8 Variation within the Meganos Culture James A. Bennyhoff (1987) Introduction I N 1939, HEIZR NOTD that the older component at the Orwood site (CCo-141) was an atypical Transitional Horizon representative because ventral extension was still the burial mode (Lillard, Heizer and Fenenga 1939:55). When Beardsley (1948:4, 9) for- malized the Central California Taxonomic System, he also separated an Orwood Facies from other interior facies within the Middle Horizon. During my years as archaeologist with the University of California Ar- chaeological Survey, my associates and I salvaged two sand mound cemeteries in the Delta-CCo-20 and SJo-106--which closely resembled the Orwood Fa- cies. Also, I recorded similar sites (CCo-19, CCo-3 1) near Walnut Creek. University of California archaeo- logical field classes, under my direction, continued excavationsbegunbyHeizeratCCo-151 inElSobrante, where Middle Horizon ventrally extended burials oc- curred in the midden above flexed burials placed in pits into the subsoil. In 1968, 1 termed a collection of seventeen simi- lar sites Meganos (see chapter 1 herein) and over the years many other sites have been added. Jerry Johnson salvaged SJo-91 south of Stockton; Jean Moss and Ruth Mead salvaged CCo-311 near Alamo; Frank Fenenga salvaged SJo- 17 southwest of Stockton; Miley Holman rescued Ala-41 3 in the Livennore Valley; and Richard Hughes and I salvaged SJo-154 at Stockton. Most recently, three sites were salvaged in the south Bay-Ala453 in Union City, Ala-413 in Fremont, and SCI-327 in San Jose. Despite much more variabil- ity today than when I first defined this culture in 1968 (chapter 1), I still view the Meganos culture as a hybrid of a Windmillerpopulation intermarrying with Berke- ley neighbors. The result, especially in later phases, was a divergent aspect-the Meganos aspect of the Berkeley Pattem. "Meganos" means sand mound, and Cook and Elsasser (1956) called attention to these non-midden cemeteries found in the sand mounds of the Delta islands. I feel that the Meganos culture was always centered in the San Joaquin Valley but spread into parts of the Bay region during the late and tenni- nal phases of the Middle Period. Overview In the Early period, roughly 3000 - 500 B.C., two very different cultural pattems are found in the Bay and Delta regions (see figure 8.1). The Windmiller culture, found in the Delta region between Sacra- mento and Stockton, is characterized by a rigid mor- tuary pattem dominated by ventral extension and westerly orientation, with burial sometimes in the village midden and sometmes in non-midden cem- eteries. Mortuary offerings are customary, with an emphasis on ground stone including perforated 82 Toward a New Taxonomic Frameworkfor Central California Santa Co Rosa Soc-46 0 ~ Nap-32 -107oc16 O San Francisco N Sac - 16 8 -N- rn -Mo_72> SoM I km~~~a FIGURE 8.1 Pre-Meganos pattems and aspects in the Bay and Delta regions during the Early period, 3,000 - 500 B.C. Variation within the Meganos Culture 83 charmstones and ground slate. Bone artifacts are of relatively minor importance. In contrast the Berkeley Pattem, centered around the San Francisco Bay, is characterized by burials withflexure 90-100% of the time, usually found in the midden, and having no rigid orientation. Grave goods were usually sparse, but a wide variety of bone tools were emphasized. Differ- ent physical types also distinguish the two patterns, so I cannot regard Lower Berkeley as a mere variant of Windmiller as suggested by Moratto (1984:207ff.)- two distinct cultures and populations are represented. The Meganos variantemerged during theEarly/Middle Period Transition (E/MT)-roughly 500 - 200 B.C. (see figure 8.2). The Windmiller population in the Cosumnes District is largely displaced southward into the Stockton District by the intrusive bearers of the Morse aspectofthe Berkeley Pattem. Most Windmiller sites are abandoned, and many new sites are first occupied and will continue to be occupied through the Middle period. The Morse aspect represents a new cultural orientation which shares traits (use of the mortar and pestle [acom economy], exclusive flexed burial within the village, and abundant bone tools) with the Stege aspect. Phasing problems obscure the earliest movement into the Livermore Valley. Randy Wiberg proposes that the oldest component at Ala- 413, dating to the E/MT, is characterized by flexure. However, two of the six so-called flexed burials are actually semi-extensions, and flexed and extended burials overlap by depth. Artifact types and radiocar- bon dates do support a dominant occupation during the early phase of the Middle period. Meganos expansion into the Walnut Creek Val- ley and down San Pablo Creek took place within the Late phase of the Middle period (see figure 8.3). Such Berkeley Pattern sites as CCo-308, CCo-259, and CCo-14 were abandoned, and Meganos cemeteries at CCo-311 and CCo-2 appeared nearby. Most of the population in the far northern Alameda District likely fled