231 INTRODUCTORY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE CENTRAL PETEN SAVANNA, GUATEMALA Don S. Rice Department of Anthropology University of Chicago Prudence M. Rice Department of Anthropology University of Florida Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the support of the National Geographic Society in funding this research, and the Florida State Museum, Department of Natural Sciences, for furnishing the vehicle and transportation costs of the project. We were assisted by numerous friends in Guatemala, particularly the landowners named in this report, who graciously allowed us to wander undisturbed about their land. It would be inexcusable, however, if we did not issue an especially heartfelt "thank you" to Sr. Jaime Sobalvarro and his family for their generous and supportive help in so many ways during our stay in Peten. 232 Introduction, Background and Aims An as yet unexplained anomaly in the tropical forest environment of Guatemala's Department of Peten is the existence of approximately 630 km2 of savanna south of Lakes Sacpuy, Peten-Itza, Petenxil, and Quexil (Fig. 1). The Peten savannas are problematical because they do not conform to the normal pattern of edaphic grasslands: associations formed around water bodies or rain-catching depressions. Peten savannas are characterized by xeric flora on reddish-brown lateritic soils (Chachaclun series): the most typical tree species are nanze (Byrsonima crassifolia), cocoyol palm (Acrocomia mexicana), and mora or calabaza (Crescentia cujete). The savannas interdigitate with upland and flatland areas of higher mesophytic forest, associated with soils of higher fertility and erosivity, the brown calcareous lithosols of the Chacalte series (Simmons et al. 1959). The lack of both endemic plant species (Lundell 1937) and endemic herpetological faunas (Stuart 1935) in the savannas has led to the suggestion that they represent areas of deforestation, possibly by the Maya (Lundell 1937). Most investigations into the age and possible Maya origins of Peten savannas have been paleolimnological: analyses of sediment cores from Lake Petenxil, Aguada de Santa Ana Vieja, and Lake Quexil (or Eckixil). The pollen stratigraphy from Lake Petenxil (though 30 km north of the main body of savanna) suggests that during the Maya Preclassic and Classic periods the Lake Peten-Itza district was increasingly a disturbed savanna, with tropical forest species first becoming significant in the area during Postclassic times (Tsukada 1966). Analyses of the core from Aguada de Santa Ana Vieja, in the savanna district farther south, appeared to support the same interpretation. The core profile suggested continuous agricultural activity in the vicinity and late development of typical tropical forest, corresponding to the Postclassic zone in the Petenxil stratigraphy (Cowgill and Hutchinson 1966). A seven-meter core from Quexil includes Petenxil's two pollen zones,. the savanna and forest, with an underlying zone of high forest pollen (Vaughan 1976). Indicators suggest that the forest was already changing due to drier climate before humans entered the region, and later increased savanna and weedy species are considered to be cultural in origin (Deevey 1978). if the Maya were responsible for the deforestation, one would expect that there would be archaeological evidence for agricultural settlement in the savanna area, particularl near better soils. Such evidence exists, but it is poorly known. The ruins of Chakantun, Polol, and Itsimte are located in or adjacent to the grasslands (Lundell 1934; Morley 1937-38), and Itzpone lies north of the isthmus between savanna lakes Ija and Pacay (or Oquevix). Lundell reported remains of "house" mounds scattered through the savanna (1937). Ethnohistoric data relating 17th century encounters with Itza Maya populations in Peten indicate that Cortes left the Itza capital at a Lake Chaltuna and marched south through savannas to an Indian town called Checan, on the bank of a large lagoon. G. Cowgill suggested that Checan was on the shores of Lake Pacay, although a cursory survey by him on the north shore produced no evidence of human occupation (1963). 233 920 900 880 I I p3 N 140 km. 0 100 FIgure 1. Savanna regions in the Maya Lowlands. 234 Unfortunately, none of the above sites or regions had been systematically investigated by archaeologists to determine the density of settlement or chronology. Shook and Smith (1950) report dense aboriginal settlement in the vicinity of Poptun, a pocket of pine-savanna formed on a different configuration of soils approximately 45 km to the southeast. Culbert et al. suggest high crop potential in this area (1976), but there is no indication of growth dynamics for aboriginal populations and no data are available to clarify which of the contiguous vegetation formations were utilized by an abandoned settlement. The central Peten savanna zones today are considered inadequate for maize or bean production because of high acidity, low fertility, and unreliable water supply. Lime and fertilizers are used, but represent a sizeable investment, and water supply represents the most significant limiting factor for agricultural usage. Savannas today either provide pasture for cattle or are planted in citrus, pineapple, or jocote maranon (cashew). In spite of the availability of data from and about Peten savannas, the role of aboriginal Maya populations in their origin and spread is still unclear. The 1978 Introductory Archaeological Survey of the Central Peten Savanna was undertaken in order to address problems relating to aboriginal Maya occupation and utilization of these grasslands. Specifically, the aims of the project were as follows: (1) To characterize the location, size, and settlement configuration of Maya settlement in the savannas, (2) To establish a preliminary chronological framework for savanna settlement, given the apparent indicators of occupation from Preclassic through Postclassic times. (3) To attempt to define the relationship between human land use and environmental resources, implied by the correlation of settlement and microenvironmental characteristics, in order to aid in evaluating the