61
Lanning (1963) originally proposed the Cottonwood Series based on his
analysis.cf the projectile points from the Rose Spring Site. Two varieties of the projectile
point were recognized by Lanning: Triangular and Leaf-shaped. Heizer and Clewlow
(1968) later described a third bipointed variety. Hester and Heizer's compilation of radio-
carbon dates for Cottonwood Series points suggests a chronological range of ca. A. D. 900
to historic times. Dates reported by Fowler, et. al. (1973) of A.D. 1010 (RL-3:) and A.D.
900 (RL-37) from Conaway Shelter in Meadow Valley Wash to the east correspond with
the date from Civa II of A. D. 1085. Hester and Heizer (1973a) suggest that the Cottonwood
Series may have begun prior to the date of A. D. 1300 suggested originally by Lanning
(1963), and this would appear to be the case. Cottonwood Series points are commonly
found with Desert Side Notched and Rose Spring projectile points and this holds true for
Civa Shelter II.
The Rose Spring/Eastgate Series types were originally defined as separate
types (cf. Lanning 1963; Heizer and Baumhoff 1961), but since they usually occur in
association, many archaeologists suspect that they represent a continuum (cf. Heizer
and Baumhoff 1961; Hester and Heizer 1973a for a discussion). Hester and Heizer (1973a)
indicate that "both series experienced a major floruit.between A.D. 600-700 and A.D.
1100, with examples continuing to be used into historic times" (1973a: 8). Aikens (1970)
indicates a date of 2500 B. C. for the appearance of Rose Spring and Eastgate points in the
eastern Basin and Layton's (1970) obsidian hydration measurements on specimens from the
High Rock area suggest that the types may have been in use by 300 B. C. or earlier.
More reliable dates will be needed before the chronological range for this series can be
resolved.
Hester and Heizer's (1973a) compilation of C-14 dates suggests a time span
of ca. 2000 B. C. to A.D. 1080 for the Elko Series.  Aikens indicates a date of A.D.
1350 from Hogup Cave and questions the reliability of the Elko Series as time markers
(cf. Aikens 1970: 51) as they persist from ca. 6400 B. C. to A. D. 1350 at least in the
eastern basin. Although Hester and Heizer (1973a) suggest that recent dates from
O'Malley Shelter (Madsen 1971; Fowler, et. al. 1973) may be aberrant, they appear to
fit with the radiocarbon date for Civa Shelter II, where several Elko Series points were
found in association with the Desert Side Notched, Cottonwood and Rose Spring/Eastgate
Series.
The Humboldt Series was first defined by Heizer and Clewlow (1968).
recognized three types: (1) Concave Base A; (2) Concave Base B; and (3) Basal
Notched. The chronological range for this series appears to be somewhat uncertain. A
date of 4000 B. C. is known from Newark Cave [Map 5] (Fowler 1968b), and Hogup Cave
has yielded a range of ca. 5300 B. C. to 650 B. C. (Aikens 1970; Fry and Adovasio 1970).
Hanging Rock Shelter (Layton 1970: 249) yielded Humboldt Series points (A, B, Basal
Notched) and Layton indicates an early Anathermal to 3350 B. C. range. The Humboldt
Concave Base A type is believed to be equivalent in age to the Pinto Series by Thomas
(1971a: 91) from his work in the Reese River Valley. Roust and Clewlow (1968) have
speculated that the Humboldt Series continued throughout the Great Basin projectile point
62
sequence decreasing in size through time. Based on the above data, a chronological
range of 4000 B. C. to possibly A.D. 500/1000 is suggested. Additional dates are
obviously needed to determine a reliable temporal range for this series.
In brief, the recovered projectile points are indicative of the late chronological
sequence already established for the southeastern Great Basin in particular and the
Great Basin in general. The stratigraphic distribution of the points apparently indicates
the contemporaneity of the series described above. Utilizing these series in conjunction
with the ceramics and radiocarbon date, it is probable that the shelter was intermittently
used from ca. 800/900 to historic times.
Projectile Point Fragments (Table 5)
Ninety-six non-diagnostic projectile point fragments were recovered during
the excavations. Chert is the predominant raw material choice (90. 6%) with obsidian
following (9.4%). Distal fragments make up 60. 4% of this category (chert 75. 0%, obsidian
25. 0%) with medial sections (15. 6%), lateral fragments (17.7%) and proximal specimens
(6.3%) following (Table 5).
The majority of the fragments are pressure flaked and biconvex in cross
section. Several have a combination of pressure and percussion flaking present, and
several have plano-convex cross sections. Since the specimens are non-diagnostic (i. e.
cannot be identified as to a known type), no further analysis will be attempted. It should
be noted, however, that the fragments may be portions of previously noted projectile
point series.
Table 5
Category                  Chert                  Obsidian
Distal                     51                       7
Medial                     14                       1
Proximal                    5                       1
Lateral                    17
TOTAL                      87                       9
Bifaces
Bifaces have long been relagated to minor descriptions and analyses in the
majority of site reports for the Great Basin. There is thus a need for reasonably detailed
descriptions and attribute analyses for use in comparisons from region to region and
from site to site. In brief, some degree of 'standardization' in description is needed in
attempting to discover culturally meaningful distributions (e.g. projectile points, 'knives,'
blanks, preforms, etc.) in the large amorphous category referred to as 'bifaces. ' The
preliminary analysis presented below is an initial attempt to more fully describe and
understand this artifact class.
63
The chipped stone specimens assigned to this category are pieces that show
evidence of extensive bifacial flaking with at least one lateral edge capable of being
utilized for a cutting/scraping/sawing action. These artifacts are probably multi-
purpose in function and range in form from a crudely worked flake or blade to a carefully
flakes piece suitable for hafting. Projectile points, 'blanks,,' and preforms are not
included in this category and are discussed elsewhere.
The various biface forms are separated into distinct types based primarily
on the overall gross morphology of the specimens. These are pictured in Fig. 16 (after
Kleindienst 1962). These categorizations are in a sense qualitative judgements and
represent a single attribute simplistic typological differentiation, Unfortunately, the
number of complete or 'typable' specimens precludes a multi-attribute quantitative
approach to my categorization of the bifaces from the Garden/Coal Valley region. It is
hoped that future excavation and further surface reconnaissance will increase the
available sample of 'bifaces' from this region.
Nineteen typable specimens were recovered from Civa Shelter II and have
been separated into 10 types/subtypes. Chert is the primary raw material choice (89%),
no doubt due to its availability in the near vicinity, with only one specimen each of
basalt and rhyolite. Cross sections range from biconvex (16) to biplano (2) to plano-
convex (1). Morphologically the specimens range from ovate to limande in form (Table
6, Fig. 16). Percussion flaking is dominant although some pressure flaking is present
on certain specimens. The edges of many of the specimens show evidence of minor
crushing, nibbling and polish. No edge wear analysis was conducted, although such a
study would definitely be of some value in determining the function of these 'bifaces' and
aid in a comparative study of the O'Malley Shelter material (cf. Fowler, et. al. 1973).
The classification presented below, although in no way definitive because of the
bias inherent in the sample size, is based on a variety of attributes, including a consider-
ation of morphology, measurements and edge angle determinations. The specimens
utilized were either complete or nearly complete. No proximal, medial, lateral or distal
fragments were included, although the data obtained from the analysis of these numerous
pieces is included in the Biface Fragment section following.
Type I - Ovate (Table 7, Fig. 23 a-b).
Specimens: Complete (2)
Material: Chert (2)
Description: These specimens are ovate in form (Fig. 24) with convex bases. The
lateral edges are convex and converge to form a blunt point at the distal end. The cross
sections are biconvex.
Measurements: Length: 47.3 - 48.0 mm         Thickness: 4.9 - 13.0 mm
Width:  30.3 - 32.1 mm         Edge Angle: 320 - 400
64
Table 6
Biface Types
Type I - Ovate
I-
Ia -
lb -
Ic -
Id -
Ovate
Pointed Ovate
Long Ovate
Broad Ovate
Asymmetrical Ovate
Type II - Lanceolate
II -      Narrow Lanceolate
Ha -      Elongate Lanceolate
IIb -     Lanceolate
Type III - Triangular
III -
Ea -
iirb -
iic -
Large Elongate Triangular
Elongate Triangular
Triangular
Large Triangular
Crude Bifaces - Not illustrated
Type IV - Subtriangular
IV -
IVa -
Subtriangular
Large Subtriangular
Type V - Limande
Va -
Vb -
Large crudely trimmed flakes with
minimal evidence of bifacial flaking.
Forms range from triangular ovate
to elongate ovate. "Possibly
biface blanks.'"
Elongate Limande
Limande
Asymmetrical Limande
Type VI - Unidentified - Type I
VI -
Square base, parallel sides
Type VII - Bi-Point
VII -     Bi-point
65
BIFACE TYPES
TYPE I - OVATE
I
Ia
Id
TYPE II - LANCEOLATE
II
Ib
C
Ic
Id
IIb
Ha
TYPES III & IV - TRIANGULAR
III
IIIb
IV
TYPE V - LIMANDE
V
0
Va.
Vb
TYPE VII -
VI
Figure 16
BI -POINIT
Q
TYPE VI
66
Type Ia - Pointed Ovate (Table 7)
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chert (1)
Description: This is similar to Type I except that the lateral edges converge to a distinct
point at the distal end. The cross section is biconvex.
Measurements:    Length:  40.2 mm              Thickness:  5.0 mm
Width:   28.9 mm              Edge Angle: 300 - 330
Type lb - Long Ovate (Table 7, Fig. 23c-i).
Specimens: Complete (2)   Incomplete (3)
Material: Chert (4)  Basalt (1)
Description: These specimens are slightly elongate versions of the Type I bifaces. The
lateral edges are moderately convex to straight with the bases slightly convex. Cross
sections range from plano-convex (1) to biconvex (4).
Measurements:    Length:  40.0 -43.5 mm        Thickness:  4.5 - 6.0 mm
Width:   24.2 - 26. 5 mm      Edge Angle: 340 - 370
Type Ic - Broad Ovate (Table 7, Fig. 24a).
Specimens: Complete (2)
Material: Chert (2)
Description: This category is similar to Type I except that the specimens are more 'squat'
or circular in form. Cross sections are biconvex.
Measurements:    Length:  40.0 - 42.0 mm       Thickness:  10.0 - 13.0 mm
Width:   32.0-39.7 mm         Edge Angle: 370 -390
Type II - Narrow Lanceolate (Table 7).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chert (1)
Description: This category is narrow lanceolate in outline with a slightly convex base.
The lateral edges are straight to slightly converging. Small serrations are present on
the butt of this specimen.
Measurements:    Length:  122. 5 mm            Thickness:  7.3 mm
Width:   32.2 mm              Edge Angle: 320
Type III - Large Elongate Triangular (Table 7, Fig. 23j-1).
Specimens: Complete (3)
Material: Chert (3)
Description: These specimens are elongate triangular in outline with straight to very
slightly convex sides. The bases range from straight to convex to slightly concave.
Maximum width position is at the base. Cross sections are biplano (1) and biconvex (2).
67
Judging from the excellent degree of finish and thinning, it is conceivable that the
specimens could be considered as 'generalized' preforms.
Measurements:    Length:  68.0 - 84.0 mm      Thickness:  5.0 - 7.0 mm
Width:   28.0 - 38.0 mm      Edge Angle: 310 - 420
Type 11Tb - Triangular (Table 7, Fig. 24b).
Specimens: Incomplete (1)
Material: Chert (1)
Description: This specimen is triangular in outline with straight lateral edges. The
cross section is biconvex and the greatest width position is at the base.
Measurements:    Length:  -           Thickness:   5.0 mm
Width:   29.1 mm      Edge Angle:  330 - 360
Type mc - Large Triangular (Table 7, Fig. 24c).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chert (1)
Description: This specimen is similar to Type 11Tb except that it is much larger. One
lateral edge is straight and the other slightly convex. The base is straight with slightly
rounded corners present at the intersection of the lateral edges and base. The lateral
edges do not converge to a point, but to a deliberately worked 'flat' tip, giving the
specimen technically a 'rhomboid' shape rather than a strictly triangular one. Alkali
deposit is cemented to the piece at several points on its surface, giving it an appearance
similar to specimens collected from Coal Valley Dry Lake. It is suggested that this
specimen may have been recovered from the dry lake and roused at Civa II as this is the
only artifact recovered from the site with this distinctive deposit adhering to it.
Measurements:    Length:  62.3 mm             Thickness: 4.5 mm
Width:   41.2 mm             Edge Angle: 230 - 270
Type V - Elongate Limande (Table 7, Fig. 24d).
Specimens: Incomplete (1)
Material: Chert (1)
Description: This specimen is elongate limande in form. Both lateral edges as well as
the base are straight. The cross section is biconvex.
Measurements:    Length:  -           Th      Thickness: 8.1 mm
Width:   26.5 mm             Edge Angle: 320 - 370
Crude Bifaces (Table 7).
Specimens: Complete (2)
Material: Chert (2)
Description: These are crudely flaked chert cobbles with convex lateral edges and
convex bases. The lateral edges converge to a point at the distal ends. Both specimens
68
are made by hard hammer percussion. The cross sections are biconvex.
Measurements:    Length:  72.0 - 76.0 mm      Thickness:  24.0 -26.8 mm
Width:   42.5 - 46.3 mm      Edge Angle: -
Discussion
The low number of complete specimens recovered (19) compared to the
large number of biface fragments apparently indicates an extremely high breakage rate,
quite possibly during use (highly probable) or manufacture. The typable bifaces are
similar to those from the Coal Valley Dry Lake localities (cf. Chapter V), Slivovitz
Shelter (Chapter VI) and the surface collections in the study area. These artifacts
quite probably represent cutting, scraping or sawing tools.
Edge angles range from 230 to 420 with a mean of 370 for 32 determinations
(Table 7). The angles in this range are steep enough to hold an edge yet are low
enough for a reasonably sharp cutting edge (cf. Semenov 1964).
Biface Fragments (Fig. 24e-g).
One hundred and twenty-nine non-diagnostic biface fragments were recovered
from the deposits. Chert is the predominant raw material choice (86.0%) with obsidian
following (14.0%). Distal fragments make up 33.3% of this category (chert 83. 7%,
obsidian 16. 3%) with medial sections (13. 7%), lateral fragments (17. 0%) and proximal
specimens (36.4%) following (Table 8).
The majority of the fragments are percussion flaked and biconvex or plano-
convex in cross section. Several specimens have a combination of pressure and
percussion flaking present. Since the specimens are non-diagnostic (i. e. cannot be
classified into the regional typology), no future attribute analysis will be attempted.
Discussion/Comments
The large number of distal and proximal fragments with snap fractures
(cf. Crabtree 1972) present suggests that repair/maintenance activities were conducted
at the shelter along with the manufacture/finishing of the bifaces. The regional
preference for chert is clearly confirmed in the large number of chert bifaces present.
From inspection, the majority of the specimens fall into a less than 10 cm in length
category.
Artifacts
The excavated deposits of Civa II yielded a total of 237 artifacts, including
chipped and ground stone implements, worked bone and shell and perishable materials
such as leather scraps and basketry fragments. Projectile points, bifaces and ceramics
are not included inthe above total and have been discussed previously.
