1
INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH DESIGN
PATRICK V. KIRCH AND TERRY L. HUNT
1THE WESTERN POLYNESLAN ISLANDs-and
particularly the large Tongan and Samoan
archipelagoes-have long occupied a central focus
in scholarly endeavors to decode the history of
Polynesian origins and dispersals. Burrows (1939)
recognized and defined the distinctive cultural
pattems that set the Westem Polynesian societies
apart from those of Eastem Polynesia. With the
advent of modem stratigraphic excavation and of
radiocarbon dating in Polynesia during the 1950s, it
became apparent that Tonga and Samoa had been
settled considerably earlier than any other
Polynesian archipelagoes. Furthermore, pottery
assemblages from both Tonga and Samoa had
obvious relationships with early ceramic com-
plexes in Melanesia to the west (Golson 1962).
Thus, when Suggs attempted his pioneering
synthesis of Polynesian prehistory, he could
rightly claim that "the islands of Westem
Polynesia were the earliest occupied of all the
Polynesian triangle and the source of all subse-
quent settlements in Polynesia" (1960:101).
As archaeological knowledge of the Westem
Polynesian archipelagoes continued to accumulate,
the relationship between the early Tongan and
Samoan materials occasioned debate and contro-
versy (e.g. Green 1967, 1968; Groube 1971). The
presence of early (ca. 1200 B.C.) dentate-stamped,
Lapita-style pottery in Tonga and, in Samoa of only
later (ca. 200 B.C. tO A.D. 300) Polynesian Plain
Ware assemblages appeared to support the hypoth-
esis of Tonga as the original Polynesia "homeland."
In 1973, the discovery of a submerged Lapita site at
Mulifanua off the 'Upolu coast in Westem
Samoa (Jennings 1974) brought the Samoan
sequenc back to a comparable antiquity to tat of
Tonga. Subsequently, ealy Lapita materials were
recovered from a number of the smaller Westem
Polynesian islands, including Futuna (Kirch 1981;
Frimigacci 1990), 'Uvea, and Niuatoputapu (Kirch
1988b). These discoveries indicate that the entire
Westem Polynesian region was rapidly explored and
colonized by Lapita people during the penultimate
centries of te second millennium B.C.
In our current conception, the adjacent
islands and archipelagoes of Western Polynesia
constituted a homeland region in which a
distinctive Ancestral Polynesian Culture
emerged out of its immediate Lapita ancestor
during the period from about 1000 to 500 B.C.
(Kirch 1984; Kirch and Green 1987). Presum-
ably, the processes of cultural change and
differentiation during this time period were not
uniform across all islands. Regular inter-island
contact through exchange, however, kept each
local community from becoming isolated and
facilitated the spread of innovations. As Kirch
and Green (1987) have argued, the reconstruction
2       The To'aga Site
of Ancestral Polynesian Culture-not as a static
entity, but as a dynamic and changing configuration
over the course of 500 or more years-is a high
priority for Polynesian prehistory. Only by
understanding the technology, economy, settle-
ment pattems, and socio-political organization of
this ancestral culture can we provide a secure
baseline for studying the subsequent development
and diversification of later Polynesian groups
throughout the vast Polynesian triangle. Recon-
struction of Ancestral Polynesian Culture is
essential if we are to disentangle those traits and
institutions which are shared retentions, from
those which are later innovations in various island
societies.
The present monograph represents a modest
contribution toward the ultimate goal of tracing
the development of Ancestral Polynesian Culture
out of its Lapita roots. The To'aga site, situated on
the tiny island of Ofu in the Manu'a Group of
American Samoa, spans virtually the entire three-
millennium-long sequence of Samoa, but is
especially rich in well-stratified materials dating to
the period from ca. 3200 to 1900 B.P. Our re-
search at To'aga was initiated in order to meet
certain cultural resource management (CRM)
demands, as part of an archaeological survey and
inventory of American Samoan sites under the
auspices of the Office of Historic Preservation of
the Govenmment of American Samoa (Pago Pago).
Fortunately, the goals of this CRM project happily
meshed with the objectives of academically
oriented archaeological research, providing the
opportmity to add to our knowledge of the early
phases of Westem Polynesian prehistory while at
the same time addressing contemporary historic
preservation and land use management concems.
