THE TO'AGA SITE / THREE MILLENNIA OF POLYNESIAN OCCUPATION 2. I~~~~~~~~~N THE MANU'A ISLANDS, AMERICAN SAMOA I~~~~~~ ,- _- - - - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~F View of the completed 1987 main excavation at Totaga. Cover photo: View of Ofu Island coastline fronting the To'aga site. The volcanic plug at Fa'ala'aga is visible in the distance. (Photo by P.V. Kirch) ISBN 1-882744-01-2 THE TO'AGA SITE THREE MILLENNIA OF POLYNESIAN OCCUPATION IN THE MANU'A ISLANDS, AMERICAN SAMOA R V. KIRCH AND T. L. HUNT EDITORS Number 51 Contributions of the University of Califomia Archaeological Research Facility Berkeley Primary funding forthis research has been provided by the Historic Preservation Office of the Department of Parks and Recreation, Government of Amenican Samoa, through grants from the U. S. National Park Service, Archaeological Assistance Division, Department of the Interior. However, the contents and opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of the Interior. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 93-72699 ISBN 1-882744-01-2 ? 1993 by the Regents of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility University of California at Berkeley Printed in the United States of America All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any fonn or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Dedicated to the memory of JOHN KNEUBUHL (1920-1992) Citizen of Two Cultures Tagaloa e, tawnuli ai, Tagaloafiamalolo; E mapu i le lagi Tuli mai vasa; Ta fili'a i peau a lao. Fea le nu'u na lua'i tupu? Manua-tele na mua'i tupu. Tagaloa, who sits at the helm, Tagaloa desires to rest; Tulifrom the ocean must rest in the heavens; These waves below affright my breast. Where is the land whichfirst upsrang? Great Manu'afirst uprose. (Mead 1930:152) Contents Preface ix Chapter 1. INTRODUCHON AND RESEARCH DESIGN. T. L. Hunt and P. V. Kirch 1 Background to Samoan Archaeology 2 Design of the Research 5 References Cited 6 Chapter 2. OFU ISLAND AND THE TO'AGA SITE: DYNAMICS OF THE NATURAL AND CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT. P. V. Kirch 9 Geology and Geomorphology of Ofu 11 Resources of the Island 12 The Cultural and Social Landscape 17 To'aga: Land Use and Vegetation Patterns 18 References Cited 21 Chapter 3. SURFACE ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE TO'AGA AREA. T. L. Hunt 23 References Cited 30 Chapter 4. THE TOAGA SITE: MODELLING THE MORPHODYNAMICS OF THE LAND-SEA INTERFACE. P. V. Kirch 31 Geomorphology of the To'aga Coastal Terrace 32 Morphodynamic Processes: Sea Levels and Subsidence 33 Sediment Budgets: Sources and Modes of Deposition 38 Modelling the Morphodynamics of the To'aga Coastal Terrace in the Mid- to Late-Holocene 38 To'aga: Expectations for Archaeological Site Formation Processes 40 References Cited 41 Chapter 5. EXCAVATIONS AT THE TOAGA SITE (AS-13-1). P. V. Kirch and T. L. Hunt 43 Introduction 43 1986 Test Excavation 46 The 1987 Excavations 46 The 1989 Transect Excavations 57 Summary and Conclusions 82 References Cited 83 Chapter 6. RADIOCARBON CHRONOLOGY OF THE TO'AGA SITEa. P. V. Kirch 85 Radiocarbon Dating Procedures: Corrections and Calibrations 86 The Radiocarbon Corpus from To'aga 87 v Discussion 89 References Cited 91 Chapter 7. A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SEDIMENT SAMPLES FROM THE TO'AGA SITE EXCAVATIONS. P. V. Kirch, E. Manning, and J. Tyler 93 Introduction 93 Methods 94 Results 98 Summary and Conclusions 111 References Cited 114 Chapter 8. NON-MARINE MOLLUSCS FROM THE TO'AGA SITE SEDIMENTS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE. P. V. Kirch 115 Introduction 115 Material and Methods 116 Systematic Review 116 Results 116 Conclusion 120 References Cited 120 Clupter 9. THE TO'AGA CERAMICS. T. L. Hunt and C. Eficelens 123 The Assemblage 123 Analytic Procedures 