69
For ease of presentation and discussion the artifacts have been categorized
into a descriptive typology or referenced to previous typologies relevant to the area.
The prime purpose of this typology is the analysis of the chipped stone artifacts with
respect to certain recognized 'stages' of manufacture along the lines suggested by Muto's
blank-preform-product continuum (Mutol971a, 1971b) and the recognition of the method
of retouch employed in the manufacture of these stone tools as outlined by Crabtree (1972).
All of the chipped stone artifacts were analyzed for the following traits or characteristics.
1.    The stage of manufacture as evidenced by the type of
flake utilized (e. g. primary cortex (Hester 1971; Shafer
1969); secondary cortex (Hester 1971; Shafer 1969);
interior flakes (Hester 1971; Shafer 1969); and biface
thinning flakes (Epstein 1969)).
2.    The placement of retouch present - e.g. end, side, lateral
edge.
3.    The type of retouch (unifacial, bifacial) and the
technological method (or process) employed in retouch
(hard hammer, soft hammer percussion flaking, pressure
flaking, notching, denticulation, abrasion and so on.
The secondary purpose of the typology is to present the usual metric
attributes, raw material types and to measure (where appropriate) working edge angles
or other relevant characteristics. It is hoped that a detailed typology of this type will
aid in the comparison of other materials from sites both in and outside of the study area.
Drills/Perforators
Eight specimens (5 complete, 3 fragmentary) comprise this category assumed
to have been used in drilling and perforating activities. The finished drills fall into 5
distinct types. Six specimens are made on chert, one on obsidian and one on basalt.
Type I
This drill has been produced by the reworking of an Eastgate Series projectile
point and is similar to the reworked Parowan Basal-Notched Type I drills described by
Marwitt (1970: 74). The specimen is of chert and has one ear snapped off. Its length is
3. 0 cm. N10E0, sidewall.
Type 2 (Fig. 22e).
One complete chert specimen comprises this category. It is similar to
Marwitt's (1970: 79) Type 2 with a long thin cylindrical bit and a short wide flaring base.
Its length is 4.3 cm; widest bit width 0. 95 cm; narrowest bit width 0. 5 cm and base
width3.2 cm. N6E2, 20 cm.
70
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71
Type 3 (Fig. 24h-i).
One nearly complete chert specimen with a damaged base and two fragmentary
specimens, both bases (obsidian and chert) comprise this type. All have almost rectan-
gular to slightly elliptical bases from which a long slender drill bit gradually tapers.
One of the broken bases appears to have had a rather slender long bit, while the other has
a rather short thin one. The complete specimen's length is 3. 5 cm, width of base 1. 3 cm,
width of bit taper 0.75 - 0.20 cm. Base widths on the non-complete specimens range from
1.65 - 1.70 cm. N6EO, 40-50 cm; N8EO, 0 - 10 cm; N1OEO, 40 - 50 cm.
Type 4 (Fig. 24k).
This complete chert specimen is pointed ovate in outline. Dulling and slight
crushing are present on the tip. Its length is 3.8 cm, and has a width of 2.4 cm.
Provenience unknown.
Type 5 (Fig. 22f).
One complete basalt specimen comprises this type. It has a moderately
elongate rectangular base from which the long slender drill bit gradually tapers. A slight
shoulder is present on one side of the bit. This drill was made on an interior flake and
the striking platform is still present on the base. Its length is 4. 8 cm, width (base)
1.5 cm, width (bit) 0.8 - 0.3 cm and thickness 0.6 cm. N8EO, 50 - 60 cm.
Unclassifiable Drill/Perforator Fragments (Fig. 24j).
One moderately long chert tapering drill bit fragment was recovered from
N8E0, 65 cm. A snap fracture is present at the base and it is probable that the specimen
broke during use. N8EO, 65 cm.
Scrapers
Unifacial Side Scraper (Fig. 19q).
This is a chert flake with steep unifacial pressure retouch extending along the
entire length of one lateral edge parallel to the striking platform. Unifacial nibbling and
minor areas of retouch are present at other points on the circumference of the specimen.
Length is 46. 5 mm, width 31. 5 mm and thickness 6. 5 mm. Provenience is N6E2 - 74 cm.
Choppers
Light Duty Choppers (Table 8).
-_ These five specimens are manufactured on either small side struck split
rounded cobbles or on tabular fragments. Modification has been by either slight unifacial
72
percussion flaking or by bifacial percussion flaking. The working edges show edge
battering or small flake removals.
Table 8
UCLMA#           L        W           T          Raw Material  Provenience
2-59704        83. 5 cm  59.0 cm    20.0 cm      Limestone     N8W2 - 50 cm
2-59913        75.5 cm  58.1 cm     28. 5 cm     Chert         N1OW2 - 25 cm
2-60270        65.0 cm  48.0 cm     17.1 cm      Limestone     N1OW2-50-60 cm
2-60351        58.9 cm  51.0 cm     27.8 cm      Chert         N6E2-50-60 cm
2-61524        74.0 cm  61.1 cm     26.0 cm      Rhyolite      N8W2 -40-50 cm
Retouched Flakes
Unifacially Retouched Flakes (Table 9).
The five specimens assigned to this category are flakes or flake fragments
with deliverate unifacial pressure or percussion retouch present at one or more points
on the lateral edges (cf. Edge Damage for a discussion of 'edge damaged' flakes). Two
flakes are chert, one silicified rhyolite, one obsidian and one is basalt. Four are interior
flakes and one is a primary cortex flake. One specimen has a serrated edge present on
the end opposite the striking platform.
Bifacially Retouched Flakes
The three specimens in this category have bifacial retouch present at one or
more points on the lateral edges. Two flakes are obsidian interior flakes and the other
is a chert interior flake. N6E2, 80 cm; N1OW2, 30-40, 40-50 cm.
Naturally Backed Unifacially Retouched Flakes (Fig. 22).
Two specimens are included in this category. One is a chert interior flake
with one unifacially pressure flaked lateral edge and a natural backing on the opposite
edge. Its length is 42. 5 mm, width 24. 0 mm and a thickness of 8. 0 mm. The other
specimen is an obsidian secondary cortex trim flake with a unifacial pressure retouch
along 80% of a lateral edge. The lateral edge opposite to the retouched portion of the
specimen has cortex present forming a naturally backed edge. Its length is 38. 0 mm and
it has a width of 20.0 mm. N8EO, 20-30 cm; N8E2, 30-40 cm.
Discussion
All of the above specimens were probably used in a cutting/slicing/ scraping
action.
73
Table 9
Category                        Provenience
Unifacially                     N6EO - 40-50 cm
Retouched                       N6E2 - 60-70 cm
N6W2 - Surface
N1OW2 - 33 cm
N12W2 - 32 cm
Cores
Seven cores were recovered from the deposits at Civa II. The terminology
used in the descriptive section below follows Shafer (1969).
Double Platform Bidirectional
This core is a small chunk of chert from which 3 small (less than 20. 0 mm)
flakes have been detached from one edge and another 3 small flakes have been removed
from the opposite edge. Extensive nibbling and crushing is present on one edge opposite
a natural ledge and it is probable that his core served as a cutting/scraping tool after
being discarded. Length is 53. 0 mm, width 33. 5 mm and thickness 22. 0 mm. Provenience
is N8E0, 60 cm.
Double Platform Unidirectional
This is a small chunk of chert with two striking platforms from which usable
flakes have been struck on only one face. Light to moderate battering is present at several
points on the circumference, indicating possible utilization as a tool after discardal.
Length is 68. 0 mm, width 61. 0 mm and thickness 36.1 mm. Provenience is N6EO, 50-
60 cm.
Exhausted Cores
Five specimens comprise this category. These can be described as the nuclei
of cores, that is, the amorphous chunks of raw material which are a residual by-product
of flaking cores. Presumably these cores were too small for further flaking and were
discarded. Lengths range from 37.5 - 55.5 mm, width from 35.1 - 67.5 mm and thickness
from 16. 9 - 24.1 mm. All specimens were recovered from the first 40 cm of the deposit.
Discussion
The paucity of cores coupled with the analysis of the lithic debitage appears to
lend support to the hypothesis that manufacturing was primarily confined to secondary and
tertiary processing, rather than with primary processing, i. e. the manufacture of flakes
for further modification.
74
Raw Material
Three angular chert chunks and/or nodules with several negative flake scars
present on each were recovered from Civa TI. These range in length from 8. 0 - 15. 0 cm
and are 4.0 - 8.0 cm thick. The weights range from 500.0 to 4000.0 grams. Since
chert materials of this type do not occur in the immediate vicinity of the site, these
specimens were probably brought into the shelter for use as a source of raw material in
the manufacture of various tools. Proveniences are N1OW2, 29 cm, NOEO, 39 cm and
N6EO, 24 cm.
Edge Damaged/Utilized Flakes
Twenty-seven complete flakes or flake fragments comprise this category. All
have various degrees of edge damage and/or light pressure retouch/unifacial nibbling
present on the lateral edges. Ten are on obsidian flakes, 2 on basalt, 13 are chert and
one is rhyolite. Twenty-one are interior flakes, 2 are secondary cortex flakes and 4 are
primary cortex flakes. Several specimens have dorsal trim scars present. The flakes
range in length from 1. 4 to 8. 8 cm; in width from 1. 0 to 7. 5 cm; and in thickness from
0.25 to 2.6 cm. Weights range from 0.3 to 20.3 grams. The specimens were recovered
from throughout the deposit.
Discussion
Edge damaged flakes have often been confused with a category of unmodified
flakes described as 'utilized, ' by which is meant flakes which have no formal retouch
present but which have been or may have been utilized in some task. The category described
here consists of various types of flakes with slightly damaged edges or flakes which
exhibit more prominent patterns of use-modification or use wear (crushing, nibbling,
retouch) present on the lateral edges as noted by visual inspection or low power magnifi-
cation (cf. Semenov 1964; Keeley 1974; Tringham, et. al. 1974). Their function is
uncertain but they may have been casually used for cutting and scraping purposes. Hester
and Heizer's (1973b) extensive bibliography on experimental archaeology and lithic technology
cites numerous studies dealing with the function of chipped stone tools through wear pattern
analysis and numerous additional studies have appeared in the literature since its publication.
Studies of this type have enhanced the ability of archaeologists to determine the function of
many morphologically amorphous stone artifacts. However, there is still much confusion
with the proper identification of culturally 'utilized' flakes and their separation from edge
damaged flakes. Keller (1966) has demonstrated the extent to which natural processes can
produce spurious artifacts, e.g. edge damaged flakes mistaken for culturally utilized flakes,
while Wylie (1975) cautions against improper laboratory techniques (e.g. washing, loose
tray storage of artifacts, improper handling - "bag clatter"), producing spurious edge
damage interpretations on specimens. The results of a recent deer butchering experiment
(Hester, Spencer, Busby and Bard 1976) are directly relevant to this problem. The
obsidian flakes used in this experiment showed little evidence of 'utilization' as determined
by edge wear analysis if the tool did not come into repeated contact with the bone. Thus,
75
it would appear that, of the flakes recovered from archaeological contexts, exhibiting
little to no use-wear ('utilization') or edge damage, either may never have been used
for any purpose, or may have served as convenient cutting, slicing and scraping tools
while moderately edge damaged flakes may only be the result of the natural factors
discussed by Keller (1966) rather than cultural factors.
Therefore, this category is included for information only and will not be
considered as a formal artifact category in the sense of deliverate manufacture and
use, although they may have been deliberately manufactured for some purpose. More
research on 'utilized' or edge damaged flakes (the term I prefer to use) would seem to be
in order to determine if cultural or natural factors can account for the patterns of
'wear' or 'damage' seen on many otherwise deliberately unmodified flakes.
Lithic Debitage (Table 10)
An analysis of the lithic debitage recovered from Civa II was carried out
in order to determine the nature and characteristics of manufacturing and maintenance
activities present at the site. All the debitage from each unit was segregated according
to raw material type (chert, obsidian, rhyolite/basalt) and debitage category (whole
flakes - striking platform present, body at least 90% complete; partial flakes - striking
platform absent; and angular waste). No natural or cultural stratigraphic analysis was
attempted but the number and weight percentages of total debitage per level was plotted
to see if any pattern of site use could be determined. 1
Chert is the dominant raw material 1f the 12,365 pieces of recovered
debitage. Chert made up 72. 0% of the total number and 62.4% by weight. Overall the
amount of chert debitage ranges from 51. 6% to 81. 2% in number by unit and from 45. 0%
to 81.4% in weight by unit. Obsidian is a poor second (number 22. 8%, weight 13. 9%)
with basalt/other (number 5. 2%, weight 23. 7%) following. Undoubtedly the preference
for chert is no doubt due to its easy availability in the alluvial fans present in the
Garden and Coal Valley area.
In terms of debitage concentration, the analysis appears to indicate a
concentration of material from ca. 20-30 cm to 70 cm. This appears to be in general
agreement with the other date (e.g. pottery, biface fragments, projectile points),
inferring either 'intensive' or more frequent use in the middle and lower portions of
the site. 2
An examination of the whole and partial flakes indicates a very high percentage
of interior and biface thinning flakes with only a few primary and secondary cortex
flakes present. (Definitions of the flake categories in general follow Epstein 1969;
Shafer 1969 and Hester 1971). This would appear to suggest that the primary stage of
lithic manufacture (e. g. decortification of the raw material, especially chert nodules)
was carried out at some location other than the shelter. A surface reconnaissance
carried out in the immediate vicinity of the site failed to yield any primary processing
area or quarry.