The To'aga site was discovered during our
1986 reconnaissance survey of the Manu'a Islands
(Hunt and Kirch 1987), one of two sites containing
pottery and thus dating to the earliest period of
Samoan prehistory. In our subsequent 1987 and
1989 field seasons we concentrated on the exten-
sive To'aga site, seeking to define the spatial
extent of its deeply buried deposits, its chronol-
ogy, stratigraphy, material culture, faunal assem-
blages, and other aspects of intra-site variation.
As our investigations progressed, it became
apparent that To'aga was of critical importance to
understanding the first millennium of Samoan-
and Westem Polynesian-prehistory. No other site
presently known in the Samoan archipelago
encapsulates such a continuous stratigraphic
record, nor one so rich in artifactual and faunal
materials. Although the scope and extent of our
excavations had to be limited by the CRM-funded
nature of our project, we have nonetheless made
every effort to push the analysis of our materials
farther than is usual in such reconnaissance sur-
veys. For example, using a transect sampling
methodology, combined with detailed sediment
analysis and radiocarbon dating, we have been able
to test a model of shoreline progradation linked
with a mid-Holocene higher sea level. This model
has considerable geoarchaeological implications
for the formation and subsurface burial of early
Polynesian sites thrughout the tropical central
Pacific region. We have also pushed the analysis
of the archaeological record of Ancestral
Polynesian material culture at the To'aga site
through detailed studies of pottery (including
analysis of temper and of the chemical composition
of clays), adzes (including EDXRF analysis of
basalts), and other artifact classes. Likewise, the
samples of faunal materials have been subjected to
intensive studies, including extinct and extirpated
avifaunal remains, molluscan and fish faunal
assemblages, and terrestrial (synanthropic) land
snails. In the fourteen chapters that follow, we and
our collaborators present the detailed results of our
field and laboratory investigations of the To'aga
site.
BACKGROUND TO SAMOAN
ARCHAEOLOGY
Although Buck (1930) reported on stonework
and adzes, the first modem archaeological effort in
Samoa was that of Golson (n.d., 1962) in 1957,
resulting both in a general account of the range of
field monuments and in the discovery of prehis-
toric pottery dated to the first century A.D. at
Vailele, 'Upolu. The latter discovery was particu-
larly significant in the then-emerging picture of
Polynesian origins as rooted in an earlier
Melanesian ceramic complex beginning to be
known by the term "Lapita" (Suggs 1961; Golson
1971; see also Kirch 1988a). Following Golson's
lead, a major archaeological program was orga-
nized for Westem Samoa under the direction of
Introduction and Research Design  3
Roger C. Green (University of Auckland), with
funding provided trugh the Bishop Museum's
Polynesian Culture History Program. Between
1962 and 1967, this project brought seventeen
archaeologists from nine institutions to Westem
Samoa for a coordinated series of investigations
including surface surveys and excavations of sites
spanning early settlement to the historic period.
Published in two large volumes (Green and
Davidson 1969, 1974), the results of this project
are a landmark in Polynesian archaeology.
Subsequent to the conclusion of the Westem
Samoa project in 1967, but in time to be incorpo-
rated in the second volume of results (Green and
Davidson 1974), an accidental discovery of
classically decorated Lapita pottery at Mulifanua,
'Upolu extended the Samoan sequence back to the
beginning of the first millennium B.C. (fig. 1.1).
Furthermore, the geomorphological context of this
find-a submerged site capped by nearly one meter
of reef rock-demonstrated that tectonically
induced changes in the Samoan landscape could
have significant implications for regional prehis-
tory.
In the 1970s, a project headed by Jesse
Jennings of the University of Utah completed two
seasons of archaeological research on 'Upolu
Island and on the adjacent small islet of Manono,
concentrating on settlement pattem surveys and
excavation of both plain ware and aceramic sites
(Jennings et al. 1976; Jennings and Holmer 1980).
Of particular note is their work on settlement
patterns in which they propose the concept of the
"household unit" as an analytical category
(Jennings et al. 1982).