across Carquinez Strait, but amalgamation prob- ably occurred at CCo-151, where ventral extension and flexed burials appear together in the midden. The major occupation at Union City (Ala453), Fremont (Ala-343), and SCQ-327 probably represents the Ter- minal phase of the Middle period. The Middle/Late Period Transition, roughly A.D. 700 - 900, represents a period of disruption in much of Central Califomia (see figure 8.4). Such northem traits as harpoons, collared pipes, bow and arrow, and grave pit burning signal the arrival of the Augustine Pattern, almost certainly brought south by the ances- tors of intrusive Patwin speakers. Their penetration into the Solano District forced the indigenous Petersen (Sol-2) population to move south of Suisun Bay where they emerge as ancestral Bay Miwok. Ancestral Karkin Costanoan return south of Carquinez Strait; CCo-2 is abandoned; and CCo-259 (the Femandez site) is reoccupied in early Phase 1. The 300 years of separa- tion of the Karkin from the other Costanoans is the probable explanation for the fact that Karkin is the most conservative Costanoan language. The Meganos cemeteries disappear throughout the Alameda and Diablo districts. Most of the Meganosians retumed to the Delta, where an increase in sites occurs. One group actually crossed the Mokelumne River to oc- cupy the Morse site (Sac-66) for this single phase. In early Phase I (figure 8.5) the Bay Miwok expand into the west Delta to occupy the Hotchkiss site (CCo-138). The Meganos cemeteries CCo-20 and CCo-139 were abandoned. The latest evidence for a Meganos cemetery appears in Early Phase I of the Late period at the Cardinal site (SJo-154) in Stockton, where 84% of the nineteen interments were flexed. Amalgamation with Valley Yokuts appears to have been the fate of the Meganos survivors. By Middle Phase 1, a new settlement pattem is evident in the Stockton District, and burial always occurs in the village. Post-1968 Research Since 1968, much more variability is evident in the Meganos culture. Unfortunately, we are still plagued by a miserable data set. Most sites are non- midden cemeteries or buried sites discovered by bull- dozers-hence 20-40% of the burials lack crucial information on burial position and orientation. Single phases are often represented by small numbers. For example, at SJo-106, the ninety-one burials represent five phases, each with only twelve to twenty-two burials. The two phases recognized at SJo-154 are represented by twelve and twenty-three burials. Ex- cavation at Ala4 13 was limited to the edge of a sewer trench; seventeen burials were partial exposures so position and artifact associations are clouded. Ala- 84 Toward a New Taxonomic Frameworkfor Central California Lak- 261 0?C K. Santa\ Rosa O3 \ 106 IV 0 0 0 0 IV c) -N- FIGURE 8.2 The emergence of Meganos during the Early/Middle Period Transition and early phase of the Middle period, 500B.C. - A.D. 100. so-3 Modesto O Variation within the Meganos Culture Sac- (Lake Miwok) Yol -5 CCo-2 ( CCo-31 Concord CCo-141 "I- *-CCo-I9 '- Walnut Co-l, C>reek (Yokuts?) I Co 151 * C-1 Stockton Modesto El Ula- 343 327 FIGURE 8.3 Meganos expansion during the Mddle period (Late and Terminal phases), A.D. 300 - 700. Santa Rosa 0 I 0 0 0 -v11 -N- 85 86 Toward a New Taxonomic Framework for Central California Sacramento Mr Rosa -o 0 Sac~~~~~~~0ll3e Santa Cosum KSan. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Sa 1 RaaeaARI *Co20Stcko V~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'O O San Fra Sn.- oo a Modestoto kto o~~~~~Bmw Walnut~~~~~~~~~~~~~~E -v~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~C-4 0 C'O~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ,Dorsal Extension' c 1 Newman Only ___ ___ ___ 20_ FIGURE 8.4 Tbe Meganos retreat to the Delta during the Middle/Late Period Transition, A.D. 700 - 900. Variation within the Meganos Culture Col-3 x LAKE MIWOK Santa Rosa 0 Stockton ?-SJo- 154 V1 C C 0 C<5 ,$ San I Modesto E3 -N- I X Dorsl E +-Pctwin FIGURE 8.5 Te end of Meganos during the Late period (Early Phase 1), A.D. 900 - 1 100. 87 88 Toward a New Taxonomic Frameworkfor Central California 453 has a similar problem. Depth relationships have not yet been worked out at Ala-343. Few sites have been intensively analyzed, and I personally have seen only pardal collections from the many recent sites. A variety of typological problems have yet to be re- solved. At Ala413, Wiberg (1984) refers to semi- extension as flexed, while J. Hall refers to Ala-343 extensions with bent legs as semi-extension. New shell bead variants keep emerging, and no satisfactory shell omament analysis has been completed. The problem of midden vs. non-midden cem- eteries remains unresolved. Fenenga and I have both dug at the Windmiller sites Sac-107 and SJo-68. Fenenga argues that Sac-107 is leached midden; I do not agree. The Meganos sand mound cemeteries definitely lack midden. As one approaches the Bay, uncertainty prevails. CCo-151 is definitely a village midden, but Ala-413 