CONTRIBUTIONS
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH FACILITY
August 1979
THE PREHISTORY AND HUMAN ECOLOGY
OF GARDEN AND COAL VALLEYS:
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE PREHISTORY
OF SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH FACILITY
Department of Anthropology
University of California
Berkeley
Number 39
CONTRIBUTIONS
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
ARCHAEOLOGICAL 1ESEARCH FACILITY
Number 39
August 1979
THE PREHISTORY AND HUMAN ECOLOGY OF GARDEN AND COAL VALLEYS:
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE PREHISTORY OF SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA
Colin I. Busby
Archaeological Research Facility
Department of Anthropology
University of California
Berkeley
Table of Contents
Preface
List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter I - Introduction
Introduction
Theoretical and Empirical Goals of Research
Chapter II - Natural Setting
Geology and Geomorphology
Quinn Canyon and Grant Ranges
Worthington Mountains
Garden Valley
Golden Gate Range
Coal Valley and Coal Valley Dry Lake
Seaman Range
Modern Climate
Vegetation and Wildlife
Basin Floor/Playa Zone
Upper Bajada Zone
Lower Slope Zone
Summit/Crest Zone
Fauna
Holocene Environmental Change
Recent Ecological Changes in the Area
Summary
Chapter III - Ethnographic, Archaeological and Historical Overview
Introduction
The Ethnographic Record
Archaeology
History
Chapter IV - Civa Shelter II
Introduction
Excavation Strategy
The Deposits - General
Stratigraphic Unit Description
Firehearths
i
ii
iv
1
3
7
7
8
9
10
10
10
10
11
12
12
13
14
14
15
17
18
21
21
23
38
41
41
45
45
49
0 * * * * * * * 0
* * * * * * * * 0
* * * *     * *   * * 0
Chapter IV - Civa Shelter II (continued)
Radiocarbon Dates
Ceramics/Ceramic Artifacts
Projectile Points/Projectile Point Fragments
Bifaces/Biface Fragments
Artifacts
Drills/Perforators
Scrapers
Choppers
Retouched Flakes
Cores
Raw Material
Edge Damaged/Utilized Flakes
Lithic Debitage
Manos
Metates
Pestles
Battered Stones
Ochre/Pigment Stones
Tabular Fragments
Bone Awls
Bone Flaking Tools
Bone Beads
Incised Bone
Worked/Utilized Bone
Bone Pendant
Tubular Bones or Bone Beads
Gaming Counters
Shell Artifacts
Perishables
Historical Artifacts
Human Skeletal Material
Faunal Remains
Summary/Interpretations
Chapter V - Coal Valley Dry Lake Sites
Introduction
Collection Strategy
Pottery /Ceramic Artifacts
Projectile Points/Projectile Point Fragments/Preforms
Bifaces
Scrapers
Composite Tools
51
51
54
62
68
69
71
71
72
73
74
74
75
76
77
79
79
80
80
80
81
81
82
82
82
83
84
84
85
85
85
85
86
101
102
103
104
113
119
- 120
* * * * * * * * A
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * A * A
* * * * * * * a A
********0  0
* * * * * * * a A
* * * * * * * a A
Chapter V - Coal Valley Dry Lake Sites (continued)
Miscellaneous Chipped Stone Artifacts                    .  *                 121
Ground Stone                                               . . . .  .         121
Metates                                    . ......... 121
Manos                                                      .......A.          122
Atlatl Weight                                              .   .  .  .   a    122
Edge Damaged/Utilized Flakes                               .                  122
Cores                                                      .                  123
Lithic Debitage                                            .                  123
Radiocarbon Dates                                          . . . . . .  .     124
Summary/Interpretations                                    .   ....           124
Chapter VI - Slivovitz Shelter
Introduction                                 . .                              137
Excavation Strategy                             . .                           137
The Deposits - General                                     0 0 .  .  .  .  .   138
Stratigraphic Unit Descriptions                       .      ........ 140
Firehearths                                 ... ......... 140
Ceramics/Ceramic Artifacts                           .       .                143
Projectile Points/Projectile Point Fragments                . .               145
Bifaces/Biface Fragments                           . .                        152
Drills/Perforators                              . .                           154
Scrapers                                   . .                                155
Choppers                                   . . . . . . .                      155
Retouched Flakes                               . . . . . . .                   157
Edge Damaged/Utilized Flakes                               0 .  . . . . .     157
Exhausted Cores                                . .            .   . & .       157
Raw Material                                 . .                               157
Lithic Debitage                               . . . . . . .                   158
Ochre                                                      a .                 159
Metates/Fragments                               . .                            159
Manos                                     . .                                  160
Battered Stone                                . . . . . . .                    160
Pestles                                    . ... 160
Grinding/Pigment Slabs                            . .                          161
Bone Awls                                   . ......... 162
Ochre Stained Bones                              . .                           163
Tubular Bones or Bone Beads                                . . . . . a....     164
Bone Beads                                   .              a                 164
Bone Flaker                                  .              *                 164
Worked/Utilized Bone                              .. ..... 164
Gaming Counter                                 . .                             165
Shell Beads                                  . .                              165
Faunal Analysis                                            . . .    . .       165
Summary/Interpretations                            ..... ......... 165
Chapter VT - Avoc ido Shelter
Introduction                                . .                               175
Excavation Strategy                             . .                           175
The Deposits                                 . .                              175
Ceramics                                   . .                                176
Projectile Points                              . .                            177
Bifaces                                   . . . . . . . . .                   177
Miscellaneous Chipped Stone Artifacts                   . .                   179
Retouched Flakes                               ......... .........179
Lithic Debitage                               . . .            a .  O         179
Miscellaneous Ground Stone Artifacts                    . .                   170
Bone Awls                                                 . . . . . . . .     180
Faunal Analysis                                           a .                 180
Summary/Conclusions                              . .                          181
Chapter VIII - Site Survey - Garden and Coal Valleys
Introduction                                . .                               185
Methodology                                 . . . . . . . . . .               185
Archaeological Site Types                          . .                        186
Procedure                                  . . . . . . . . .                  187
Results                                   . .                                 188
Interpretations/Conclusions                         .       .                 193
Chapter IX - Summary/Interpretations
. .. *  0 0  0  0 0  0197
References Cited                                           0 . .              201
Appendix I
Sediment Analysis of Civa II and Slivovitz Rockshelters,
by J. Sandor                                                   223
Appendix II
An Analysis of the Fauna From Civa Shelter II, Lincoln County,
Nevada, by
by L. D. Northey                           O . . . . . .       233
Appendix III
Analysis of Two Faunal Assemblages: Slivovitz Rockshelter
and Avocado Rockshelter,
by L. S. Kobori                            a .........         245
Preface
This monograph represents a slightly revised version of a doctoral disser-
tation submitted to the Graduate Division at the University of California, Berkeley in
1978.
The archaeological investigations in Garden and Coal Valleys were sponsored
by the Archaeological Research Facility and the Department of Anthropology, University
of California, Berkeley.
Numerous people contributed their support and special knowledge to the
project and helped make it a success. To those who I have not mentioned below, I offer
my apologies and sincere thanks.
I am indebted to the various individuals who served as field crew and
laboratory assistants and made the project possible by their capable labor. This project
would not have been completed without their enthusiastic and whole hearted support.
Ms. Pamels Endweig deserved special recongition for her excellent artifact illustrations
which appear in the report.
Special notes of thanks are due to numerous professional colleagues, fellow
graduate students, government personnel, the staff of the R. H. Lowie Museum of
Anthropology and field camp visitors who were most helpful for their advice, assistance
and loan of necessary field equipment. Michael and Barbara Heizer of Hiko, Nevada,
deserve special recognition for their generous hospitality during the three seasons of
field work.
To the members of my dissertation committee, Professors Robert F.
Heizer, A. Roger Byrne and John A. Graham, I express my appreciation of their aid
and guidance. I am especially indebted to Dr. Heizer for his encouragement, comments
and ever helpful advice.
The archaeological investigations were supported by subventions from the
Frazier Fund for Great Basin Research and by a special subvention from the R. H. Lowie
Graduate Scholarship Fund, Department of Anthropology, University of California,
Berkeley. Partial financial support during the time this study was in preparation was
provided by a Graduate Dean's Fellowship, University of California, Berkeley, and I
extend my special thanks to Dean Sanford Elberg.
Berkeley, 1979
i
List of Figures
1.   Outline Map of Great Basin with Study Area Defined    .......        4
2.   Topographic Map of Study Area with Site Locations     & ...............  5
3.   Typical View of Area - Cherry Creek/Golden Gate Range .................. 19
4.   View from Civa Shelter I (26-Ny-264) of Coal Valley/Golden Gate Range .  19
5.   Study/Reconnaissance Areas of Fowler, Madsen and Hattori (1973) ... .  19
6.   Archaeological Overview Site Location Map            . . .  .  .  . .  37
7.   Plan View of Civa Shelter II                          .             42
8.   Artist's View of Civa Shelter II Formation            .................. 42
9.   View of Civa Shelter II Opening and Apron             .................. 43
10.  View from Civa Shelter II of Garden Valley Area and Open Area in Front
of the Shelter                                  .             43
11.  View of Civa Shelter II Apron and Excavations, 1976   .              44
12a. Civa Shelter II - North Wall Profile, N8E0          .    ......... 47
12b. Civa Shelter II - East Wall Profile, N6E0           .    ......... 47
13a. Civa Shelter II - East Wall Profile              .      .            48
13b. Civa Shelter II - North Wall Profile, N8E2           . .            48
14.  Civa Shelter II - East Wall Profile, N1E0 .E.......                 50
15.  View of Hearth in Unit N8E2, Civa Shelter TII         ........       44
16.  Biface Types                                          .              65
17.  Civa Shelter II - Desert Side Notched/Cottonwood Series Projectile Points  90
18.  Civa Shelter II - Rose Spring Corner Notched Projectile Points/Cottonwood
Series Points/Ceramic Artifacts                               91
19.  Civa Shelter II - Desert Side Notched/Elko Corner Notched/Elko Eared
Projectile Points/Side Scraper                                92
20.  Civa Shelter II - Cottonwood/Rose Spring Contracting Stem/Rose Spring
Corner Notched Projectile Points                              93
21.  Civa Shelter II - Rose Spring Corner Notched/Eastgate Expanding Stem/
Humboldt Basal Notch Projectile Points/Tabular Fragment....   94
22.  Civa Shelter TI - Rose Spring Series/Drill Fragment/Type 3 Drill/
Retouched Flake/Type B Bone Bead                .......       95
23.  Civa Shelter II - Bifaces                              .             96
24.  Civa Shelter II - Bifaces/Drills-Perforators          ..             97
25.  Civa Shelter II - Bone/Shell/ Antler Artifacts        .              98
26.  Civa Shelter II - Bone Artifacts                       .             99
27.  View of Discrete Lithic Scatter Mound on Former Lake Bed of Coal
Valley  Dry  Lake                               .................. 102
28.  Coal Valley - Great Basin Transverse Points/ Humboldt/Pinto/Elko
Series  Projectile  Points                      .................. 128
29.  Coal Valley - Eastgate/Desert Side Notched Projectile Points .129
30.  Coal Valley - Elko/Rose Spring Series Projectile Points  0 0 a 0 ........  130
31.  Coal Valley - Desert Side Notched/Elk  Preforms/Bifaces .... .  o ..  .. 131
32.  Coal Valley - Bifaces                                 .             132
33.  Coal Valley - Bifaces                                 .             133
ii
34.  Coal Valley - Preforms/Bifaces                         ...............  134
35.  Coal Valley - Miscellaneous Chipped Stone Artifacts   ................ 135
36.  Coal Valley - Shoshone Ware Vessel Fragment/Drills/Perforators/Mano  136
37.  Artist's View of Slivovitz Shelter                     ..           139
38.  Plan View of Slivovitz Shelter                         .            139
39.  Slivovitz Shelter - North Wall Profils, N5EO           .            141
40.  Slivovitz Shelter - East Wall Profile, N5EO            .            141
41.  Slivovitz Shelter - North Wall Profile, N5W2           .            142
42.  Slivovitz Shelter - Desert Side Notched/Cottonwood Triangular/Eastgate
Series/Rose Spring Series/Elko Series Projectile Points      169
43.  Slivovitz Shelter - Ceramics/Grinding Slab/Pestle/Choppers/Mano     170
44.  Slivovitz Shelter - Bifaces/Humboldt Projectile Point/Scraper/Rose
Spring Contracting Stem Porjectile Point/Drill/Perforater .171
45.  Slivovitz Shelter - Bone/Shell Artifacts/Drill-Perforators ..       172
46.  Slivovitz Shelter - Bone Awls                          .            173
47.  Plan View of Avocado Shelter                           . . . . . . . . . 176
48.  Avocado Shelter - Projectile Points/Bifaces            .........    183
49.  Avocado Shelter - Bifaces/Bone Artifacts               .........    184
50.  Summary Site Survey Data Coding Key                    .            189
iii
List of Tables
1.    Precipitation in Relation to Altitude                                  10
2.    Vegetation Zones Present in the Study Area                             12
2.   (a, b, c) Civa Shelter 11 - Projectile Point Data        . . . . . .  57-59
4.    Civa Shelter II - Selected Projectile Point Metric Attributed Ranges ... .  60
5.    Civa Shelter II - Projectile Point Fragments            .              62
6.    Biface Type Criteria                         . . I .                   64
7.    Civa Shelter II - Typable Biface Data                   .     .        70
8.    Civa Shelter TI - Light Duty Chopper Measurements       .     .        72
9.    Civa Shelter II - Retouched Flake Proveniences          .     .        73
10.   Civa Shelter II - Lithic Debitage                       .     .        76
11.   Civa Shelter II - Metate Proveniences               .. . _ ..a..       78
12.   Civa Shelter II - Bone Artifact Proveniences            .     .        82
13.   Coal Valley - Projectile Point Data                .. . . . . . . . a.  110
14.   Coal Valley - Projectile Point Data                .. ........111
15.   Coal Valley - Selected Projectile Point Metric Attribute Ranges  o ...   .  112
16.   Coal Valley - Biface Type Data                 ....... ......116-117
17-20 Slivovitz Shelter - Projectile Point Data               . . . . . . . 148-151
21.   Slivovitz Shelter - Projectile Point Metric Attribute ... O0    .     153
22.   Slivovitz Shelter - Typable Biface Data             .. ......... 156
23.   Slivovitz Shelter - Lithic Debitage               .. ......... 158
24.   Slivovitz Shelter - Ground Stone Distribution          .. ......... 161
25.  Avocado Shelter - Projectile Point Data               .. ......... 178
26.  Avocado Shelter - Biface Data                    .. ......... 178
27.  (a-b) Summary Site Survey Data - Garden and Coal Valleys .   ..... 190-191
28.   Site Type Data                                          * .   .       192
29.   Site Location Data                                      ....ID.....a...192
30.   Site Vegetation Types    -                              .     .       193
iv
1
Chapter I
Introduction
The Great Basin of western North America has become in the past several
decades an area of increasingly important emphasis in regional anthropological research.
The "phenomenal" growth in prehistoric, linguistic, ethnohistorical and anthropological
studies is readily apparent in a comparison of Grosscup's (1957) bibliography on
Nevada archaeology with the impressive compilation of Catherine Fowler (1970) for the
entire Great Basin. The development and history of archaeological/anthropological
research in the basin has been briefly reviewed by Jennings and Norbeck (1955), D.
Fowler (1977), C. Fowler (1977), Hester (1973), Fitting (1973), Bennyhoff (1958),
Baumhoff (1958), Steward (1940), Napton (1970), and Aikens (1976) among others.
R. F. Heizer and T. R. Hester have defined four paradigms which have
marked the course of prehistoric research in the region (cf. Hester 1973; Heizer and
Hester 1978). The first paradigm (as it was defined by Kuhn (1970) as a "problem
solving model") is termed "artifact collecting and defining the variation of prehistoric
evidence. " Persisting between 1912 and 1938 its beginnings can be found in the work
of L. L. Loud and M. R. Harrington at Lovelock Cave (Loud and Harrington 1929);
M. R. Harrington's research on Puebloid materials in the southeastern basin and at
Gypsum Cave in southern Nevada (Harrington 1926, 1938, 1933); the Campbells' work
on regional variations in the southwestern basin (E. Campbell 1931; Campbell and
Campbell 1935); L. S. Cressman's exploratory research in the northern basin (e.g.
Cressman 1942); and Judd's (1917a, b, 1919) and Morss's (1931) research on the
Fremont culture of the eastern Great Basin.
This "exploratory phase" paradigm cannot really be considered to have
ended since many areas still exist (e.g. north central Nevada, southeastern Nevada)
where exploratory work is still being conducted by professional archaeologists.
The second paradigm involved the "fitting of Great Basin prehistory into
wider perspective. " During this period (1929-1940) researchers attempted to relate
and compare their materials to adjoining areas, primarily to the Southwestern cultures.