125 Results of Macroscopic Analysis 128 Ceramic Compositional Microanalysis 137 Conclusions 145 References Cited 148 Chapter 10. SAND TEMPER IN PREHISTORIC POTSHERDS FROM THE TO'AGA SITE. W. R. Dickinson 151 To'aga Temper Variants 151 Temper Grain Types 152 Profuse Basaltic Temper 152 Sparse Basaltic Temper 153 Feldspathic Basaltic Temper 154 Mixed Temper Sand 154 Discussion: Temper Comparisons 155 References Cited 156 Chapter I 1. NON4ERallP THE T(YAGA En. 157 sum, j_157 - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~162 Ornaments 162 Miscellaneous Artifacts 164 Worked Shell 164 Unretouched Lithics 165 References Cited 166 Chapter 12. CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND PROVENANCE OF MANUA ADZ MATERIAL USING A NON-DESTRUCTIVE X-RAY FLOURESCENCE TECHNIQUE. Marshall Weisler 167 Intduction 167 The Collections 168 Methods 170 Results 175 Summary and Conclusions 185 Acknowledgements 185 References Cited 185 Chapter 13. FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGES FROM THE TOAGA SITE. Lisa Nagaoka 189 Methods 189 Results 190 Analysis of Bulk Samples 197 Temporal Trends in the To'aga Assemblage 208 Regional Comparisons 208 Conclusions 214 Acknowledgements 214 References Cited 214 Chapter 14. BIRD BONES FROM THE TO'AGA SITE: PREHISTORIC LOSS OF SEABIRDS AND NEGAPODES. David W. Steadman 217 Intduction 217 Species Accounts 217 Discussion 226 Acknowledgements 226 References Cited 226 Chapter 15. SYNTHESIS AND INTERPRETATIONS. P. V. Kirch and T. L. Hunt 229 Cultural Sequence and Chronology 230 Geoarchaeology and Landscape Change 232 Ancestral Polynesian Culture 236 Subsistence Patterns 240 Inter-island Contacts and Exchange 243 The To'aga Site: Cultural Resource Management Considerations 243 References Cited 246 vii CONTRIBUTORS William R. Dickinson, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 Conrad Erkelens, Department of Anthropology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822 Terry L. Hunt, Department of Anthropology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822 Patrick V. Kirch, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 Elizabeth Manning, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 Lisa Nagaoka, Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 David W. Steadman, Biological Survey, New York State Museum, Albany, NY 12230 Jason Tyler, Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 Marshall Weisler, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 PREFACE In 1985 I received a request from te Historic Preservation Officer of Ameri- can Samoa, Mr. Stan Sorensen, to submit a proposal for archaeological survey work in American Samoa. Realizing that the Manu'a Islands, lying at the extreme eastern end of the Samoan archipelago, were the most neglected part of the Samoan group from the viewpoint of prehistory, I suggested that we might undertake a reconnais- sance of the three islands-Ta!u, Ofu, and Olosega-that make up Manu'a. A previous survey in 1962, by Y. Sinoto and W. Kikuchi of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, had revealed the presence of various surface archaeological sites, but had failed to establish any significant time depth for the prehistoric occupation of these islands. The proposed reconnaissance was carried by Terry Hunt and myself from June to August, 1986 and resulted in the discovery of the first pottery-bearing sites in the Manu'a group, on Ta'u and Ofu, as well as a range of later prehistoric monuments and artifacts. (Tbe results of the 1986 reconnaissance survey were subsequently published by Hunt and myself in The Journal of the Polynesian Society, Vol. 97, pages 153-83, 1988.) From the results of our initial survey, it appeared that ceramic-bearing deposits exposed by a Works Department landfill at To'aga on Ofu Island were particularly promising for further