and 454 seem more like camp- sites. Ala-343 at Fremont is one of the more instruc- tive in that burials were concentrated in the midden, but many off-site burials also occurred. The variability in burial position is most puz- zling and too complex to summarize quickly. At SJo- 68, Ragir (1972) felt that dorsal extension in the Windmiller culture reflected warfare mortality. So far, I find little support for this in Meganos, but dorsal extension is much more rare than ventral extension. At SJo-106, of sixty-seven burials with data, 73% were extended and 27% were flexed. When phased, there is a clear shift from 73% ventral exten- sion in early Middle times to 73% flexed in the Middle/Late Transition. At SJo-154 in Terminal Middle times, 63% of eight burials were extended (two ventral extensions, three dorsal extensions) while 37% were flexed. However, in early Phase 1 at SJo- 154, 84% were flexed and only 16% were extended (two dorsal and one ventral extension). In contrast, at Ala413, the four flexed burials were all confined to the older component of the Early/ Middle Transition phase (thirty ventral extensions, five dorsal extensions, and two semi-extended). At CCo-151, also, flexure is emphasized earlier than extension, and Late Middle burials are more often flexed than extended (58% vs. 42%). The Terminal Middle burials, on the other hand, reverse these fre- quencies: 61% were extended and 39% were flexed. While phasing problems may be involved at CCo- 151, these figures could support the interpretation of a local population acculturating to the new Meganos intruders. All extensions at CCo-15 1 were ventral. Most Ala-343 burials probably represent the Tenninal Middle phase, and flexure is emphasized (57% flexed, 43% extended). Flexure and ventral extension were equal (four each) at Ala-453, and all seven Tenninal Middle period burials at SCI-237 were ventral extensions, but a mass burial was repre- sented. Turning to orientation, the Windmilleremphasis on pointing skulls to the west is abandoned in Meganos sites. There is a very clear shift to north in all the westem Meganos sites, those in the Livernore Valley, Walnut Creek Valley, and the Alameda District sites. At Ala-413, 79% of burials were oriented northwest, north, or northeast, while 78% of burials at Ala-343 were so oriented. Delta sites are quite variable, with southwesterly being found at SJo-106, and south or west favored at Sac-104. The numbers of artifacts associated with Meganos burials also is variable. At SJo-106, only twenty-four of ninety-one burials (26%) had artifacts associated, and these numbers tend to decline overtime; only 41% of seventeen early Middle period burials had artifacts, while none of twelve Middle/Late Period Transition burials was accompanied by artifacts. At SJo-154, nine of twelve (75%) of Temrminal Middle period burials were accompanied by artifacts, while sixteen of twenty-three (70%) of Phase 1 burials has associa- tions. At Ala-4 13, 39% (twenty-five of sixty-four) of the burials had associations, though seventeen burials were not fully exposed. Forty-three of seventy-one burials (61%) at Ala-453 have artifacts associated with them. In general, SJo-91 and the westemMeganos sites seem to have more of a ceremonial emphasis than I found at SJo-106. Charmstones, bird-bone whistles, and ceremonial points are more common in the west. Summary Comments I am most impressed by the continual appearance of unique traits in Meganos cemeteries. Though not far separated spatially, the Patterson phase of the Berkeley Pattem atAla-328 features shield ornaments of abalone, while the contemporaneous Ala-413 buri- Variadon within the Meganos Culture 89 als yielded new multi-perforated forms. Ala-413 has a distinctive humerus with bead applique not found elsewhere. The site also contained unique cannon bone tubes and tibia pendants (or sweat scrapers), as well as a unique steatite bowl. Ala453 has a new oval saddle bead type. Nonetheless, most sites show an active parficipation in trade-particularly involving exchange of shell goods for obsidian. At Ala413, 66% of the obsidian recovered occurred with burials (trans-Sierran obsidian sources Mt. Hicks, Queen, and Casa Diablo dominate, only 34% from the Napa Valley) but only 26% of the midden obsidian came from Casa Diablo (68% derived from the Napa Valley and 5% from Annadel). Thus, there appears to have been extensive trade in finished products. East- em sources were also important for cemeteries in the Delta. White chert was emphasized in the Diablo District (see figures 1.2 and 1.3) and was traded to CCo-2 and West Berkeley (Ala-307; cf. Wallace and Lathrap 1975:13, plate 3q, r). These three recently excavated sites in the south San Francisco Bay Area (Ala-343 in Fremont, Ala- 453 in Union City, and SCI-327 at Eastridge) have extended the distribution of the Meganos culture a significant distance southward from San Pablo Creek and increase the cultural variation found in this Middle period assemblage.