INTERPRETIVE STUDIES 117 A OF OBSIDIAN PR)txLTrICN ANALYSES FOR THE BCDIE HILLS AND CASA DIABLO QUARRY AREAS Thaas L. Jackson Introduction With the advent of geochemical fingerprinting of obsidians from western North America, archaeologists have entered into a new dimension in the analysis of prehistoric trade and exchange. Ehe ability to recognize, with a high level of confidence, obsidians in the archaeological record far removed from their primary geological source provides the archaeological interpreter with direct physical evidence of the cultural distribution of a specific comnmTdity in pre- history, presumably as part of formal or informal trade and exchange networks. By controlling the temporal dimension of their studies, investigators may isolate economic relationships between peoples of specific geographical settings within particular time frames, and gauge the productivity and economic influence of individual obsidian source areas. Observed distortions or extinctions of aspects of obsidian distribution patterns may be seen as indicative of cultural change, although the scale or causes of such change may not always De clearly discernable. Because California and the western Great Basin are endowed with numerous natural obsidian sources, and because these regions provide evidence of a long, culturally complex prehistory, archaeologists there have founa ample opportunity to explore tne topic of prehistoric obsidian trade ana exchange, as well as relatea studies such as obsidian hydration dating. Atter a decaae of investi- gation and interpretation, it is safe to say that we have made considerable progress in the archaeological study of obsidian trade and exchange. The level of problem-solving in these investigations has moved from the initial, tentative definition of broad-scale temporal and geographical distribution patterns (e.g., Jack and Carmichael 1969; Jackson 1974; Jack 1976; Ericson 1977) to questions related to very specific socio-economic issues (e.g., Singer and Ericson 1977; Hughes 1978; Bettinger 1982). This paper evaluates interpretations by Ericson and Singer (Singer and Ericson 1977; Ericson 1977, 1981, 1982) concerning the history of obsidian production at the Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo obsidian sources (Map 1). Effective interpretation of the prehistoric exploitation of these resources hinges on accurate dating of the analyzed artifactual materials, but the exclusive use of obsidian hydration dating in this endeavor promises that the production studies for these obsidian sources will be subject to repeated re-evaluation as understanding of the obsidian hydrating dating technique changes and evolves. The general configuration of the "production curves" represented by Singer and Ericson (1977) and Ericson (1977, 1982) for the two quarries is viewed with serious reservations. The adequacy of the sampling of the quarries and other methods employed in the construction of the production curves are suspect. Production analyses advanced by Ericson and Singer address only the exploitation of obsidian at the primary geological source. Hbwever, Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo obsidians, geographically widespread, having been redeposited in 118 geological strata of more recent age than the original flow, affording prehis- toric peoples numerous potential quarry sites away from the principal flow. Not only are obsidians available from primary and secondary geological sources, but from archaeological deposits as well. Moratto (1972), for example, reports that archaeological deposits were evidently mined for obsidian tools by more recent prehistoric inhabitants of sites in the Buchanan Reservoir area. Comprehensive production analyses should attempt to acknowledge all sources of obsidian raw material, otherwise the production histories may be confidently represented only for the specific quarry site(s) under investigation, and the explanatory value of the production analyses would be diminished. In none of the various relevant papers by Ericson and Singer are corroborative data for their quarry production curves sought from archaeological sites located away from the quarries, despite the fact that they extrapolate their findings to presumed variations in production and consumption throughout the prehistoric regional economic system. Raw data concerning the types of artifacts which were analyzed are not available in any of the relevant papers by Singer or Ericson. Although the basic obsidian hydration measurements (n=98) for the Bodie Hills analysis (Singer and Ericson 1977) are compiled in Meighan and Vanderhoeven (1978), the types of artifacts dated are not identified. Lacking the essential raw data, any evaluation of the means by which the quarry production curves were drawn is forestalled. Consequently, the discussion to follow concentrates on the issue of the supposed