215
THE SWASEY CERAMIC COMPLEX OF NORTHERN BELIZE:
A Definition and Discussion
by
D. C. Pring
Prior to the work of the Corozal Projectl in northern Belize, there was little
to suggest that it was an area which might yield important evidence on the earliest
Lowland Maya. Nearby Nohock Ek had been described by the Coe Brothers (Coe and Coe
1956) as an Early Preclassic site, but no evidence was given to back up this statement.
Haberland (1958) had indicated a Middle Preclassic presence at Louisville; Pendergast
had mentioned a few Mamom sherds at Altun Ha (personal communication to N. Hammond),
and Bullard had discussed the possibility of a Mamom complex at San Estevan before
rejecting it and opting for a "conservative Late Formative" date (Bullard 1965: 48). For
the most part, however, it was the terminal part of the Preclassic that offered the most
exciting possibilities. With the heavy concentration of Floral Park pottery in the eastern
region and the known presence of Holmul I ceramics at four sites in the project's area,
it "seemed a good place to examine the Preclassic-Classic transition and the role of the
Protoclassic" (Hammond 1977a: 47).
At the end of the 1974 season, the situation appeared to have changed little.
A few possible pieces of Mamom pottery had been found at several sites and a small
group of sherds from the lowest levels of a test excavation at Nohmul (Hammond 1977a:
302b; 1975) clearly antedated the Cocos Chicanel material but did not appear related to
the Mamom ceramic sphere. Other than that, there were no early indicators. On the
other hand, excavation both at Nohmul and elsewhere had revealed the existence of the
Freshwater Floral Park ceramic complex (Pring 1975a) and indicated the presence of a
poorly defined late facet of Cocos Chicanel apparently contemporary with it. It was
indeed, in an attempt to gain better stratigraphic definition of this late facet that the
author undertook excavation at Cuello in the Corozal Project's 1975 field season since
surface finds from that site revealed pottery that appeared transitional between the Late
Preclassic and Early Classic periods.
1 The 1975-76 season work of the Corozal Project was sponsored primarily by the
British Academy, Cambridge University, the University of Texas at San Antonio, Center
for Archaeological Research, Gordon Roe Ltd., and Cooper Gay Ltd. under the direction
of Dr. N. Hammond. Financial support for the author at the time of his research was
provided by the tenure of a Parry award and, latterly, assisted by contributions made by
the Central Research Fund of London University. In both seasons we were deeply
indebted to Belize Sugar Industries for logistic support and to the Cuello brothers, owners
of the site which has been named for them. I am most grateful to Dr. Hammond for his
support and assistance throughout the Project and, specifically for several suggestions
incorporated in this paper.
216
Operation 17B, a 2 metre square test trench on Platform 34 (Hammond
1975), which began with these limited objectives, quickly acquired a new significance
as it penetrated a series of plaster floors, interspersed with sub-floor fill and
occupation deposits, revealing, with good stratigraphic control, a sequence going back
from Cocos Chicanel, through Lopez Mamom to material that was markedly different
from the above and which, to judge from its depth of well over a metre, was of
considerable duration. A second excavation, through a partially destroyed Protoclassic
pyramid (Str. 39) some 150 metres east, descended by chance onto a burial cut into
bedrock which contained five whole vessels of the same ceramic complex, which was
subsequently named Swasey. 2 The importance of these finds was immediately apparent
and was discussed in a paper given by the author at the Society of American Archaeology's
annual general meeting held at Dallas, Texas later in the year. It was not until the first
radiocarbon dates were processed and known, however, that the full significance of the
site was appreciated. Subsequent excavation at the site in 1976 confirmed these initial
findings and led directly to the creation of the Cuello Project in 1978 with plans to
excavate a substantial further area of Platform 34 to provide as much information as
possible on all aspects of the Preclassic occupation there.
If these early dates (ranging back to 2000 bc3) and the attendant archaeological
data are accepted, the implications for early Maya prehistory are considerable.
Current, or recent, thinking was based on the assumption (fast becoming a belief) that
the earliest Maya in the Lowlands were represented by the Real Xe ceramic complex
which was felt to be no earlier than the Middle Preclassic period. Thus Willey, in his
summary chapter in The Origins of Maya Civilization, states that "'the earliest firm and
reasonably abundant evidence for Maya Lowland occupation comes- from the Pasion
Valley" (Willey 1977: 385) and later that "it was the unanimous opinion of the seminar that
the Xe-Eb pottery-making immigrants first entered the Maya Lowlands at the very
beginning of the Middle Preclassic Period" (Willey 1977: 401). If these were widely
held views at the time, they have had to be modified considerably by those who accept
the evidence from Cuello. Likewise, the question of the origin of these "immigrants"
is at the very least obfuscated by the ceramic evidence of the Swasey complex. In
addition, it represents a setback to those who argue that the earliest inhabitants of the
lowland zone opted for a riverine environment, since the site is roughly equidistant
between, and some distance from, the Nuevo and Hondo rivers.
