT-100, Meighan 1985:Type 105) * post-contact to ca. 20th century San Buenaventura Mission site (CA-VEN-87), Ventura, California (Gibson, R. 0. 1975:Types C4a, C6a, C6b; 1976:Types C6a and C6a') * ca. 1784-rly 20th century Mission Santa Clara de Assis, Santa Clara County, Califormia (Bone 1975:Type C6a) Variety 18 Beads (opaque brownish-red on dark red to black) * post-1856 CA-TUO-395, New Melones Reservoir, California (Van Bueren 1983:Type IVal) Variety 56 Beads (transparent red on opaque white) * 1829-1860 Hudson's Bay Company Fort Vancouver, Washington (Ross 1990:Variety IVa-tp/ops-1) * post-contact to ca. 20th century San Buenaventura Mission site (CA-VEN-87), Ventura, Califomia (Gibson, R. 0. 1975:Types C4a, C6a, C6b; 1976:Types C6b and C6b') * 1809-1868 Mission San Jose (CA-ALA-1), Fremont, Califomia (Dietz 1983) * post-1838 CA-CAL-S-286 and post-1856 CA-TUO- 395, New Melones Reservoir, California (Van Bueren 1983:Type IVa5/6t7). WOUND BEADS Fifty-one wound beads are identified and grouped into thirty varieties of eight types constituting one class. Simple wound beads were manufactured by wrapping or winding molten glass around a rotating mandrel, such as a wire, rod, or straw coated with a clay slip. Beads were produced individually, or conjoined (probably acciden- tally), were then removed from their shafts, annealed, cleaned, sorted, and packaged. Complex and decorated wound beads were altered by molding or shaping, by applying stripes, by faceting, etc. Shaped wound beads were manufactured by winding glass on a mandrel and then, by using: 1) an open mold, the decoration was pressed into the surface while the glass tumed or 2) a pinching tool with molded faces (similar to a bullet mold) to press the decoration into the surface while the glass was stationary. Wound beads are the third most common group at westem archaeological sites, and at the Native Alaskan Neighborhood they make up 9.0% of the bead assemblage. Undecorated and Decorated Monochrome Wound Beads (n= 51) Beads of this class, subdivided into eight types, have a monochrome body, either unshaped or shaped and undecorated or decorated. Type WIMSU - Undecorated Spheroidal Beads (n = 10). Roughly spheroidal and without decoration, four varieties of these have been identified (figure 8.6). Va- rieties 36 and 72 are also reported from 1829-60 Hudson's Bay Company Fort Vancouver, Washington (Ross 1990:Variety WIb-stps-5 and WIb-stis-1). Type WsIMSDf - Decorated Spheroidal Bead with Shaped Facets (n = 1). This is a roughly spheroidal, 5- sided bead with 10 shaped facets in two rows. Only one variety is identified (figure 8.9). No Variety 71 beads are known for other western North American contexts (see Ross 1990 for discussion of possible specimens from the Kanaka Village site adjacent to Hudson's Bay Company 186 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Fort Vancouver). Type WIMSDcl - Decorated Spheroidal Beads with Combed Loops (n = 4). These are roughly spheroidal, and were decorated by trailing molten glass onto the viscous surface, and then dragging a wire through the applique to form a single string of combed loops around the circumference. Two varieties are identified (figure 8.8). No Variety 14 or 35 beads are known from other western North American contexts. Type WIMOU - Undecorated Ovoidal Beads (n = 28). These are roughly ovoidal or barrel-shaped, and 18 varieties are identified (figure 8.7) as well as one sub- type. Varieties 34, 37, 61, 63, 68, and 80 also are reported from 1829-1860 Hudson's Bay Company Fort Vancouver, Washington (Ross 1990:Varieties WIc-btps-5, WIc-btps/14, and WIc-btps-6, WIc-bops-2, WIc-btps/1-3, and WIc-btps-1). Subtype WIMOUc - Conjoined, Undecorated Ovoidal Beads. One bead (Variety 76) of this subtype is identified. This subtype is two beads that touched one Figure 8.4 Drawn, Hot-Tumbled, Undecorated Transparent, Monochrome Beads from the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (N = 115) (iD toEIII DECOywN ConW5 SZE LEAST DOAMU x H (mm) I I I~~ I I I__ _ __ _ _ _ I __ _ I Unhdecte Some bega may be soi Uacorated Undecoted Undcrted One bead fsd to Variety 40 bead Udecorated Undecrted Udcrad ted stab"& a Undecorated U-decorated Baed on colr this aey may nude Variety 43 bead. B don color, ti v May be a writion f Variety 10. Uerated Undecorated Undeorted Based on color, this vriety may include Variety 19 beads Undecorated Based on cor, tbix vaiety =my be a vaiato of Variety 4 Undecorated Da to Patia No Tr_r Dali & Pited Patina No Dal to Shiny patina NO Pitad Patinw. Some Ptte Patina: No Tma Ptted PNtim. Yes Da Patina Sme Dal to Pated Patna: Sme Dali Shin & Prded Patina No Dali & Patina: NO Tranpn Siy Patin No Trawom -tY Patina: No Patina No DoR to PAW Pam No Transparet Dal Patinw. Some D/MCHU Type UGY COLR i NOaDON DWNI, PAIN SNHSH NumBER COWMAE WAN 1 21 55 87 29 42 9 10 43 54 41 48 19 20 Qea N 9/ Parphh-red aM 3/4 DL Pd 2.22/2 DL kwAtG-rod 1X 2/2 Monochrome 7.SYR 5/8 I. Yelow 5Y 85/6 mOGY 4/8 7.G 3/6 DI Gre lOG S/8 2..58 4/8 bk 7.BG 4/8 Prpih-bue 5PB 3/8 aMoochrme 7.SPE 3/8 ML Pwvle 7SP8 2/4 Tumbled Sot Bet Tmbled Shorthqar BEd Tumbled Bet Tumbled BEt Tumbled Cyfd Short Be Tumbled Cybre Short Bet Tumbled c-a Short Bat Tumbled c-a Shot to Lcg Bot Tumbled Short Beyt Ttumbled Cybdk Short Bet Tummbled Short Belt Tumbled Short Bet Tumbled Short to Long krqle ar Cytdinmn Bet Tumbled QLwmry 2 6 2.8&1 x 1.8-2.5 3. x 2O 2.7 x 1.4 3.7 x 2.7 2.7-3.2 x 1.6-1.1 2.5 1.1 95 x 1.7 1.9-2.2 x 12-1.9 2.-33 x 1.5-2.3 .7-4.0 x 24-2.8 32-.4 x V7-38 &7-42 x 19-26 3. x 2o 2.9-&. x 1.8-2.9 2.2 12 3.8 x 2.6 2.2-2.3 x 1.4-1.5 2.9-3.B x 24-&8 4.1 x 4 2.5-2. x 1.3-1.7 Z9-&6 x 1.7-2.5 Plate 4a Plate 4b Plate 4c Plate 4d Plate 4e Plate 41 Plate 4g Plate 4h Plate 41 Plate 4j Plate 4k Plate 41 Plate 4m Plate 4n Plate 4o FE Da Kidda N Kidde Ha Kldds' No I"a Da KIdds'No Kidde No Kldds Ha KIdd' Nlo KiW h lKddse No Kldds' Na Trade Beads 187 another during manufacture and became fused or conjoined (figure 8.7). No similar beads are known from other western North American contexts. Type Ws/MOU - Undecorated Ovoidal Beads (n = 2). These are ovoidal or barrel-shaped beads contoured while turning with a forming tool to complete the shape, with only one variety identified (figure 8.9). No Variety 33 beads are known from other westem North American contexts. Type WsIMTU - Undecorated Toroidal Bead (n = 1). This doughnut-shaped bead was contoured while tuming with a forning tool to complete the shape, with only one variety identified (figure 8.9). No Variety 58 beads are known from other western North American contexts. Type WIMEDs - Decorated Ellipsoidal Bead with a Complex Spiral Stripe (n = 1). This bead, roughly ellipsoidal in shape, has a complex polychrome stripe spiralled around and pressed into the body. Only one variety is identified (figure 8.8). No Variety 40 beads are known for other western North American contexts. Type WsIMBpDf- Decorated Bipyramidal Beads with Quadrilateral Facets (n = 3). A flat-sided tool was employed to shape these beads into a roughly bipyramidal shape with four sides (or eight shaped Figure 8.5 Drawn, Hot-Tumbled, Undecorated Polychrome Beads from the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (n = 224) (@) to Type D/PCHU DECORATION COMMENTS Undecorated One bead fused to a Variety 65 bead. Based on color, this variety may include Variety I and 17 beads. Based on diaphaneity, this variety nay be a variation of Variety 16. Undecorated Beads may be soil-stained. Based on color, this variety may be a variation of Variety 45. Based on diaphaneity, this variety may be a variation of Variety 16. Undecorated Based on color, this variety may be a variaion of Variety 45. Undecorated Undecorated Based on color, this variety may include Variety 18 beads. Undecorated Based on color, this variety may be a varation of Variety 3; the inner core appears to have been altered from a transparent green to an opaque dk. red or black. Undecorated Interior surface of perforation is coated with an opaque white substance (carbonates or kaolin clay?). Undecorated Inner black layer does not appear to be glass (may be a residue). May be a Type D/MCHU bead. owP nEy LUSTER PATKA LAYERING COLOR UWELL NOTATION SIZE LEAST ODIAETER x LENGTH (mm) l i t ' l i l Opaque on Opaque Dull Patina: No Opaque on Opaque Pitted Patina: No Opaque to Translucent on Opaque Dull, Shiy. & Pitted Paina: No Opaque on Opaque Satiny Patina: No Opaque on Transparent DulL Shiny. & Pitted Patina: Some Opaque on Opaque to Translucent Dull Patina: No Transparent on Opaque Shiny Patina: No Transparent on Opaque Dull & Pitted Palina: No Polychrome (2) White N 9.25/ on White N 9/ Polychrome (2) U. Yellowish-white 2.5Y 9/2 on U. Yellowish-white 2.5Y 9/2 Polychrome (2) V. IL Grayish-white to Yelowish-white N 9-9.5/ to 5Y 9/1 Vn V. U. Gryish-white to Yellowish-white N 9-9.5/ to 5Y 9/1 Polycbrome (2) U. Yellowish-white 2.5Y 9/4 on LL Yellowish-white 2.5Y 9/4 Polychrome (2) Brownish-red IOR 3/8 on V. Lt. Creen (almost clear) to Ll Green 2.5GY 8/4 Polychrome (2) Brownish-red IOR 3/8 on Dk. Red to Black IOR 1-2/1-6 Polychrome (2) Red SR 4/14 on White N 9.5/ Polychrome (2?) U. Brownish-yellouw IOYR 3/6 on Black (?) 