archaeological investigations. Thus, in 1987 we proposed to the Historic Preservation Office a second phase of work at To'aga. In this second phase, we recommended a series of systematic subsurface test excavations in order to determine more accurately the nature and extent of the To'aga site deposits. This second field season in 1987 was again directed by Hunt and myself, with the assis- tance of Jason Tyler and Jean Gehman. (Preliminary results of this work were published in Archaeology in Oceania, Volume 25, pages 1-15, 1990). The 1987 excavations revealed the presence of a deep, well-stratified prehis- toric record in the To'aga area, with subsurface deposits spanning most-if not all- of Manu'an prehistory. These strata were so extensive, however, that we were not able to determine their limits in the 1987 field season. Therefore, a third season was proposed to define more precisely the full subsurface extent of the site. This work was carried out in the summer of 1989, with fieldwork co-directed by Hunt and me, and with the assistance of a team of students from the University of Hawaii and the University of California at Berkeley. This monograph constitutes the final report of our thre field seasons at the To'aga site. While our core objectives were those of site survey and inventory (with the aim of preparing a National Register of Historic Places nomination for To'aga), we have endeavored to go well beyond these minimal goals in thle present work. Thus, we have carried out extensive analyses of much of the excavated material, including faunal remains, ceramics, and basalt artifacts. In addition, we have paid considerable attention to the geomorphological and geoarchaeological problems of site formation at To'aga, noting that thee also impinge on cultural resource manage- 1X ment considerations. We trust that these efforts contribute significantly to our knowledge of Western Polynesian prehistory as well as to site survey and inventory in American Samoa. During the course of our tree expeditions to Manu'a we have received the support and assistance of a great many individuals and organizations. Our primary source of funding has been the Historic Preservation Office of the Department of Parks and Recreation, Government of American Samoa, through grants from the U. S. National Park Service, Archaeological Assistance Division. Additional support has been provided by the Burke Museum of the University of Washington (for the 1986 and 1987 seasons), and the Archaeological Research Facility of the University of California at Berkeley (for the 1989 season). We are particularly grateful to Stan Sorensen, the Historic Preservation Officer of American Samoa, for his interest and support from the inception of this project. Anne Sauter of the Archaeological Re- search Facility at Berkeley assisted in various administrative matters. Tanya Smith carefully edited and produced this final monograph. Two respective district governors of Manu'a have lent their support to the project: High Chief Aolaolagi Soli and High Chief Tufele Li'a. We are also pleased to record the support of the people of Ofu Village, especially High Chief Misa'alefua, High Talking Chief Faoa, Liulamaga Ta'ilele, Manu'a Peau, and Sina Peau. In 1987, Tito and Margaret Malae assisted greatly with housing and other arrangments. Likewise, in 1989 Manu'a Peau and her family provided housing, hospitality, and a sense of being at home with family. Our field crews of Ivala Live, Fuave'a Ta'ilele, Tillis Thompson, Pauesi Malo, Eleloi Misa'alefua, Ele'ele Utuone, Paulo Su'e, and Opetaia Fa'amita were not only dedicated workers, but interested co-investigators. We also thank Jason Tyler, Jean Gehman, Elizabeth Manning, Conrad Erkelens, Melissa Kirkendal, Robert Holsen, Lisa Nagaoka, and Ann Rowberg, who assisted in the 1987 and 1989 field- work. Prof. Roger