hypothesized role of the Maya in creating the savannas. General Field Procedures The archaeological reconnaissance carried out in pursuit of these objectives had two foci: (1) the sampling of savanna zones for which no archaeological data currently exist in order to locate settlement; and (2) the survey and mapping of settlement remains within areas of previously reported archaeological sites. For purposes of conceptualizing the area of study as well as for purely logistical concerns, the savanna region was divided into three zones identified by the nearest town in the vicinity. These towns are, from west to east, La Libertad, San Francisco, and Santa Ana (Fig. 2). Savanna areas to be surveyed during the 1978 season were selected non-randomly| on the basis of accessibility of the land owners, acquisition of permission to survey and/l or excavate on the land (see below), and accessibility of the land itself given rainy season 235 conditions (see below). Areas of intensive survey were transects, approximately 2 km by 500 m in size which sampled vegetational (grassland and forest) and topographic (flatland and upland terrain) variability. Less intensive surveys were carried out in additional areas of savanna, sometimes adjacent to these transects. The intensive surveys were carried out by walking over the territory in question, marking surface scatters of stone that appeared to indicate constructions and then pace mapping them using a meter tape, Brunton compass, and plane table. A number of the stone concentrations, selected on the basis of variations in form, size, or degree of preservation, were weeded and cleaned of grass and brush, drawn, photographed, and test pitted with a 2m x 2m test square excavated in 10 cm levels. Artifacts recovered were washed, catalogued, drawn and photographed, and taken to Tikal for storage. A soil auger was used to obtain soil samples from constructions in the savannas, from subsoil underlying such constructions, from open savanna soil away from areas of human activity, from savannas at the edge of upland forest and from forested upland. These soil samples will be analyzed chemically as well as for opal phytoliths as part of the project's effort to characterize savanna soils and the possible role of the Maya in their formation. The results of these analyses will be discussed in the final report to the National Geographic Society. Before summarizing the results of the survey as they can be assessed at this point, it would be useful to mention briefly some of the logistical difficulties confronting the project: (1) Multiple ownership of land on which a site occurs and the general problem of looting of archaeological sites in Peten caused some problems. The large site of Chakantun, discussed below, is spread over parcelas, or plots of land, owned by four individuals and is bisected by the Flores-Sayaxche highway. Two of the landowners, concerned about whether our visible presence on their land might serve as a stimulus to later looting, refused to allow us to excavate. Indeed, at all areas we worked there was evidence of small scale (and apparently fruitless) looting. (2) Structures were poorly preserved, particularly in the Libertad savanna zone. This poor preservation is no doubt a consequence of a number of factors. Part of the savannas have been used as pasture since the early 1900s, and generations of cattle treading upon the structures have doubtless disturbed alignments and spread out scatters of stone. In addition, the savannas are burned each year in March or April to provide new young shoots of grass for cattle. This annual burning, followed by the typically heavy rains in May and June, has doubtless aided in pitting, cracking, and breaking the stones used in construction, and disturbance of construction patterns. Also, structure definition was impaired by the existence of heavy non-cultural surface stone, and hip-high grass. (3) Unusually heavy rains during the 1978 summer months hampered travel to and within certain areas of savanna, but also brought to light some of the 236 U) U)4(0 (0 C *,- -n S. C a (A 0 ca W co ( t0 0-0 0 U) 0 *- 0 X )E N L S. = mw CO D AC 0~~~~~~~~~~( 4U) 02 COC " (0. U) (I) U)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4- I- (~~~~S-). Lii C~~~LL U) Li-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4- C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C (0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~( Cl) U)~~~~~~~~~L cxl_ 237 difficulties faced by aboriginal populations attempting to settle in the savannas. Rainfall from heavy afternoon thunderstorms, augmented by runoff from nearby upland areas, turned the savannas into shallow lakes, with several inches of standing water that did not absorb into the soil for several hours. Dirt "roads" in the savannas were impassable except with 4-wheel drive vehicles because of the sticky clay that remained after the water finally drained away. 1978 Survey Results La Libertad Zone: Chakantun La Libertad, a town of approximately 1306 persons located at km 33 on the Flores-Sayaxche road, lies near the western portion of the central Peten savanna belt. The savanna lands around Libertad were explored by Cyrus Lundell (1934) in a joint biological and archaeological survey. Two archaeological sites were reported by him: a classic period site, Polol, with 9.18. 0. 0. 0 and 9.17. 5. ?. 