5YR 2/1 Cylindrical Short to Long Irregular Hot Tumbled Cylindrical Short Hot Tumbled Cylindrical Short Irregular Hot Tumbled Cylindrical Short Hot Tumbled Cylindrical Short Irregular Hot Tumbled Cylindrical Short to Long Irregular Hot Tumbled Cylindrical Short Hot Tumbled Cylindrical Short Hot Tumbled SHAPE LENGTH ANSH PLATE NUMBER VARNU NUMBE 45 17 47 3 18 56 22 1.8-2.4 x 0.8-1.5 2.9-3.6 x 2.0-2-5 3.4 x 5.0 3.5 x 2.0 22-4.5 x 1.4-4.3 1.9-3.1 x 1.1-2.0 3.7-3.8 x 2.5-32 1.7-2.1 x 12-1.6 2.5-2.9 x 1.7-1.8 2.9-4.3 x 2.6-3.2 5.0 x 4.0 2.1-3.2 x 1.4-2.5 3.4-3.5 x 2.8-3.5 Plate 5e Plate Sb Plate Sc Plate Sd Plate 5e Plale 5f U ANTITY 27 2 78 10 86 18 2 COMPARATIE NUMBERS Kidds' Na Kidds' la Kidds' Na lGdds' NVa Kidds' Na Kidds' Na Kidds' lVa Kidds' NVa? or Kidds' lIa 2.2-2.4 x 1.4-1.9 3.8 x 2.3 Plate 5g Plate Sh i i i i v i i i 188 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 8.6 Wound, Spheroidal, Undecorated Beadsfrom the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (n = 10) DEOUDAON STVER PATINA LA Type W/MSU !y I E COLOR U&ISEJ. NOTAlTON SIZE PLATE LEAST DIA ET x LENGTlH (mm) NJU8ER 72 Undecoated bmslucent Monochrome SphWaida 89 x .9 Plate Xe lldd Vib I Dull Whie eaa PaUna: No N &75/ 67 Undecorated Translucnt Monochrome Spberoldal 84 x 6.9 Plate Sb KUdd' h I isteror soace of perforaton Dul Reddish-ormge Irega is coated wt an opque hite Patia: Yes 7.5R 4/8 substance (crontes or kaolin I___ day?). I_I_ _ I I 'Undecorated Bead fued to a Varety 45 beadL Undecorated Trasparet Pitted Patina: No Tnpatent Dal Patina NO MoDochrome Gear Monochrome Dk. Purpisb-blue 7.5PB 2/2-6 Pphcvoida Sphe'oid brregular 7.3-7.7 x 5.7-6.4 Pate SC facets), with only one variety identified (figure 8.9). Called Variety 30, a similar red variety is reported from 1829-1860 Hudson's Bay Company Fort Vancouver, Washington (Ross 1990:Type WIIq-qbptpl-1). BLOWN BEADS Two blown beads are identified and grouped into two varieties of two Wpes making up one class. Blown beads are created by various techniques (Karklins 1982:98). Beads from this site appear to have been freeblown. Simple Monochrome Beads Two beads of this class are identified and grouped into two types. Type BIM?Df - Decorated Bead of an Unknown Shape with Ground Facets (n = 1). This bead was manufactured by freeblowing glass either individually or in a series, with a random number of ground facets. One variety is identified (figure 8.10). Type BIM?Dsf - Decorated Bead of an Unknown Shape with a Stripe and Ground Facets (n = 1). This variety of bead (figure 8.10) was manufactured by freeblowing glass either individually or in a series, inlaying a horizontal stripe, and grinding random facets. THE CERAMIC BEAD IN THE ASSEMBLAGE Ceramic beads are distinguished from glass beads on the basis of their composition and manufacturing techniques. Glass beads are generally manufactured from a molten gather that is shaped into a finished form, or may be manufactured by pressing and melting or fusing broken, crushed, or powdered glass in a mold. Ceramic beads may be manufactured from a dry or moist powder or cold liquid that is packed or poured into a mold, subsequently removed from the mold and fired, with or without a glaze or slip. Qnly one class is identified. PROSSER-MOLDED BEADs One bead is identified. Prosser-molded beads were manufactured variously by pressing a dry or moist mixture of powdered clay, flint, feldspar, metallic oxides, and "other earthy materials" in a mold. Upon removal from the mold, the bead would then have been bisque fired. Whether this firing produced the glossy surface of the bead at the Fort Ross Beach Site, or whether the bead was subsequently glazed and glost fired is not known. Historical accounts of the "Prosser" techniques indicate that after bisque firing, the molded objects could be decorated, fired again, glazed, and fired for the final time. The process was originally patented in 1840 by Richard Prosser but may have been invented in 1832 by his brother Thomas, who claimed to have made the first button by this process in 1837. The process was used in Great Britain, America, France, and Bohemia from the 19th century, and was employed primarily for the manufacture of "china" or "calico" buttons (Sprague 1983). The only recovered ceramic bead belongs to the simple monochrome class. A decorated spheroid bead with a band, its type is designated PI/MSDb. It is a slightly tapered, spheroidal bead with a relatively broad band circumscribing its mid-line. One variety is identi- fied (figure 8.11). Variety 7 beads are also reported for the 1846-1847 Murphy Cabin site in California (Ross 1993: Variety PM-1). SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL COMPARISONS Of the 564 beads analyzed, 16 came from FRBS and VANR COMPAPAVE NLA8ERS QuIAT 65 36 ]Gdde lb? Gdde' Vib 7 VAJ8 NHUM Trade Beads 189 Figure 8.7 Woufld, Ovoidal, Undecorated Beadsfrom the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (n = 29) to to ( and ( SOr LOWN COtNED Type W/MOU and W/MOUc al ECORA1ION M&eiitY wti %E SuE PE n OWPATE UAlT m coOs WuSm COLOR LNTH xAT OLETE Lx (mm) KAMR NUBE PA1TA NSELL NOTATION 73 Undecorated Opaque Monochrome OvoaidaL Irguar 5.6-5.8 x 3.3-3.4 Plate 7. Kidda' TIc 3 Pitted and lack Short 6.5 s 4.8 broded II 0.75/ Patina: Yes 83 Undeorated Opaque Monochrome Ovodal Irregular 6.2 s 7.7 Plate 7b [idd& 'Cc I Interior surface of perforation is Dul Blick Long coated with a dark materl Patia: No N 0.5/ _(ferrou steing?). _ 62 Undecoted Translucent Monochrome Ovodal 42 x 13.6 Plate 7c lldds' Tic I Dou & Eoded Org -red Lo Patina: Yea 7.6R 3/10 69 Uadeoated Trcacent M hrome Ovoidal 6.0-6.7 x 6.3-&9 Plate 7d 13dd Tic 2 Baed on color, may nclude Dul LI. Yelowish-brown Short Variety 6. Patina Yes IOYR 6/8 6 Undecrated Tansluent YMonocrom Ovoidal 7.5 x 6.2 Plate 7e lGddsk Tc I Based on color. may be a Dul & trded Yelowish-bron vartion of Variety s6. Patina: Yea IOYR 4/8 76 Undecoated Tranlent Monochrome OoidaL Irr u 8.6 x 10.7 Plate 7f --- Conoimed beads. Dul DL Yellowish-brown Lon fused during manufact n Patina: Yes I01R 3/6 70 Undected Translcnt Monochrome Ovoidal 7.8 x 6.9 Plate 7g Kiddi Tlc I Dull V. L Browaisb-yelov Short Patin Yes IOTR 6/8 13 Undecoated Trnpant Monochrome Ovodal 4.0 x 3.1 Plate 7b Kidds' Tic I Dul & Pited led Shot Patina Yes 7.51 3/10 68 Undecoated TransParet aolohrome OvoidO iraLregula 5.8 x 4.3 Plate 7i Idda' TIc 4 DoMl Yeloish-brn Sbort 6.9 x 6.3 Patina: Ye 7.YR 4/8 7.9 x 6.5 15 Undecorated Tranprt Mnochrome Ovoidal 6.7 x 5.6 Plate 7j Klddi Tic 2 Dul DL Yelowlsb-bron Short Patina: Yea 7.5T 2/2 37 Undecorated Tanspret Monchwrome Ovoidal 8.1 x 6.7 Plate 7k Kdd Tic 1 Dul & boded V. IL Tellwish-brow Short Patina: No 2.SY 6/6 79 Undecorated Tran t Monochrome Ovoidal 6.7 s 6.4 Plate 71 lidd Tic I Duf Pitad T. LIYello ishort Patina:No Y 9/2 34 Undeorated Trnpart M rome Ooidal. Irgular --- Plate ?m Kidds' Tic 2 Du Green Short Patina: No 2.5G 3/10 59 Undecorated Transparet Mlochrean Ovoidal 6.0 x 4.3 Plate 7n Kids' Tic I Interior surface o perforation is Pitted B lush-gre Short cated ith a dark matWi Patina: Yea 7.5G 3/8 (feo stainng). 64 Undecoated Trapart o re OvoidaL IrrTegular 6.5 x 4.9 Plate 7o Kidds Tic I Interior surace of pfratio b Dul k Pittd Purplis-blue Short coated with a dark materil Patina: Yea IOB 2/4 (fer daing). 6O Undecoad Transp t Mo e Ovoidal 6.2 s 4.7 Plate ?p lKdds' Tic I inteior surfac pof orsn Is Pitted p sh-blue Short oed witb a dark mateal Patina: No 25PB 2/6 (ferrous stainine). 61 Undecorated Transpart Modnocrome Ovoidal 6.2 x 4.4 Plate 7q Kldds' Tic 2 intral sace of perforation is Pited Blish-purple Short coated h a dark mateil Patikna Yes SfB 2/8 (ferrou stainin). 8 Undecoated Trnparent Monochrome Ovoidal.Irregu 6.2 s 5.2 Plate 7r Kidds' WTc 2 Dull Dk. Purple Sbort 23.8 a >17.5 Patina: No 7.PB 2/6 75 Undecorated Transparent DuD Patina No Bluish-geree ZSB 5/6 Ovcodal? Xidds' Tic? I '90 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Figure 8.8 Wound, Decorated Beads from the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (n = 5) Type W/MSDcl DECORAON IXAPKiY LAYr SE SuE PUE COLE C0m ME uST COLOR LEfN LAS DU ETE x LO tMI (mm) NUWBER NAT PATA lULE NOTATION PAMRAE nom 14 Decoated bilayed with horizontal Transpart Monochrome SpberoIdal 8.8 x 8.9 Plate 8a Iuklns Mb I opaque vhIte (N 9/) Sbiny Purpish-red rular combed loops. PaUtn: No 6R 3/6 36 Decorated: Inayed with hoizontal Transpart Monochrome Spberoidal 8.1-9.1 x 7.1-7.4 Plate 8b , ruklins Tib 3 opaque white (--) DuD & boded Dk. Prple Tegular combed loopa Patn No 7.5P3 2/4 Type W/MEDs 40 Decortd; bayed comiplexspia Trnsparent Monochrome llipsdal 33 x 86 --- larklls 11b I mprised of a thin opaque Pitted Crae rod(---) dripe oat tick PaUna. No SG 3/8 opaque white (- ) sripe. Bead tused to a Variety 29 bead. Figure 8.9 Wound-and-Shaped Beadsfrom the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (n = 7) Type Ws/MOU VARI DECORlUN IA r ULUG SHWE SWE PAltE CmA QtM NM cowi s uSE COLOR LENCrH LEASr UETR x LENCH (mm) NAMBER 6NBEJt PAThA IDNSELL NOTAION 33 UndcoTranucent Y Oo 68-&7 x 6.3-6.4 Plate Sc i(dd' TIc 2 inteior uface of perforaon I Dul A b oded Yeoishb-rom Short coated wih an opaque white Paina: Yes 7.5YR 4/B subetance (carbonates or kaoli clay?). Type Ws/MTU 58 Undeoratd Tnslucent Monchrome Toroid 9.2 x 5.6 Plate 8d Iddi' tld I tio sace of proraUon i Dull Ydeoish-brown reul coated with an opaque white Patina: Yes 7.5YR 4/8 substance (carbonates or kaolin clay?). Type Ws/MBpDf 30 Decorated; faced wth Traspart Monochrome Quadiatral- 3.5-4.1 x 62-6.8 Plate Be Kar|hn lIq 3 8 absaped facets. Pltted Dk. Purplisb-red btpyramldl Patina: Yes 5R 3/B long Type Ws/MSDf 71 Decorated; faced with Trnpart Monochrome Spberoil 10 shaped facets. Dull Dk. Browh-red Irregular Patina: No 2.65Y 2/2 8.6 s 8.4 Plate8 f | ddil lc I VARVY NUM Trade Beads 191 548 were recovered from NAVS. FORT ROSS BEACH SITE BEAD ASSEMBL4GE The bead assemblage from FRBS consists of 16 beads of 9 varieties (table 8.1). Because of the low frequency of beads and possible disturbed and secondary contexts of this site's deposits, little cultural information can be obtained from this assemblage. All but Variety 7 also were found in the NAVS bead assemblage. Because FRBS is located downslope from NAVS, and because of the comparable varieties of beads at both sites, there is a high likelihood that FRBS is a secondary deposit from NAVS. Importantly, the only variety not recovered from the Village site (Variety 7) is a Prosser-molded ceramic bead dating post-1840, i.e., after abandonment of Fort Ross by the Russians. One melted bead (P1020-253) of an unknown variety was noted, and is not included in the bead assemblage count. NATIVE ALASKAN VIL4LGE SIrE ASsEMBLAGE There are 548 beads in the assemblage, consisting of 78 bead varieties (table 8.2). Percentage comparisons for selected attributes include: Manufacturing Types (figure 8.12) Drawn Beads - 90.7% (n = 497) Wound Beads - 8.9% (n = 49) Blown Beads - 0.4% (n =2) Decoration Undecorated Beads - 96.9% (n = 531) Decorated Beads - 3.1% (n = 17) Faceted - 70.5% (n = 12) Other- 29.5% (n = 5) Relative Sizes Embroidery Beads (small; approximately 0.5-6.0 mm) - 92.7% (n = 508) Necklace (large; generally >6.0 mm) - 7.3% (n = 40) Colors (figure 8.12) White/Clear/Gray - 33.0% (n = 181) Red - 23.0% (n = 126) Green - 16.2% (n= 89) Black - 12.2% (n = 67) Blue - 8.0% (n = 44) Purple - 4.0% (n = 22) Yellow/Amber - 3.5% (n = 19) Color Layering Monochrome - 80.8% (n = 443) Polychrome - 19.2% (n = 105) Four of the beads were fused after manufacture, presum- ably by inadvertent heating at the Village. One Variety 29 bead is fused to a Variety 40 bead (P1019-505), and one possible Variety 45 bead is fused to a Variety 65 bead Figure 8.10 Blown Beadsfrom the Native Alaskan Neighborhood (n = 2) Shapes Unknown Type B/M?Df and B/M?Dsf DECRDION couMMNS DFPAO Y U LUS7ER COLOR PATA MUNSELL NOTAlION LECH nNs DLEAST IXM x LDGf (mm) PLUI NUMER MWAPA1nE NUMBER aQTMfl 38 Decorated faceted ith an uown Tanxparent onocbrome - YArklia r B 1 number ol random groumd taoet. Dull Purplh-red --- Patina. No z 3/10_ 39 Decorate- faceted with an unkown Translucent Iioocbrome _Karkins M I anber of ground facets, and Dul V. Dk. Prpis-red re iayed with one opaque Patina: No to Black -- wht (N /) borizontal srip.. IORP 2/1 Figure 8.11 Prosser-Molded Ceramic Beadfrom the Fort Ross Beach Site (n = 1) Type PM/MSDb VAR(IY MDCOR&DION I lPH t LAYEC I SR SQE PLATE CP ARAVE ;LaY ~JL~R couuENls J WSTR COLR j LEAST CUEIR x LENGTH (mm) NUUBER NUMBERS PATKA LJNI N _ __A7 Decwst4& banded with one borizontal be.d at ercumference. Ver glAuike fabric that bs wry slhtly granular. Trrnlu t Shiny Patina: No Monochrome Greenish-blue 2.5B 6/8 Spbeical Banded Lrkhs PM VAI1Y 7 I 192 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood (P1019-573). Each of these fdur beads are included with the total variety counts for the assemblage. One melted bead (P1019461) of an unknown variety is noted, and is not included in the bead assemblage count. NATIVE AMERICAN BEAD COLOR PREFERENCES Prior to the arrival of Europeans to western North America, Native Americans manufactured beads from white clam and dentalia shells, bone, and ivory; purple mussel shell; multicolored olivella and abalone shells; buff to red magnesite and catlinite; black steatite and argillite; blue turquoise; and yellowish-brown amber. The predominant color across North America was white, refleciing the common usage of shell beads (Bennyhoff and Hughes 1987; also see the 20-volume Handbook of North American Indians, edited by William C. Sturtevant, published by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C.; individual volumes variously dated with some still unpublished). With the arrival of Europeans and their glass beads, initial colors of choice among most Native Americans in westem North America appear to have been principally white and secondarily blue (e.g., Ahler and Drybred 1993; Davis 1972; Moulton 1983): When European traders offered their Indian partners glass beads, silver brooches, silk ribbons, and colored cloth, these materials were interpreted in terms of their symbolic implications and potential for power. The most frequently encountered trade materials on early (eighteenth-century) dress include white glass beads, red and blue cloth, tin and copper cones with vermil- MATERIAL ion-dyed tassels of deer hair, brass hawk bells, and vermilion pigmenL Glass beads and brass or silver pendants compared closely with ornaments made of white shell, copper, red jasper, and catlinite, that had been exchanged intertribally across the continent for thousands of years before European trade began. The "trinkets and baubles," dismissed as trivial when traded away by Europeans, were transformed into expressions of wealth and power when incorporated into Indian dress and wom on the body as omnaments. European traders looked on in astonishment as Indians suspended iron axes around their necks, used house keys for omarnents, or hung papers of bins from their hair (Bailey 1969:60; Keating 1959:383) but without comprehension of how these had been evaluated by their new owners. As the fur trade fonnalized into pattems that dispersed quantities of ornamental trade goods across the continent, women began to develop techniques for incorporating these invaluable materials into expressions of dress (Penney 1992:36). Perhaps within one generation of contact, red, green, red-on-green, red-on-yellow, red-on-white (if available), and purple colors became accepted. Pastel colors, decorated beads, and faceted beads also became accepted relatively quickly (e.g., Combes 1964; Kidd 1970; Ross 1990). This pattem of acceptance represents a working hypothesis for bead colors, and until a definitive study of bead color preferences is completed, any comments represent interpretive speculation. At the Village site, the dominant bead colors were white/clear/gray, red, green, and black, with minimal blue, purple, and yellow/yellowish-brown beads (fig- Table 8.1 Glass and Ceramic Beads from the Fort Ross Beach Site II N4 I N3 I N2 Manufacture (Ni) Class (N2) Type (N3) Variety (N4) Ni GLASS | = - = 15 Drawn Beads _ 13 Monochrome Beads with a Hot-Tumbled Finish _ Type D/MCHU 9 Variety 2 2 Variety 4 3 Variety 5 3 Variety 41 1 Polychrome _Beads _with a Hot-tumbled_Finish _ TvPe D/PCHU 4 Variety 1 1 Variety 3 3 Wound Beads ____ 2 Monochrome Beads Type W/MOU 2 Variety 6 1 Variety 8 1 CERAMIC BEADS l 1 Prosser-Molded Beads 1 Simple Monochrome Beads Type PM/MSDb 1 Variety 7 1 1 16 TOTAI, Trade Beads 193 Figure 8.12 Percentage Comparisons of Bead Colors and Manufacturing Typesfor the Native Alaskan Village Site Wound 8.9% Blown 0.4% Manufacturing Types ure 8.12). This color pattem may be unique for the northern California coastal area, with a relatively high frequency of non-white beads, especially black and red beads, and a distinct paucity of blue beads. Black and red may represent the prominent colors either of Russi dress or Native Californian ornamentation. It is possible that green, blue, and purple beads may have been regarded as blue beads. If so, then their combined total of 155 beads for 28.3% of the colors could be considered relatively normal for Native American groups. However, bead colors historically chosen by the Russians for the California trade (i.e., red, white, and black) appear to reflect the preferences of Native Californians. For example, one order placed for beads by the Russian- American Company (date unknown to the author) stated that Of the amount intended for Sitka - 6 pudov [221-248 lbs] - California is to get up to 5 pudov [184-206 lbs], where should be sent red, white and black beads; the remaminng (beads) for trading with the Chukchi Native Siberians and North Americans Native Alaskans, light blue and white colors (Fedorovoi and Aleksandrov 1985:205). To ascertain whose color preferences these red, white, and black beads sent to California represented, comparative research on the colors used and preferred by Russian, Unangan, Alutiit, Tanaina, Coast Miwoks, and Kashaya Pomos would have to be undertaken. From existing accounts of bead colors from archaeological contexts (see below), ethnographical specimens, icono- graphical illustrations, and historical accounts, it is anticipated that color preferences for beads from NAVS reflect preferences of Pomo and Coast Miwok women (assuming they were the beadworkers) who lived with the Alaskan male hunters. These color preferences likely will be distinctive for the region surrounding Fort Ross and for the temporal period of Russian occupation. Beads recovered within the Fort Ross Stockade (incorrectly attributed to a possible Kashaya Pomo village site displaced by the construction of the Stockade by Smith [1974] and corrected by Lightfoot et al. [1991:76-78]) indicate that the dominant colors were white (54.1%), green/blue/purple (28.3%), red (13.5%), and amber (8.1%), with minimal black. Other bead samples from Fort Ross, but not yet studied in detail, came from the Old "Magasin" within the fort (Farris 1987) and from burials at the Russian-American Com- pany cemetery (Goldstein 1992). Whether the colors of beads from these "Russian" contexts reflect preferences of local Kashaya Pomo and Coast Miwok; immigrant Unangan, Alutiit, and Tanaina; or resident Russians is unknown. In comparison, beads from the Russian fur trading settlement of Three Saints Harbor, Kodiak Island, Alaska (Crowell 1994:tables 5.1 and 5.2)) indicate that dominant colors for the 1784-ca. 1820 Russian period were blue/ purple (60.5%), white/clear (27.9%), red, (9.4%), green (1.4%), and yellow/amber (0.8%). Beads from the site of the Russian-American Company Kolmakovskiy Redoubt, Black 12.2% Purple 4.0%9 Blue 8.0%- Green ,- 16.2% Colors 194 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Table 8.2 Glass Beadsfrom the Native Alaskan Village Site Manufacture (N1) N4 N3 N2 Ni Class (N2) Type (N3) Variety (N4) Drawn Beads 497 Monochrome Beads with Chopped Ends 9 Type DIMCCU 7 Variety 11 2 Variety 25 1 Variety 44 1 Variety 66 2 Variety 78 1 Subtype DIMM2CDf 1 Variety 12 1 Subtype D/MM4CDf 1 Variety 77 1 Polychrome Beads with Chopped Ends 6 Type D/PCCU 5 Variety 24 5 Subtype D/PM2CDf 1 Variety 74 1 Monochrome Beads with a Hot-Tumbled Finish 262 Type D/MCHU 259 Variety 2 19 Variety 4 62 Variety 5 19 Variety 9 66 Variety 10 2 Variety 16 26 Variety 19 6 Variety 20 12 Variety 21 6 Variety 23 1 VaTiety 26 3 Variety 27 2 Variety 29 4 Variety 31 1 Variety 32 1 Variety 41 3 Variety 42 5 Variety 43 3 Variety 46 4 Variety 48 2 Variety 49 1 Variety 50 1 Variety 51 3 Variety 52 2 Variety 53 2 Variety 54 1 Variety 55 1 Variety 67 1 Type D/MCHDf 3 Variety 28 3 Polychrome Beads with a Hot-Tumbled Finish 220 Type D/PCHU 220 Variety 1 77 Variety 3 83 Variety 17 2 cont'd. Table 8.2 - continued Manufacture (Ni) N4 N3 N2 Ni Clas (N2) Type (N3) Variety (N4) Variety 18 18 Variety 22 1 Variety 45 27 Variety 47 10 Variety 56 2 Wound Beads 49 Monochrome Beads 49 Type W/MSU 10 Variety 36 7 Variety 57 1 Variety 65 1 Variety 72 1 Type Ws/MSDf I Variety 71 1 Type W/MSDcl 4 Variety 14 1 Variety 35 3 Type W/MOU 26 Variety 6 1 Variety 8 1 Variety 13 1 Variety 15 2 Variety 34 2 Variety 37 1 Variety 59 1 Variety 60 1 Variety 61 2 Variety 62 1 Variety 63 1 Variety 64 1 Variety 68 4 Variety 69 1 Variety 70 1 Variety 73 3 Variety 75 1 Variety 62 1 Variety 79 1 Type W/MOUc 1 Variety 76 1 Type Ws/MOU 2 Variety 33 2 Type Ws/MTU 1 Variety 58 1 Type W/MEDs I