Other examples could be cited as evidence of the disruptive effect that the
Swasey data, if accepted, may have on traditional views held about the Early Preclassic
Maya. However, there are a number of Mayanists who reject the evidence in the
preliminary form in which it has so far been published or for one reason or another
2 Swasey, like all north Belize ceramic complexes, is named after a local stretch of
water - Swasey Creek in this case.
3 Dates are given in uncalibrated radiocarbon years on the 5568 half-life. This implies
no disrespect to Clark's or other calibrations; it is merely to provide easier compar-
ison with other sites.
217
question its authenticity and reliability. For some, it is a proper scientific caution, in
the light of new evidence. Others may feel it academically unwise to advocate acceptance,
at such an early stage, of data that have such far-ranging significance. For others again,
there is a question mark over the validity of the dates in the light of other evidence currently
suggesting that radiocarbon dating may be more variable than was previously thought.
Ceramicists may argue that the Swasey phase is unacceptably long considering the
apparent lack of change therein, and feel that it is more a variant of the Eb and Real Xe
complexes found elsewhere in the Maya Lowlands at the start of the Middle Preclassic. It
Is not being cynical to say that at the heart of these objections is the very fact that the
new evidence does upset widely held views on the Maya Preclassic. Whilst it is right that
new arguments be subjected to critical scrutiny before they are accepted, it is less
defensible for archaeologists to adhere to old ideas in the face of new ones, especially if the
old are based on insecure facts compounded by a series of assumptions. The flimsiness of
that evidence will be outlined in further detail at a later stage. Apart from the radiocarbon
dates, the bulk of the doubts appear to be centered on the interpretation of the ceramics and
their relationship to the stratigraphy. As the initial excavator and the project's ceramicist
whose opinions have been advanced in several publications already (Hammond 1975, 1976a,
1976b, 1977a, 1977bT, 1977c; Hammond, Pring et al. 1976, 1979; Pring 1975b, 1976, 1977),
I feel doubly compelled to defend the validity of the evidence from Cuello as it relates to the
Swasey phase in particular. This I propose to do by setting forth the ceramic details as
they relate to the stratigraphy and the radiocarbon chronology. After that, I shall offer
some comments and thoughts, based on comparative ceramic studies, on the origins of
the phase and its relationship to other ceramic compleses of the Lowland Preclassic.
'rurning first to the stratigraphy, the critical excavations were, in the Corozal
Project nomenclature, Ops. 17B and 17F. 17B was a 2 metre square test trench excavated
by natural levels down to bedrock in 1975, while 17F consisted of two 5 metre square area
excavations adjacent to 17B and likewise dug down to bedrock. The earlier excavation
demonstrated both the strengths and weaknesses of what has been described as "telephone-
booth" archaeology. Had it not been for this trial excavation carried out in a few weeks by
two project members assisted by a couple of local workers, the Swasey phase would
probably not have been known. At the same time, the area excavations of 1976 indicated
that what had been interpreted as a series of platform floors, in fact represented the
interiors of structures set around a patio. Nevertheless, the work in 1976 confirmed the
stratigraphic sequence of the previous year, at the same time adding a great deal more
Information on which to base speculation about Preclassic society in the area. A glance
at the section of Op. 17B (Hammond 1975: Fig. 8. 5) shows that we are dealing with a series
of superimposed floors, interspersed with occupation and fill deposits, most of which are
in very good condition. Thus, although we might expect an upward mix, tending to blur
the evidence relating to the terminal points of ceramic change, the sealing of the layers
provides a clear-cut introduction point for ceramic modes since the pottery is extremely
unlikely to seep down to lower levels. This expectation was realized in that the earliest
levels provided unmixed Swasey deposits, while later layers contained a mix of Swasey and
Lopez, both of which continued in decreasing quantities into the Cocos strata closest to the
surface. It will be noted that there are no completely unmixed Lopez and Cocos levels, nor
is this particularly surprising given the nature of the deposits. The evidence for ceramic
218
change is clear and, when combined with the stylistic distinctions (which will be dealt
with at greater length subsequently), provides us with a very good data base on which to
build hypotheses.