4 dated stelae, west of Libertad; and a site of indeterminate date located on the road 7 km south of Libertad to which he gave the name Chakantun (chakan = savanna; tun = stone). At Chakantun he reported: numerous low mounds, terraces, stone paved plazas and courts extending over an area more than 3 km long. The remains consist chiefly of stone foundations and floor of round and rectangular structures. The majority of the structures were doubtless of the thatch, pole and stucco type ... no stelae were encountered ... Chakantun apparently belongs to a late occupation of that region; it may have been contemporary with Tayasal . . . " (1934: 175). It should be noted parenthetically that in so saying, -Lundell was accepting the Postclassic determination for the site of Tayasal current at the time. In addition to the site of Chakantun, he reported the existence of stone structure foundations throughout the savannas south and west of Libertad, providing two photographs in his 1934 report. No counts, dimensions, dates or densities were reported, however. The 1978 Introductory Savanna Survey began work at the site of Chakantun (Fig. 3). As described by Lundell, the site is approximately 3 km long, extending in a north-south direction on either side of the Flores-Sayaxche highway. The site appears to be bounded to the east, west, and south by upland forest (monte) and/or flatland forest. The southeast portion of the site is a fenced-in cattle ranch, and we were not given permission to enter this portion of the site by the landowner. Survey. Intensive survey operations at Chakantun were concentrated into a transect approximately 2 km long east-west and 500 m wide from roughiy km 41 to km 41. 5 on land owned by Sr. Carlos Jimenez of Flores. The largest area of this transect 238 vt ~~0 N! km. >/... Figure 3. Ghakanturn survey region. Forested areas shown by stipple. 239 was in grassland, but a portion of the northeastern and southwestern corners was in monte, included for the purpose of determining differential occupation or utilization of monte as compared to savanna. Less intensive survey was carried out over the savanna outside the north and west limits of the transect to attempt to determine the boundaries or configuration of the site. Within the transect, 80 "concentrations of stone" were located (Fig. 4). It is difficult to know what to call these, because of their extreme variability of size, preser- vation, and form. Some are clearly platforms, which probably supported perishable structures on top of them at one time. Only a few are raised or "mound"-like. Only about 20 or so have clear lines of stone that demarcate structure boundaries, walls, or subdivisions. Most are just amorphous scatters of stone, and to call them "structural remains" is misleading, since many may be natural. Of the clearly identifiable structures, eleven are clearly rectangular, although many of these may have rounded corners (Fig. 5). Ten are circular structures: these may occur as two circles joined together in a "dumbbell" effect; as single round masses of stone; and as rings or doughnuts of stone (Fig. 6). Circular constructions were also visible on one or both ends of five of the rectangular platforms. The remaining "concentrations" are primarily amorphous scatters: 32 appear to be roughly square or more often rectangular, ranging in size from 3 m by 5 m to 20 m by 30 m. The others are variable in shape: oval, pentagonal, triangular, D-shaped, and so forth. In addition to these individual structures mapped, reconnaissance in the northern and western extremes of the Chakantun savanna area, and in the surrounding high forest yielded additional evidence of Maya settlement and construction. Contour maps of the savanna drawn from aerial photographs indicated a slightly elevated strip of grassland immediately north of the survey transect that stretched from high forest on the -eastern edge of the road across the road and savanna to another area of upland forest on the west. A similar low ridge was evident on the west side of the survey transect going north from upland forest to intersect with the same "corner" of upland forest as did the east-west ridge. When these two ridges were transversed on the ground, they proved to be almost solid areas of stone scatter. Some low mounds appeared on these scatters but, given the time limitations and objectives of our preliminary field season, any attempt to approach the complexities of mapping these vast areas seemed foolhardy. The elevated area of scatter to the north, however, looked particularly interesting since it bore what appeared to be the closest thing to ceremonial center-type architecture at the site. Large squared platforms, ca. one m in height, were visible and bore one or more mounds on their upper surface. About six such mounds or platforms were noted in a cursory walkover. What has not been satisfactorily determined at this point is whether these elevated areas, and indeed some of the more amorphous stone scatters within the survey transect, are natural bedrock outcrops close to the surface, are artificial constructions, or are a combination: i. e., natural ridges modified by the Maya to suit their own purposes. 240 '0 0 o0 0 ~o 000 c0% 0 0 b 00 0 .0 0 0 0 ~~~~0 0 0i 0~~. 0 0 0 CC "4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~ LC) C~~~~~~~~~~~UC -0~ 4-' E ; .4 fVN 00 '241 99 fee sr e .01 tos"' -4r,6-0 Q ?V-d' 66 0%,-* .41 VIP 4r: 000 :"O Z, a qu 09 PD 7 or I p. I Co Ole. 0 vt V -.a- cq .3 a . %.. " !.a Aj, V f r e, fe, ip la 4b Oe % V 46. .- ?, , , :& -: - C - !,., ..W lb* P. O' 4,0 .40 jr .!too Cd Q A O co 0 00 lb"D -A O. O do :... .. . 0 %. . . -'V a 'O too 40 Pt - LO 00'., ov E7 4; lzi, Cs a 40 ll? - F4 .-:1 LO Acres 'K, t%6. le$ co( 46 4*t 242 . o t . q s me; %J w . : e. v * i,.~~~~~~~~~~~4 X ,W. . o *~ ~ a ot far 243 It does seem clear, however, that since the period of Maya occupation of this savanna area there has been little soil deposition or generation, since the rock is almost completely exposed on the surfaces. The transect included, on its northeast corner and southern edge, an area of upland forest, which was included in the survey in order to compare differences in settlement of elevated forest versus flat savanna terrain. Only one small plazuela was located in forest west of the road and approximately 30 meters south of the savanna, and this is in flatland forest. It was a formal plazuela typical of forest sites in the northeast Peten, having four rectangular structures placed on top of an elevated substructure approximately 3m in height. No mounds were found in forest at the northeast part of the transect. On the western edge of the transect several low rocky hills exist in grassland just on the edge of forest. The hills look mound-like but appear to be natural: the stone on the sides looks neither dressed nor formally set, and a looter's trench straight down into the top of one showed about 8 m of solid rock. On top of each of these two hills are one or two low mounds, approximately 80 cm in height. Lines of dressed stones forming the base of those mounds are-visible. Approximately 1. 