decline and termination of obsidian production at the two quarry areas. Several new hydration rates for Casa Diablo and Bodie Hills obsidians have appeared in the literature (e.g., Hall 1983; R. Jackson; Bouey and Basgall, this volume) to add to the clutter of rates already proposed (e.g., Michels 1965, 1982; Ericson 1975, 1977, 1978, 1981; Meighan 1978). Although the matter of source-specific obsidian hydration rates is important in the following discussion, it is not my intent to evaluate any particular hydration rate per se, but, instead, to illustrate how divergent interpretations of archaeological data are possible when we cannot firmly situate ourselves in the temporal di- mension. Further, I do not advocate that any of the previously proposed source- specific hydration rates provides for an accurate translation of microns of hydration into units of absolute time across the full temporal span of pre- history in the region. The emphasis in this paper is to suggest the absolute temporal position of the recent end of the production curves of the Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo quarries proposed by Ericson and Singer, and, having done so, to make an interpretation linked to that temporal anchor. Production Analysis of the Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo Quarries One of the most important papers published regarding production and distri- bution of obsidians from western Great Basin sources is that of Singer and Ericson (1977). This essay has also been incorporated, virtually in toto, in Ericson's doctoral dissertation (1977, cf. 1981). While the focus of the pro- duction analysis by Singer and Ericson was the Bodie Hills quarry, Ericson (1981, 1982) has sought to demonstrate that a similar history of production may be interpreted for the Casa Diablo quarry source, located approximately 72 km south southeast of Bodie Hills (not 130 kn, as reported in Ericson (1982: 136); Map 1). Ericson's most recent interpretation (1982) of these 119 quarry production data is at considerable variance fron his earlier, prelirn- inary conclusions. Ericson's (1982: 138-140) interpretive history of obsidian production at the Bodie Hills quarry may be suirarized, as follows. Production at the site began "before 5000 B.P.," and maintained a relatively constant output "until about 4000 B.P. when it began to increase for 1000 years [sic]." Based on obsidian hydration dating of 98 specimens from the quarrT (12 of which exhibit no visible hydration band (Meighan and Vanderhoeven 1978)), it would appear that production at Bodie Hills terminated ca. 1500 B.P. However, Ericson appar- ently now believes that while the earlier large biface industry at the quarry may have ended at about that time, a concurrent technological shift to a "blade/flake production technology," with actual artifact production carried out at sites away from the quarry itself, may have created the illusion of an extinction of all production. A highly coincidental production history is eluci- dated by Ericson for the Casa Diablo source, based on analyses of materials from the MannKth Junction site (cf. Michels 1965), varying only as regards the initiation of production, which apparently began ca. 7000 B.P. (Ericson 1982: 142-143). The critical element in the analysis of diachronic production at the Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo sources is the dating of the archaeological remains. For the Bodie Hills analysis, Singer and Ericson (1977: 181-182), and Ericson (1977, 1981, 1982) rely upon a source-specific obsidian hydration rate of 650 years/ micron established for Bodie Hills glass by Ericson (1975; cf. Ericson 1977: 279, wherein a source-specific hydration rate of 670 years for Bodie Hills is advocated). According to the information provided by Ericson (1977: 67, 352- 353), the source-specific obsidian hydration rate for Bodie Hills obsidian was derived fran results of a total of seven C14 age determinations made on both charcoal and bone collagen samples, and compared with a total of 12 obsidian hydration rim measurements ascertained for artifacts found associated with the radiometrically dated samples. Not only is the control sample for the deriva- tion of a source-specific rate quite snall, but none of the materials anployed are from archaeological, locations climatically similar to the high desert region in which the Bodie Hills quarry is located (cf. Michels and Tsong 1980; and Michels 1982). As additional support for their dating, Singer and Ericson (1977: 182-183) cite a coincidence of fit between the measured hydration rim thickness of tem- porally sensitive projecting points collected at the quarry and the proposed 650 years/micron hydration rate. According to Singer and Ericson (1977: 175), the projectile point for employed "have been shown to be excellent time markers." Further: "The bracketing dates [for