Full details of the ceramics, together with a more comprehensive comparative
analysis are contained in my doctoral dissertation (Pring 1977). Here I shall outline a
few of the salient features of the Swasey Ceramic Complex. We have two major redware
Groups (Consejo and Ramgoat), a very substantial buff Group (Tiger) and a rather limited
black Group (Machaca). In addition there are other Groups - Quamina (Cream), Stopper
(Brown), and Chicago (Orange) - which are numerically less well represented. Dichrome
pottery is even less common, though there is a representative sample of Tower Hill Red-
on-cream, a couple of vessels of Ossory Red-on-orange and a few sherds of Red-and-
unslipped pottery. The entire Swasey sample at present numbers some 10, 000 sherds
almost all occurring in pure deposits from the excavations at Cuello indicated above. The
presense of major red, buff and black Groups and their proportional relationship to one
another is extremely significant when we come to consider the factors that suggest
continuity between this and subsequent ceramic complexes. Of the red Groups, Consejo
is easily the more recognisable by virtue of its glossy, vermilion red slip. The consis-
tency and brightness of this slip appear to have been achieved by the application of a
thin cream-to-white underslip. It is thus linked closely in technical terms with the
Quamina group which employs the same underslip without the addition of the red, except
in the case of Tower Hill Red-on-cream where bold quadrilaterals of cream are left
reserved by the partial application of the same red slip. In the course of the 1979
season several sherds of this type were found to possess genuine resist decoration with
patterns consisting primarily of squiggles or wavy lines, although in one instance a
definite figure painting was found with what appeared to be a bird or ship resting on a
series of such lines apparently representing water. Even after a brief acquaintance with
sherds of this group, it would be hard to mistake them for any other Preclassic type in
the area. Closest comparisons (if they must be made) are with some of the red gloss
pottery of the Early to Middle Classic. The gloss on Consejo contrast markedly with the
duller and much waxier surface encountered in both Lopez and Cocos. Ramgoat Red, on
the other hand, is much less easily distinguished and might even be overlooked in deposits
that are mixed. It lacks the underslip and consequently loses the homogeneity and
brightness of its counterpart. Although it, too, lacks any waxy feel for most of the period,
there are a number of sherds from later levels which appear to be transitional in terms of
slip texture. The colour range is wider, from deep purple or even brown at one end of
the scale through to a pale buff or orange at the other. The central colour is, however,
a deep Indian Red and it will be appreciated that in this respect it is close to Joventud
Red though the latter lacks the range. Whilst the Ramgoat Group appears to merge
gradually into the Joventud Group, the evidence from the 1979 season would appear to
4 This figure is based on a sherd count at the end of the 1976 season. Subsequent work,
in 1977 and 1979, has added another 1000-2000 sherds and has advanced our knowledge
somewhat. This paper was originally written in 1978 but has been brought up to date by
the inclusion of such additional knowledge as is relevant to the subject.
219
suggest that both Consejo Red and Tower Hill Red-on-cream actually persisted into the
Middle Preclassic. Both types were found in some quantities mixed with Lopez Mamom
deposits and whilst this may mean that they were merely absorbed into later deposits of
a mixed nature, it is at least as plausble to suppose that they were actually being manu-
factured and used at this later date.
Both the Tiger and the Machaca Groups equate closely in terms of colour
range with their Lopez Mamon successors, although the olive tinge detectable in the
buff group is more pronounced in the Swasey complex. As with most Swasey sherds
there is no trace of the waxiness that characterizes Lopez especially and to a lesser
extent Cocos. The Stopper group has no equivalent in subsequent Preclassic periods
though it is found again in the Classic. The last of the monochrome groups -- Chicago
Orange -- is of considerable significance when discussing the issue of continuity within
the Preclassic. The Chicago variety, found in the Swasey ceramic complex, is only
distinguishable from the Warrie Camp and Chucun varieties (Lopez and Cocos respectively)
on grounds of vessel shape. The paste and slip are such that body sherds from mixed
deposits are indistinguishable. Another feature that is relevant to this argument is the
presence of Red-and-unslipped pottery in both the Consejo and Ramgoat groups. The
practice of leaving the outside walls of a vessel unslipped but with decorative techniques
such as impressing and punctating employed on the unslipped surface is one that continues
as a minor mode throughout the Preclassic in northern Belize.