5 km north of the transect is a large ovoid patch of low forest in the middle of grassland; in the southwest part of this forest patch is an aguada, Aguada Chicha (see Fig. 3). Closer inspection of this aguada, which was empty at the time of our visit, showed it to be of human construction, rather than a natural feature. It has a raised edge, as though from piling up soil around the excavation, and its long axis runs approximately northeast - southwest. It is deepest at its northeast portion, and shallower to the southwest, with an estimated ca. 4-5 m depth and 10 m width. It does not appear to have been lined with stone. One km northwest of Aguada Chicha, approximately 2. 5 km north of the survey transect in low forest adjacent to upland forest, are the remains of a small Classic period site which we have named Chichal. The site consists of approximately 20-25 mounds, mostly fairly small (ca. 2-5 m in height) that appear to occur in some formal plaza arrangements. Again the site was not formally mapped so its size and configurations can only be estimated, but as it is visible on aerial photographs it appears to cover an area of 500 m by 500 m. The site is in a relatively flat area between savanna and uplands, once covered in forest, but in the past several years the forest has been cut down and the site used for milpa. When visited in July of 1978, part was in corn, part had just been harvested, and part looked as though it had been left fallow after milpa for several years. Few sherds were visible on the surface; the only one that appeared familiar was a Tzakol basal flange bowl. One of the most interesting aspects of the site of Chichal is a series of three aguadas or reservoirs constructed in a ravine between three hills covered in high forest to the northwest of the site. It appears that the Maya built several dams or saddles across 244 the valley to act as catchments. There are two mounds at the northwest edge of the site leading to the aguadas, and one small low mound in a relatively flat area to the northeast of the central reservoir. These aguadas are approximately 30 m in diameter, and 5 m deep. They were currently (July 1978) planted in milpa. A "canal" drains water, presumably from monte areas to the northeast, into the central reservoir. At the junction, of this "canal" with the reservoir, the opening is filled with ca. 20 cm-diameter chunks of limestone rock, locally interpreted to be an ancient "filter" for water. In addition to this line of aguadas, there are three other aguadas on or near the site that appear to be human in origin. One is near the west central portion of the site; it is ca. 5 m deep and 15 m wide, and did not contain water. Two others occur at the eastern edge of the site closer to the border with the savanna. They were reported to have been Maya-made, but two years ago were enlarged by tractor, thus destroying evidence of human construction. Excavations. Seven 2 m by 2 m test pits were placed in structures in the northwest portion of Chakantun, the structures being selected with an effort at sampling a variety of structural forms from this site. The overwhelmingly obvious conclusion from these excavations was that the occupations were shallow and, therefore, short. Sterile soil and soil above bedrock, distinguished by its red-brown color and heavy clay texture, occurs at a depth of approximately 20-30 cm below surface, overlaid by black- brown, slightly more friable clay-humus (Fig. 7). In three of the pits bedrock was encountered at approximately 40 cm. Bedrock in this area is extremely deceptive. In the three pits in question the bedrock occurred in a sloping incline, the surface being relatively flat but broken-up as if consisting of irregular pieces of inlaid stone such as mosaic. The fractures sometimes occur in neat lines or corners, and the rock itself occurs in layers approximately 15-20 cm thick. In short, the total effect is very cultural-appearing, confusing both ourselves and our very experienced workmen. Only two of the seven excavations yielded anything of any stratigraphic or architectural interest. One pit, placed in the center of Mound 62, the northernmost of a group of five stone-filled circles, yielded a Terminal Preclassic burial placed into subsoil. The burial was aligned north-south, and stone slabs ca. 25 cm high, 10 cm thick, and 30 cm long were placed on either side and at the end of the burial (Fig. 7c). The tops of the stones were 35 cm below surface (at the humus/fill and subsoil interface) and the base of the burial was approximately 60 cm below surface. Two ceramic vessels were recovered from the tomb. Vessel 1 was a Sacluc Black-on-orange "Usulutan" bowl with a single horizontal flute on the exterior (Fig. 8). Vessel 2 was apparently a hemispherical bowl with direct rim and a red slip. Both vessels were in terrible condition when excavated; they were already broken, presumably from the fill heaped on top of them, decomposed due to clay context and moisture, and were broken even more in the process of trying to extricate them from the stickyr clay subsoil in which they were embedded. They also appeared to have been poorly fired, especially Vessel 2 which partially dissolved when the pieces were washed. 245 ?> ~~~~~~~~~~~~Brown humi c soilI Red clayey soil1 a. Brown humic * * soil1 ~~~5LJ1~~~~~~-J ~~~Red cl ayey soilI F> t-/tc7:' 0 X -/r~/~~ '0 -7yv -w b. 0 100 centimeters J ~ ] Brown humic l ? ? ? t> 0 C) c (> ] ~~~~Red cl ayey soil c. Figure 7. Chakantun test-pit profiles; a - Structure 56; b - Structure 71; c - Structure 62. 246 0 0 1E ~~~~~~~~~~~~U. a) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C,) :~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 'H he_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~U X 0 '0 1 CO) CTCJ 00 r-Z4 247 The second pit of interest was into Structure 71, a 15. 