Comparisons were made by Harrington using the Lovelock Cave perishable materials
with Basketmaker sites (Loud and Harrington 1929: 119-123) and ceramic and
architectural remains from sites in the Virgin-Muddy-Moapa River valley areas
(Harrington 1926; 1928). Kroeber (1939: 50) however, cautioned on representing
significant affinities as positive identifications and'expressed doutts about Harrington's
conclusions as additional materials became available. Steward was making similar
comparisons in the eastern basin primarily utilizing ceramic typologies from the
Southwest to attempt an ordering of cave deposits he had excavated in the Great Salt Lake
region (Steward 1936; 1937a).
From the late 1940s to the present a third paradigm is concerned with the
2
development of an exact chronology. The advent of the radiocarbon dating method spurred
this concern for chronological matters and provided a reasonably objective means of
dating the cultural sequences. At present, as the number of excavated sites and radio-
carbon dates increase, finer and finer correlations among sites and assemblages are
made possible as well as contributing to the overall understanding of Great Basin prehistory.
The "ecological interpretation model" is the fourth paradigm defined by
Heizer and Hester. This concept was of interest to the early ethnographers because of
their awareness of the relationships between man and the environment. Steward's work
(1938) can be considered as the first major work on the Great Basin using this concept.
In the 1950s ecological concerns led to the formulation of the "Desert Culture" (later
changed to the Desert Archaic; occasionally named the Desert Tradition (cf. Willey 1966)
concept (Jennings 1953, 1973; Jennings and Norbeck 1955)). This interpretive model,
dealing with a cultural system adapted to 'arid' land exploitation/utilization and defined by
the presence of certain material culture items, has provided a useful concept in linking
and arriving at some understanding of the prehistory and cultural record of the Desert
West. However, at least one other significant adaptive system was present in the basin,
the "Lacustrine Adaptation, " a system keyed to the use of lacustrine resources (Heizer
and Krieger 1956; Rozaire 1963; Napton 1969, 1970; Shutler 1968; Heizer and Napton
1970; Jennings and Norbeck 1955; Barrett 1910).
At present, emphasis is on ecological studies dealing with the correlation of
environmental and archeological data to give an integrated picture of settlement patterns,
subsistence activities and cultural adaptation to the resources available to the prehistoric
inhabitants of the basin (cf. Gunn 1975; Bettinger 1977; Thomas 1971a, b, 1972a, b, 1973;
Napton 1969, 1970; Swanson 1972; O'Connell 1971 among others).
The study presented,.in the following pages can be traced as operating directly
under the first ("exploration") and third paradigms ("chronology") with some reference to
the fourth ("ecological interpretation"). D. Fowler (1977) has noted that with some
exceptions, most Great Basin prehistoric studies have been essentially within the historicalist
paradigm framed by Leone (1973) and Leach (1973). The historicalist paradigm is a
general culture history approach to archaeology based on the assumption that the principal
purpose of anthropology (and archaeology) is to understand the spatial and temporal
distributions of "traits" and agglomerations of traits: "complexes," "traditions,"
"cultures," etc. (Fowler 1977: 3-4). Folwer (1977) has noted that implicit in the culture
history approach is a concern to determine the relations between culture and environment
("cultural ecology"); to develop, if possible, genetic models of prehistory, relating
cultures to languages and populations; and the projection of ethnographic models onto
archaeological data.
The study which follows falls within the theoretical framework of the historicalist
paradigm, an approach which Aikens (1977) (and undoubtedly many others) in his brief
comment on models in Great Basin prehistory, considers as essential and complementary
to contributing to a comprehensive view of prehistoric cultural events and processes and
deserving of attention in archaeological research.
3
Theoretical and Empirical Goals of Research
The research focus of this project was designed to provide a clearer and more
integrated picture of the prehistory of a relatively unknown portion of southeastern
Nevada. The research was centered around the excavation of three rockshelter sites,
the collection from a large open site and an archaeological site reconnaissance of the
study area. The prime research objectives were defined as:
1)    the determination of the antiquity of human occupance
and the formulation of a chronological sequence for the
area utilizing previously defined projectile point and
ceramic types;
2)    the determination of variable occupational use/seasonal
use of the excavated and surveyed sites where possible;
3)    the social/political structure of the aboriginal inhabitants;
4)    the man-land relationships existing within the boundaries
of the study area - subsistence and settlement patterns;
5)    post-glacial environmental change and its effect on the
aboriginal inhabitants of southeastern Nevada;
6)    culture relationships with other areas (especially the
Fremont culture area to the east);
7)    to determine if the transitional nature of the area in terms
of climate and environment had any appreciable effect on
man-land relationships.
The secondary objectives of the archaeological survey were to examine the
distribution of sites and the range of artifacts and other material associated with them
in order to further our knowledge of both the chronological sequence present and the total
economic cycle. The excavations at the three rockshelter sites could only provide
narrow aspects of the overall chronological, seasonal and economic patterns in the area
and without a broader outline of the temporal span and human ecology, their importance
in the general, regional and areal pattern could be fully evaluated. Thus, the primary
task of the survey was seen as investigating differences in (a) activity patterns, (b)
chronology within the boundaries of the study area and (c) comparing the data with both
the stratified sites in order to provide a more integrated picture of the region as well as
to place the area within the broader frame of Great Basin prehistory. The research
objectives have been satisfactorily realized. The findings and conclusions are presented
In the following chapters.
4
Outline Map of Great Basin With Study Area Defined.
Figure 1:-
-'00,~ ~
,{ .   .   '  A0' ' .
S_ ~     q     K /
\ _ // n ,0  _
0
I
0
~.'l I' O'
I
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0
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0
.. , ", ,        c
_
IoSV
'   AVOCADO ,,
* SHELTE R.
I. I  .  -
I,  . . .  ....
V7
*SLIVOVITZ
S$HELTER                   CIVA''
,         ~~~SHELTER I'm
*  K..41  ~~SHELTER I1.2I
4(                 COAL
VAL LE
. 5....   VALLEY
A.        ~~~RY LAKE
-~  :  0~ 'DRY ITES
-0                           0
O  0            0        -
~z0           0,               LK
4,o0
'-I    -I                       ~~~~~~~SEAMAN
0                  ~~~~~NARROWS''
0
6000~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~10
* Archaeological site
Dry lake bed
Contour interval 1000 ft.
0         5 MILES
O            10 KM
I ./
..,
. 1
_2
0        , .
II .   ,
I     I.
i "I
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Figure 2: Topographic Map of Study Area.
5
,  I   ,    ,
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7
Chapter 1:
Natural Setting
The study area is located on the eastern edge of the Great Basin in southeastern
Nevada within western Lincoln and southeastern Nye Counties between 38015? and 37045?
North latitude and 115037? and 115007? West latitude (Fig. 1 and 2). The area is within
the boundaries of Garden and Coal Valleys.
Geology and Geomorphology
Physiographically the area is within the Great Basin section of the Basin and
Range Province (Fenneman 1931) and is characterized by generally north-south trending
mountain ranges of block fault or volcanic origin (Tschanz and Pampeyan 1970). Aspects
of the geological history of the region have been described by Tschanz and Pampeyan
(1970); Kleinhampl and Ziony (1967); Cornwall (1972); Carpenter (1915); Spurr (1903);
and Hubbs and Miller (1948). The following descriptions of the regional and local
geology/geomorphology draw largely on the general works by Tschanz and Pampeyan
(1970), Carpenter (1915), Spurr (1903), and Hubbs and Miller (1948). It is unlikely that
the general picture presented by these researchers will be substantially changed by
future research although certain specifics may be modified with more intensive research.
Quinn Canyon and Grant Ranges (Fig. 2)
The Quinn Canyon and Grant Ranges form the western boundary of Garden
Valley. The Quinn Canyon Range is closely connected, being only slightly offset to the
west, with the Grant Range, with the two ranges separated only by a narrow, rock-cut
valley through which Cherry Creek drains. The Quinn Canyon Range is broad and short
with a north-south length of 25 miles (40 km) and an east-west dimension of 20 miles
(32 km). Steep cliffs are present on the east, west and north sides of its northern half
where considerable thrust faulting has occurred. The rugged and irregular topography
in this portion has been mapped as Pogonip limestone of Orodovician Age while the
southern foothills are composed of an eroded mass of Tertiary Age volcanic rocks.
Small, steep walled valleys and ravines are present in both sections. The maximum
elevation in this group is 10,229 feet (3118 m) near Cherry Creek Summit.
Only the southern portion of the Grant Range is within the study area. This
range is a single, steep sided, main ridge, flat and broad on top with a north-south
length of approximately 30 miles (48 km). It is cut deeply by a small steep-sided
mountain valley which runs out into Garden Valley on the east and Railroad Valley on the
west. Preliminary mapping of this range indicates the Pogonip Group (limestone and
shaly limestone) of Ordovician Age exposed at the lower elevations with Cretaceous-
Tertiary granitic rocks at the higher elevations. The highest elevation is Troy Peak in
the central section of this range with a height of 11, 298 feet above sea level (3444 kmi).
8
Worthington Mountains (Fig. 2).
The Worthington Mountains, a very small group sometimes called the
Freiberg (or Freyberg) Range are high, steep-sided (300), north-south trending mountains
bounding Garden Valley on the east and Sand Springs Valley on the west with an extensive
field of volcanic rocks in the northern Timpahute Range present to the southeast. This
range is a complex, thrust faulted series composed of limestone, sedimentary and
granitic rocks. The youngest rocks, of Devonian Age, are at the south end with the
northern end composed of Ordovician limestone of the Pogonip Group and highly faulted
colomite and quartzite of Devonian Age.
The Freiberg Mining District, organized in 1865 by two prospectors from
the Pahranagat Valley is located in the Worthingtons. The mineral deposits are veinlike
deposits of gold, silver, led and zinc with scheelite deposits present in tactite (Tschanz
and Pampeyan 1970). The total recorded production to date for the district is only
$18, 000 and at present the mines are inactive. The maximum elevation of the Worthingtons
is 8850 feet (2697 kkm).
Garden Valley (Fig. 3).
Garden Valley is bordered on the west by the Quinn Canyon, Grant and
Worthington Ranges and on the east by the Golden Gate Range. The valley, covering
490 square miles (1269 km ), is approximately 19 miles (30.9 km) in length and ranges
from 5 to 12 miles (8. 0-19.3 km) in width. It has been filled with alluvial deposited debris
from the bordering mountain ranges. The regional slope is to the east with the result
that the lower elevations of the Golden Gate Range have been partly buried by this uncon-
solidated material. Cottonwood, Cherry, Sand and Bruno Creeks with headwaters in the
Quinn Canyon and Grant Ranges have carved shallow channels across the valley which
unite near the east side and drain through a narrow gap (Water Gap) in the central Golden
Gate Range into Coal Valley (Fig. 4). The age of these channels is unknown but they are
interestingly similar to the arroyo systems that have been widely recognized in the
southwest and dated as being less than one hundred years old (cf. Martin 1963; Leopold
1951). Presumably their formation reflects regional changes in climate and geomorphic
processes similar to the erosion and deposition cycles reported by Madsen (1972, 1973a)
for Meadow Valley Wash and believed to have been caused by changes in precipitation
seasonality. Further geological and geomorphological research may shed light on the
processes present in the record for Garden Valley. Aside from this water supply, Garden
Valley contains no other sources of surface water and this water only reaches the lowest
part of the valley during exceptionally large floods or periods of runoff.
Golden Gate Range (Fig. 2, 3, and 4),
This range is a connected series of low, comparatively simple, westward
tilted, north-south block faulted mountains bounded on the east by Coal Valley, on the
west by Garden Valley and on the south by Murphy Gap. The range joins the northern
9
Seaman Range at the north end of Coal Valley and just slightly north of this point dies
out in the White River Valley. It is north-south trending and has an extent of ca. 25
miles (40 km) with an average width of 3-4 miles (4.8-6.4 km). The mountains which
comprise this range are detached from each other and are separated by narrow stretches
of Pleistocene alluvial deposits at approximately the same elevation as the valleys on both
sides of the range. Of particular note is the 'Water Gap', the major opening of four
openings through which water drained from Garden Valley into Coal Valley Lake during
the Pleistocene. The bedrock of this range consists mainly of Paleozoic strata: Guilmette
Formation, Pilot Shale, Mississippian limestone, Chainman shale, Scotty Wash Quartzite
and Pennsylvannia limestone and sandstone. Along the west side of the range, on
progressively younger Paleozoic rocks, is an unconfornable volcanic layer that includes
a sequence of ignimbrite and basalt.
Coal Valley and Coal Valley Dry Lake (Fig. 4),.
Coal Valley is bounded on the east by the Seaman Range which rises 2000-
3000 feet (607-914 meters) above the valley floor and on the west by the Golden Gate
Range which rises to only 1500-200 feet (457-607 meters) above the valley (Fig. 1). The
southern boundary is formed by the northern slope of the North Pahranagat Range and
the north boundary by the alluvial divide between the north ends of the Seaman and Golden
Gate Ranges. The valley is approximately 30 miles (48 km) long and varies in width from
6 (9.6 kIn) to 15 (24 km) miles encompassing an area of about 455 square miles (1178
km ). Topographically the most important features in the valley are the distinct wave-
produced terraces and beaches of the now dry Coal Valley Lake. <t its greatest the lake
was about 14 miles (22. 5 km) long, 6 miles (9. 7 km) wide and covered approximately 100
square miles (259 km2). Its maximum depth was ca. 75 feet (23 meters) and the length
of its shoreline was about 40 miles (64.4 km). This lake had no outlet and was probably
fed by the creeks in Garden Valley draining through the 'Water Gap'. At present, Seaman
Springs is the only permanent water source in the valley except for some wells and
reservoirs used by the holders of various grazing permits. The former lake bed is now
represented by alkali playa areas and sand dunes in the central portion of the valley and
is currently being deflated by wind action.
Seaman Range
The Seaman Range is bounded on the east by the White River, on the west by
Coal Valley, on the south by Seaman Pass and on the north by Timber Mountain Pass. The
southern portion of the Seaman Range is composed of Tertiary volcanic rocks and tuff
and the northern portion is composed largely of Paleozoic limestone rocks. The faulting
is extensive and complex. The principal feature of the volcanic portion of the range is the
broad, dissected cone of an extinct volcano. Maximum elevation is 8650 feet (2636 meters)
slightly to the south of Timber Mountain (8630 feet - 2630 meters).
Modern Climate
Climatically the area has a semi-arid continental climate with warm summers
10
and cool winters. Few climatic data are specifically available for the study area and data
from the nearby Pahranagat and Penoyer Valleys have been used to fill this void. Preci-
pitation occurs in the form of winter snow and spring rain (40% of annual total) and in
summer a large percentage falls during showers and thunder-showers in July and August.
The area is apparently a transition zone between summer and winter rainfall patterns as
no one season is dominant in the precipitation pattern.
The average temperatures for stations in the area range from a daily maximum
of 760 F (250 C) to a daily minimum of 390 F (40 C). Daytime summer highs can be in
excess of 1000 F (380 C) on the valley floors and winter lows can reach 210 F (-80 C)
(Richardson 1968).