On the Unslipped side, we have one major group -- Copetilla -- as well as a
handful of striated sherds that have not been typed as yet although the 1979 excavations
indicate that they were being made in small but not insignificant quantities during this
period. Copetilla Unslipped is characterized by a well-smoothed and even on occasions
lightly washed surface with a colour range from dark gray, through buff and tan to pale
orange. In respect of surface smoothness it differs from subsequent unslipped types
that are rather rougher, but this is a fine distinction only made possible by the purity
of the Swasey deposits. Within this group is a pattern-burnished type originally named
Yotolin in deference to Brainerd's and Smith's work on the pottery of Mani (Brainerd
1958; Smith 1971: 22, 133), although this name may have to be revised. The basic
surface is similar to Copetilla Unslipped but with the addition of pattern-burnished
decoration in the form both of thin bands and rectangular areas of cross-hatching. The
decoration is kint, but when viewed in a strong cross light is strikingly similar to that
described and illustrated by Brainerd (Brainerd 1958: Fig. 30c, 1, 10, 13, 28, 30, 31,
34). It was this fact that prompted the original name. However, a personal inspection
of the Mani material (following a communication from Robertson-Freidel) indicates that
the paste and texture of the Mani material are very different from those at Cuello.
If pattern-burnishing is one means of decoration in the Swasey ceramic
complex, other decoration, on slipped pottery, is mostly limited to incising and
modelling. The former is by far the more common, occurring with both pre-slip groove-
and post-slip fine line-incisions. The groove-incising can be very faint and is found in
the Consejo, Ramgoat, Tiger and Stopper Groups with, in most cases, one or two lines
220
placed horizontally round the exterior just below the rim. Occasionally, groups of
diagonal, parallel lines are "framed" by the horizontal lines placed on the exterior both
near the rim and the base. The fine-line incising, which is found in the Consejo (one
sherd), Machaca, Tiger and Stopper Groups, is more varied and elaborate, particularly
in the Tiger Group. Crossed lines and cross-hatching are popular, though ticking,
parallel diagonal lines and triangles are also found. The cross-hatching is occasionally
associated with faint modelling apparently designed to give the appearance of facial
features (e.g., Pring 1976: Fig. Id, j, 1977: Figs. 25r, 26a). Individually, this impression
might be dismissed as fanciful but it occurs with too great consistency in a number of
Swasey groups together with more fully modelled figurines and even resist painting
designed to achieve the same effect (Hammond 1977c: Fig. 8).
In terms of shape, there is a fairly sharp distinction between those groups
apparently used mainly for utilitarian purposes (Copetilla and Chicago for example) and
those that are apparently rather finer such as Consejo, Ramgoat, Stopper and Machaca.
The Tiger group, interestingly, has shapes that fall within both categories. In the
"utilitarian groups" the jar form Is very common and distinctive with a low-to-medium-
high, flaring neck, thickened at the upper end with a square lip. Although this form
appears to overlap slightly, in a modified version, into the succeeding phase, it is
generally a diagnostic feature of the Swasey ceramic complex and one that could be spotted
with ease from mixed deposits in northern Belize. Frequently associated with this shape
is the "double- cylinder" handle which consists of two or occasionally more cylindrical
rolls of clay joined together in a vertical plane generally attached to the rim at the upper
end and pushed through or moulded onto the- shoulder of the vessel below (Pring 1976:
Fig. lh). Less common, but of considerable interest, is the bottle shape. The evidence
for this is based mainly on the thin, vertical or slightly tapered neck with Its exterior
folded rim. Prior to the 1979 season, the only suggestion as to what body shape accom-
panied the bottle neck was Brainerd's reconstructed shape based on material from Mani
(Brainerd 1958: Fig. 31c, 8, 23) with a pointed base and apparently sloping sides with a
medial angle of sorts. However, ia 1979 enough broken sherds were found in a level of
mixed Lopez and Swasey material to reconstruct an entire bottle with a globular body,
long, hollow, single foot and at the upper end, a narrow cylindrical opening tapering to a
rim diameter of 2-3 cms with a presumed exterior folded rim and pointed lip. The actual
rim is missing but there does not appear to be much doubt as to its actual shape. This
particular vessel occurred in mixed deposits and was placed within the Joventud Group
on the gounds of slip characteristics but sufficient bottle necks and monopods have been
found in unmixed Swasey deposits to Indicate that this shape was not uncommon at that
time. Other shapes include the tecomate (incurving-sided bowl with restricted orifice)
and a small number of dishes and bowls.