75 m-long rectangular platform oriented 3520 north-south. The southern end of this platform bore a stone circle ca. 5 m in diameter, while the northern end appeared to be a raised mound ca. 80 cm in height. A 2m x 2m test pit into this raised area revealed a wall just below surface going at a slight diagonal of 100 across the length of the structure. The wall, about 40 cm wide, appeared to have been set at a depth of 20 cm below surface above a fill of red clay and large stones ca. 10-20 cm diameter. This fill was 20 cm thick; below it continued fill of red clay and tiny white particles with occasional small stones. This fill yielded Late Preclassic sherds to a depth of 70 cm, at which point the fill terminated and sterile red clay subsoil was encountered. No floors or other constructions were noted on either side of this wall, and this, plus its central longitudinal axis, suggests that it may have been some sort of internal partition rather than a main construc- tional support wall. Mounds 72 (a rectangular stone scatter with no boundary lines), 83 (a "dumbbell" structure, Fig. 9), and 87 (the eastern structure in the plazuela located in monte) all appeared to be Early Classic constructions or occupations. Mound 89, a stone circle in Mound Group 2, was Late Preclassic in date. Mound 76, a rectangular structure, had only a few diagnostic sherds that suggested a late Classic date. Two mounds, 49 and 56, were undatable. Excavations at Chakantun reinforced one of the impressions gained from surface observation, i. e. the existence of sizeable quantities of flint tools and debitage, as well as unworked nodules. On the basis of very preliminary observations, the utilized flint tools recovered, aside from a few fragments of shaped axes, knives, and hammer- stones, seem to be of two main classes. One consists of chunks of flint, with evidence of secondary retouch and/or use on edges with steep angles and/or on notches (Fig. 10). The other consists of flakes, often with similar evidence of use in notches. Other stone artifacts recovered from excavations at the site include two quartz (quartzite?) polishing stones; two limestone mano and metate fragments; a flat sandstone (?) scraping tool; a chipped flint digging tool with soil polish (Fig. 10e); four broken. flint axes/knives; one flint drill; one small flint hamerstone; and seven pieces of obsidian. Thirteen clay or ochre lumps also were recovered. San Francisco Zone: Fango and Buenos Aires Surveys in areas south of the town of San Francisco included land belonging to the town itself, where a site we have named "El Fango" is located. Surveys were also conducted on private land, Finca El Zapote, owned by Sr. Jaime Sobalvarro of San Benito and Finca Buenos Aires owned by Pablo Ochaeta of Flores. The savanna area south of San Francisco, where surveys were carried out, is visibly different from that at the site of Chakantun. Savanna occurs as small pockets of grassland between numerous low hills. These hills may be covered with high forest 248 LID ~~::,..t~d9.A7. 0 E. 4? czzj. a 9' e 40 ~ ~ ~ ~ W- 0 * 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 5/D 0. 6. ..4, . :;o, 0 Ti .'0 :.cj.- 0_ w:~~~~ "Oe 0 * -,% . a)0 * ~~ ~~~~~~~ ~ - '-Lf 's'1Z . ..~ * - .~ . .. S I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a %!Users~~~~~~~~~~~ z~~~L WtA:~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ 249 or, in some cases, with grass and stone outcrops. Large open areas of savanna are comparatively rare. There also seems to be, for reasons as yet unknown, a heavier distribution of nanze trees in these smaller pockets of savanna than in large open areas. The site of El Fango (Fig. 11) is a relatively densely settled, compact community in a pocket of savanna. The site is in the west-central part of a survey transect 500 n wide north-south by 2 km long east-west which was intensively surveyed. This transect included areas of upland forest in addition to areas of savanna grassland. The site is bounded on the north, southwest and east by high forest, on the south and northeast by small patches of high forest or zukches. On the west is a stony hill. A total of 101 mounds were mapped in the transect. Of these, 83 occurred in what we are calling El Fango proper, and 18 were located in adjacent savanna pockets to the east. Structure density in the transect drops off markedly moving south, north, or east of Fango proper. Savanna pockets within an area 3 km long and 2 km wide, extending south to include Finca El Zapote, were surveyed less intensively, and 103 additional mounds were located in this area. One pocket southeast of El Fango had a particularly heavy occurrence, and this is tentatively referred to as "South Fango," rather than given a specific site name. The site of El Fango is distinct from Chakantun is several respects. First, the density of securely defined structures at the site is quite high, 101 structures in an area of 1 km2, as compared to ca. 21 per km2 at Chakantun. (It should be remembered that most of the remains at the latter site were amorphous stone scatters, however.) Second, the structures at Fango are rectangular, smaller, and generally have much better preserved cut and dressed stone alignments than the large, predominantly circular or amorphous structures at Chakantun. Third, the structures are often grouped into plazuela- like arrangements of three or four mounds. Since such plazuela groupings are characteristic of the Late Classic period at forest sites in northern Peten, this arrangement immediately suggested a Late Classic date for El Fango. The areas of structure debris vary in size from squarish constructions 4 to 5 m on a side, to rectangular platforms as large as 14 m by 7 m. Typical sizes for rectangular platforms are on the order of 9 to 11 meters long and 3. 5 to 4. 5 m wide. They are commonly oriented almost due north-south at 90-95?, or east-west at 180-185?. A variety of individual structure forms were noted (see Figs. 12-15). Large dressed stones form the boundaries of the rectangles and mark the outlines of interior living space. Collapse consists of smaller irregular stones ca. 10 to 20 cm in size. Living spaces appear to have been paved with small stones ca. 5 cm or so in size. There is no clue as to what, if anything, comprised the mortar between the stones. Platforms are generally elevated from 20 cm to about 50 cm at maximum height of collapse. An unusual feature of El Fango is the existence of series of stone lines on inclines between forest patches or hills within the transect. The lines are not distinct or well-formed, consisting for the most part of sparse linear stone scatters from 50 cm to 250 a. b.