production at the quarry, 6000 B.P. to 1500 B.P.] are well supported by typological analysis and hydration dating of two nearly complete Elko-eared points (1625 years B.P. and 2600 years B.P.) and one complete Silver Lake point (5980 years B.P.) These points are considered 'Archaic' forms typical of the Middle Horizon of California pre- history" (Singer and Ericson 1977: 182). Here again, we are confronted with a sample (three projectile points) which is of questionable value. Also arguable is the utility of these point types as 120 precise temporal markers. Use of Elko Eared points in the region, for example may span a period of nore than 2100 years (cf. O'Connell 1967: 132; Moratto 1972: 254; Thomas 1981), hardly affording the restrictive time frame within which such artifacts would be of real value for the purposes to which Singer and Ericson would put them. To date the production history of the Casa Diablo quarry, Ericson (1977: 289, 295; 1982: 143, 144) relies on a source-specific hydration rate of 1000 years/micron; a rate derived from Michels (1965, 1969) and ascribed to a non-source-specific central California hydration rate proposed by Clark (1964). The use of the hydration rate attributed to Clark is open to question on several grounds. First, the rate is not determined from populations of artifacts with knoun source attribution; second, as Origer (1982: 87) has pointed out, some samples originally employed by Clark are not in satisfactory association with reported radiometrically dated samples; third, samples dated by Clark are from archaeological sites in central California, a region climatically dissim- iliar from the environments of the Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo quarries; and, fourth, the hydration rate calculation formula proposed and employed by Clark (1964: 77, D = 0.0105t3/4; cited by Michels and Tsong (1980) as, x = kt3/4) is different from the "linear" diffusion equation of Meighan, et al. (1968), and the Friedman and Snith (1960) diffusion equation, x = ktl2. As reported bv Clark (1964: 177), for example, 3.5 microns of hydration would correspond to the passage of approximately 2,512 years, not 3,500 years as suggested by Ericson's source-specific Casa Diablo rate. Even Clark's computation is in error, however, since the conversion of 3.5 microns of hydration should equate to 2,311 years. In fairness, however, it should be noted that Clark's calcu- lations would have relied upon logarithms and are more approximate than those obtained by the use of modern micro-computers. A number of researchers have proposed source-specific hydration rates for Casa Diablo glass which differ considerably from that employed by Ericson. Meighan (1978) has suggested a hydration rate of approximately 220 years/micron. Garfinkel (1980), Basgall (1983) and Hall (1983) have advocated the use of the linear rate model of Meighan et al. (1968), althoug-h their formulations for the translation of microns of hydration to absolute tim are slightly different: Garfinkel YBp = 665.41x - 745.00; Basgall, YBp = 700.Ox - 933.6; Hall, YBp = 668.54x - 637.30 (see Bouey and Basgall, Table 1, this volume). Basgall, Garfinkel and Hall each derived their hydration rate based on the analysis of time-sensitive projectile point forms from the western Great Basin, some or all of which are geochemically sourced, but not samples in direct association with radiometrically dated materials. Michels (1982) has calcu- lated a hydration rate for Casa Diablo glass derived from induced hydration experimentation such that the hydration rate constant employed for the Friedman and Smith model is 3.51 microns2/1000 years. Michels' experimental rate is especially appropriate to the question of the rate of hydration at the Casa Diablo source since his calculations of effective hydration temperature employ climatic data from the Mono Lake weather station located near the Casa Diablo source (1982: 5). Ironically, the hydration rate constant suggested by Michels closely approximates the diffusion model constant initially calculated, but subsequently rejected, by Ericson (1977: 67, cf. 289; 1978: 51) of 3.9532 microns2/1000 years. For example, using the diffusion model, an absolute age conversion of one micron of hydration using the two constants would differ by only 32 years (ca. 253-285 years B.P.) 121 In an indirect evaluation of the 1000 years/micron source-specific hydra- tion rate for Casa Diablo obsidian, Jackson (1983: 89ff) reviewed the results of of hydration rim measuremnts made on 685 obsidian artifacts collected fran 21 archaeological sites on the Sierra National Forest. Of these 515 had been determined by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) to be of Casa Diablo glass, and the balance (170) are probably of Casa Diablo obsidian, although geochemical analyses were not performed (Kipps 1982; Jackson 1983). Hydration