C. Green of the University of Auckland kindly reviewed the entire manuscript, and we are most grateful for his insightful comments. Throughout all field seasons, John and Dorothy Kneubuhl of Tutuila generously opened their home to us and to our assistants, and helped us in countless ways. John's profound knowledge of Samoan culture and history was a constant inspiron. His visit to our field site in 1989, arriving with only a suitcase crammed full of two large legs of lamb, mint sauce, and a bottle of good scotch whiskey, was an event not soon to be forgotten. It was with profound sadness that we learned of his death in Tutuila in February of 1992. As a small token of ouresteem forJoln we dedicate this volume to his memory. Parick V. Kirch Berkee,January 1991 x~~~~~~~~. .^ LIST OF FIGURES 1.1. Map of the Samoan archipelago. 3 2.1. Map of the Manu'a Islands. 10 2.2. View of the exposed volcanic plugs at Fa'ala'aga from the beach at To'aga. 13 2.3. Sketch of basalt dikes exposed in the road cut across the Le'olo Ridge at Fa'ala'aga. 13 2.4. Map of Ofu Island. 15 2.5. Distribution of major floral dominants along Transect 7 at To'aga. 20 3.1. Map of the southern portion of Ofu Island showing site AS-13-1. 25 3.2. Plan of round-ended stone house foundation. 25 3.3. Large volcanic boulder at the base of the talus slope with twelve artificial grinding facets. 27 3.4. Plan and cross section of the Tui Ofu well at Muli'ulu. 28 3.5. Plan and cross section of the Tui Ofu Tia, stone mound/tomb at Muli'ulu. 29 4.1. A generalized transect across the coastal plain at To'aga. 33 4.2. A model for the sediment budget at To'aga, showing terrestrial and marine inputs. 35 4.3. A model of shoreline transgression and regression. 35 4.4. Map of the southwestern Pacific region showing locations with evidence for mid- to late-Holocene higher sea-level stands. 36 4.5. Time-elevation plot of sea levels in Polynesian archipelagoes 37 4.6. Time trends in four key variables affecting the morphodynamics of the To'aga coastal plain. 39 4.7. Retrodiction of the transgression-regression sequence along the To'aga coastline. 40 5.1. Example of the excavation recording form used in the 1987 and 1989 To'aga field seasons. 45 5.2. Elevation profile along the 1987 excavation transect. 47 5.3. Map of the 1987 excavation area, showing the locations of excavation units. 48 5.4. Excavation in progress in the 1987 main trench. 49 5.5. Stratigraphic section of the southwest face of the 1987 main excavation (Units 5-9). 50 5.6. Stratigraphic section of the south and west faces of Unit 3. 52 5.7. Stratigraphic section of the north and east faces of Unit 10. 53 5.8. Schematic map of the southern coastal flat of Ofu Island, from To'aga to Fa'ala'aga. 59 5.9. Elevation profile along Transect 3. 60 5.10. Stratigraphic profile of the east face of Unit 27. 61 5.11. Elevation profile along Transect 5. 62 5.12. Stratigraphic section of the west face of Unit 17. 63 5.13. Exploded stratigraphic section of all faces of Unit 17. 64 5.14. Stratigraphic section of the west face of Unit 16. 65 5.15. Stratigraphic section of the west face of Unit 15 66 5.16. Stratigraphic correlations between Units 15, 16, and 17 on Transect 5. 68 5.17. Elevation profile along Transect 7. 69 5.18. Stratigraphic section of the west face of Unit 19. 70 5.19. Stratigraphic section of the east and south faces of Unit 19. 71 5.20. Elevation profile along Transect 9. 72 5.21. Expansion of Unit 20 into Unit 23 73 5.22. Stratigraphic section of the west and north faces of Units 20/23. 74 5.23. View into Units 20/23. 75 5.24. Stratigraphic section of the south face of Unit 21. 76 5.25. Stratigraphic section of the north face of Unit 22. 77 5.26. Stratigraphic correlations between Units 20/23, 21, and 22. 78 5.27. Elevation profile along Transect 11. 79 5.28. Stratigraphic section of the west face of Unit 26. 