Variety 40 1 Type Ws/MBpDf 3 Variety 30 3 Blown Beads 2 Simple Monochrome Beads 2 Type B/M?Df I Variety 38 1 Type B/M?Dsf I Variety 39 1 Toal8 I I Trade Beads 195 Total 548 196 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood Kuskokwim River, westem Albska (Oswalt 1980) indicate that dominant colors for the 1841-1866 Russian Period were white (54.6%), blue (23.8%), and red (8.7%), with minimal pink, purple, black, green, yellow, and amber beads; while dominant colors for the ca. 1870- 1917 Anglo-American period were white (36.5%), blue (7.9%), and red (5.1%). Whether these colors reflect preferences of local Alutiit, inland Native Alaskans, or Russians is unknown. What is obvious is that color percentages change through time, and this change could be related to ethnic preferences. Inhabitants living at the Native Alaskan Village Site included Unangan fron the Aleutian Islands; Tanainas from Cook Inlet, Alaska; Alutiit (Qikertarmiut) from Kodiak Island, Alaska; and Kashaya Pomo and Coast Miwok from California (Lightfoot et al. 1991:3). How were beads used historically by these ethnic groups? To address this question, a partial review of ethnohistorical, iconographical, and historical evidence by individual ethnic group was undertken. This review included the examination of published ethnohistorical catalogues and descriptions of approximately 20 beaded artifacts collected by Captain James Cook in 1778, George Vancouver in the early 1790s, Hans Georg Langsdorff in 1805, Captain Wiiam Osgood prior to 1829, at least two unnamed collectors prior to 1843, Russian-American Company Director Adolf K. Etolin prior to 1847, and an unnamed collector ca. 1850. Iconographical illustrations of beaded objects examined included black-and-white and color reproduc- tions attributed to Luka Alekseevich Voronin ca. 1790- 1792, Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff ca. 1805-1806, Ludovik Choris ca. 1815-16, Mikhail Tikhanov ca. 1817- 1819, and Pavel Mikhailov ca. 1826-29. Historical accounts examined generally consisted of diaries of seamen, priests, and travelers. Approximately forty accounts mentioning the use of beads in trade were reviewed, ranging from the 1741 voyage of Vitus Bering to the 1839 voyage and overland trek of Ferdinand Petrovich von Wrangel. Data from these sources were documented in the original draft of this study, but are not included in this published version. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE RUSSIAN BEAD TRADE Hundreds of Russian traders sailed to the Aleutian Islands and Alaska during the last half of the 18th century, and many of their fur returns have been com- piled (e.g., Berkh 1974; Coxe 1780; Golder 1914; Makarova 1975; Masterson and Brower 1948; Pallas 1781-1796). Perhaps the most thorough account of this trade was undertaken by Raisa Makarova (1975:209-16), who documented 92 voyages of Russian fur traders during the 18th cenury. During the 1740s, at least 12 Russian voyages were undertaken to the far westem tip most voyages were confined west of Unalaska Island, with fur traders reaching Kodiak Island as early as 1762 (VanStone 1984:149). In the 1770s and 1780s, voyages were occurring regularly as far east as Kodiak Island. Alexei Chirikov, of the Bering-Chirikov Russian voyage of 1741-1742, reached the Northwest Coast (in the vicinity of Sitka, Alaska) in 1741. However, not until the 1790s were Russian voyages routinely undertaken to the northwest American coastline, ten to twenty years after extensive Spanish and English trade in the region (e.g., Beaglehole 1967; Dixon 1789; Hezeta 1985; Perez 1989; Pordock 1789). With the Russian discovery of the Aleutian Islands by Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov in 1741, glass beads, including Chinese beads, were introduced to Unangan and Alutiit (Golder 1922:99, 147). At this time, Unangas bentwood hats and facial ornaments lacked glass beads (Golder 1922:305; 1925:103). In his log on September 9, 1741, Alexei Chirikov (captain of the St. Paul, the second ship of Bering's expedition) described the hats wom by the people of Adak Island, Alaska: They wear on their heads a kind of hat made of tiin birch boards, which are decorated with various colors and feathers. Some of these dippers (hats) had in the top small ivory statues (Golder 1922:305). Steller observed residents of Bird Island (in the Aleutian Islands?) on September 5, 1741 who"... pierce holes anywhere in their faces, as we do in the lobes of the ear, and to insert in them various stones and bones" (Golder 1925:103). To gain an idea of the quantity of beads carried aboard Russian fur trading vessels, consider the account provided by Stephen Glottoff during his Russian voyage of 1762-1766. In May 1763, Glotoff had his crew salvage the remains of Vitus Bering's 1740s wrecked vessel, the St. Peter, at Commander's Island: They brought back with them twenty-two puds [794 lbs Avoirdupois] of iron, ten of old cordage fit for caulker's use, some lead and copper, and several thousand beads (J.L.S. 1776:107). On a later Russian fur trading expedition, the 1773-1779 Russian voyage of the vessel Evpl to the Aleutian Islands in the vicinity of Fox Island under contract to a company belonging to Moscow merchant Vasilii Serebrennikov, the only beads listed were "3,189 metal beads [korol'kov]" and "1-1/4 pounds of rosary beads [bisera]" (Makarova 1975:187; see appendix 8.1 for a discussion of bead terminology). In this translation, it is assumed that the term "pound" is from the Russian termfunt (1/40 of apud, or 409 g [14.4 ozs avoirdupois]), and that a 1-1/ 4funts of glass beads would equal 15 sazhans or strings of beads (see the discussion of Russian weights and bead strings below). Assuming the biera were small to of the Aleutian Islands. During the 1750s and 1760s, medium necklace beads, there could be approximately Trade Beads 197 200-600 beads per string, for'a total of 3000-9000 beads. UNANGAS BEAD USAGE By the 1760s, Unangas men were wearing beaded hats and nose, lip, and ear ornaments; and women wore beaded necklaces, and nose and ear ornaments (Coxe 1780:25&57; J. L. S. 1776:151; Krenitsyn and Levashev 1771:248,249). During the 1770s, Unangan expressed preferences for white, blue, and brown beads (Beaglehole 1967:1427; Klichka 1790:266); and hunting hats attributed to the 1778 visit of James Cook appear to exhibit blue, white, possibly black and green wound beads, and white drawn beads (Black 199 l:plates 8, 16, and 20). Commonly reported materials for ornamentation included ivory (teeth), bone, stone, amber, paint, ocher, and feathers. White beads appear to have been substituted for white ivory and bone, with brown beads substituted for amber. Blue was used during pre-contact periods in paints, but does not appear to have had an equivalent material for omaments. During the 1790s, Unangan preferred white, blue, and red beads (Sarytschew 1807:56), variously termed corals, enamels, pearl-enamels, and garnets by English translators (see appendix 8.1). Women were sewing beads around the edges of their ears and were decorating parkas and waist, wrist, and ankle bands with beads (Billings 1980:200, 201; Langsdorff 1814[2]:39-40; Merck 1980:78, 79-80, 170; Sarytschew 1802:plates 16- 18; Sauer 1802). During the 1800s, beads were still wom as lip, nose, ear omaments (including beaded ears), bracelets, and anklets, and were used to decorate clothing and hats (Campbell 1816:110; Langsdorff 1814[2]:39, 39-40, plate II, nos. 4-6). At least one bentwood hat collected in 1805 was decorated with what appears to be blue wound beads (Black 1991:plate 20). In the 1810s, beads adomed garments and hats, were still worn as nose omaments, earrings, and necklaces (Choris 1822:plates III-IV; Comey 1896[1821]:53; Fitzhugh and Crowell 1988:frontispiece, 105; Shur and Pierce 1975:42, top). From the 1820s, one beaded hunting hat survives with what appear to be blue, white, red, black, and possibly green spheroidal wound beads (Black 1991:plate 15; Miller 1994:n.p.). By the 1830s, Unangas lip, nose, and ear (i.e., beads sewn to the ears) ornamentation had disappeared, supplanted by more modest earrings, as well as necklaces similar to those worn by Europeans (Veniaminov 1984:213-14). At least one Unangas hat from a pre- 1840s context (Black 199 1:plate 13) has bead decoration, a black wound bead with a white spiral stripe. From the 1840s, numerous beaded hats exhibit a wide variety of colored beads, including what appear to possibly red wound beads, and white and possibly other colors of drawn beads (Black 1991:plates 7, 17,26, and 28-29; Miller 1994:front cover). KODIAK ISLAND ALJTIIQ BEAD USAGE Alutiit from Kodiak Island may have received glass beads as early as the 1740s when Bering and Chirikov sailed through the region. Definitely by the 1760s beads were in use (J. L. S. 1776:113-14). During the 1770s, beaded bentwood hats were reported, and both men and women were wearing bead necklaces (Pallas 1782:91). In the 1780s, men had beaded nose, lip, and ear orna- ments; and young men wore bead necklaces (Shelikhov 1971:316, 1981:53). During the 1790s, Kodiak Island Alutiit were using white, blue, and red beads; and women were reported to be wearing beaded nose, lip, and ear ornaments, as well as necklaces (Merck 1980:103; Sarytschew 1802:plate 38). During this same period, Joseph Billings (1791:397, 399) also noted that beads were buried with the dead and that wooden dishes and plates were decorated with beads. In the 1800s, they expressed a preference for black and red beads, but used many colors. Lip and nose ornaments were disappeanng, yet they were still in use. Beaded ear omaments were still worn, as well as beads sewn to the ears and hunting hats were still decorated with beads. Women were wearing beads around their necks, arms, wrists, and ankles (Black 199 1:figure 41; Davydov 1977:149; Gideon 1989:58, 66; Langsdorff 1814[2]:63; Lisiansky 1814:194-5). Archimandrite Ioasaf noted in 1805 that the Alutiit had no concept of money, presumably indicating that beads were not used for monetary exchange (Black 1977:85); yet beads were used to indicate wealth (Gideon 1989:41-42). During the 1810s men were depicted wearing beaded lip