As a result of these various projects, the
outline of a prehistoric cultural sequence for
Westem Samoa is reasonably well attested
(Davidson 1979). In conventional outline, this
sequence begins with the occupation of the archi-
pelago between about 1200-1000 B.C. by makers of
classic, dentate-stamped Lapita pottery (repre-
sented by the presently submerged "Ferry-Berth
Site" at Mulifanua). The first millennium B.C.
witnessed changes in the composition of Samoan
ceramic assemblages, particularly the loss of
decoration and of more complex vessel shapes,
ending with Polynesian Plain Ware assemblages
around the time of Christ. Stone adzes and other
aspects of material culture also changed with the
pottery, and this sequence as a whole is viewed as
documenting the development of an Ancestral
Polynesian Culture out of an older Eastem Lapita
culture (Kirch and Green 1987).
Figure 1.1 The Samoan Archipelago.
4       The To'aga Site
Ceramnics ceased to be manufactued by about
A.D. 300, and e paucity of archaeological materials
during the next thousand years or so prompted
Davidson (1979) to tenn this the "Dark Ages" of
Westem Polynesian prehistory. In the final millen-
nium of the Samoan sequence a number of new
developmenas are evidenced in the archaeological
record, especially the construction of several new
fonns of field monuments, such as the star mound
and ridge-top forifications. These large construc-
tions are believed to reflect the rise of powerful
chiefdoms competing for land and resources.
The Samoan culurl sequence briefly oudined
above parallels-in many key aspects-the se-
quences developed by archaeologists for other
Westem Polynesian islands, such as Tongatapu
(Poulsen 1987), Niuatoputapu (Kirch 1988a), Futuna
(Kirch 1981; Frimigacci 1990), and 'Uvea
(Frimigacci, Siorat and Vienne 1984).
In contrast with Westem Samoa, the archaeology
and prehistory of American Samoa are less well
known. The first modem archaeological survey in
Amercan Samoa was caried out by W. Kikuchi
(1963, 1964) on Tutuila and Aunu'u Islands in 1961-
62. Kikuchi's work provided an overview of the
main kinds of surface sites, but was neither intensive
nor systenatic in its coverage. In 1962, Kikuchi and
Y. Sinoto of the Bishop Museum extended the survey
to the Manu'a Group and conducted minor test
excavations on both Ta'u and Tutuila Islands.
Disappointed by their results, Sinoto decided to
abandon the Samnoan project, and shifted his locus of
field work to the Marquesas Islands of Eastem
Polynesia (Emory and Sinoto 1965). Prior to 1980,
the only other major field project conducted in
American Samoa was that of Janet Frost (1978), who
carred out limited test excavations at seven sites on
Tutuila. There have also been severl limited
cultual resource surveys, carried out under contract
to the National Park Service, the U.S. Anmy Corps of
Engineer, and the Department of Public Works
(Ladd and Moris 1970, Kikuchi, Palama, and Silva
1975; Silva and Palama 1975; McCoy 1977; Atxhns
1987; Hunt 1987). In 1980, J. Clark compiled a
summary of all recorded archaeological sites for the
American Samoan Historic Preservadon Commis-
sion, based on  ree weeks in the field checking the
locations and status of many of these sites (Clark
1980). Clark summed up the status of archaeological
survey in Amercan Samoa as of 1980 in these
words: "the amount of land that has been intensively
and systematically covered is small indeed"
(1980:11).
Over the course of the past decade, archeological
knowledge of Amercan Samoa has increased
substantially due to the efforts of te Historc Preser-
vadon Office of the Deparment of Pariks and Recre-
ation, Government of American Samoa. With funds
made available by the U.S. National Park Service
(NPS), the Historic Preservation Officer has commis-
sioned a variety of archaeological reconnaissance and
intensive survey projects in order to compile an
inventory of significant sites on Tutuila and in the
Manu'a Group. Given the rapid pace of economic
development in American Samoa, many of the sites
revealed through such survey projects have proved to
be threatened by current or projected land use
practices.
On Tutuila Island, a substantial multi-year
project was devoted to the recording and detailed
study of the Tataga-matau basalt adz quarry site,
situated on a complex of ridges inland of Leone
Village (Best, Leach, and Witter 1989; Leach and
Witter 1987; Leach and Witter 1990). This site is of
interest not only for its intrinsic importance to
understading the prehistory of Tutuila, but because
the adzes produced at this major quany have been
shown to have been distributed very widely through-
out the Westem Pacific (Best, Sheppard, Green, and
Parker 1992). Also on Tutuila, Jeff Clark and his
associates have carried out a series of surveys and
test excavations which have greatly amplified our
understanding of the archaeological resources of
American Samoa (Clark 1989, in press; Clar and
Herdrich 1988, in press).