The low precipitation totals in the study area are largely the result of the
rainshadow effect of the Sierra Nevadas to the west and intervening mountain ranges that
effectively reduce the moisture content of inland moving Pacific Ocean storms during the
fall, winter and spring. The Quinn Canyon and Grant Ranges also provide a local rain-
shadow effect. The average annual precipitation is approximately 8-10 inches (20-25 cm)
annually on the valley floors and upper bajadas and varies with elevation with some of the
higher mountain elevations receiving in excess of 25 inches (63 cm) annually (Table 1).
Snowfall in the area is generally light, about 10 inches (25 cm) annually with the yearly
total rarely more than 24 inches (61 cm). Based on the data presented by Richardson
(1968) it appears that the mean monthly temperatures have not varied greatly during the
time of record but annual precipitation values have fluctuated substantially. For instance,
the highest annual precipitation reported has ranged from a high of 14. 9 inches (37. 8 cm)
to a low of 1. 2 inches (3. 0 cm) over a ten year period indicating that rainfall varied sub-
stantially in amount and intensity on a yearly basis. Relative humidity in the area is generally
low because of the low rainfall and generally warm temperatures. Evaporation is high
during the warm summer months.
Data on wind velocity are non-existent for the area but generally the winds are
light to moderate with the average velocity less than 20 miles per hour (32 kmph). Days
with no breeze are common during the summer months. Strong winds occasionally
accompany local thunderstorms in July and August or active frontal systems in fall,
winter and spring. The winds are usually from the south or north due to the general relief
of the surrounding mountain ranges (Richardson 1968).
Table 1
Precipitation Zone                    Altitude Zone
less than 8" (20 cm)                  below 6000? (1829 m)
8-12" (20-30 cm)                      6000-7000' (1829-2134 m)
12-15" (30-38 cm)                     7000-8000' (2134-2438 m)
15-20" (38-51 cm)                     8000-9000' (2438-2743 m)
20+" (51+ cm)                         9000+' (2743+ m)
11
Vegetation and Wildlife
A knowledge of the present resources and environment along with an under-
standing of past conditions is a necessity in all anthropological/archaeological studies
dealing with the Great Basin due to the local variations in both culture and environment.
This is especially so, in spite of the seeming uniformity of both culture and environment,
with the present emphasis and interest in what has been called the 'systems approach'
dealing with the correlation of environmental and archaeological data to give a picture of
settlement patterns, subsistence activities and the cultural adaptation to the resources
available to the prehistoric inhabitants of the basin (cf. Clarke 1968; Gunn 1975; Bettinger
1977; Thomas 1971a, b, 1973; among others). The following detailed discussion on the
vegetation and wildlife is presented because it is necessary to have an understanding of
the natural conditions with which the aboriginal inhabitants interacted and to indicate the
variety of resources and conditions available to the prehistoric users of Garden and Coal
Valleys.
Students of Great Basin vegetation and wildlife have described numerous
"communities", "associations", "life zones", and "vegetation zones", the boundaries
of which are not always easily distinguished (cf. Billings 1951; Cronquist, et. al. 1972;
Hall 1946; among many others). Altitudinal differences which are primarily attributable
to climate have most often been used to provide broad scale classifications, while edaphic
units or microhabitats have been used to define local types.
The study area belongs envimnmentally and vegetationally to the Great Basin
Desert (cf. Shantz 1925; Shreve 1942; Fautin 1946). Floristically the main portion of the
area is included within the boundaries of the Tonopah Section of the Great Basin Division
of the Intermountain Region as defined by Cronquist, et. al. (1972: Fig. 56) while a small
portion of the northern area is included in the Calcareous Mountain Floristic Section.
In the study area no detailed work has yet been done but research in nearby
areas provide a useful basis for comparison. The discussion of the zones and plant
species/communities within them relies heavily upon previous research presented by
Billings (1951); Beatley (1976); Branson, Miller and McQueen (1967); Conquist, et. al.
(1972); and Shantz (1925) as well as on local studies of the soil and vegetation by members
of the Bureau of Land Management (various personal communications, 1975-1977), Soil
Conservation Service (Harlan Arnold, personal communication, 1977), and the U. S. Forest
Service (Gene Smalley, personal communication, 1977). A complete catalogue of all
specimens within the boundaries of the study is not presented as it is not the purpose of
this paper to duplicate this data and the reader is referred especially to Beatley (1976);
Cronquist, et. al. (1972); and Lewis (n. d.) for this specific information if it is of interest.
However, all elements necessary to present a general picture of the region have been
included along with a number of the species known to have been of some economic/subsis-
tence importance to the aboriginal groups in the Great Basin as based upon ethnographic
reports (cf. Chamberlain 1911; Stewart 1942; Steward 1938, 1941; Kelly 1964; Train,
Henrichs and Archer 1941; Bye 1972).
12
Table 2
Zones Present in the Study Area
Basin Floor/Playa Zone - 5000-6000 feet (1524-1676 m)
Upper Bajada Zone - 5000-6000 feet (1524-1829 m)
Lower Slope Zone - 6000-10,000 feet (1829-3048 m)
Summit/Crest Zone - 8500-11,493 feet (2591-3503 m)
Basin Floor/Playa Zone - 5000-5500 feet (1529-1676 m)
This zone, restricted primarily to the closed drainage basins, is
characterized by the dominance of Atriplex confertifolia (Shadscale) communities and
roughly corresponds to the Shadscale Zone of Cronquist, et. al. (1972). The study area
is confined to the middle elevational (4500-5500 feet) zone of these communities which
can be described as being dominated by low, widely spaced more or less spiny, grayish,
small-leaved shrubs which cover only about 10% of the ground area. Species composition
appears to be under the major control of the geologic origin of the soil materials and the
local or sporadic distributions of most species are due to local variations in edaphic
variables. Quantitative data obtained by Beatley (1976 to the south of the study area
indicates a shrub cover ranging from 5.5% - 25.6%, a maximum cover of herbaceous
perennials of from 0.1% to 2. 4% and a winter annual cover of 0. 9% to 8. 3%. She further
notes that density varies with precipitation. Several distinct plant associations and species
are linked directly to local soil conditions. Atriplex-Kochia americana commonly
occurs on the heaviest textured soils in the area and on deep, loose sands the most
predictable species is Atriplex canescens (Four Winged Saltbush). The edaphically
controlled communities are the halophytic ones of which the most important is the
Sarcobatus (greasewood) association. This association, dominated by Sarcobatus
vermiculatus, usually occurs in the valley bottoms in saline clay soils around the margins
of playas (especially Coal Valley Dry Lake) with a sparse herbaceous cover. The main
dominant of this zone, Atriplex confertifolia, commonly occurs in mosaic with Ceratoides
lanata, a valued forage plant. Since this zone covers large areas of the nearly level
terrain of the basin floors it has been subjected to heavy grazing pressure by local
ranchers. This has led to the introduction of an introduced annual, Halogeton glomeratus,
which is now a serious problem to the local ranchers as it can be lethal to livestock when
eaten in large amounts.
Upper Bajada Zone - 5000-6000 feet (1524-1829 m)
This zone, dominated by Artemisia tridentata, occurs on the deeper, permeable
salt-free soils of the upper bajadas (alluvial fans) of the closed drainage basins usually
forming a broad band of more or less uniform vegetation between the Basin Floor/Playa
Zone and the Lower Zone. It is characterized by a fairly dense to open vegetation with
relatively large (0.6 - 0.9 meters high) non-spiny shrubs with perennial and annual grasses
and forbs present. Shrub cover from Beatley's (1976) studies averaged 32.6% of which
13
95% was due to Artemisia tridentata. Herbaceous perennials are represented by a large
number of species but except for grasses are seldom present as more than occasional
plants on any given area. Their maximum cover ranged from 3. 8 - 6. 6% (Beateley 1976)
nearly all of which was due to the perennial grasses Stipa spp., Sitanion hystrix and
Oryzopsis hymenoides. Beatley makes no mention of Bromus tectorum (cheet grass) an
introduced winter annual which is dominant on the overgrazed portions of the study area
(along with Halogeton), especially in this zone. Winter annuals ranged from 5.3% to
7. 7% in cover. Artemisia nova tends to dominate or co-dominate with A. tridentata on the
steeper, rocky 3lopes with shallow soils. This zone corresponds to the Sagebrush Zone
described by Cronquist, et. al. (1972). Beatley (1976), Cronquist, et. al. (1972) and
Lewis (n. d. ) should be consulted for additional data on the zone and for a more extensive
listing of species present.
Lower Slope Zone - 6000-10, 000 feet (1829-3048 m)
This zone is characterized by pinyon pine/juniper stands in the lower elevations
and by White fir (Abies concolor) in the upper reaches. Pinyon pine (Pinus monothyIla)
and juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) form a more or less open shrub woodland with
scattered small trees of juniper first co-occurring with Artemisia then followed by pinyon
pine within 200-300 feet (61-91 m) increase in elevation in the lower portions of the zone
(6000-9000 feet; 1829-2743 m). Pinyon pine usually continues upslope at the interface
with the White fir for several hundred feet after the juniper has disappeared.
Above the tolerance limits of pinyon pine and below the tolerance limits of
limber pine (Pinus flexis) and bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva), White fir (Abies concolor)
is the dominant with an understory composition of scattered grasses and sage interspersed
with mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius).
Beatley (1976) points out that pure stands of juniper or pinyon pine can occur
within the lower elevations of this zone without either of the Artemisia species (A. tridentata,
A. arbuscula) present in the shrub layer. Quantitative studies conducted by Beatley (1976)
to the southwest of the study area indicate that total tree and shrub cover can vary from
35% (on outcropping bedrock) to 44% with maximum herbaceous perennial cover varying
from 7. 0 - 31. 0% with 69. 0 - 99. 0% of the cover due to perennial grasses, especially
species of Stipa. Winter annuals are usually only represented near the lower limits of
this zone with a cover of 16% reflecting the large size of plants in areas of high rainfall.
Climatic differences, lower temperatures and higher precipitation exert some influence
on the physiognomy and species composition in the zone. From her work in south central
Nevada (Beatley 1976) notes that half of the plant species of this region are known to occur
somewhere in this zone due to the diversity of geologic substratas and erosional and
depositional features and it is highly likely that future botanical studies in this portion of
Nevada will confirm this. Two micro-habitats are known to be present in the Lower Slope
Zone. These can best be described as Valley Bottom-Perennial Stream (in the vicinity of
Upper Cherry Creek) and Spring/Seepage areas usually located along the upper reaches of
the canyons in the vicinity of the 'headwaters' of many of the ephemeral streams.
14
This zone roughly corresponds to the Pinyon-Juniper Zone and Upper
Sagebrush-Grass Zone described by Cronquist, et. al. (1972). Beatley (1976), Lewis
(n. d. ), and Cronquist, et. al. (1972) should be consulted for an extensive listing of species
common to the zone.
Summit/Crest Zone - 8500-11, 493 feet (2591-3503 m)
This zone is limited to the high areas of the Quinn Canyon and Grant Ranges.
This open subalpine forest is primarily bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) and limber pine
(Pinus flexis) with some sagebrush, various grasses and forbs. The trees average 30-
40 feet (9.1-12.2 m) in height at the lower limits of the zone and form the characteristic
shrub-like krummholz at timberline (cf. Cronquist, et. al. (1972: 135). The zone
roughly corresponds to Cronquist, et. al. (1972) Limber Pine-Bristle Cone Pine Zone and
Basin Range Alpine Tundra Zone designations and they should be consulted for additional
data and observations.
Fauna
In terms of mammalian fauna the study area lies within the boundaries of the
Upper Sonoran, Transition, Canadian and Hudsonian Life Zones as described by Merriam
(1898: 36). These life zones, essentially based on temperature gradients, are described
by Hall (1946) in his monumental work on the mammals of Nevada as being clearly dis-
cernible and of great utility in studying the distribution of organisms because of zone
distinctness. However, he does note, and implicitly caution, that the zone concept is less
useful in studying the biota of the high country because of some upward extensions of
Upper Sonoran fauna into these upper zones.
Life Zone Equivalencies
Basin Floor/Playa Zone
Upper Bajada Zone                     Upper Sonoran
Lower Slope Zone (lower elevations)
Lower Slope Zone (higher elevations)  Transition
Canadian
Summit/Crest Zone                     Hudsonian
Hall (1946: 33-37) lists several species of small mammals indicative of these
various zones (but not necessarily present over the total area). The reader is referred
to Hall (1946) and BLM (1969a) for a complete list of mammals occurring in Nevada
according to Life Zone.
The number of species occurring in the Upper Sonoran Life Zone is 83 (the
largest number of all zones), Transition 68, Canadian 54, and Hudsonian 37. In terms
of primary economic or subsistence utilized species (cf. Steward 1938; Kelly 1964;
Stewart 1942), mammals (especially Rodentia and Lagamorpha) and large herbivores
(black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemonius), antelope (Antilocapra americana), mountain
sheep (Ovis canadensis) are found seasonally in all but the highest zone and are primarily
located in the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones.
Van Denburgh (1922), Stebbins (1966) and BLM (1971) describe the species of
reptiles common to the area (mostly diurnal lizards and nocturnal snakes) and Hubbs and
Miller (1948), La Rivers (1962) and BLM (1973) should be consulted for a discussion of
the fish resources present in the region. Lindsdale (1936) and BLM (1969b) discuss and
list the avifauna of the area which at the time of our fieldwork was limited to sightings of
several hawk species.
Holocene Environmental Change
During the past thirty years there has been a continuing debate among students
of Great Basin prehistory as to the significance to human settlement of post-glacial
climatic change (Antevs 1948, 1955; Aschmann 1958; Baumhoff and Heizer 1965; Bryan
and Gruhn 1964; Jennings 1957; Martin 1963; Swanson 1966; Fowler 1972, 1977; Elston
(ed.) 1976; among others). One basic unresolved issue is the validity of Antevs's three
part model of climatic change and its cultural effects. Various paleoecological studies
have been undertaken throughout the Basin with either indirect or direct emphasis on
determining the chronological boundaries of the climatic subdivisions proposed by Antevs;
the postulated effects of climatic change, both cultural and ecological; regional and local
variations in chronology and effect and so on. Mehringer (1977) has admirably summarized
these studies (based on both geological and biological evidence) and has proposed a
regional synthesis although he cautions against the acceptance of paleoclimatic models
which claim relevance for the Great Basin as a whole.
Fowler (1972) has discussed the climatic chronology and Baumhoff and Heizer
(1965) have reviewed its perceived effect on man.
Southeastern Nevada
The data available for southeastern Nevada (and the study area in particular)
are extremely limited and studies dealing with Holocene climatic changes and effects are
few in number.
To the west in the Toquima Mountains in the vicinity of the Big Smoky and
Monitor Valleys, Kautz and Thomas (1972) have reported on the palynological investigations
of two cave middens from Toquima Cave and Gatecliff Shelter. The results obtained are
rather inconclusive but Thomas and Kautz suggest the possibility of a gradual replacement
of a relatively dessicated woodland-savannah by a more mesic pinyon-juniper woodland
about 3400 B. P. This shift corresponds quite closely to the conventional Holocene climatic
sequence proposed by Antevs (1948, 1955) of a shift from a warm dry Altithermal climate
to a cooler, moister Medithermal.