~~~~~~~~~~e Figure ]0 Chakantun, miscellaneous Ethic artifacts; a - c notched~~~A~ flksadcuk;e ign olwt soil polish. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~C 251 IN,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' W~~~~~~~~~~~ .0%~~~~~~~~~~ IC~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I * I 252 2 m in width. They occur in groups of three to six, and may be from 7 to 12 meters apart (Fig. 16). Six such locations of lines were located in the surveys, and all occurred on inclines of 2 to 2. 50 slope. The significance of these lines has not been determined. In order to learn whether they were cultural or natural (i. e., bedrock outcrops) in origin, excavations were undertaken in two of the lines around stones that looked most clearly intentionally placed. The stones were large dressed stones that extended 15-20 cm in thickness below surface. They were situated entirely in dark brown clay humus soil, about 25 cm in thickness. Below this dark brown/black surface soil is sterile red clay subsoil. No bedrock was visible immediately adjacent to any of the stones nor in the upper 30 to 35 cm of excavations. Clearly these stone lines were not lines of bedrock outcrop and natural fracture. Another possibility for natural origin of the lines that could not be dismissed as easily is that the stones were washed down the incline by heavy rains or other water movement. Some of the scatters could indeed have been due to such a phenomenon, but the regular spacing and unbroken scatter of the lines and the extremely large size of some of the stones would argue against this interpretation. Also, some lines are straight while some curve in a direction counter to the natural contours. We are accepting the cultural origin of the lines, but we do not yet know for what purpose the lines were created. They may have been td catch silt running down from hill slopes; they may have been' to control water movement; they may have been agricultural terraces; they may have been formed through the process of clearing natural rock off a strip to be gardened and tossing the stones into a line; they may have had something to do with preventing the spread of savanna fires into certain areas. The two test pits excavated did not provide any clue to their function. An additional difficulty in interpreting the lines is that most of them stretch across a shallow valley between two low hills; but one set occurs along a slope with no hills either at the head or on the sides of the slope. It would seem that in such a situation both the origin and function of the lines might be slightly different. Of the areas of flatland forest and upland forest In the survey transect that were searched for mounds, evidence of constructional activity appeared in only two portions in the southwest and the northwest parts of the transect. A small low plazuela with two mounds sits in flatland forest inside the southwest corner of the site and south of the stone hill that is El Fango's western boundary. A third long low rectangular mound is located 24 meters north of this plazuela, still in flatland forest. North of Fango, there are two low mounds in flatland forest that stretch north-south parallel to but just Inside the forest-savanna boundary. One is 20 m long and 1 m high; the second, lying north of the long mound, is slightly less than 7 m long. Northwest of these mounds, in upland forest atop a rise, is a large plaza with three structures. At the north side sits a structure identical in form to structure F-9 (Fig. 13), with the open part to the south. The structure is well-preserved, with nice dressed stone lines marking the back wall. Southwest of 253 N- o 5 meters 0 o a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.9 L . . ~ 0 . . . Fiur 13 lE?geSrutre p ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 9. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r' -4 1 0 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5 Figure 13. El Fango Structure 92. 254 O N as~~~~~~~~~~~~s 0~ ~ 5 I' . . . 49 4 - l~~~~~~ot," meters Figure 14. El Fango Structure 60. 010~~~~,, 0 0 9. O 8 N - _ 0 5 meters Figure 15. El Fango Structure 83. 255 o'V. 1001,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 9. .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..ov 4$ .s.'.b a V.4 * 0 . 0.~~~~. ~ .0~~~~~~~' .0 0. .00'0.. . A. 0 u~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~) .C *.. 0~~~~~~~~o* rn *0 o~~~~~~~~~i N~~~~~~~~~~~q 256 this mound (which is mound #79) is a low rectangular mound on the same platform, while on the southeast corner of the platform is a third smaller mound. A series of three terraces lead up to this elevated plaza from the south. The final aspect of the site of Fango that was explored was the nature of the stony hills that appeared In the transect and in other parts of the San Francisco zone savannas. These hills are completely covered with stone, ranging from small pebbles to very large boulders ca. 75 cm. on a side. In viewing these hills from the flat savanna areas, they very frequently had the appearance of being terraced. That is, lines of stone, usually broken and incomplete but nonetheless discernible, stretched horizontally across the hills looking like tiers of constructed walls for agricultural terracing. In many places the stones had flat faces on tops and sides, suggesting that they were cut, dressed, and placed to form the walls. In other areas the surfaces were irregular and did not appear dressed or placed. The confusion in understanding the nature of these hills was caused by natural fracture characteristics of the limestone which, as noted at Chakantun, tends to fracture along flat, often nearly right-angled cleavage planes. Also, there did not appear to be flat areas suitable for farming behind the "terrace walls"; instead, the surface sloped (although this could presumably be explained by collapse of "walls" above). In