Among the finer pottery, the range of shape Is greater though the commonest
by far are the vertical- or slightly flaring-sided dishes and plates with direct rims, and
the incurved-recurved sided plates, again with a direct rim for the most part. Round-
or out-curving sided vessels are also found, together with tecomates, bottles and low-
necked jars. Appendages include monopods, strap handles, bosses and round-section
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spouts. One of the features of this pottery is that there tends to be minimal rim alter-
ation with generally round or square lips. Certainly, there is no suggestion, until very
late in the phase of the heavily bolstered or exterior-folded rims that are so typical of the
subsequent Preclassic ceramic complexes.
Looking at the Swasey pottery from a more general viewpoint, the most striking
feature is its sophistication. As far as we know at present this is the earliest Maya
pottery, yet it could never be compared with some of the other "earliest" ceramic
complexes either in Mesoamerica or northern South America. The fairly simple forms
and decoration of Pox, Purron, Valdivia I and even Barra are all wholly alien in
character from Swasey. Indeed, it is the opinion of the author that the pottery of this
period represents a high point in sophistication that is not again equalled until the Proto-
classic period. It Is interesting to note that Andrews IV (1968) expressed similar views
on the pottery of Phase I (now Nebanche Mamom) at Dizibilchaltun. It was, in his view,
"by far the best and the most aesthetically pleasing of any made at the site at any time. 1
For Swasey, a wide range of shapes, a sure control over firing and slipping, elegant and
occasionally complex decoration -- all suggest that the potters were no novices.
One of the more puzzling features of the Swasey phase was the apparent lack
of ceramic change. If our radiocarbon determinations are correct, then we are speaking
of a phase of over a thousand years, yet on the initial evidence It proved impossible to
find any satisfactory criteria on which to define any facets. However, work at Cuello has
already provided enough material to suggest that such a facet will be established, and it
may be possible to do this when the sherds from the excavation have been analysed in
depth. During the earlier part of the phase, we see Ramgoat Red, as the larger red-slipped
group, forms appear to be slightly simpler and, in the case of those diagnostic modes
such as jar necks and "double-cylinder handles, " are unmodified. Tiger Buff is more
important while Yotolin Pattern Burnished is confined to the earlier part. In the latter
part, Consejo Red grows in importance, and indeed, as mentioned above, may even
continue into the subsequent Middle Preclassic period.  Bichrome painting, especially
with Tower Hill Red-on-cream and Ossory Red-on-orange makes a late appearance and
likewise may continue even further. This is welcome news, for the presence of such a
long phase without any ceramic change would be hard to accept for many archaeologists.
Yet, it must be admitted that our concept of ceramic change and the speed at which it
operates may well be based on misleading premises. Thus it had been widely assumed
that the Mamom ceramic phase stretched from approximately 550 to 250 B. C. - a span
of only three hundred years. Yet these dates are by no means based on secure carbon
dating. If the Cuello dates are accepted in their entirety, the Lopez Mamom complex
may well range from 1050 B. C. to 250 B. C. - an 800 year stretch, with Cocos Chicanel
lasting a further 500 years. Seen In this light we have a picture of long early ceramic
complexes, gradually shortening and becoming more susceptible to ceramic change. If
this is the case then the length of the Swasey phase is not too disturbing.
One of the more critical factors in our argument concerns the link between
Swasey and Lopez Mamom. It should be stressed that this link and comparison is made
222
purely locally. I have elsewhere (Pring 1976, 1977) attempted to make comparisons with
other areas both in the Maya Lowlands and beyond. Here, however, I shall be referring
to the ceramics of northern Belize. It could be, and indeed has been argued that Swasey
is unrelated to the Mamom pottery of the Middle Preclassic period and thus that the
Swasey settlers were an isolated group that had little or no influence on subsequent events.
The stratigraphy at Cuello argues against this view, but it is the ceramic evidence that is
most compelling. First, however, we must establish the validity and unity of the Lopez
Mamom ceramic complex. At Cuello, where most of the deposits have been found, it
has proved possible to sort Lopez pottery from both earlier and later material on the
basis of shape and slip texture. This distinction is possible despite, or perhaps because
of, the fact that there have been no wholly pure deposits excavated at the site to-date.
In northern Belize, as elsewhere in the Maya Lowlands, redware is numerically dominant
among slipped pottery (an exception to this rule occurs at Barton Ramie in the Jenny
Creek complex where the Joventud group is overshadowed by other monochromes). In
terms of slip texture and colour it is similar to both Sierra Red of the Cocos complex
and Ramgoat Red of the Swasey. Yet, on both of these grounds there are distinctions
which are sufficient to warrant sorting of even undecorated body sherds. In view of the
opinion generally held among Mayan ceramicists that there is virtually no slip distinction
between Sierra and Joventud Red, this may be hard to accept. Nevertheless, such is
the case in northern Belize and other ceramicists who have observed the criteria for
sorting (Ball and Robertson-Freidel for example) are of the opinion that the distinctions
are genuine. Specifically, the slip of Joventud Red is more crackly, much more waxy
and of a more limited colour range than redware that either precedes or succeeds it.