When the senior author was asked by te
American Samoan Historic Preservation Officer to
consider undertaking an archaeological survey in the
archipelago, we decided to focus on the then-
neglected Manu'a Group. The selection of the
Manu'a Group as the focus of our project was
motivated by several factors. First, the larger island
of Tutuila was already receiving substantial attention
from several other archaeological field teams, leaving
Manu'a as a continuing lacuna. Second, because we
were particuladiy interested in seeking ceramic-
bearing sites dating to the first third of Samoan
prehistory, we preferred to focus on several smaller
islands where survey and subsurface testing could be
concentrated on likely areas of early occupation.
Introduction and Research Design  5
Third, as the most easterly and somewhat isolated
section of the Samoan archipelago, the prehistory and
archaeology of Manu'a could conceivably exhibit
significant differences from that of Tutuila, Upolu,
and Savai'i. While such differnces were predictable,
primary fieldwoik would be necessary for their
documentation.
DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH
Over the course of three field seasons, our
research focus in Manu'a evolved from extensive
reconnaissance survey of the surface archaeology to
intensive subsurface examnination of buried archaeo-
logical resources. Our field investigations began in
1986 with archaeological reconmaissance of he three
islands of the Manu'a Group: Ta'u, Olosega, and Ofu
(Hunt and Kirch 1987, 1988). In 1986 ceramic-
bearing sites were discovered at To'aga, Ofu Island
and at Ta'u Village, Ta!u Lsland. In the 1987 field
season, we focused on an intensive survey and
systematic excavation of the site at To'aga (Site AS-
13-1). Our msults from 1987 (Kirch et al. 1989,
1990) revealed a deeply stratified site containing a
long and continuous sequence of ceramics and dating
to more than 3,000 yearS B.P. (Kirch et al. 1990). A
site of this significance for either American or
Westem Samoa was previously unknown. A third
season at To'aga was therefore designed to determine
the naure and extent of bured archaeological
remains for the entire coastal flat of southem Ofu
(extending from To'aga to Fa'ala'aga). Thus, the
primary objectives of our 1987 and 1989 fieldwork
were to determine the nature, significance, and
spatial and stratigrphic extent of the deposits at site
AS-13-1. This fundamental step was accomplished
primarily for the purpose of cultural resource man-
agement, including preservation and public interpre-
tation. The data collected will be used to nominate
site AS-13-1 to the National Register of Historic
Places and to assure its preservation in the face of
any future development plans.
While our Manu&a Project was designed first and
foremost to address the CRM concerns of the
Amercan Samnoa Historic Preservation Office, we
also regarded the project as an opportunity to tackle
several major research problems of Samoan archaeol-
ogy and prehistory. Especially in the 1987 and 1989
field seasons, when we concentrated on the well-
stratified and extensive subsurface deposits at To'aga,
it was possible to design the field and laboratory
sttegies to address the following researh problems:
1. A major objective was the establishment of a
temporal framework and prehistoric sequence for the
Manu'a Islands. Prior to the commencement of our
project, it was uncertain whether the Manu'a Group
would prove to have been colonized at approximately
the same time as the other Samoan Islands, or
whether the main changes and trends in te Manu'a
sequence (such as te timing of ceramnic change and
eventual cessation of pottery manufacture) would
parallel ose on Tutuila, Upolu, and Savai'i.
2. A second research goal was to determine the
nature and magnitude of environmental change
during the period of prehistoric Polynesian occupa-
tion of the Manu'a Islands. Interdisciplinary research
on other central Pacific islands over the past two
decades had shown that human activities frequently
have resulted in major changes to the vegetation,
fauna, and landforms of island ecosystms (e.g.,
Kirch 1984:123-51; Kirch 1988b:247-50-, Kirch and
Yen 1982; Bayliss-Smith et al. 1988:1243). At te
same time, natural environmental changes such as
sea-level fluctuations, also were known to have
affected site distribution and the geomorphology of
coastal lowlands. At te To'aga site, we had te
opponunity to address such issues of human-induced
and natnal environmental changes over a 3,000+
year sequence. In particular, we were interested in
determining the geomorphological history of te
To'aga coastal plain, a narrow strip of intensively
used land (see chapter 2, Kirch). To this end, we
developed a morphodynamic model of landfonn
changes at To'aga (chapter 4, Kirch) which we were
able to test on te detailed data of site satigraphy
(chapter 5, Kirch and Hunt), radiocarbon chronology
(chapter 6, Kirch), and sedimentological analysis of
fte excavated deposits (chapter 7, Kirch, Manning,
and Tyler).