addition, there was little to no soil visible behind the "walls" as would be expected if these were soil conservation constructions for agriculture. To try to resolve the issue, test pits were placed on two stony hill slopes where the quasi-terraces were located, with excavations both in front and behind these "terrace walls. " The excavations clearly revealed that they were bedrock outcrops, for flat and right-angled expanses of bedrock appeared in the test pits abutting and adjoining the visible lines. The excavations were terminated at 30 cm b. s., the conclusion being that these hills were not terraced. Constructed mounds were visible on the tops of three of these stony hills. It may be significant that these mounds occur on hills adjacent to the stone line sequences. On the hill south of stone line sequence A was a single large mound, covered with trees and brush, constructed by incorporating the bedrock outcrop and stone scatter. On the stone hill north of the lines is a plazuela group of three mounds on a raised rectangular platform oriented north-south. Each of the three mounds on the platform have looters' trenches. On the stony hill due east of the cleared lines is a small oval mound. In addition to the intensive survey of the east-west transect of El Fango, the more cursory survey of savanna pockets to the south within an area of approximately 6 kin2, including much of the area of Flaca El Zapote, recovered a total of 43 plazuela-like groups or solitary constructions (Fig. 17). In general, densities were rather sparse except in one area southwest of El Fango. In this area (called South Fango) an open rolling savanna interspersed with small forest patches (zukches) and with stony hills on its north and east sides, 22 mounds or mound groups (60 individual monlds) were located during the survey. More intensive survey might reveal more structures in this area that are not now immediately visible because of heavy grass. Another interesting discovery 257 in the cursory survey of the area south of El Fango was an artificial aguada located near the western edge of savanna west of South Fango. This reservoir is estimated to be approximately 20 x 30 m in size. It has a built-up embankment on the north, east, and south sides, and is almost completely covered with forest, although one corner is visible in aerial photographs. Excavations. Excavations were undertaken in eight structures at the site of El Fango. In all but one location (mound #79 )fin upland fOiov.a excavations were terminated in sterile red clay subsoil, which was encountered at a depth of 25 to 35 cm below surface. Constructional debris and artifacts were found in dark brown to black humus/clay in the upper 25-35 cm of these pits. Bedrock was not encountered in any of the excavations, providing a contrast with the excavations at Chakantun. However, as at Chakantun, the occupation and constructional activities at El Fango appeared to be shallow and of comparatively short duration. Construction in the form of cut and set wall stones was visible in five of the excavations. In all but one of these pits (#79) the walls consisted of only one course of stones. Fill generally consisted of 20 to 30 cm of small to large stones in black clay/ humus surface soil (Fig. 18). This fill generally lay directly overtop of the red sterile subsoil, although in the case of mound #9 the stones were set into the red clay. Two mounds of a plazuela, mounds 51 and 52, had test pits placed in them. In both pits, two types of construction fill were noted. One consisted of substructure fill of large stones in red clay matrix; this fill was approximately 30 cm in depth and directly overlay sterile subsoil. Structural fill, in dark brownhhumus/clay matrix, overlay this stone/red clay mixture. All excavations at El Fango yielded Late Classic -- Tepeu 2 and 3 -- ceramic material, indicating that the site was primarily a Late Classic occupation. Some Late Preclassic and Early Classic sherds were recovered from the excavations, suggesting at least a sparse occupation at that time period. The substructure (platform) fill of mounds 51-53 appears to contain only Preclassic and Early Classic material and nothing later. Late Classic ceramic types recovered in excavations at El Fango include: Cameron Incised, Subin Red, and Pantano Impressed: Pantano Variety. Only 2 polychrome sherds, both of unidentified type, were recovered. Buenos Aires. A second area of reconnaissance in the San Francisco savanna zone was located farther to the south of El Zapote on Finca Buenos Aires, Finca Buenos Aires occupies the north edge of a very large open savanna, where there is some inter- digitation of forest and grassland. This large savanna is bounded on the south by the upper reaches of the Rio Subin. There are numerous natural aguadas and zukches interspersed in this open savanna, but there was not any settlement around them. A transect roughly 3 km long and 750 m wide was oriented east-west on and slightly to the east of Finca Buenos Aires, including upland forest on its northern edge (Fig. 19). One small scatter of stone was found east of the finca, close to the forest/ 258 N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ %10 * Structure or structure group Figure 17. El Fango/EI Zapote settlement area. Forested areas shown by stipple. 259 - ~~Brown humi c Soi 1 Red cl ayey soi l a. " R".,i F'!2' 1Brown humic 4 soil -- ?- - - - - --?- J ~~~~~~~~~~soilI b. 1Brown humi c ; q I soil ~c13~ 1 Red cl ayey C. Figure 18. El Fango test-pit profiles; ? l ~~~~~~~~~~a - Structure 83; b - Structure 32; meters ~~~~~~~c - Structure 9. 