Whilst this is most noticeable in the Joventud group, it is also found in all the other
slipped groups with the exception of Chicago Orange. Having established the integrity
of the Lopez Mamom ceramic complex we may more confidently discuss the latter's
relationship to Swasey. Perhaps the most obvious transition is between Ramgoat and
Joventud Red. Although, at each end of the scale, they are readily separable, there are
a number of sherds that are clearly transitional in terms of slip characteristics,, and
these are found in the upper Swasey levels. Equally apparent, the Chicago variety of
Chicago Orange is quite indistinguishable from the Warrie Camp variety except in vessel
shape. Of the Unslipped types, Copetilla Unslipped is hard to distinguish from its Lopez
counterpart. Distinctions are greater with buff and black wares as well as of course
with Consejo Red, but the very fact that red, buff and black are the predominant slip
colours, in that order, argues for continuity in the area. Of the Minor groups, Tower
Hill may well be a forerunner of Muxanal Red-on-cream; Lazaro variety found in Lopez
Mamom, while the concept of red-and-unslipped decoration continued with the Bobo
(Lopez) and the Puletan (Cocos) types. In terms of shape, we have already noted the
gradual changes in the jar neck and the "?double-cylinder" handle which persist into the
Middle Preclassic in modified form. Another survivor is the bottle shape which is
clearly present, though in smaller quantities, in Joventud Red. Tecomates continue
in use, while the incurved-recurved sided vessels develop into the cuspidor bowl forms
Strap handles persist and spouts are present with no great distinction. The sense of
continuity is less apparent in the vertical or slightly flaring-sided vessels which become
outcurving and frequently possess rim modifications that are quite extensive. The
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principal decorative mode in Lopez Mamom consists of pairs of grooved-incised lines
round the rim on both interior and exterior and down the side on the latter. This represents
less variety than is found in the Swasey complex but there are obvious similarities
between the two. To sum up, it is evident to this ceramicist at least and to others who
have seen a representative sample of the material, that Swasey and Lopez are quite
distinct from one another, but that the former is definitely ancestral to the latter.
Swasey is thus a genuine complex in its own right and also can lay claim to being the
earliest Maya ceramic complex yet known.
If the end of the period is clarified, and the middle satisfactorily described
as far as its ceramics are concerned, the origins are still clouded in doubt and uncer-
tainty. We have indicated that from the earliest levels, the pottery is sophisticated,
but if this is so we must seek a reason for its sudden appearance, ready-developed at
Cuello. My dissertation (Pring 1977: Chap. VIII) contains an extensive survey of other
ceramic complexes, undertaken with precisely this question in mind, but the results of
that survey were singularly unhelpful. The earliest ceramic complexes, from Tehuacan,
through Puerto Marquez, South Coast Guatemala and Chiapas, Honduras and Monagrillo
down to Puerto Hormiga and Valdivia and as far afield as Southeastern United States, all
appeared quite different to me, although it should be noted that Lathrap (personal com-
munication) did observe similarities with material that he had studied from Coastal
Equador. Certainly, if an origin outside the Yucatan Peninsula is to be found for the
Swasey pottery, then Northwestern South America would appear to be one of the more
likely areas. At the moment, however, in the absence of any evidence, an equally appealing
hypothesis is that the origins may well lie beneath the soil in the Maya Lowlands,
awaiting discovery. After all, if the presence of Swasey was totally unknown for so long
despite extensive work in the area then it is possible that other, earlier material remains
to be discovered. The evidence of the three very early radiocarbon dates from the 1976
excavation at Cuello (discussed below) suggests the possibility of this. Furthermore,
once the Swasey pottery had been discovered and defined, it quickly became apparent that
it was not confined to Cuello but was found elsewhere in northern Belize and even beyond.
There are definite traces of Swasey ceramics at Becan, for instance, and Ball is now of
the opinion that Acachen is not the earliest ceramic complex in Southeastern Campeche
"but that an earlier Swasey assemblage is waiting to be discovered" (Ball, personal
communication). One of the most obvious links, however, occurs at Mani where bottles
are found with similar neck forms and virtually indistinguishable pattern-burnishing even
down to individual patterns (Brainerd 1958: 37, Fig. 30c, 1-4). Brainerd's assessment
of this pottery as unique and very early has been challenged on numerous occasions but,
on the evidence from Cuello, it would appear to be a very accurate and far-sighted one.