80 5.29. Elevation profile along Transect 17. 81 5.30. Stratigraphic section of the west face of Unit 24. 81 5.31. Stratigraphic section of the north face of Unit 25. 82 6.1. Plot of radiocarbon age determinations from the To'aga site (cal B.P. at 1 sigma). 90 7.1. Photomicrograph (lOX) of the 1 phi size fraction of a modem control sample of calcareous beach sand from Transect 7. 95 7.2. Terminology adopted for the To'aga site sediments. 97 7.3. Photomicrograph of a typical "salt-and-pepper" sand with mixed calcareous and volcanic-lithic lithology. 99 7.4. Summary diagram for sediment samples from Unit 15, Transect 5. 101 7.5. Histogram plots of grain size distributions for sediment samples from Unit 15, Transect 5. 102 7.6. Photomicrographs (lOX) of the 0 phi size fractions of sediment samples from Unit 15, Transect 5. 103 7.7. Summary diagram for sediment samples from Unit 19, Transect 7. 104 7.8. Histogram plots of grain size distributions for sediment samples from Unit 19, Transect 7. 106 7.9. Summary diagram for sediment samples from Unit 23, Transect 9. 107 7.10. Photomicrographs (lOX) of the 0 phi size fractions of sediment samples from Unit 23, Transect 9. 109 7.11. Histogram plots of grain size distributions for sediment samples from Unit 23, Transect 9. 111 7.12. Summary diagrams of grain size and lithology for Units 21, 22, and 23, Transect 9. 112 7.13. Summary diagrams of grain size and lithology for Units 24 and 25, Transect 17. 113 7.14. Histogram plots of grain size distributions for sediment samples from Unit 24, Transect 17. 114 8.1. Photomicrographs of terrestrial gastropods recovered from the To'aga site sediments. 117 9.1. Plot of exterior sherd color (hue with value and chroma) for the late period. 130 9.2. Plot of exterior sherd color (hue with value and chroma) for the middle period. 130 9.3. Plot of exterior sherd color (hue with value and chroma) for the early period. 131 9.4. Thickness and temper size histogram for the To'aga ceramic assemblage. 135 9.5. Thickness histogram for late period ceramics. 137 9.6. Thickness histogram for middle period ceramics. 138 9.7. Thickness histogram for early period ceramics. 139 9.8. Cross sections of selected rim sherds from the To'aga assemblage. 140 9.9. Elemental spectrum of clay composition for Sherd 22 from To'aga. 141 9.10. Dendrogram of Ofu pottery and clay samples using the Average Linkage (between groups) method. 142 xii 9.11. Dendrogram of Ofu pottery and clay samples using Ward's method. 143 9.12. First and second discriminant function scores for analysis based on cluster (1-4) as grouping variable. 145 9.13. First and second discriminant function scores for analysis based on time period. 145 11.1. Basalt adzes from the To'aga site. 159 11.2. Turbo-shell fishhooks from the To'aga site. 160 11.3. Turbo-shell fishhooks and fishhook fragments from the 1987 excavation at To'aga. 161 11.4. Miscellaneous artifacts from the To'aga site. 163 11.5. Miscellaneous artifacts from the To'aga site. 165 12.1. Map of the Tatagamatau quarry complex, Tutuila Island, showing the location of analyzed source rock samples. 171 12.2. A comparison of source rocks analyzed by non-destructive x-ray fluorescence. 172 12.3. A wide dispersion of data points results when ratios of rubidium, strontium, and yttrium are used to assign specimens to possible sources. 175 12.4. Artifacts and source rocks plotted by ratios of zirconium, strontium, and niobium resulting in many specimens plotting within the Tatagamatau source envelope. 182 13.1. Relative frequency of fish taxa from the To'aga site, including Diodontidae. 197 13.2. Relative frequency of fish taxa from the To'aga site, excluding Diodontidae. 198 13.3. Percentage composition of fish faunal assemblages from major Westem Polynesian and Fijian sites. 