260 savanna boundary. Farther to the west, on the finca proper, the transect included an area where pockets of savanna were intermixed with patches of forest. In these pockets were found sizeable quantities of fossiliferous chert cobbles, ranging in size from 10-18 cm diameter. Two single low mounds of these cobbles were found, but lacked any lines of stone (limestone) to demarcate clearly platform boundaries or suggest positively that they were of human construction. Near the western edge of the same savanna pocket, two definite platforms were noted, constructed of limestone and chert cobbles, each with clear boundary lines. A probable third structure, a more or less amorphous scatter of limestone, was found to the south of these platforms. No excavations were undertaken to date these structures. One of the definite platforms had evidence of a looter's trench in it, and although a few sherds were visible in the walls of the excavation none were diagnostic. Aside from a lack of dating these probable structures, an additional problem remains; that is, to ascertain whether the amorphous scatters of cobbles really are structures or not. This entire pocket has surface stone, primarily these round brown cobbles, all over it, with particularly heavy concentrations on the perimeters at the edge of forest. Flint debitage likewise occurs in sizeable quantities, though few tools were evident. The dearth of settlement in this area, despite the abundance of water sources, suggests that the Maya avoided large open areas of savanna. The presumed poor fertility of these open areas, and the lack of available limestone sources for construction stone appear to have been more determining factors than the availability of water in influencing decisions as to savanna settlement. Santa Ana Zone: Tambo, Mirador, and Itzpone One survey transect, designated Tambo, in the Santa Ana savanna zone included an area of approximately 3. 5 km2 west of the Flores-Poptun road beginning at km 29 (Fig. 20). This savanna differs from areas previously covered in several respects. It may be generally characterized as large, open, and rolling terrain, with nanze and cocoyol trees rather sparse in occurrence except close to the edges of savanna. There are a lot of large bromeliads growing in the trees and the grass itself seems heavily matted; these observations suggest that this savanna has not been completely burned recently. Much of the grassland was plowed several years ago (this may contribute to the low incidence of nanze trees) and the area near the road bas recently been planted in jocote maraon by the owner, Sr. Rafael Sagastume of Santa Elena. Natural water sources are conspicuous, with several aguadas in the immediate vicinity of the transect that contained water at the time of the survey. These presumably would have been available to aboriginal populations as well. There are no extremely high or abrupt hills bordering this savanna area as there were at El Fango, for example, and the bordering forest is low rather than upland (monte) forest. Last, there is very little surface limestone or chert in the central open portions of the savanna, and in the savanna/forest border areas there appears to be little stone available as source material. 261 S.- 4-) A: ('~~~~~~~~~~~~( C,, 0S. a, 5 ,U) Ole se01 S...4 262 Survey. One group of three mounds plus two solitary structures were dis- covered in the area of 3. 5 km2 surveyed. These were in grassland; no mounds were in the bordering forest areas that were searched. Group #1 is a large platform with three structures on a very low rise about two km west of the road. This group is unusual in that it is isolated and out in open savanna, rather than near forest. No artifacts were found on the surface. Mound #2, a small stone scatter with a few lines visible, was located approximately 50 m southeast of group #1. Mound #3 was a small low mound in a small savanna pocket ringed by monte, located just west of the Flores-Poptun road. Group #1, after being weeded and cleared for drawing and photographing, proved to be a moderately-sized rectangular platform approximately east-west in orientation. It is 17 m in length, and 9 1/2 m in width at its widest (eastern) end. Two structures apparently faced each other on opposite ends of the platform, the easternmost appearing to be higher and better preserved. A third structure, having a somewhat rounded outline about 5 m in diameter, was situated 3 1/2 m north of the easternmost structure and off the platform proper. A possible fourth structure, indicated by a 3 m scatter of small stones, was located off the northwest corner of the western structure. This mound was given a "site name"?, Tambo (Fig. 21). Excavations. Four 2m x 2m test pits were placed into this platform: one in the western structure, one in the "entranceway" of the eastern structure, one in the center of the eastern structure, and one in the northern structure. Excavations revealed that the platform was constructionally different from the platforms at El Fango and Chakantun. The stones on the surface are collapse stones rather than paving stones, and fill is almost pure soil rather than rock below the upper 10-15 cm (Fig. 22). It appears that the platform, which had a maximum height of about 80 cm, was constructed by mounding up clay savanna soil, rather than by mixing rock, plaster, and/or soil. Profiles typically show stone on the surface, an upper soil horizon of brown clay/humus, and a sterile lower horizon of red clay. Artifacts were sparse to nonexistent In the pits; sherds were Chicanel, with one Tzakol basal flange sherd. The test pit on the western end of the platform revealed a tomb constructed of limestone slabs set in red clay, 2.3 m long and 1. 2 m wide, oriented 1900 north-south (Fig. 23). The upper edges of the stones were visible at 30 cm, with the individual placed, head to the north, at a level of 50-55 cm b. s. Two monochrome ring-based hemispherical ceramic bowls accompanied the burial: a large, red-slipped bowl inverted over the head and a smaller cream slipped bowl upright at the knee (Fig. 24). The vessels appear to be Terminal Preclassic in date. Bone preservation was terrible, and no sexing or stature measurements of the interred individual could be made. In addition to the site of Tambo and surveys on the Sagastume finca, two other savanna areas in the Santa Ana zone were surveyed. No excavations were carried out in these areas, however, so they are undated. (1) The first survey area, Mirador, was centered on a finca owned by Sr. 263 U) X..s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. S.- -ty ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ S bf) 2 fr2 W X. I Go : D D~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C :"