16
To the south, Spaulding's studies in the Sheep Range of Clark County dealing
with the late Quaternary vegetation changes have involved both palynology (Spaulding
1974) and fossil wood rat midden analysis (Spaulding 1977). While most of Spaulding's
data (1977) is tentative and covers the period before 10, 000 B. P., his analysis of the
Canyon Two midden dating between 330 and 1900 B. P. (1977: 8) indicates a Holocene
climatic oscillation from xeric to mesic conditions based on the macrofossil record.
A pollen spectrum obtained from a bighorn sheep dung deposit slightly north of the Canyon
Two midden (Spaulding 1974) shows a slight but consistent increase in arboreal pollen
(AP) at ca. 3600 B. P. This is consistent with the rise noted in AP at O'Malley Shelter
(Madsen 1972, 1973a) 85 km to the east at around 3700 B. P. This appears to represent
a plant association more mesic than the present vegetation.
The Tule Springs Site in the Las Vegas Valley to the south of the study area,
reflects a trend towards warmer and drier conditions as indicated in the pollen spectrum
change from juniper-sagebrush to sagebrush-shadscale starting around 12, 000 B. P. and
culminating in a vegetation similar to the present lower elevation Mohave Desert by
7000 B. P. This drying phase is marked by several short term reversals at about
10, 500 - 10,000 B. P. and 8500 - 8000 B. P. (Mehringer 1967). The pollen record for
Tule Springs is incomplete after 7000 B. P. although Mehringer (1967) is of the opinion
that no major changes have occurred after this date.
Harper and Alder's (1970, 1972) recent studies of macrofossil plant remains
from both Danger and Hogup Caves in northwestern Utah provide some evidence for
vegetational history and climatic change in the eastern Great Basin. Based on their
studies they recognize a dry period lasting from ca. 10,130 to 9750 B. P. followed by
more moist conditions and then another general dry period from 8000 - 3000 B. P. Two
moist periods, a brief one at ca. 6000 B. P. and a longer one at 1500 - 600 B. P. interrupt
the 'dry' sequence. Harper and Alder conclude that the present climate is more arid at
present than at any time during the past 10, 000 years.
Madsen's (1972, 1973a, b) research to the southeast in the nearby Meadow
Valley Wah area is the most relevant to the study area. The 7000 year pollen record
from O'Malley Shelter (Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973) is interpreted by Madsen (1972
1973a: Fig. B2 and B4) as indicative of a juniper-sagebrush dominated community about
5500 B. P. changing to a more open savanna-like, grass-sagebrush community with some
juniper and oak at around 3900 B. P. Sagebrush-juniper is dominant at 3000 B. P. with a
gradual change to vegetation similar to the present juniper-pinyon woodland by 900 B. P.
There is no record of significant changes from 900 B. P. to the present.
Plant macrofossils from 2 fossil woodrat (Neotoma sp.) middens partly sub-
stantiate the pollen record. One, dated around 300 B. P. (Madsen 1973a: 141), is
essentially modern and dominated by juniper while in the other, dating from about 4400
B. P. (Madsen 1973a: 141) juniper is rare.
From Madsen's research it is apparent that only minor changes in the vegetation
17
patterns have occurred in the Meadow Valley area and by extension in the Garden and
Coal Valley region.
Examination of the alluvial sequence in Meadow Valley Wash has revealed
5 cycles of erosion and deposition occurring in less than 2400 years. Madsen (1973b)
believes that these were caused by changes in precipitation seasonality with erosion
being caused by the dominance of summer rainfall and deposition by a shift in dominance
to winter rainfall.
Additional research on Holocene climatic change and its ecological/cultural
consequences is currently ongoing in all regions of western North America. The point
to be made in discussing Holocene environmental change is that small changes in climate
can have major environmental consequences as the recent history of the post-pluvial
lakes in the Great Basin indicates. For the study area, it is highly likely that the small
changes in climate, as seen in the palynological and macrofossil records, had a major
effect on environment and hence subsistence. More research is needed, however, to
determine the significance of postglacial climatic change, both for the study area in
specific and the Great Basin in general.
Recent Ecological Changes in the Area
Various areas within the region have undergone substantial ecological changes
since post-contact times, primarily due to the introduction of livestock. These
significant modifications have primarily occurred on the Basin Floor/Playa and Upper
Bajada Zones where shrubs and introduced annuals (largely sage and cheet grass) have
expanded at the expense of the native bunchgrasses (cf. Beatley 1976; Young, Evand and
Major 1972). Wheeler (1875) comments extensively on the amount and quality of bunch-
grass available in the surrounding valleys and Carpenter (1915) notes large amounts of
bunchgrass present in southern Coal Valley. Today, in much of these areas, bunchgrasses
are a very insignificant percentage of the total cover with sage (Artemisia spp.) and
cheet grass (Bromus spp.) the present dominants. As Beatley (1976) rightly points out,
Bromus spp. has become so integrated into various communities at so many sites and
over so large an area, that, were its history of introduction not known, it would be
inferred to be one of the many winter annual species. Another common introduced winter
annual, commonly occurring on disturbed Basin Floor/Playa Zone soils in closed
drainage basins, is Halogeton glomeratus. Introduced from Central Asia the herbage
Halogeton provides a strong dose of oxalic acid which when consumed in large amounts,
becomes lethal to grazing livestock. No successful method of control has yet been found
(cf. Cronquist, et.al. 1972).
While the major cause of change has been linked to overgrazing and subsequent
invasion by introduced annuals, a possibly important factor has been the suspension of
the aboriginal practice of periodic firing of the grasslands and increased control of
naturally caused fires. Aboriginal burning is widely known to have been practiced in
California (cf. Lewis 1973), western North America (cf. Stewart 1963) and in various
18
parts of the Great Basin (Steward 1941: 281, 1943: 303; Stewart 1941: 376; Kelly 1932:
82) for the purpose of encouraging the growth of seed-bearing grasses or in game drives.
Native faunal populations have not been exempt from modification. Antelope are almost
extinct within the study area boundaries primarily due to competition with sheep
(domestic) and to a lesser extent with cattle. The faunal remains from South Fork Rock-
shelter to the northwest indicate an abundance of elk (cf. Heizer, Baumhoff and Clewlow
1968) but the presence of this species is not reported for historic times. Deer have
increased at the expense of antelope as the increases of shrubs and the decline of
perennial grasses has tended to favor them. A small number of Mountain sheep (Ovis
canadensis) are currently on the Grant Range although Hall (1946) notes that their range
was probably more extensive in the past.
In summary, the present vegetation and faunal patterns have changed greatly
due in a large part to Anglo-American impact on the area.
Summary
The study area and its immediate environs, while geologically complex and
floristically diverse, has a relatively simple and reasonably clearly defined vegetation
pattern. The Basin Floor/Playa Zone, made up of Garden and Coal Valleys, is occupied
by Atriplex confertifolia with some herbaceous cover. The Upper Bajada Zone (a zone of
coalescing alluvial fans) begins at about 5000 feet (1524 m) elevation and is dominated by
Artemisia tridentata and various grasses. This zone forms a narrow altitudinal band
between the Basin Floor/Playa Zone on the valley bottoms and the Lower Slope Zone
dominated by pinyon-juniper in its lower elevations. The Lower Slope Zone is found
between 6000 - 10,000 feet (1829-3048 m) elevation on the slopes of the various mountain
ranges present and is dominated by an open shrub woodland vegetation of Pinus monophylla
and Juniperus osteosperma with some herbaceous cover in its lower reaches while in the
higher elevations the overstory qpmposition isprimarily White fir (Abies concolor) with
an understory composition consisting mostly of sage (Artemisia Spp.) and grass with
mountain mahogany (Cercocarnus ledifolius) interspersed throughout. The Summit/Crest
Zone is located in high areas ranging from 8500 - 11,493 feet (2591-3503 m). Tree species
are primarily Bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) and limber pine (Pinus flexis). Some
Artemisia Spp., various grasses and forbs are present in the lower regions of the zone.
Substantial variation exists among these zones in terms of the variety, amount and
seasonal distribution of subsistence resources that could be utilized aboriginally.
19
Figure 3: Typical view of area showing Garden Valley and
Cherry Creek in the foreground and the Golden Gate Range in
the background. Basin Floor/Playa Zone and Upper Bajada
Zone Vegetation.
Figure 4: Typical view of area from Civa I (26-Ny-264).
Gate Range and Water Gap in upper right. Coal Valley and
Lake to the upper left. Basin Floor/Playa Zone and Upper
Zone vegetation.
Golden
Dry
Bajada
21
Chapter III
Ethnographic, Archaeological and Historical Overview
Introduction
The following brief summaries are included to provide the ethnographic,
archaeological and historical background for the study area. Ethnographic data from the
existing literature are used to identify the aboriginal territorial boundaries of the groups
occupying the region and to provide an ethnographic context for archaeological inter-
pretation. The data and the references presented below, while not extensive, are
provided primarily for background information and to form a framework in which to
place the archaeological evidence recovered from the excavations and site survey in the
study area.
The Ethnographic Record
The study area appears to have been held by the Shoshone and Southern
Paiute tribal groups (Kelly 1934: Map 1; Steward 1937, 1938; and Stewart 1966). Steward
(1937, 1938), Stewart (1966) and Euler (1966a) are in essential agreement with Kelly's
(1934) determination of the Southern Paiute boundaries and for our purposes, the boundaries
indicated by Kelly will be accepted as valid and accurate. Very little is known ethno-
graphically or ethnohistorically about the historic Southern Paiute inhabitants of the study
area. Within the area defined by Kelly (1934), the Southern Paiute were divided into
fifteen subgroups, bands, or tribes which are defined as "dialectic units with political
concommitants. " Steward (1938: 181) questions whether all of these groups fulfilled the
requirements of 'bands' and suggests that it is probable that the aboriginal number of
politically independent groups were nearer to Powell and Ingalls's (1874) list of 131 and
that this estimate was probably short of the actual number. Of these groups, only one is
known to have occupied or used a portion of Coal Valley and quite possibly Garden Valley
(cf. Steward 1937: 627 and Fig. 1). The boundaries of this group, listed by Hodge (1906:
Us, 202) as the Paraniguts ("people of the marshy spring"), recorded by Powell and Ingalls
(1874) as the "Paraniguts of Paranigut Valley,," by Kelly (1934) as the Paranigat and by
Fowler and Fowler (1971) as the Pahranaguts of Paranigut Valley (possibly a modernized
version of Powell and Ingalls's list) are located by Kelly (1934: 554) as follows:
"On the east they are bounded by Pahroc range, on the west
by Desert Valley. The northern boundary is best described
as passing between Irish Mountain and Golden Gate Range,
thence northeast to Pahroc Range. The southern boundary
crossed "Delmar Mountain" south of Coyote Spring to a point
just south of the dry lake in Desert Valley. The Shoshone,
speaking an unintelligible language, surround the Paranigat
on the north and west; with them relations were cordial."
22
Powell and Ingalls's (1874) list of tribes as presented in Fowler and Fowler
(1971: 104) mentions a 'Pah-ran-a-guts tribe' in the 'Paranigut Valley' with a population
of 65 men, 58 women and 48 children under the control of An-ti-av, chief in 1873. F. H.
Head (BIA 1868: 173-180), Superintendant Indian Affairs, Utah Superintendancy, notes
some details on the Pah ranagat I sic] and lists a population of 700 in 1867 but otherwise
gives little detailed information. There are no published ethnographic data on this band
except for a brief account of shamanistic practices by a Pahranagat Valley shaman
(Kelly 1939) although Sale (BIA 1865: 152-157), Acting Special Agent for the Utah
Superintendancy, does describe in some detail the Pahranagat Valley and the silver
mine near the present site of Hiko. Otherwise, he offers only very general information
on the Pai-utes within the southern boundaries of the Utah Territory.
Elsewhere, Kelly (1964) has detailed the ethnography of the Southern Paiute
while Euler (1966b) has compiled a volume on the ethnohistory. Recently Ruppert (1976)
has published an ethnographic summary of the Southern Paiute in the Lake Mead
recreation area.
The Southern Paiute generally followed a hunting/gathering lifeway - a broad
spectrum economy which made maximum use of a limited territorial range of micro-
environments. Kelly (1964), Stewart (1942) and Ruppert (1976) present a general view
of Southern Paiute subsistence. Limited farming was practiced by some groups, primarily
in the vicinity of the Muddy, Virgin and Santa Clara Rivers (cf. Fowler and Fowler 1971:
112; Winter 1976; Euler 1966b: 111-112; Kelly 1964: 39-41). The archaeological
evidence presented in Fowler, Madsen and Hattori (1973) for the Pahranagat Valley and
regions adjacent to the study area (Fig. 5) indicates that the valley was a center for
Southern Paiute peoples who utilized the springs in the area for the irrigation of some
crops. Fowler, et.al. (1973:7) quote a letter from James M. Day to Governor Henry G.
Blasdel of Nevada dated August 25, 1865 from the Carson City Appeal concerning the
Paiutes (Southern) use of the vhlley. The letter describes the "'Parranagut Mining
District" (cf. Hulse 1971) and adds:
"The Indians in the vicinity of these mines are a band of the
Piute tribe, about four hundred strong, and know but little
of the White man. But a few of them had ever seen a 'pale
face' before they saw our party. They are disposed to be
friendly and are industrious.
"To a limited extent and in a rude manner they cultivate the
soil; raise wheat, corn, pumpkins, irrigate the soil by
conveying water through ditches constructed by them the
distance of a half mile in some instances with no other
tools than sharpened sticks to work with. "
Fowler, et. al. (1973:7) suggests that the wheat may have been derived from that planted
by a Mormon exploring party in 1858 in Meadow Valley (Fig. 5).
23
While the study area was apparently shared by both the Southern Paiute and
Shoshone (Kelly 1934: Map 1; Stewart 1966; Steward 1937, 1938), ethnographic data on
the Shoshone groups of the area is limited. Steward (1938) has some recorded information
for the Shoshone of Railroad Valley (pp. 117-121) to the west; the groups to the north in the
Ely area (pp. 121-123); for the Spring, Snake and Antelope Valley Shoshone to the north-
east and east (pp. 123-131); and Cave Valley to the east (p. 131) but has no references
for any of the Garden/Coal Valley area except for a map notation "Shoshoni and Southern
Paiute" (1938: Fig. 8).
Apparently the Railroad Valley Shoshone utilized the Quinn Canyon Range
(Shoshoni name - Biadoya) for pinyon nut gathering in the fall (Steward 1938: 117-118)
although Steward also notes that the Tybo Creek band in the Kawich Mountains (1938: 111)
also knew of the Quinn Canyon Mountains but did not journey to them for pinyon nut
gathering.
Population density in the Railroad Valley area has been estimated at approx-
imately 1 person per 9 square miles (Steward 1938: 117).
In general the Shoshone groups ringing the study area followed a hunting/
gathering economy similar to the Southern Paiute, based on the gathering of various plant
resources (especially seed and pinyon nuts) and the hunting of various small to large
mammals (especially rabbits, deer and bighorn sheep). No horticulture was practiced by
the eastern Shoshone groups although Steward (1938: 119) notes the practice of sowing wild
seeds for future harvest.
The hunting/gathering lifeway of the Shoshone has been described and discussed
by Steward (1938, 1955, 1970), summarized in numerous doctoral dissertations on the
Great Basin (cf. Thomas 1971a) and discussed in many papers (Thomas 1971b, 1972a, b,
1973a; Davis 1963; among many others). It will not be discussed in this report although
references to the "Shoshone Lifeway" will refer to the general patterns discussed in
previously cited works.