Inspection of the Mani material in Merida suggests that it is cruder in texture and design
which in turn suggest that it may be ancestral to the slightly more sophisticated version
at Cuello. Certainly, if the Swasey ceramic complex is as early as we suggest, then
further excavation at Mani must be an urgent task to complement the data from northern
Belize.
Other links with Maya Lowland sites are more tenuous. At Dzibilchaltun, as
indeed at Tikal, Seibal and a number of other sites there appears to be a progression from
224
a relatively non-waxy pottery into the Waxier surface traditionally associated with the
Middle and Late Preclassic. We have already noted Andrews' comment on the sophistication
of the Nabanche pottery. From the Central Peten, neither Uaxactun nor Tikal have much
in common with Swasey and the same is true of Barton Ramie, despite the relative
geographical proximity and the possibility of a temporal overlap (discussed below). In the
Pasion zone, the Real Ceramic Complex at Seibal exhibits some similarities in the presence
of flat-based, flaring-sided dishes and plates with direct rims (e. g. , Sabloff 1975:
Figs. 31, 65). At Altar de Sacrificios, this shape is also present together with tecomates
and low- to medium-necked jars. In addition there are a number of sherds illustrated
that bear a marked resemblance to the Swasey pottery. In particular, the "double-cylindert
handle is present in both Achiotes Unslipped (Adams 1971: Fig. 2v, 3b, d) and Abelno
Red (Adams 1971: 3c). The blackware, incurving-sided bowl with impressed rows from
Baldizon Punctated (Adams 1971: Fig. In) is similar to a sherd from Tiger Buff (Pring
1977: Fig. 24b). Some of the faint pre-slip, horizontal incising found in Abelino Red,
Yaltata Orange and Pico de Oro Incised (Adams 1971: Figs. 4b, 5a, 7h respectively)
resembles that found, especially in Backlanding Incised and Calcutta Incised, while the
post-slip incision from Chompipi Incised is very close to Cowpen Incised: Cowpen
variety (Adams 1971: Fig. 71a-d; cf. Pring 1977: Fig. 26f). There are other examples
that could be cited and although they do not in any sense suggest that the complexes are
related, they do offer the possibility of shared modes and hence perhaps contact of an as
yet undefined nature3.
The evidence for the radiocarbon dating is impressive. It must be admitted,
as Culbert (personal communication) has pointed out, that all the dates come from one
site and, for the most part, from one platform. Until we obtain Swasey material from
other sites with roughly comparable dates, this fact will leave doubts in the minds of
some. In addition, there are several archaeologically unacceptable samples in the dates.
But there are few sites with a range of dates in which all are consistent and Cuello is
one of the most impressive yet known for the Preclassic period of any Maya site. Indeed,
the general paucity of radiocarbon dates for the Lowland Preclassic must be heavily
emphasised, for it underlines the rather tenuous grounds on which Preclassic Maya
chronology is based.
Thus, Sorensen (1977) lists 34 dates before Christ for the Maya Lowlands,
of which 21 come from one site (Tikal) and all but a handful are from the Late Preclassic.
Hence it will be apparent that a great deal of the dating for the Preclassic,
especially the earlier part of it, is based on conjecture allied to cross-referencing of
ceramic modes. The evidence from Cuello is of a vastly different nature. Hammond, In
conjunction with others, has recently published two articles (Hammond, Pring, et al.
1976; Hammond, Donaghey et al. 1977) in which he describes the dates available and
the means by which they were obtained and tested. We have 9 dates from the 1975
excavation and 18 from 1976. Three dates from the former were unacceptable - probably
through some undetected contamination before or during excavation. Of the remaining
24, one from 1976 came from a context later suspected of contamination while three
appear to be too early for their context and may be of redeposited material. The remaining
225
20 are consistent both stratigraphically and ceramically, providing us with an impressive
span of dates for the Preclassic. Twelve of these are association with the Swasey phase,
giving a central date range of 2050 - 1050 B. C. Four samples are from Lopez Mamom
contexts including one, the earliest, from a burial that is stratigraphcially transitional
between Swasey and Lopez. The central dates for these range from 1020 - 240 B. C.