measure- ments on an additional 132 Casa Diablo artifacts (all sourced by XRF) from various sites on the Sierra National Forest have been provided by K. Moffitt, Forest Archaeologist. The sample for stud thus constitutes a total of 817 artifacts with measurable hydration rims. IThe mean hydration rim values from the sampled sites are presented in Figures 1-3, and sample site localities appear on Map 2. The majority of hydration samples are debitage flakes. The single most striking aspect of the data base is that of these 817 samples, only a single artifact exhibits a hydration rim measuring less than 1.0 micron. Although the total sample of artifacts probably represents a span of prehistorv in excess of 5,000 years, many of the artifacts are from sites with late pre- historic or historic period artifact fonrs (e.g., Desert Side-notched projectile points; Jackson 1983: 92-94). There is apparently no technical reason to suspect that the initial 1.0 micron of hydration is not being detected and measured, and some reports of archaeological investigations in the southern Sierra Nevada do list hydration measurements of less than 1.0 micron on obsi- dian artifacts fran late prehistoric assemblages (e.g., Garfinkel et al. 1980: 66; MlcGuire and Garfinkel 1980: 50-51). 2 It now appears that obsidian fran the Casa Diablo source hydrates at a rate must faster than 1000 years/micron, the rate employed for Ericson's production 1 Samples for which no hydration rim could be measured (n=42) are not in- cluded in this analysis. Such samples are excluded because there is no way at present to determine why there is no detectable hydration rim: technician error; loss of the hydration rim by heating of the specimen; etc. In the period between the drafting and publication of this paper, approximately 800 additional hydration rim measurements have been obtained for artifacts collected from various sites on the Sierra National Forest, primarily in the Shaver Lake area. While hydration rim thicknesses as small as 0.8 micron have now been detected, the general trend of the measuremetns indicated in this paper has been main- tained; that is, there are a disproportionately small number of samples with hydration rims measuring less than 1.0 micron. 2 It is implied, if not expressed, in the published literature regarding the obsidian hydration dating technique that hydration rims, if they are present at all, regardless of their thickness, and given adequate preparation and measuring devices, can be measured. The fact that there are so very few hydration rim measurements less than 1.0 micron from California archaeological specimens is telling, however, and suggests that either there is a real uniformity in the rate at which the initial micron of hydration is created on obsidian specimens, regardless of the source of the g]ass, or that the technical aspect of detection and measurement is in some respect lacking. Perhaps the archaeologists working in the Sierra Nevada might endeavor to resolve this matter by addressing a large-size sample of obsidian artifacts recovered from very late perior pre- historic or early historic period sites. 122 analyses. Taking the data frcm the Sierra National Forest sites at face value, if we were to assume that 1.0 micron of hydration was equal to 1000 years of elapsed time, we would be forced to conclude that we have misplaced approximately 1,000 years of prehistory in this portion of the Sierra Nevada! On the other hand, the experimental induced hydration rate offered by Ericson (1977: 67) and Michels (1982), and Meighan's rate of 220 years/micron seem much nore caopatible -- at least at the recent end of the temporal scale -- with the known culture history of the region. Similar indirect evidence in support of a hydration rate faster than 650 years/micron is presently accruing for Bodie Hills obsidian. Of approximately 200 Sierran archaeological artifactual samples of Bodie Hills obsidian processed by the Obsidian Hydration Laboratory at Sonoma State University, none with measurable hydration has a rim with a thickness less than 1.0 micron, although sites with late prehistoric components are represented in the sample (T.M. Origer, personal comnmunication). A re-evaluation of the temporal dimension of production analysis at the Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo obsidian quarries, one which moves Ericson's tem- poral data points forward in time, affords a quite different interpretation of the production curves than those advanced previously by Ericson and Singer. I would suggest that, for Casa Diablo obsidian artifacts in the southern Sierra Nevada, the temporal period represented by the first micron of hydration may correspond with the initiation of a dramatic population reduction and the eventual ultimate termination of native cultures. If 1.0 micron of hydration were equivalent to ca. 220 elapsed years (cf. Meighan 1978), the dating of this hypothietical population decline would be ca. A.D. 1760, or about the time of the advent of the Spanish missions in southern California. While it is generally concluded that Sierran native cultures in the region were reduced following the influx of argonauts into the gold fields ca. A.D. 1850, massive epidemics had previously wasted California Indian populations, beginning shortly after the establishment of the Spanish missions in California, the first of which was founded in San Diego in A.D. 1769 (Cook 1978). Hbwever, the rates proposed by Ericson and Michels, based on induced hydration experimentation (ca. 250-280 years/micron) might also be compatible with such an explanation. It is not impossible that a disease-induced radical decline in native populations may have co?menced even earlier than the construction of the initial mission in Alta California, as the result of direct or indirect contacts with populations associated with Spanish military explorations or missions from areas beyond California (such as the Spanish provinces of Sonora, Nuevo Mexico, or Baja California). In Baja California, for example, efforts at Spanish settlement had begun as early as 1535, but it was the successful establishment of the mission at Loreto in 1697 which spelled the demise of the native populations on the peninsula by A.D. 1700 (Cook 1937; Massey 1949; cf. R. Jackson 1981 and Ranenofsky 1981). Thus, not only might the interpreted rapid production in- crease at the Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo quarries correspond with a hypothe- sized dramatic aboriginal population growth in the late prehistoric period in the California region (Ericson 1982: 145; cf. Moratto 1972), but the supposed production decrease could relate to the decimation of the native populations due to introduced diseases and Euro-American genocidal campaigns. Another implication of the identification of late prehistoric production at the Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo quarries is that Ericson's (1982: 138-140, 123 144-145) most recent explaining away of the apparent decline in "luxury" (an unfortunate and inappropriate tenm) biface production may not be necessary. Indeed, there is no conclusive evidence in the archaeological record of the central and southern Sierra Nevada or the foothills, which would lead one to believe that the production of the sorts of bifaces actually discussed by Ericson and Singer (roughouts, blanks, preforms, not finished bifaces) at either the Bodie Hills or Casa Diablo source actually terminated in late prehistoric times. Such artifact forms or related debitage are commonly found in late pre- historic period assemblages in the region, especially in sites in upper eleva- tions (cf. e.g., Peak 1981; Goldberg 1983; Jackson 1983). However, I agree with Ericson that a late prehistoric period shift to smaller projectile point forms could have resulted in a net decrease in the number of relatively large, rough biface forms produced, with a corresponding increase in the lithic debris and intermediate artifact forms associated with the so-called "blade/flake technology." The shift to a focus on relatively small obsidian flakes as the raw material for tool manufacture could have permitted the removal of materials from the quarry sites without the introduction of manufacturing residues such as would have been associated with the on-site roughing-out of bifaces. As Ericson notes, this would convey the impression of an overall decline in pro- duction at the quarry. Conclusion Several lines of evidence have been submitted which argue against Singer and Ericson's (1977) and Ericson's (1977, 1982) conclusion that obsidian pro- duction at the Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo quarries declined or terminated ca. 1500 years B.P. Source-specific obsidian hydration rates employed by Ericson and Singer may be challenged on a number of grounds, including their use of inadequate numbers of samples, or inappropriate samples, for establishing cor- respondence between radiometrically dated materials and specimens with measured obsidian hydration rims. Ericson's (1977, 1982) apparently arbitrary selection of the source-specific hydration rate of 1000 years/micron for Casa Diablo ob- sidian, supposedly derived from Clark's (1964) non-source-specific central California hydration rate, cannot be supported on any grounds. Additionally, the persistent recovery of Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo obsidian from late pre- historic or early historic archaeological assemblages in the central and southern Sierra Nevada clearly indicates that production at the two quarries continued, with no evidence of any late prehistoric decrease, until the disruption of native cultures by invading Euro-American populations. Although a number of different hydration rates have been