The Archaeological Record
Archaeological research in the eastern Nevada portion of the eastern Great
Basin in the vicinity of the study area has been limited (cf. Hester 1973 for a brief review
of the area). The following pages will review and summarize the archaeological research
dealing with several of the major sites and surveys in the immediate and surrounding
region that are of value in understanding and comparing the data from Garden and Coal
Valleys.
Dr. Don D. Fowler of the Desert Research Institute (University of Nevada,
Reno) has directed several research programs of excavation and archaeological survey
in eastern Nevada during the past 10 years (Fowler 1968a, b; Fowler, Madsen and Hattori
24
1973). Eighty-six sites have been recorded in a survey to the northwest of the study area
in Elko, Eureka and White Pine Counties. Of these, five have Shoshone ceramics present
and Puebloid pottery was collected from two sites. Projectile points noted durirn the
survey include Desert Side Notched, Rose Spring, and Eastgate Series, Cottonwood
Triangular, Elko Series and Humboldt Concave Base points (Fowler 1968a). The major
site excavated by Fowler (1968b) during his research was Newark Cave in White Pine
County (Fig. 6). The site yielded a stratigraphic sequence of Desert Side Notched,
Eastgate, Rose Spring, Cottonwood, Elko and Humboldt Series projectile points dating
between A.D. 1100 and 3000 B. C. Shoshone ceramics were common in the upper deposits
and one Snake Valley Black-on-Gray sherd was recovered from 0-20 cm implying contact
to the east with the Fremont Culture. Faunal remains indicated a major reliance on
small mammals, especially lagomorphs (Sylvilagus spp., Lepus spp.) and Marmots (M.
flaviventris). Large mammals noted included antelope, deer and tentatively Bison bison.
Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) was represented by only a few bones.
In summary Fowler (1968b) indicates that the inhabitants of Newark Cave
followed a lifeway comparable to that of the Desert Archaic, hunting rabbits, marmots
and some artiodactyls while gathering various seeds and pinyon nuts. The intermittent
or seasonal occupation has been radiocarbon dated as falling between ca. 3000 B. C. and
A. D. 1100.
In 1973, Fowler, Madsen and Hattori, as part of their continuing interest in
southeastern Nevada published the "Prehistory of Southeastern Nevadat? based on the
excavation of three major archaeological sites, O'Malley Shelter, Conaway Shelter and the
Scott Site, all located between 50-70 miles (80-112 km) east of the study area. In
addition, they conducted a general archaeological survey and a series of test excavations
in the Lower White River Valley; Pahranagat Valley and Pahroc Range area; Delmar
Valley and Mountains; Dry LaIe Valley; Upper Meadow Valley Drainage; Middle Meadow
Valley; Clover Creek; Cedar Ridge; Rainbow Canyon area; upper and lower Beaver Dam
Wash area; and the Fairview Range and Mule Shoe Valley (Fig. 5).
OMalley Shelter, 16 miles (26 km) east of Caliente is a south facing solution
formed cavity situated in mixed sagebrush-juniper vegetation. A pinyon-juniper woodland
lies immediately north of the site. The deposits of the shelter consist of alternating
layers of cultural debris and naturally deposited alluvium. Several sequential occupation
units have been defined. Unit I is the oldest cultural unit and is characterized by Elko
Series points. Unit II is the largest cultural unit and contained numerous artifacts,
including Pinto and Humboldt series projectile points. Unit III is characterized by a
large number of Gypsum projectile points. Unit IV has been labelled as "transitional"
due to the presence of both Elko and Gypsum Series points. Unit V is described as
Fremont-Anasazi and is characterized by Snake Valley and North Creek Gray ceramics
as well as Rose Spring Series projectile points. Unit VI is noted by the appearance of
Shoshonean pottery and Eastgate series points mixed with Fremont and Puebloid
cultural materials. Unit VII is classified as historic. The suite of C-14 dates for the
site (cf. Fowler, et. al. 1973: 15) suggests an occupation range of 5150 B. C. to A. D. 1060.
25
Figure 5: Study/Reconnaissance
areas of Fowler, Madsen and
Hattori (1973).
26
The O'Malley Shelter data indicate an intermittent occupation of over 7000
years. Desert Archaic material is present in Units I - IV existing from ca. 7200 B. P.
to ca. 6000 B. P. for a first occupation and from 4600 B. P. to ca. 3000 B. P. for the
second. An apparent hiatus is present between Units II and III accounting for the two
different occupations. Radiocarbon samples from Units IV and V apparently indicate a
second occupational hiatus of over 2000 years duration between the two layers. Fowler,
et. al. (1973: 35) suggest that the gap between the Desert Archaic and Fremont occupation
may possibly be around 1000 years (rather than 2000 years) similar to the hiatus at the
nearby Conaway Shelter.
Unit V represents occupation by the Parowan Fremont at ca. A. D. 1000 and
the presence of Virgin Branch ceramics suggests either tradeware or actual occupation
of the site by groups from the south. A time range of A.D. 950 - A.D. 1200-1300 is
postulated for this occupation.
Unit VI is characterized by both Fremont and Shoshonean components suggesting
either separate or concurrent use. Fowler, et. al. (1973) suggest that these data supports
the thesis of a Shoshonean entry into the area around A. D. 1000.
Continued utilization of the site by Shoshonean groups is noted in Unit VII. No
radiocarbon dates are available for Units VI and VII but it is suggested (Fowler, et. al.
1977: 55-56) that deposition in Unit VI dates from ca. A. D. 1100 with the Fremont component
ending at ca. A. D. 1300 while Unit VII deposition ends at ca. A. D. 1965. Much of the
material in the disturbed Unit VII is attributed to historic Anglo use.
Subsistence at O'Malley Shelter was based on the gathering and hunting of
locally available plant and animal foods. The brief faunal analysis presented (Fowler, et.
al. 1973: 49-51) suggests a dependence on large herbivores (deer, bighorn sheep) and
small mammals, primarily lagomorphs. The major activity at the site for all occupations
was the production of chipped stone artifacts primarily from locally available obsidian
(53%) and chalcedony (31%) nodules. The Conaway Shelter located 5 miles (8 km) south
of Caliente in Echo Canyon and southwest of Etna Cave (Wheeler 1942) had slightly under
6 meters of deposit present with seven distinct cultural levels interleaved between seven
sterile alluvial strata. Strata VII, the earliest occupation level, and VI both have Elko
Series projectile points present and are followed by a Western Fremont and Puebloid
occupation (Stratum V) with Rose Spring, Cottonwood and Elko Series points present.
Stratum IV is characterized by a mixed Fremont, Puebloid and Shoshonean occupation with
Snake Valley Gray Ware, Puebloid ceramics and Shoshonean tradition pottery present in
association with Rose Spring and Cottonwood and Elko Series points present. Strata II
and m are mixed Shoshonean and Fremont occupations, based on the ceramics and
projectile points (Rose Spring and Desert Side Notched points). Stratum I yields a large
number of Shoshonean ceramics and an Eastgate Series projectile point.
Three intermittent occupations occurring between ca. 1000 B. C. to historic
times are represented at the Conaway Site. The first occupation was by a Desert Archaic
27
group around A. D. 1 or earlier. The second occupation by Puebloan peoples around A. D.
1000 occurred after an occupation hiatus of ca. 900-1000 years. This was followed by a
Parowan Fremont occupation which was in turn coeval in part with a Shoshonean occupation
continuing into the historic period.
Subsistence at the site was based on the gathering and hunting of locally
available plants and animal foods. The list of identifiable bones from the shelter (Fowler,
et. al. 1973: Table 24) indicates an apparent reliance on bighorn sheep, mule deer, jack-
rabbit and cottontail rabbits. The chipped stone industry, as at O'Malley Shelter, shows
a preference for the use of obsidian (60. 5%) over chalcedony (78. 5%).
Six miles (10 km) from the O'Malley Shelter and 13 miles (21 km) southeast
of Panaca is the Scott Site. At an elevation of 7014 feet (2138 km), the site is located in
the immediate vicinity of a fossil spring. The midden deposit varied from 25-119 cm in
depth with no apparent stratigraphy present. Fremont and Puebloan ceramics were found
throughout the fill with Shoshonean Ware sherds occurring only in the upper 20 cm of the
deposit. Elko and Rose Spring Series projectile points were recovered from all levels of
the midden deposit. A small assemblage of chipped stone and bone artifacts were also
recovered. The Scott Site has been interpreted as as open camp site around a spring
probably used as a temporary hunting camp. The faunal remains present indicate that
bighorn sheep, mule deer and rabbits were hunted. Fowler, et. al. (1973: 70) suggest
that the site may have been utilized as a pinyon gathering site although they note that very
few grinding implements were recovered and that pinyon pines are few and widely scattered
in the area at present.
Primary occupation was by Western Fremont (Parowan subarea) groups with
concurrent or subsequent occupation by Shoshonean groups. The single radiocarbon
determination of 970 + 120 years is in general agreement with other dates from the area.
The archaeological survey of the previously mentioned areas (Fig. 5) conducted
by Fowler and his associated between 1967 and 1970 recorded a total of 151 sites for the
surveyed area. Of these, six were tested and the previously described sites, O'Malley
Shelter, Conaway Shelter and the Scott Site extensively excavated. Fowler, et. al. (1973:
Table Al) have classified the recorded sites as follows:
1.    Petrograph Sites - 28 recorded. Petroglyph and pictograph
panels. Some found single, others on the wall of occupied
shelters or adjacent to camp or lithic sites.
2.    Rockshelters - 32 recorded. Occupation sites in rock-
shelters yielding evidences of continued or sporadic
aboriginal occupation.
3.    Open Camp/Gathering Sites - 46 recorded. Sites with
pottery and/or ground stone artifacts mixed with lithic
28
debris. Usually located on ridges of knolls adjacent to
springs or streams within pinyon-juniper areas, but
found within creosote and black brush areas in the
Pahranagat Valley.
4.     Chipping Stations - 37 recorded. Sites with concentrations
of lithic debris, but lacking pottery or ground stone.
Usually located on ridges or knolls overlooking springs,
water course or game trails.
5.    Hunting Blinds - 5 recorded. Low, dry laid rock walls, usually
circular or semi-circular, located at heads of canyons or
other areas commanding game trails or springs.
6.    Architectural Sites - 5 recorded. Confined to lower
Beaver Dam Wash area. Surface evidences of unit pueblo
or pit house construction. Collected artifacts indicate
cultural affiliation with tIe Virgin Branch Anasazi culture.
7.    Historic Sites - 10 recorded. Includes graves, cabin
foundations and mill ruins.
8.    Miscellaneous - 1 site. So-called "Indian Playground."
Tables A2-A12 in the report (Fowler, et. al. 1973: 101-118) present the site descriptions,
locations and other data for the surveyed sites. Six of the surveyed sites were tested for
cultural remains and the results are summarized below.
Site 26LN112 is a rodkshelter at an elevation of 4400 feet (1342 m) in an
unnamed canyon which enters Rainbow Canyon near Elgin. Two petroglyph panels and
three pictograph panels are present on the back wall of the shelter (Fowler, et. al. 1973:
Fig. A2, c-f). Three strata were noted during the excavations with only Stratum I
yielding any culturally and temporally diagnostic artifacts. Ceramics from this level
included Shoshone Ware, Fremont ceramics (Snake Valley Gray) and Puebloid pottery
(Shinarum Brown) along with a Rose Spring Corner Notched point. Stratum II had only
obsidian and chalcedony debitage present. The site data are interpreted as the result of
a brief pre-ceramic or possibly non-ceramic occupation followed by a later brief occupation
by Puebloan and Shoshonean groups.
Site 26LN204 is a shallow rockshelter on the east side of the Pahranagat Valley
at an elevation of 4052 feet (1235 kIn) slightly north of Hiko Lake. Badly vandalized, the
site yielded Shoshonean and Puebloan ceramics (Shinarump Brown, Snake Valley Gray,
Snake Valley Black-on-Gray) and an Elko Corner Notched point as well as several other
chipped stone artifacts. Recovered faunal remains include bighorn sheep, mule deer,
jackrabbit, cottontail, badger and domestic cow. The site was apparently occupied during
Puebloan and Shoshonean periods.
29
Site 26LN241 is another small rockshelter at an elevation of 6700 feet (2042 m)
on the east flank of Mount Irish on the west side of the Pahranagat Valley. Two strata
were observed with the upper 10 cm of the deposit yielding Shoshonean Ware ceramics and
a Rose Spring Corner Notched point. Two Elko Eared and one Elko Corner Notched points
were recovered from the lower 15 cm of Stratum I. Faunal remains include bighorn
sheep, bobcat, cottontail and mule deer. Historic Anglo refuse was present on the
surface. The presence of Shoshonean ceramics and a Rose Spring point indicate minimal
use of the site by Shoshonean peoples while the Elko Series points may indicate an earlier
brief use by Desert Archaic peoples (Fowler, et. al. 1973: 123).
Site 26LN401 is a small cave in the immediate vicinity of the Conaway Site at
an elevation of 4600 feet (1403 m). Four strata were recognized, two of which had
cultural materials present. The uppermost stratum contained a Shoshone Ware sherd
and several waste flakes. Stratum III, beneath a culturally sterile Stratum II, contained
a Snake Valley Gray sherd and a worked bone object. Fowler, et. al. (1973: 124) suggest
that these two occupations are probably related to the occupation of the Conaway Site down
the canyon.
The badly vandalized Stine Canyon Shelter I (26LN402) is a small cave located
near the confluence of Stine Canyon at an elevation of 4234 feet (1290 m). No stratigraphy
was present in the 25-75 cm thick deposit due to previous vandalism. Fremont and
Shoshonean artifacts and numerous organic remains were recovered. A small number of
cultigen remains including Fremont dent corn, beans (Pahseolus vulgaris), pumpkin
(Curcurbita pepo) and wild coyote melon fragment (Curcurbita palmeta or feotidissima)
were recovered. The recovery of these specimens appears to strengthen the inference
that horticulture was practiced in the Meadow Valley area during the Puebloan period as
well as confirm an 1865 report that Southern Paiute were practicing horticulture in the
area (Fowler, et. al. 1973: 133).
Stine Canyon Shelter II (26LN406), a large rockshelter, is on the south side of
Stine Canyon and ca. 2 km upstream from the confluence of the canyon with Meadow Valley
Wash. Over 160 red and yellow zoomorphic, anthropomorphic and geometric pictographs
are present on the walls and ceiling of the site (cf. Fowler, et. al. 1973: figs. A11-A13).
Seven strata, 3 containing cultural materials were noted in the test excavations. Stratum
I had 2 Shoshonean sherds plus 12 flakes present; Stratum IV contained Snake Valley Grey
pottery and waste flakes; and Stratum VI had 5 Elko Eared point fragments, a Gypsum
Type A point, 2 gaming pieces, a scraper, core, flake tool and 136 pieces of lithic debitage
present. The occupation apparently represents intermittent use by Desert Archaic,
Puebloan and Shoshonean groups.
Summary
A tentative reconstruction of the area has been offered by Fowler, et. al. (1973),
based on a series of excavations and an archaeological reconnaissance. The study area
was initially occupied by Desert Archaic peoples around 7000 B. P. Occupying O'Malley
30
Shelter and other open sites in the area, they utilized local plant and animal foods.