205 14.1. Map of the Pacific Islands showing localities mentioned in the text. 219 14.2. Comparison of megapode bones. 223 15.1. Schematic map of the To'aga area showing inferred extent of ceramic-bearing deposits. 233 xiii LIST OF TABLES 2.1. Environmental characteristics of the Manu'a Islands. 11 3.1. Surface archaeological features at To'aga. 26 7.1. Analytic data for To'aga control sediment samples (1989). 95 7.2. American Samoa, To'aga site 13-AS-I sediment analysis (1987). 96 7.3. Analytic data for Unit 15 sediment samples. 100 7.4. Analytic data for Unit 16 sediment samples. 100 7.5. Analytic data for Unit 17 sediment samples. 101 7.6. Analytic data for Unit 18 sediment samples. 104 7.7. Analytic data for Unit 19 sediment samples. 105 7.8. Analytic data for Unit 21 sediment samples. 105 7.9. Analytic data for Unit 22 sediment samples. 107 7.10. Analytic data for Unit 23 sediment samples. 108 7.11. Analytic data for Unit 24 sediment samples (micro-constituents). 108 7.12. Analytic data for Unit 24 sediment samples. 110 7.13. Analytic data for Unit 25 sediment samples. 110 8.1. Non-marine molluscs from 1987 Main Trench. 119 8.2. Non-marine molluscs from Unit 3. 119 9.1. Ceramics from the 1987 excavation units. 126 9.2. Ceramics from the 1989 excavation units. 127 9.3. Frequency of body and rim sherds. 128 9.4. Frequency of sherds by temper size modes. 129 9.5. Frequency of sherds by "Preferred" orientation of inclusions relative to vessel walls. 132 9.6. Frequency of sherds by oxidation-reduction pattern in cross section. 132 9.7. Frequency of sherds by exterior Mohs hardness. 133 9.8. Frequency of sherds by interior Mohs hardness. 133 9.9. Frequency of sherds by exterior surface treatment. 134 9.10. Frequency of sherds by interior surface treatment. 134 9.11. Frequency of sherds by interior anvil casts. 134 9.12. Frequency of sherds by exterior paddle marks. 135 9.13. Frequency of sherds by organic residue. 136 9.14. Sherd thickness statistics by analytic time periods. 136 9.15. Sherds and Ofu clays selected for SEM/EDS clay elemental and sand temper petrographic analyses. 144 10.1. Frequency percentages of ferromagnesian mineral grains and basaltic volcanic lithic fragments in sherds containing "profuse basaltic temper." 153 10.2. Frequency percentages of ferromagnesian mineral grains and basaltic volcanic lithic fragments in sherds containing "sparse basaltic temper." 154 xiv 10.3. Frequency percentages of plagioclase feldspar and opaque iron oxide mineral grains and basaltic volcanic lithic fragments in sherds containing "feldspathic basaltic temper." 155 10.4. Frequency percentages of calcareous grains and silicate-oxide mineral grains and lithic fragments for sherds containing "mixed temper sand." 155 12.1. Artifacts analyzed by EDXRF. 169 12.2. Evaluation of analytical accuracy and precision for U.S.G.S. Standard RGM-1. 173 12.3. Variations of oxides and elements from the Mo'omomi adz quarry, Moloka'i, Hawaiian Islands. 174 12.4. Geochemistry of Tatagamatau source rock (fused disks). 176 12.5. Geochemistry of Mako ridge source rock (fused disks). 177 12.6. Geochemistry of Fa'ala'aga source rock (fused disks). 178 12.7. Geochemistry of Fa'ala'aga, Mako ridge, and Tatagamatau source rock (fused disks). 179 12.8. Geochemistry of Tatagamatau source rock (whole specimen). 180 12.9. Geochemistry of Mako ridge source rock (whole specimen). 181 12.10. Geochemistry of Fa'ala'aga source rock (whole specimen). 182 12.11. Geochemistry of Fa'ala'aga, Mako ridge, and Tatagamatau source rock (whole specimen). 183 12.12. Geochemistry of To'aga and Ofu Island artifacts (whole specimen) 184 13.1. Summary of To'aga faunal remains. 190 13.2. Fish fauna from the 1987 field season (NISP). 191 13.3. Fish fauna from the 1989 field season (NISP). 192 13.4. To'aga fish fauna: main trench, Units 1,4-9. 193 13.5. To'aga fish fauna: transect 5, Units 15/29/30 (NISP). 