3. A third major issue concerned the reconstuc-
tion of certin aspects of Ancestral Polynesian
Culture, especially te nature of its settement
pattems and subsistence economy, which were rather
poorly evidenced on archaeological criteria (as
opposed to histonrcal linguistic reconstructions, see
Kirch 1984:53-67). Because the To'aga site spans the
entire firSt millennium B.C.-the period during which
Ancestrl Polynesian Culture developed out of its
6       The To'aga Site
Lapita ancestor-and because the site's calcareous
sandy deposits preserve a wide range of organic
materials, this was again an excellent situation in
which to tackle this researh issue. In particular, we
expended considerable effort in the analysis of the
extensive suite of vertebrate and invertebrate faunal
matetals rwcovered from the excavations (see
chapter 13, Nagaoka and chapter 14, Steadman).
4. A more specific research topic is the explana-
tion of ceramic change in Westem Polynesia,
including aspects of technology, formal variation in
vessel shape and function, and te eventual disap-
pearance of pottery. The To'aga site, with a particu-
lariy long sequence of strtified deposits, yielded a
cermnic assemblage spaning virtually the entire
period of pottery manufacture in Samoa. We
fterefore decided to focus on a detailed examination
of these ceramics, from several analytical perspec-
tives, in order to refine our understanding of ceramic
change in the Samoan archipelago (see chapter 9,
Hunt and Erkelens; and chapter 10, Dickinson).
5. A fifth research issue focussed on te role of
inter-island exchange of such matenal items as
ceranics and basalt adzes. Oceanic prehistorians
have increasingly come to realize that such exchange
was extremely important in maintaining contacts
between island societies (e.g. Kirch 1988a, b; Hunt
1989). In the case of materials frxm To'aga, we
resolved to investigate the role of inter-island ex-
change trugh an intensive study of the ceramic and
basalt adz artifact assemblages (see chapter 9, Hunt
and Erelens; and chapter 12, Weisler).
In sum, our field and laboratory studies of the
To'aga site was oriented by these five research issues,
combined with the prblems of site delineation and
significance-assessment dictated by the CRM nature
of our conta with the American Samoa Historic
Preservation Office. Because the funds for fieldwork
were limited, we knew that we would be unable to
carry out extensive subsurface excavations or
exposures of large areas. lTus, our field strategy had
to be designed to obtain the kinds of data relevant to
the research issues cited above in the most cost-
effective manner. In addition to intensive survey of
surface archaeological featumr located throughout
the Toaga area (Hunt, chapter 3), we concentaed on
a series of systematic trsct test excavations
following methods elaborated by Kirch in previous
fieldwork on Ticopia and Niuatoputapu (Kirch and
Yen 1982; Kirch 1988b). These unsect excavations
allowed us to define the spatial extent of the site,
especially the deeply buried, pottery-bearing depos-
its, to gain an overview of the statigraphic sequence
and to obtain sizable samples of ceramics, other
portable artifacts, and vertebrate and invertebrate
faunal remains. Furtfer details of our sampling and
excavation metiodology are provided in chapter 5.
As the various chapters to follow demonstrate,
the To'aga site is a unique and highly significant
archaeological resource, encapsulating dtree millen-
nia of Samoan prehistory. As the pace of develop-
ment and land use change quickens in American
Samoa, this site is likely to come under increased
dteat. It is our hope that in addition to contributing
to our understanding of Polynesian and Samoan
prehistory, this volume will serve to heighten aware-
ness concerning this valuable archaeological re-
source. The To'aga site deserves to be carefully
protected and its non-replaceable resources managed
so that future generations will have the opportunity to
fuirter advance our knowledge and understanding of
the past
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