ornaments, earrings, bracelets, and beaded feathered headdresses; while at least one woman was depicted wearing a blue and white beaded dance headdress (Fitzhugh and Crowell 1988:69, 141,313, plate 49; Shur and Pierce 1975:44-45, top). TANAINA BEAD USAGE During the 1770s and 1780s, the Tanaina of Cook's Inlet expressed a strong preference for blue beads; and the only beaded articles reported were nose, lip, and ear ornaments (Beaglehole 1967:365, 1115; Dixon 1789:68, 240; Portlock 1789:113, 115). KASHAYA PoMo BEAD USAGE Beads were presumably known and traded to the Kashaya Pomo at least by 1812 when the Russians established Fort Ross, but the earliest known account of bead use is a reference by Kirill Khlebnikov (1990:193- 94) in 1824 to payments of beads to Native Califomians (presumably Pomo). Ferdinand Petrovich von Wrangell be clear, white, black, amber, yellow, blue, purple, and (1839:77), during his Russian voyage of 1839, noted that 198 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood beads were used for gamblingby Native Califomians, an observation also made by Cyrille LaPlace (1986:70-7 1). The only historical account for Kashaya Pomo bead preferences was the 1839 statement of Cyrille LaPlace (Fanis 1988:23 citing LaPlace 1854[1841]:144-62) of the red and black bead necklaces worn by a male chief, and the undated reference above for red, white, and black beads to be sent to California (Fedorovoi and Aleksandrov 1985:205). The Pomo were manufacturers of beads, both from shell and magnesite (Hudson 1897). It is recounted that as early as 1816, when the Russian explorer Kuskoff ordered glass beads for the local trade, they were re- garded as counterfeit beads by the Pomo. Purportedly, three Russian traders had their heads branded with their counterfeit beads (Hudson 1897:107). Similar reactions by Native Americans to perceived counterfeit beads are noted historically (e.g., the rejection of porcelain beads by Tlingit in 1805; Langsdorff 1814[2]:132-33). One difficulty in identifying the use of glass beads among the Pomo is that 20th-century ethnographers (Gifford 1967; Kroeber 1925; Loeb 1926) apparently did not document glass bead usage, concentrating instead upon the documentation of more traditional material culture. Gifford did describe one necklace used as a badge of membership in the Maru ceremonial group and observed (ca. 1958-59) it as having opaque white and transparent red beads. He also states that glass beads were termed walholyo. From personal observation of one Pomo basket on display in the Smithsonian Institution of Museum of Natural History during January 1994, glass beads do appear to have been used to decorate some feathered baskets. COAST MIwoK BEAD USAGE For the Coast Miwok, no historical accounts of bead use were found, but archaeological evidence from the Echa-Tamal Village site indicates that dominant colors were white (77.0%), red (18.1%), and purple (2.8%), with minimal blue, black, and green beads (Dietz 1976). These colors presumably reflect preferences of the Coast Miwok inhabitants, but for which periods of time is unknown. NATIVE ALASKAN VILLAGE RESIDENT PREFERENCES It is hypothesized that the color preferences of residents at NAVS may reflect preferences of Kashaya Pomo and/or Coast Miwok rather than Unangas, Alutiiq, or Tanaina hunters. More exhaustive historical and archaeological comparative studies of local Native Californian sites are required to evaluate this hypothesis. The Native Alaskans from Kodiak Island living at the Village appear to have accepted beads in a broad range of colors by 1812-1840. The red or black beads noted by LaPlace in 1839 reflect the preferences of Native the undated Russian-American Company bead order above (Fedorovoi and Aleksandrov 1985:205). Because of the presence of Alutiit from Kodiak Island, these preferences may not reflect the choices of local Native Californians alone. Bead colors from Alaskan sites occupied by Native Alaskans during the period of 1812- 1841 (e.g., the Ahtna Village of Dakah De'Nin [Yarborough and Yarborough 1992]) and from northwest coastal Califomia sites occupied by Pomo and Coast Miwok will have to be compared to the Native Alaskan Village Site assemblage to see if regional color patterns can be defined. Moreover, care will have to be taken to compare beads from similar cultural and temporal contexts. Monochrome, undecorated, and embroidery beads often represent the least expensive beads available during the 19th century, and these beads dominate the NAVS assemblage. Because of the high value of large, multicol- ored decorated beads, lost or discarded specimens of these more expensive beads are an anomaly within habitation refuse, usually consisting of broken beads. Prized and valuable beads would be anticipated from ceremonial features (e.g., burials, cremations, sacred sites) or within archaeological deposits created by catastrophic events such as mudslides, floods, or fires. MANUFACrURING AND SUPPLY SOURCES FOR RUSSIAN TRADE BEADS Iron has been regarded as a possible indicator for the presence of other Asian trade goods such as beads. In 1741, the nauralist George Wilhelm Stellar, on the Bering-Chirikov Russian voyage of 1741-1742, noted that two Unangan at Bird Island ". . . had hanging on their belt, like the Russian peasants [sic], a long iron knife in a sheath of very poor workmanship" (Golder 1925:97). He speculated that these iron knives were of their own workmanship because they were not of Euro- pean design. As Lydia Black (1984) notes, pre-contact iron, and copper as well, could either consist of cold- beaten native metals; reworked drift metal from Japan, Korea, or China; or direct or indirect Asian-Aleutian trade goods. None of the accounts of pre-Russian native material culture from the Bering expedition mentions the presence of glass beads. From later accounts, glass beads commonly were reported with hunting hats, earrings, and labrets. Similar objects described by members of Bering's expedition lacked glass beads. Lydia Black (1984) has argued that trade between populations occupying the Asian mainland and Aleutian Islands may have occurred prior to the arrival of the Russians in 1741. She cites the presence of iron at pre- contact native sites as the principal evidence: The provenience of any pre-contact metal in the Aleutians is customarily explained as wreckage, the Californians at Fort Ross, a preference also expressed in SO Cculled drift-iron. On the other hand, the use of iron Trade Beads 199 spread slowly along the Okhotsk and Bering Sea littoral toward the end of the B.C.-beginning A.D. (Levin and Sergeev 1960; Arutiunov et al. 1977), and provenience other than by shipwreck must be considered as a possible alternative explanation, especially when the linguistic evidence cited above is taken into account [here the author is referring to linguistic similarities in Eskimo and Aleut for iron and copper, and in Eskimo, Aleut, and Japanese for copper; citing Arutiunov et al. 1977:104]. ... direct NE Asian contact should be considered (Black 1984:31). William Fitzhugh (1994:36) noted that: Archaeological fmds suggest that metal, shamanistic paraphernalia, and ornamental objects from Siberia were important in the Eskimo culture of westem Alaska for more than 2,000 years (citing Collins 1937; Larsen and Rainey 1948; McCartney 1988). This trade appears to have been conducted between natives of Siberia and Alaska, and may have included some items of Asian and/or European manufacture: .. .Athapaskans had obtained some European goods and artifacts from the peoples of Eastern Siberia long before the early Europeans came to Alaska [evidence of these goods, their age, and origins are uncited by the author]. These goods arrived through exchanges with Malemiut Eskimos, who were closer to Bering Strait than any other peoples and for a long time had acted as mediators in the exchange operations with the northeastern inhabitants of Asia. The collecting point for the Asiatic and American traders were the Diomede Islands, which the Indians could reach by canoe or by dog sled in the winter. To Chukchi traders, the trip across the Bering Strait was a routine part of life and it was timed to coincide with the end of winter or the beginning of spring (Dzeniskevich 1994:56, citing Anonymous 1978:121 and Wrangell n.d.:d.341, I. 30-32 ob.). The earliest documented occurrence of glass beads known among coastal Native Americans north of San Francisco to the tip of the Aleutian Islands was at Kayak Island (east of the Kenai Peninsula), Alaska, in the territory of the Alutiiq, on July 21, 1741, when Vitus Bering presented local residents with ". . . 20 Chinese strings of beads .. ." (Golder 1922:99). Prior to contact, the beads of Native Alaskans were: ... made of soft stones, bone, ivory and other teeth, shell, and amber. After contact, beads came into the region from many quarters: Venice (Italy), Bohemia (now part of Czechoslovakia [again reverted to Bohemia]), China, and perhaps Central Asia or Russia (Francis 1994:281). During the 1740s-1770s, Russian contact in the Aleutian Islands and along the southern coast of Alaska, continually increased, resulting in the spread of trade goods, including beads, within the region. With the arrival of Captain James Cook in 1778, followed by other explorers and traders, the presence of European trade goods and Chinese beads among all indigenous groups along the Pacific coast of North America increased. Among these goods also may have been Russian- manufactured beads. RUSSIAN-MADE GLASS BEADS Oleg Bychkov (Bychkov 1994; Farris 1992; Ross 1994b) noted that glass beads manufactured after 1785 at the Tal'tsinsk glass factory outside Irkutsk, Russia (a factory whose original investors and co-owners were Lt. Col. Erik Gustavovich Laxman and Aleksandr Andreevich Baranov), went to the Golikov-Shelikhov Company. This company, also known as the Northeast- em American Company, had been established by Ivan Larionovich Golikov and Grigorii Ivanovich Shelikhov in 1781. It later combined with other smaller Russian companies at the direction of the Russian government to form the United American Company in 1797, which under the govemorship of Aleksandr Baranov became the