194 13.6. To'aga fish fauna: transect 9, Units 20/23 (NISP). 195 13.7. Modern Samoan fishing methods (after Hill 1986). 196 13.8. Non-fish vertebrate fauna for 1987 and 1989 excavations. 199 13.9. To'aga non-fish vertebrate fauna. 200 13.10. To'aga invertebrate data: transect 9, Units 20/23. 201 13.11. To'aga invertebrate data: 1987 main trench, Units 1,4-9. 203 13.12. To'aga invertebrate data: transect 5, Units 15/29/30. 205 13.13. Unit 20/23 bulk sample analysis. 207 13.14. Unit 30 bulk sample analysis. 207 13.15. Taxa represented in bulk sample from Units 20/23 (NISP). 208 13.16. Taxa represented in bulk sample from Layer II, Unit 30 (NISP). 209 13.17. Density of identified fish bone from Layer IIIA/B, Unit 20/23. 210 13.18. Density of identified fish bone from Layer II, Unit 30. 210 13.19. Summary of recovery and quantification techniques for Western Polynesian faunal analyses. 212 13.20. Summary of Western Polynesian vertebrate faunal assemblages (NISP). 213 14.1. Birds from the To'aga site. 218 14.2. Measurements (in mm) of the femur and ulna of Megapodius. 224 14.3. Tarsal length (in mm) from skins of selected subspecies of Megapodiusfreycinet. 225 xv 10.3. Frequency percentages of plagioclase feldspar and opaque iron oxide mineral grains and basaltic volcanic lithic fragments in sherds containing "feldspathic basaltic temper." 155 10.4. Frequency percentages of calcareous grains and silicate-oxide mineral grains and lithic fragments for sherds containing "mixed temper sand." 155 12.1. Artifacts analyzed by EDXRF. 169 12.2. Evaluation of analytical accuracy and precision for U.S.G.S. Standard RGM-1. 173 12.3. Variations of oxides and elements from the Mo'omomi adz quarry, Moloka'i, Hawaiian Islands. 174 12.4. Geochemistry of Tatagamatau source rock (fused disks). 176 12.5. Geochemistry of Mako ridge source rock (fused disks). 177 12.6. Geochemistry of Fa'ala'aga source rock (fused disks). 178 12.7. Geochemistry of Fa'ala'aga, Mako ridge, and Tatagamatau source rock (fused disks). 179 12.8. Geochemistry of Tatagamatau source rock (whole specimen). 180 12.9. Geochemistry of Mako ridge source rock (whole specimen). 181 12.10. Geochemistry of Fa'ala'aga source rock (whole specimen). 182 12.11. Geochemistry of Fa'ala'aga, Mako ridge, and Tatagamatau source rock (whole specimen). 183 12.12. Geochemistry of To'aga and Ofu Island artifacts (whole specimen) 184 13.1. Summary of To'aga faunal remains. 190 13.2. Fish fauna from the 1987 field season (NISP). 191 13.3. Fish fauna from the 1989 field season (NISP). 192 13.4. To'aga fish fauna: main trench, Units 1,4-9. 193 13.5. To'aga fish fauna: transect 5, Units 15/29/30 (NISP). 194 13.6. To'aga fish fauna: transect 9, Units 20/23 (NISP). 195 13.7. Modern Samoan fishing methods (after Hill 1986). 196 13.8. Non-fish vertebrate fauna for 1987 and 1989 excavations. 199 13.9. To'aga non-fish vertebrate fauna. 200 13.10. To'aga invertebrate data: transect 9, Units 20/23. 201 13.11. To'aga invertebrate data: 1987 main trench, Units 1,4-9. 203 13.12. To'aga invertebrate data: transect 5, Units 15/29/30. 205 13.13. Unit 20/23 bulk sample analysis. 207 13.14. Unit 30 bulk sample analysis. 207 13.15. Taxa represented in bulk sample from Units 20/23 (NISP). 208 13.16. Taxa represented in bulk sample from Layer II, Unit 30 (NISP). 209 13.17. Density of identified fish bone from Layer IIIA/B, Unit 20/23. 210 13.18. Density of identified fish bone from Layer II, Unit 30. 210 13.19. Summary of recovery and quantification techniques for Western Polynesian faunal analyses. 212 13.20. Summary of Western Polynesian vertebrate faunal assemblages (NISP). 213 14.1. Birds from the To'aga site. 218 14.2. Measurements (in mm) of the femur and ulna of Megapodius. 224 14.3. Tarsal length (in mm) from skins of selected subspecies of Megapodiusfreycinet. 225 xv