The proximity of this starting date with the terminal Swasey date lends support to our
belief that the later phase did in fact start around 1000 B. C. However, the rather large
standard deviation of + 195 years for the latest Lopez date means that we cannot feel as
confident about its ending. Similarly, two samples from Cocos Chicanel levels gives
dates of 330 and 174 B. C. and whilst these are clearly within or around the accepted
Chicanel timespan, they do not help much to define that span. The dates then are most
useful for determining the extent of the Swasey phase. It is to be hoped that the radio-
carbon dates from the 1978-1979 excavations at Cuello will provide more chronological
information for the later Preclassic period. In particular we are uncertain of the interface
date for Lopez and Cocos. Nevertheless, the consistency and range of the dates give
chronological framework, where before archaeologists were largely leaping in the dark.
A case in point is Barton Ramie where in the 1950s a radiocarbon date was rejected as
too early even though it came from the earliest levels (Willey et al. 1965: 29). Yet a
more recent radiocarbon date from a similarly early cultural level excavated by the
Corozal Project produced a date of 1205 + 205 B. C. The three extremely early dates
from the 1976 excavation (2790, 3190 and 3190 B. C.) may be interpreted as redeposited
charcoal fragments from wood burnt either naturally or with human intervention. If the
latter, of course, then the presence of man in the area would be pushed back even further.
In the preceding pages I have attempted to define and defend stratigraphically,
chronologically and ceramically the evidence from Cuello as it relates especially to the
Swasey phase. There are still question marks about all three. Stratigraphically, the
case is the strongest, arguing for a lengthy period of Swasey occupation, followed by a
Lopez presence and subsequent Cocos construction. Chronologically, the fact that radio-
carbon samples are at present confined to one site is slightly disturbing, though the
excavation at Barton Ramie in 1976 appears to fall within the time scheme established at
Cuello. Although there may be some contamination of all Cuello dates this does not seem
very plausible - the samples were assayed at two laboratories with concurrent results.
Ceramically, the lack of change over a long period of time, the sophistication of the
earliest pottery, the absence of any recognizable antecedents and the apparent restrictions
to a relatively small area, all pose questions to which there are no simple answers.
Indeed, it is important to stress that the presence of the Swasey inhabitants presents
archaeologists with more problems than solutions. The greatest significance of the new
evidence is precisely that - that it upsets hypotheses that had, by virture of their un-
challenged use, come to be regarded as truths. To attempt to furnish answers on the
basis of the limited data available would be to fall into the same errors for which we
have criticised others. Nevertheless, some speculation is justified to indicate a direction
or directions which future research might take.
One of the more obvious problems facing the contributors to the recent
226
seminar on the origins of Maya civilization at Santa Fe was the ancestry of the earliest,
central-zone ceramic complexes. This problem has not been satisfactorily resolved.
Culbert speaks of "the lack of close relationships between early ceramic complexes in
the Southern Maya Lowlands" (Culbert 1977: 36) and Willey,, in his summary chapter,
states that "Pottery definitely identified to the Xe ceramic sphere has not yet been reported
elsewhere in the Maya Lowlands" (Willey 1977: 386). He then reiterates Culbert's
feelings and adds that the early facet of Jenny Creek falls into a similar position,
having slight resemblances to Xe., but nothing of any significance. It would be pleasant
and very tidy, if Swasey pottery provided the link between these disparate ceramic
complexes. However, the evidence at present does not warrant the acceptance of such
a hypothesis, though it does not altogether rule out the possibility. I have argued else-
where (Pring 1977: 443) that Lowe's ethnic-rivalry model (Lowe 1977: 197-248) is one of
the most plausible explanations for the earliest Maya presence in the central zone, ifve
set aside for the present the notion that there is further, unexcavated material of signi-
ficance there. Yet where he speaks of bands of "slightly desperate commoners" who
were outcasts from culturally superior people to the south and west, we would add that
the same may have been occurring at a similar or slightly different period from north
and east. There are some grounds for supposing that northern Yucatan, from northern
Belize across to Becan and for an undetermined distance north, may have been developing
as a regional entity even before the Middle Preclassic. Ball (1977: 103-104) hints at
some such regionalism, although not along those precise lines, during the Acanche and
Nabanche phases, but the presence of Swasey or Swasey-like pottery at both Becan and
Mani means that it may go back even further. Such a link would not be implausible,
particularly in view of the northern orientation of Cuello and surrounding sites as manifested
in the Lopez Mamom ceramics. Moreover,. the presence,, at Mani, of fairly coarse
pottery with decoration similar to that found in the earliest Swasey levels offers the hope
that further excavation at the former may provide some important information about the
latter's origins. The emphasis must now turn to excavation to provide more data on a
period about which we now know more only to find that in fact we appear to know less.
227
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