Russian-American Company in 1799 (Black 1988:75-79; Chevigny 1965:53; Gibson, J. R. 1976:4-5; Solovjova 1995). If a source for Russian beads from Irkutsk, and their sale to the Company, can be verified, then it is possible that Russian-manufactured beads may have found their way to Fort Ross and may survive in archaeo- logical assemblages. European beads also are known to have been imported to Sitka from Brussels (Woodward 1965:9), probably through St. Petersburg and then to Fort Ross (Fedorovoi and Aleksandrov 1985:205). Russian beads were manufactured later at glass works in the Demetrieff district of Moscow in 1881 (Pottery and Glassware Reporter 1885), but whether these glass works existed earlier, during the Russian (1741-1867) and Colony Ross (1812-1841) eras, remains to be ascertained. Most beads at Fort Ross are presumed to have been supplied through the Russian-American Company, but some probably were acquired from Boston merchants trading along the shores of the Pacific (also see discus- sion below for possible trade with the Hudson's Bay Company). As John Hussey (1957:73) noted: ". . . Boston vessels were able to carry on a very profitable business supplying provisions and trade goods to the Russian American Company in Alaska." The extent of this trade has been well documented, and during the Colony Ross era, trade was conducted with no less than 85 ships of American registry (Gibson, J. R. 1976:169- 71, table 9). Less well documented is the quantity and type of beads sold. In one example, John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company sold goods off the ship Beaver to Russian-American Company Govemor Baranov in Sitka in 1812, including 290 lbs of small blue beads (Porter 1931:513-21). Undoubtedly, these mercantile sources had access to beads manufactured both in Europe 200 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood and China It is reasonable to Suspect that some of these American-supplied beads could have found their way to Fort Ross. The Americans may not have been the only merchants who provided beads to the Russian-American Company. The Russian-American Company is known to have acquired provisions and/or goods from Europe, from at least one French vessel, from Spanish merchants in Alta California and South America, from Kanas in the Sandwich Islands, and from the Chinese in Kiakhta, on the border of Russia and China just southeast of Irkutsk (Chevigny 1965; Coxe 1780:24 1; Gibson, J. R. 1976:170, 174-98, 209-11; Pierce 1990). Coxe (1780:.241) listed all classes of goods exchanged between the Russians and Chinese in Kiakhta, noting that the Russians acquired from the Chinese at no duty: "glass corals" and beads. "Corals" may have been opaque wound beads, mimick- ing true red coral beads; but by the 18th century the term appears to have signified large, as opposed to small, glass beads (following van der Sleen 1967:56). Coral beads came in at least two colors: red and blue (Merck 1980:103). Other beads from China may have been translucent to opaque beads, commonly colored blue, yellow, and green. Beads from various sources undoubt- edly found their way to Fort Ross, except perhaps for Chinese beads. None of the bead varieties from NAVS can be precisely dated, and only a few can be attributed to their country of origin. The comerless hexagonal beads (Subtypes D/MMCDf and D/PM2CDf, and possibly Subtype D/MM4CDf), probably originated in Bohemia, with varieties of Subtypes D/MM2CDf and D/PM2CDf possibly being the same as those noted by Arthur Woodward (1965:9) as being shipped from Brussels. Missing from the assemblage, however, are Bohemian mold-pressed beads which post-date 1820-1830s (Ross 1988, 1989, 1990); English, French, European, and American Prosser-molded beads which post-date 1840 (Sprague 1983); and Chinese beads. Although not yet found at Fort Ross, Bohemian mold-pressed beads can be anticipated. They have been recovered from at least one archaeological context dating ca. 1804-1835: Santa Ines Mission (CA-SBR-518), California (Ross 1989:156, Type MPIIa-2 bead). The Prosser-molded beads, however, are assumed to be too recent for the Russian-American Company era at Fort Ross. One Prosser-molded bead was recovered from the Fort Ross Beach Site, presum- ably from a post-Colony Ross era context. The lack of Chinese beads is uncharacteristic, and it is curious that they also were nonexistent in a bead assemblage previ- ously excavated at Fort Ross (Smith 1974). CHINESE-MADE GLAss BEADS Chinese beads were imported to Alaska by Russians as early as 1741 (Golder 1922:99), and probably by the and merchants. As discussed above, glass beads do not appear to have been present in the Aleutian Islands prior to the arrival of the Bering and Chirikov voyages during the summer of 1741. Soon thereafter, Russian fur traders from Okhotsk supplied a plethora of beads, presumably of Chinese, European, and perhaps Russian manufacture. Chinese wound beads have been recovered in West Coast assemblages dating during the middle to late 19th century (e.g., Ross 1990) and in Alaska during the 18th and 19th centuries (e.g., Jenkins 1972, 1975; Miller 1994). Elizabeth Shapiro (1988) noted that 55 Canton beads (defined by Shapiro as opaque spheroidal beads) were recovered from the ca. 1785-1780s Russian, Unangas, and Alutiiq village site of Nunakakhnak, northwestern Kodiak Island, Alaska. It remains to be ascertained if these beads were indeed manufactured in and imported from China, associated with European imports from the Golikov-Shelikhov Company from 1781 to 1797, or supplied from other smaller Russian companies such as the Irkutsk Company of Nicholas Mylnikov, Lebedev-Lastochkin Company prior to 1797, or the United American Company from 1797 to 1799, or the Russian-American Company after 1799. What appear to be Chinese beads are displayed prominently on ethnographic Unangas bentwood hunting hats or visors dated to the 1820-1840s, and as early as 1778 (Black 1991:plate 8). Similar hats or visors and earrings, probably with Chinese beads, also are illustrated by: * Mikhail Tikhanov in 1817 of Unangas inhabitants of Unimak Island, Alaska (I. E. Repin Institute of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture, Leningrad #2123; reproduced in Fitzhugh and Crowell 1988:105); and * possibly by Ludovik Choris, ca. 1818, the artist with the Kotzebue expedition to the Unangas settlement of Illiliuk, Unalaska Island, Alaska (Anchorage Museum of History and Art; reproduced in Fisher 1990:29). At least two traditional hats with what appear to be Chinese beads have been collected from the Alutiit (Kodiak Island) or Chugach (Prince William Sound), pre- 1847 and ca. 1850 (Black 1991:plate 7; Fisher 1990:23). In 1816, Ludovik Choris noted ". . . large Chinese blue and white beads" among the Shishmaref, north of Cape Prince of Wales (VanStone 1960:147). Kotzebue (1821 [I]:211) similarly noted for the Alutiit just to the north at Kotzebue Sound ". . . the glass beads, also, with which they adom themselves, are of the same kind as those worn in Asia ... .' Examinations of Russian-American Company period ethnographic and archaeological bead collections will have to be undertaken by researchers familiar with Chinese beads to date the occurrences of specific varieties. Some of the best ethnographic collections are earliest Spanish, American, British, and French explorers Trade Beads 201 at the Muzei Etnografiyi Anttopologiyi Akademiyi nauk in St. Petersburg and at the British Museum in London. Determining the presence of Chinese beads using archaeological reports is nearly impossible because beads are poorly described and illustrated. Why Chinese beads are not found at Fort Ross remains unexplained, but it is anticipated that they should be recovered from future archaeological excavations. HuDsoN's BAY COMPANY TRADE WITH THE RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY Many of the bead varieties recovered from the Native Alaskan Neighborhood have been reported from other western North American sites, most notably from the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) 1829-1860 western departnent headquarters at Fort Vancouver (Ross 1990). It has been suggested that some beads traded by the Russian-American Company (RAC) came from the HBC (Francis 1988a; Mille 1975:21). The RAC and HBC were rivals for adjacent trading terftories along the westem North American coast, and until 1834 the Anglo- Russian Convention of 1825 kept both companies from major conflict In 1829, HBC Govemor Simpson attempted to open trade with the RAC, but RAC head- quarters in St Petersburg refused approval (Hussey 1957:68). In 1834, an HBC vessel was refused access to the Stildne River, within territory claimed by the RAC. This initiated a five-year disagreement between the two companies. In 1839, two years before the RAC aban- doned its California enterprise, HBC Governor Simpson and RAC Baron von Wrangell concluded a ten-year trade agreement in Hamburg which, in part, provided that the HBC would supply the RAC with manufactured and agricultral products between June 1, 1840 and May 31, 1850 (Gibson, J. R. 1969:206, 1976:199-208, 1990a, 1990b; Hussey 1957:73). The first shipment of manufactured goods and provisions from the HBC to the RAC occurred in 1840 when the barque Vancouver delivered wheat and butter to Sitka (Gibson, J. R. 1976:203, table 11). A second ship, the barque Columbia, arrived in Sitka with provisions and manufactured goods (Gibson, J. R. 1976:203, table 11), but the identity of the manufactured commodities remains unknown. No historical records have yet been located to document the exchange of trade beads between the HBC and RAC prior to the 1841 abandonment of Fort Ross. Manufactured goods were provided to the RAC by the HBC, but the type of goods and their quantities have yet to be ascertained from HBC archival documents. As noted above, some researchers have speculated that Russians purchased or acquired trade beads from the HBC, but primary historical documentation to support this speculation has not been cited. The best documenta- HBC exists from research on transfer-printed English ceramics (Spodeware). Louise Jackson (1991:53-54) infers that the RAC acquired