proposed for Casa Diablo obsidian, with various researchers advocating either the "linear" equation of Meighan, et al. (1968), or the "diffusion" equation of Friedman and Smith (1960), one point of agreement among these researchers is that the hydra- tion of Casa Diablo obsidian occurs at a rate faster than 1000 years/micron. By any reckoning, production of obsidian at the Casa Diablo quarry continued until more recently than 1500 years B.P. Depending upon one's choice of hydration rate, however, various interpretations of the "production curves" for the quarries are possible. A sample of 817 artifacts of Casa Diablo glass with measured hydration rims is now available from 44 sites on the Sierra National Forest. Only one artifact 124 in this sample exhibits a hydration rim thickness less than 1.0 micron although many of the sites represented in the sample contain late prehistoric assemblages. The question then arises as to the temporal significance of this apparent 1.0 micron measurement threshold. At least three papers (Meighan, et al. 1968; Ericson 1978; Michels 1982) have been published which advocate a source- specific hydration rate for the Casa Diablo glass on the order of between 220 and 280 years/micron. If we were to accept any of these hydration rates, or, conveniently, the mean of them (250 yeaxs/micron), the period represented by 1.0 micron of hydration would fall within the early historic era in California. It would be precisely at that time in which we might anticipate being able to detect the effects of the Euro-American invasion on the native populations. One such effect might take the form of a rapid decline of native population due to the introduction of foreign diseases. If one were then to employ a rate of hydration of ca. 250 years/micron as a means of establishing the temporal posi- tion of the recent end of Ericson's production curve for the Casa Diablo quarry there could be a rough coincidence between production curves and projected pre- historic and historic population curves in the California region. In short, production at the obsidian quarries may have declined simply because there were fewer people alive to exploit the resource. Indeed, production at the quarries was "terminated," but some 1,300 years more recently than proposed by Ericson and Singer. While the clear evidence of the continued importation of Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo obsidians to the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada into late pre- historic and early historic times, and the unanimity amnng researchers that the rate of hydration for Casa Diablo obsidian is less than that advocated by Eriscon (as is the rate for Bodie Hills apparently less than 650 or 670 years/ micron), there remains another element to the obsidian hydration data which is perhaps not adequately explained. That is, the near absence of hydration measurements less than 1.0 micron. Although there may be no technical reason such small hydration rims (say those between 0.5 and 1.0 microns) are not being detected and measured, we must nonetheless become convinced that this initial 1.0 micron of hydration represents some valid culturally-related phenomenon and not scme product of the chemical or physical aspects of the hydration process. Obviously, the key variable in any interpretation of the Bodie Hills or Casa Diablo production curves is the dating of the archaeological materials. So long as we are without an adequate source-specific obsidian hydration rate for either of the sources, we cannot represent interpretations of production levels at the quarries as anything other than speculation. As demonstrated by this discussion and other papers in this volume, the resolution of the problem of source-specific hydration rates for the various western Great Basin obsidian sources is key to the understanding of the prehistory of the Sierra Nevada, an area in which the recovery of radiometrically datable materials in archaeo- logical contexts is an infrequent occurrence, but an area in which archaeo- logical obsidian is abundant. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Matthew C. Hall, Richard E. Hughes, Michael J. hbratto, Thomas M. Origer and Polly McW. Quick for caomments on an earlier draft of this paper. Matthew Hall recalculated the absolute age equivalent of 3.5 microns of hydration using Clark's rate, and reminded me of Clark's dependence 125 on log tables for the calculation of exponential functions in those days before the now ubiquitous handheld calculator. Kathy Moffitt, Forest Archaeologist, Sierra National Forest, provided hydration measurement data from several sites on the Sierra National Forest. Obsidian hydration results originally reported in ACRS (1983) and Jackson (1983) were obtained through research sponsored by Southern California Edison Company. 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