ceramics from the HBC after the conclusion of the 1839 RAC-HBC treaty and through the 1840s, probably ceasing in 1850. This inference is based upon the diversity of English ceramics recovered from RAC and HBC sites around the northern Pacific Rim. For the period of Russian occupation of Fort Ross, 1812-1841, the RAC could only have acquired goods from the HBC through its western headquarters at Fort Vancouver during the period 1824 to 1841; and historical records suggest that if any goods were acquired, they had to be acquired in 1840 and/or 1841. A review of ceramic acquisitions and their occurrences in relevant sites clarifies the historical and archaeological evidence. James Gibson (1976: 200-208, 1990a, 1990b) provides evidence that the RAC acquired manufactured goods after the 1839 HBC-RAC treaty became effective on June 1, 1840. The range of goods supplied remains to be documented historically, but from the archaeological evidence, Spodeware undoubtedly was included, at least after 1843. This evidence is offered as proof that the HBC did supply the RAC at least with British goods, per the 1839 agreement for European manufactured materi- als. Future historical research on the goods ordered and received through HBC Fort Vancouver and sent to Sitka will have to be conducted on surviving HBC records to document the range of goods traded, including beads. Based upon the occurrence of Spodeware at RAC sites and published accounts of the supplies shipped from the HBC (Gibson 1967:203, table 11), manufactured goods could have been acquired by the RAC from the HBC during the ten-year period of 1840-1849. If these goods were received by the RAC from the HBC in 1840 (provisions were known to have been received, but the receipt of manufactured materials is in question until 1841), then they probably would have been shipped to Sitka in the late spring or summer, possibly with a portion repackaged and shipped from Sitka to Fort Ross. Because Fort Ross was closed in 1841, probably none of the manufactured items shipped from the HBC to Sitka in 1841 were repackaged and shipped to Fort Ross. Until historical evidence can be found to substantiate the shipment of beads between the two companies, it should be assumed that even if HBC goods did reach Fort Ross during its final two years of operation, the quantity of trade beads acquired from the HBC would have been minor. BEAD SIZES IN THE RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY TRADE Another topic for future archaeological and historical research at Fort Ross, and for other Russian-American Company sites, is the quantities and sizes of beads that tion for specific manufactured items provided by the appear on historical inventories and orders. It is known 202 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood that the Russian-American Company shipped beads by the pud (Fedorovoi and Aleksandrov 1985:205). The pud, a unit of weight for St Petersburg or the Russian empire, officially equalled 16.38 kg (36.11 lbs Avoirdu- pois); but varied by city, weighing upwards of 16.75 kg (36.89 lbs Avoirdupois) in Riga to 18.72 kg (41.28 lbs Avoirdupois) in Narva (Doursther 1840-.442-43). The pud is divided by weight into 40funts (Doursther 1840:154, 230; Oswalt 1980:96), with eachfunt weighing 409.5 g (14.4 ozs Avoirdupois). Another measurement used by the Russian-American Company in selling or trading beads was the sazhen. In their translation of Khlebnikov's 1817-1832 reports (Khlebnikov 1976:vii-viii), Basil Dmytryshyn and E. A. P. Crownhart-Vaughn indicate that a sazhen is a Russian linear measure of 2.13 m (7 ft). When Russian Navy Lieutenant Lavrentii Zagoskin visited the Russian- American Company trading post of Nulato on the Yukon River in 1843, he noted that: ... beads are handled in strings a sazhan long. One pound [funt?] usually produces 12 sazhans. The yearly quantity of beads issued during 1843 was about 7 puds (Zagoskin 1967:185). Using these equivalences for beads, one 2.13-m (7- ft) bead string (sazhan) would weigh 34.1 g (1.2 ozs Avoirdupois). The numbers of beads would vary accord- ing to their size, with approximate numbers equaling: * 600-1400 beads/string for 1.5-3.5 mm embroidery beads, * 425-600 beads/string for 3.5-5.0 mm small necklace beads, * 200-425 beads/string for 5-10 mm medium necklace beads, and * 140-200 beads/string for 10-15 mm large necklace beads. Depending upon the size of the beads, one pud of beads could include 67,200-627,000 beads. Given Zagoskin's figure of 7 puds of beads as the yearly total for the Russian-American Company in 1843, the total count could have included 0.47-4.7 million beads. CONCLUSIONS Analysis of the beads from NAVS and FRBS indicates the two sites are probably related. Beads from the Village were probably eroded and redeposited downslope in the Beach site. The Village site appears to date to the Russian period of occupation at Fort Ross, 1812-184 1, and the only anomaly at the Beach site is a fragment of a Prosser-molded bead (Variety 7), post- dating 1840. The Village glass and ceramic bead assemblage consists of 548 beads of 78 varieties and 3 manufacturing types: drawn, wound, and blown beads. This represents a highly varied assemblage, with the majority of beads confined to a few varieties. Such variability suggests that more varieties than presently recorded are likely to be recovered from the Village, and that the present assem- blage should be regarded as a tentative and preliminary record of beads used by inhabitants and/or possibly deposited at a later date by American settlers and visitors to the site. The assemblage is dominated by relatively inexpensive undecorated, monochrome and polychrome, hot-tumbled, drawn embroidery beads (Type D/MCHU and D/PCHU beads). Decorated beads comprise only 3.1% of the collection, with the most common form of decoration consisting of faceting. Relatively expensive, decorated necklace beads (Types W/MSDcl, W/MBDs, WsIMBpDf, and Ws/MSDf, and Subtypes D/MM2CDf, D/MM4CDf, and D/PM2CDf) are rare. This lack of expensive beads is indicative of a site dominated by daily activities, where casual loss predominates. Large numbers of expensive beads at a site generally indicate wealth display or ceremonial activities, where intentional discard or deposition occurs. NAVS exhibits a relatively unique distribution of colors for westem Native American sites. Most westem sites contain a majority of white and blue beads, espe- cially early-contact sites. The Village assemblage consists predominantly of white/clear/gray, red, green, and black beads with lower frequencies of blue, purple, and yellow/amber beads. This color patteming is supported by an order placed for red, white, and black beads to be sent to Fort Ross sometime between 1812 and 1841 (Fedorovoi and Aleksandrov 1985:205) and by the 1839 account of Cyrille LaPlace (captain of the French frigate Art6mise) (Faris 1988:23 citing LaPlace 1854[1841]:144-62). Native American sites in the Fort Ross region may exhibit similar unique color preferences. For example, the bead assemblage from at least one Coast Miwok village, Echa-Tamal, is dominated by white, red, and purple beads (Dietz 1976). The Native Alaskan Neighborhood collection appears to contain only European beads, no Chinese beads. Chinese beads were available to Native Alaskans as early as 1741 and, by the late 18th century, became common in Alaska and along the northwestern Pacific coastline of North America during the early 19th century. Their absence from the Village, and from a bead assem- blage recovered earlier from Fort Ross (Smith 1974), cannot be explained. Chinese beads may have had a relatively high value, suggesting that casual loss or discard would have been minimal, while ceremonial or sacred discard may have been high, especially for burials. With an apparent European source of manufacture for the beads within the Village assemblage, it is inferred that they were imported via the Russian-American Company trade route from St. Petersburg to Sitka, from Boston (and possibly French) rading vessels to Sitka and Fort Ross, and possibly from Spanish merchants in Alta California. During the period that Fort Ross was Trade Beads 203 occupied by the Russians, the kussian-American Com- pany may have obtained manufactured goods from the Hudson's Bay Company only in 1840 and definitely in 1841. Although there are many similarities in bead varieties between the archaeological coilections at Fort Ross and Fort Vancouver, it is premature to assume that the beads from Fort Ross were acquired through the Hudson's Bay Company. Future archival research will be required to document the types of manufactured goods, including beads, that were supplied by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1840 or 1841; and then to ascertain if beads were reshipped fron Sitka during last two years of Russian-American Company occupation of Fort Ross. 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University of Washington Press, Seattle. 1782 Abstract of the Travel Report of the Russian Pilot Zaikov on a Voyage as far as the Mainland of America. Translation of the German version of "Neue nordische Beytrage. . ." E:274-88; in Bering's Successors, 1745- 1780: Contributions of Peter Simon Pallas to the History of Russian Exploration toward Alaska by James R. Masterson and Helen Brower, pp. 85-92. University of Washington Press, Seattle. Penney, David W. 1992 Art of the American Indian Frontier: The Chandler- Pohrt Collection. The Detroit Institute of Arts and University of Washington Press, Seattle. Perez, Juan 1989 Juan Perez on the Northwest Coast: Six Documents of His Expedition in 1774. Translated and annotated by Herbert K. Beals. North Pacifc Studies 12. Oregon Historical Society, Portland. Pfeiffer, Rozanna M. 1983 Glass Trade Beads from Caesarea Maritima, Israel. In "Proceedings of the 1982 Glass Trade Bead Confer- ence," edited by Charles F. Hayes m, Rochester Museum and Science Center, Research Records 16:1:205-12. Rochester, New York. Pierce, Richard A. 1990 Russian America and China. In Russian America: The Forgoten Frontier, edited by Barbara Sweetland Smith and Redmond J. Bamett, pp. 73-9. Washington State Historical Society, Tacoma. Porter, Kenneth W. 1931 John Jacob Astor: Businessman, 2 vols. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Portlock, Nathaniel 1789 A Voyage Round the World; but more particularly to the Northwest Coast of America: performed in 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, in the King George and Queen Charlotte, Captains Portlock and Dixon. John Stockdale and George Goulding, London. Pottery and Glassware Reporter 1885 News item, vol. 13(7):24-6 (December 3rd). Reprinted in The Bead Forwn 14:14 (1989), Society of Bead Researchers. Ross, Lester A. 1976 Fort Vancouver, 1829-60: A Historical Archeologi- cal Investigation of the Goods Imported and Manufactured by the Hudson's Bay Company. 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Trade Beads 211 APPENDIX 8.1: HISTORICAL TERMS FOR THE RUSSIAN BEAD TRADE Historical terminology for trade beads is poorly documented, and terms in common usage among investigators of Russian-American beadwork are often modem terms develop by collectors. For example, the terms "Russian" or "Hudson's Bay" beads are used to describe multi-sided, comer-faceted, cut drawn beads (Mille 1975; Woodward 1965:12). They were neither manufactured in Russia, nor distributed principally by Russian or Hudson's Bay Company fur traders. Such terms are inappropriate for identifying trade beads recovered from archeological sites. Rather, correlations should be made between archeological types and variet- ies and the historical tenns used by manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers who supplied beads and the traders who inventoried beads at fur trading sites. The following is a list of terms encountered in Russian historical accounts and English tslations of these accounts. Bisera, sing.; Bisery, pl. In an inventory of one Russian fur trading expedi- tion, the 1773-79 Russian voyage of the vessel Evpl to the Aleutian Islands in the vicinity of Fox Island, under conact to the Company of Moscow merchant Vasilii Serebrennikov, the beads listed were "3,189 metal beads [korol'kov]" and "1-1/4 pounds of rosary beads [biseral" (Makarova 1975:187). English translators have translated bisera as beads, small beads, or even small drawn beads (e.g., Francis 1994:289). The identification of bisera as "rosary beads" is unique and unexplained by the translator. Chinese Cache It is possible that the "Chinese iron beads" noted by Sofron Khitrov at Bird Island, Alaska (Golder 1925:92) were Chinese cache (iron coins with square holes). Carl Heinrich Merck (1980:79-80) at the Aleutian Islands during the Billings-Sarychev Russian voyage of 1791-92 noted the use of Rechenpfennig (translated counting penny, but probably Chinese cache) along the hem of garments. Archibald Menzies also mentioned trading iron Chinese cache at Hood Canal, Washington on May 12, 1792 (Vancouver 1984:529n2). Corals (korolek, sing.; korol'ki, pi.) Grigorii Ivanovich Shelikhov, prior to helping establish the Russian-American Company, had a joint fur trading company with Ivan Larionovich Golikov from 1781 to 1797. On one voyage to Alaska between 1783 and 1786, he used the term korol'ki to identify beads in use at Kodiak Island, Alaska (Shelikhov 1981:9). Gawrila Sarytschew (Gavril Sarychev), co-captain of the Billings-Sarychev Russian voyage of 1791-92, also used this term for beads observed at Unalaska Island, Aleutian Islands in 1790 (Sarytschew 1807:9). Carl Heinrich Merck, natralist for the same voyage used the term to describe red and blue beads in use at Unalaska Island, Kodiak Island, and Cape Rodney, Alaska in 1790-91 (Merck 1980:78, 102, 103, 123, 170, 188). Fedor Petrovich Litke undertook a voyage around the world between 1826 and 1829, and used the tern to descibe beads in use at Bristol Bay ca. 1827 (Lutke 1987:80). Some English translators appear to have made a literal translation of korolek, presumably derived from korall, for coral. Other translators have translated korolek to mean a large trade bead (Francis 1994:289-90; Shelikhov 1981). The plural form of the Russian term is korol'ki, which according to Lydia Black (1977:104) is: A prestige item. Used by Russians in barter with the Aleuts and Konyag [on Kodiak Island] since the earliest contacL The dictionary definition identifies this word as meaning a small sparrow-like bird with multicolored plumage. However, context indicates that an alternative reading is possible, but the latter meaning I was not able to ascertain with certainty. From the context of other 18th century materials studied, korol'ki were a kind of beads, greatly desired by Alaskans and used extensively in trade by the Russians as well as by the natives in the intertribal trade. "Corals" may have been opaque wound beads, mimicking true red coral beads; but by the 18th century the term appears to have signified glass beads (following van der Sleen 1967:56). Enamels or Pearl-Enamels (see Pearls below) From the Russian fur trading voyage that spent July 4, 1776 at Kodiak Island, Alaska, Petr Simon Pallas (1781:72) used the terms "enamels and glass beads." While at Kodiak Island, ca. 1778, Pallas (1782:91) recounted that "Men and women wear in their ears and round their necks white enamel beads . . ." Gawrila Sarytschew (Gavril Sarychev), co-captain of the Billings- Sarychev Russian voyage expedition of 1791-1792, used the terms "enamels" and "pearl-enamels" for white and red beads observed at Unalaska Island and Prince William Sound, Alaska (Sarytschew 1807:44, 56). "Enamels" and "pearl-enamels" are probably glass beads, but these tenns may be translations of a Russian term which means something else. Beck (1928:56) identifies an enamelled bead as one with ". . . comparatively deep holes or lines filled in with vitreous enamel"; while Kidd (1979:58) defines enamel as "opaque glass with colouring matter in it. Tern usually indicates raw material for making enamelled glasses or beads." Speaking of the glass-industry in Morano and Venice, Italy during the mid-19th century, as described by Dominico Bussolin (1847), Karklins with Adams (1990:69) notes that "'enamel" is a". . . high- 212 The Native Alaskan Neighborhood quality glass, transparent or opaque, that probably had its clarity and brilliance enhanced by the addition of lead oxide. 'Glass' would be less refined and cheaper." Garnets The "garnets" noted by Carl Heinrich Merck (1980:78) at the Aleutian Islands during the Billings- Sarychev Russian voyage of 1791-92 are probably glass beads, but this English term may be a translation of a Russian term meaning something else. Merck (1980:78- 80, 102-103, 170, 190) appears to use the term inter- changeably with "melt-garnet," "melting gamet," "glass- garnet," and "soft-garnet" He also notes they are white, blue, and red; and can be small, sewn around the edges of ears or long, 1-2 zolls (approximately 1-2 in.) in length. Other occurrences of the term include: * brown gamets were listed on 1824-1854 Hudson's Bay Company inventories of trade goods and were sold by the bunch (Ross 1990:31), and * mock-garnets were inventoried by the pound and bunch at the American Fur Company post Fort Union, North Dakota, at least between 1832 and 1846. Colors were listed as assorted. They were less expensive than necklace, agate, and seed beads, but more expensive than barley com, garnishing, cut, pound, and snake beads (DeVore 1992:118, 121). Garnet beads are probably small cut-faceted beads (Kidds Type Hf beads), possibly manufactured in Italy and cut in Bohemia They are monochrome" seed" beads with 1 to 11 randomly ground facets. In his description of the glass bead industry of Murano and Venice in the 1840s, Dominique Bussolin (Karklins with Adams 1990:73) commented on the cutting of the facets for these beads: Just as precious gems take on more shine and a more pleasant appearance when they are cut and polished, it was thought that margaritines or embroidery beads, as well as other qualities of beads, could be cut; in fact, margaritines cut in this way do produce a most beautiful effect when used on fabrics and in embroi- dery. Our beads are cut quite easily in Bohemia, and at very reasonable prices. So that is where they have been shipped for a long time now to undergo this further process. It should be noted that cut colored-crystal beads are also produced in Bohemia [probably Kidds Type If and Type Mf drawn, sided, and faceted beads, and Karklins Type MPH faceted mold-pressed beads]. The type of process, however, is very different and the product should not be confused with the beads produced in the Venetian factories. Pearls or False Pearls (see Enamels above) The "false pearls" noted in the Krenitzin-Levashff Russian fur trade journal of 1768-69 for trade among the Unangan (Coxe 1780:265) could be plain glass beads ("pearls') or blown beads ("imitation pearls" or "Roman pearls"). One of the more popular methods for manufac- turing imitation pearls was invented in the late 17th century in France. Clear glass was blown into a spheroi- dal bead, coated on the interior with an opalescent material extracted from fish scales, and filled with wax, later gum (Francis 1986:6, 1988b:47-48; Opper and Opper 1991:47; van der Sleen 1967:26). Seed Beads Peter Corney (1896[1821]:53), 1st mate on the Robson North West Company Voyage of 1813-18, speaking of natives on Unalaska Island during July 1816, noted the use of seed-beads. The term has been found on some historical inventories. For example, seed beads were inventoried at the American Fur Company post of Fort Union, North Dakota, at least between 1840 and 1851. They were only listed by the pound; and were less expensive than long string, necklace, and agate beads, and more expensive than mock garnet, garnishing, barley con, pound, cut, and snake beads. Colors included white and blue, but most were sold as assorted colors. No sizes were listed (Devore 1992:119-27). Stekliarus The priest Ivan Veniaminov (1984:288), who lived among the Unangan during 1823-1839, used the Russian terms stekliarus and korol'ki to describe beads of differ- ent types. English translators have translated stekliarus to mean glass seed beads, but it is not clear how these beads differ from bisera or how translators arrived at this translation.