Faunal remains indicate the hunting of bison, bighorn sheep, mule deer, birds, rabbits,
ground squirrel and other rodents. Large amounts of lithic debitage at O'Malley Shelter
indicate the manufacture of chipped stone tools utilizing locally available obsidian and
chalcedony nodules. This occupation by Desert Archaic peoples continued intermittently
until ca. A.D. 1 with several periods of 'abandonment' for the area postulated as
occurring between ca. 6500 B. P. - 4600 B. P., 3000/2000 B. P. - ca. A.D. 1 and ca.
A.D. 1 until ca. A.D. 1000.
The area was then re-occupied ca. A. D. 1000 by Puebloan peoples probably
from the Parowan Fremont subarea to the east but possibly also by groups from the
Virgin Branch Anasazi region to the south. The artifacts from the Fremont occupation
indicate a lifeway based on horticulture as well as on hunting and gathering. During this
period there appears to be a reliance on small game rather than on the hunting of large
mammals. Site survey results suggest some reliance on the gathering of pinyon nuts as
a large number of sites are located among the pinyons. No pueblos were noted and it is
suggested that the occupation may have been seasonal or intermittent rather than per-
manent (Fowler, et. al. 1973: 72). Some trade was carried on as indicated by the presence
of Virgin Branch ceramics from the south.
The Puebloan groups abandoned the area ca. A.D. 1000-1200 prior to which
Sohsohnean peoples had entered the area. Ceramics and artifacts of both groups co-
occur at O'Malley Shelter implying two distinct cultures and ceramic traditions. Alternate
or coeval occupation cd the area is postulated and it is suggested that the apparent paucity
of Fremont ceramics in the Pahranagat Valley may indicate that Shoshonean groups
were the principal occupants of this valley but may have ranged eastward into Meadow
Valley to hunt and gather pinyon nuts as well as to trade with the Fremont peoples.
Fowler, et. al. (1973: 135) suggest that the Delamar and Highland mountains mark the
southwestern boundary of the Palrowan Fremont range.
The Shoshonean groups followed a hunting/gathering lifeway and remained in
the area until historic times after the disappearance of the Fremont people around A. D.
1200-1300. Some horticulture was practiced by the Southern Paiutes. From the survey
and excavations, it is apparent that the area was marginal to both the Parowan Fremont
and Virgin Branch peoples and may have served primarily as a hunting and gathering
region rather than as an occupation locus.
In summary, based on Fowler, et. al.'s research, the archaeological record
for the area indicates intermittent occupation by three cultural groups - the Desert
Archaic, the Puebloan (Parowan Fremont and Virgin Branch Anasazi) and the Shoshoneans -
between ca. 7000 B. P. and the historic period.
In the Caliente area near the Conaway Shelter site (cf. Fowler, Madsen and
Hattori 1973), Wheeler (1942; also 1935, 1937a, b, 1938, 1939) has reported on the
excavation of Etna Cave (Map 5). Fowler (1973) undertook a restudy of the available
31
materials from the site and reprinted the original site report. Wheeler interpreted the
material found in the upper levels of the site as belonging to the Basket Maker-Pueblo
phase established for the lower Virgin Valley to the south. Fowler (1973) notes that the
uppermost Pueblo II level ceramics were probably a mixed collection of Parowan Fremont
and Virgin Branch types. The Basket Maker m level ceramics have been classed as
Snake Valley Gray assignable to the Parowan Fremont culture or North Creek Fugitive-
Red from the Virgin Branch area (Fowler 1973: 3). Fowler (1973) assumes this Basket
Maker III level to simply be the lower level of a Pueblo II and m occupation based in part
on the ceramics and the presence of Fremont basketry.
The Basket Maker II occupation beneath the Basket Maker III deposition was
made on the basis of projectile points (Wheeler 1942). Elko Series and Gypsum Series
points are present in this level. From sites in the vicinity, Elko Series points have a
time range of over 7000 years while Gypsum Series points have a span of between
2500 B. C. - A. D. 1000 (cf. Fowler, et. al. 1973: Tables 1 and 4). Once thought to be an
Early Man site based on the apparent association of a Gypsum Cave point with 'Pleistocene'
horse dung, restudy and C-14 determinations of the materials coupled with comparisons
and dates from other sites indicate no 'great' antiquity for the site. Based on the present
C-14 dates and projectile points/ceramics present, it 4appears that the site dates from
ca. 4000 B. C. to ca. 800 B. P., a temporal span not inconsistent with other sites in
the area (cf. Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973).
Aside from Fowler's extensive work in southeastern Nevada, work in the
immediate and near vicinity of the study area has been extremely limited. Dr. Richard
Brooks of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, has been actively conducting fieldwork in
the area for the past several years under contract for various public land managing
agencies. Several site surveys and excavations (Brooks 1974, 1976, 1977) have been
completed and reported on in preliminary form. The Mount Wilson Fire Rehabilitation
Area Surface Survey (Brooks 1974) was an intensive surface reconnaissance of ca. 2500
acres in central eastern Lincoln County on the east side of the Wilson Creek Range (cf.
Fig. 5). Vegetation in the area is pinyon/juniper, rabbit brush, various grasses with a
riparian biota present in the vicinity of the springs. The average elevation of the survey
area is 7000 feet (2134 m). Ninety sites were located with the heaviest site concentrations
present on ridge top, ridge edges, alluvial slopes and adjacent to springs. Fifty-seven
sites were classified as lithic scatters; 13 had lithic debitage and pottery present; nine
had manos and metates; and nine had stone circles (architectural features) present.
The preliminary data analysis indicates an apparent association of Rose Spring
Series, Cottonwood Triangular and Desert Site Notched projectile points. Elko Eared,
Pinto and Humboldt Series along with Northern Side Notched points were noted at isolated
sites. Shoshone Fremont and Puebloid ceramics were recovered from several sites and
Brooks has assigned a temporal range of ca. A. D. 800 - Historic for them. A tentative
chronology based on "current literature interpretations" of the projectile point typologies
is offered in the report and is presented below.
Cottonwood Series           ca. A.D. 900 - Historic
Desert Side Notched         ca. A.D. 900 - Historic
32
Eastgate/Rose Spring Series  ca. A. D. 1 - Historic
Gypsum Series               ca. 2000 B. C. - ?
Elko Series                 ca. 2000 B.C. - A.D. 1000
Pinto Series                ca. 3000 B.C. - 500 B.C.
Humboldt Series             ca. 4000 B. C. - A.D. 500
A tentative use/occupation range of 4000 B. C. - Historic has been assigned to the area.
A right-of-way archaeological survey commissioned by the Nevada State
Highway Department in the White River drainage resulted in the locating of 15 sites
along a 10 mile portion of SR-38 about 15.7 miles (25.3 km) north of Hiko (Brooks 1976).
Elevenof the sites are small lithic scatters with no diagnostic projectile points present.
The remaining sites are 3 small rockshelters, one with petroglyphs present, and a
petroglyph site in association with a small lithic scatter. One rockshelter site (LN 618)
associated with several petroglyph panels was excavated as part of the highway mitigation
program and is summarized below.
The Mariah Site (26-Ln-618) is the only excavated rockshelter site in the
immediate vicinity of the study area. Located in the southwest corner of Lincoln County
approximately 7 miles north of Hiko along SR-38, the site was excavated by the Nevada
Archaeological Survey, Southern Division under the direction of Richard Brooks in 1976
(Brooks 1977). Facing to the north and located in the sagebrush-grass zone, the site is
associated with a petroglyph panel with elements consisting of parallel lines, geometric
designs and mountain sheep. A series of test units were excavated and varied in depth from
1 meter to slightly under 3 meters. Seven strata were defined in the preliminary report
for the midden deposit (cf. Brooks 1977: 25-28) and a varied assemblage of artifacts and
cultural materials was recovered. Eleven diagnostic projectile points, Cottonwood
Triangular, Desert Side Notched, Eastgate and Rose Spring Series, and Elko Series
were recovered from the deposits., Fremont ceramics from the Parowan subarea (Snake
Valley Black-on-Gray, Sevier Gray plus several undefined types) predominate (96. 5%)
while Virgin Branch ceramics comprise 3. 5% of the total. No Shoshone Tradition ceramics
were noted. The aboriginal occupation of the site was probably related to seasonal use
for gathering and hunting. No faunal analysis is presented in the report but the recovered
materials include burnt artiodactyl long bones. Brooks (1977: 46) has assigned a time
range of A. D. 950 - A. D. 1200-1300 for the occupation of the site based on a radiocarbon
date and the recovered temporally diagnostic artifacts.
Heizer and Hester (1973) have reported on a series of petroglyph sites in the
Lower White River Valley to the north of the Mariah Site and to the east of the study area.
Styles present include Great Basin Curvilinear, Rectilinear, Representational and
Scratched. Puebloan influence is apparent at several of the sites. Aside from the site
descriptions and figures presented in Fowler, Madsen and Hattori (1973) and Townley
(1970), this is the only published study on rock art in the immediate area.
Within the boundaries of the study area, Busby (1977) has reported on the
33
excavation of a small rockshelter in the northern portion of the Golden Gate Range.
Several test excavations recovered Rose Spring Corner Notched, Cottonwood Triangular
and Desert Side Notched projectile points along with a small ground and chipped stone
artifact assemblage. The site has been interpreted as a temporary campsite probably
intermittently occupied by Shoshone/Southern Paiute groups sometime between A. D. 600/
700 to Historic times.
York (1977), as part of the Bureau of Land Management's efforts to publicize
the research potential of government 'in-house' cultural resource management reports/
surveys, has published a series of short reports on the Sunnyside area on the northern
boundary of the study area. Two lithic scatters were noted, one with Pueblo Black-on-
White and Shoshone ceramics present and the other with an Elko Series projectile point.
Both sites have been interpreted as seasonal camps. To the northwest York (1975) has
reported on preliminary research in Long Valley, White Pine County (Fig. 6). Tadlock's
(1966) initial report on the area reported surface collections that included crescents
(Great Basin Transverse Points) associated with 'early' projectile point types (Clovis,
Folsom, Scottsbluff, Angostura). York reported 55 sites primarily lithic scatters and
test excavated 5 sites to check for subsurface culturarmaterials. Pinto style points (the
most common), one Hell Gap point, a Type III "Butterfly" crescent, Shoshone ceramics,
various stemmed projectile points and food grinding implements were among the artifacts
recovered during the research on the valley floor. A surface reconnaissance of the
surrounding mountain periphery recorded four quarry sites and one rockshelter yielding
Elko Series, Desert Side Notched and Gypsum Cave points. York (1975) interprets the
data to suggest that the Long Valley floor was mainly utilized during the Holocene (Anatherma
Period) by aboriginal peoples exploiting an environment that was radically different from
the present. The early forms of projectile points appear to suggest a temporal placement
of between 9000 B. C. - 5000 B. C. (York 1975: 9) with later occupations present in the
surrounding mountains. A final report on the research has not yet been published.
Recent work by Fowler (1976) in the Cave Lake area of t1e Schell Creek Range
has led to the recording of 12 archaeological sites, preliminary lithic scatters. Artifacts
collected during the survey and test excavations included Snake Valley Gray Ware,
Shoshone Ware, Gypsum Series A, Rose Spring Corner Notched, Elko Eared, Elko Corner
Notched and Desert Side Notched projectile points along with a small assemblage of ground
and chipped stone artifacts. One pictograph site was also noted.
The archaeological evidence is interpreted by Fowler (1976) as being indicative
of intermittent occupation by Desert Archaic, Parowan Fremont and Shoshonean groups
between ca. 3000 B. P. to historic times concerned with exploiting local plant and animal
foods. Seasonal occupation during the fall is suggested for the gathering of pinyon nuts.
Several site reports and archaeological surveys are available for the Baker
area in White Pine County near the Utah border and to the northeast of the study area
(Fig. 6).
34
The Smith Creek Canyon area has several sites present. Preliminary work
by M. R. Harrington (1926) at a large cave (Wh-26) at the mouth of the canyon yielded
Pueblo pottery. Black-on-Gray sherds, corn cobs, and a 'Pueblo' pitcher were noted in
Indian Council Cave, also in Smith Creek Canyon (Harrington 1926).
Smith Creek Cave, tested by Harrington in 1934, yielded the remains of a
Pleistocene horse from the base of the cave deposits. Harrington noted that the horse
bones were split and he attributed the fractures to cultural activities. Wheeler's (1936)
excavations yielded numerous horse bones and those of the extinct giant condor (Teratornis,
cf. Howard 1952). Recent excavations by Bryan (1972) uncovered 3 occupations of the
site. The earliest has been identified as an "undisturbed Lake Mohave Period living
floor" with a small assemblage of stone and bone artifacts. Following the "Lake
Mohave" occupation and separated by 2 meters of 'fossiliferous red silt' is an occupation
characterized by the presence of a Rose Spring Corner Notched projectile point. The
last occupation of the cave was by Puebloid peoples. Amy's Shelter, also in Smith Creek
Canyon, has been excavated by Gruhn (1972). Originally noted by S. M. Wheeler (1936),
the shelter contains a complex cultural sequence. Stream laid deposits near the base of
the excavations contain occasional chert flakes and bone fragments. A Lake Mohave
projectile point and two lanceolate points similar to the Humboldt Concave Base type along
with lithic debitage were found in the "Brown IX' alluvial fan deposit as indicators of the
earliest human occupation of the site. The overlying "Brown VIII" stragum yielded
Humboldt Series points and a large square-based lanceolate projectile form. Units
"Yellow VII, VI and Brown VI" are characterized by Gypsum Cave points. Large corner
notched points were found in the overlying "Yellow V"' unit and the following "Brown V'
stratum yielded numerous large corner-notched points resembling the Elko Corner
Notched point type along with scrapers, bifaces, choppers, hammerstones, several bone
awls, a few manos and a milling stone (metate?). A large amount of cultural debris was
also present. Succeeding levels or layers have corner notched or basal notched and barbed
projectile points (Rose Spring-Eastgate Series??) present. Two Puebloid ceramic sherds
occur in "Brown II." The upper 10 cm of the deposit is attributed to historic aboriginal
occupation. Faunal remains are noted as being from mammals in the bighorn sheep/
antelope/deer size range with the remains of small mammals and birds also present.
Gruhy (1972) suggests a virtually continuous occupation of the site from 10, 000 years to
historic times.
Kachina Cave, located in the near vicinity of Amy's Shelter, has recently
been re-excavated by Tuohy (1971). Originally excavated by Harrington (1932), the site's
name derives from the Kachina-like pictographs on the rockshelter walls. Tuohy (1971)
has discerned at least eleven clearly separate occupations, ending with the historic period.
The first occupation of the shelter was probably more than two or three thousand years
ago and is characterized by the presence of large corner notched projectile points similar
to those found in the "Yellow V"' unit at nearby Amy's Shelter (Gruhn 1972). Puebloid
ceramics (Snake Valley Gray ware), corn cobs, bone beads and ornaments and projectile
points typologically similar to Rose Spring Corner Notched and the Eastgate Series were
found in the upper levels. Tuohy (1971) attributes the last occupation of the site to
Shoshonean groups involved in the baking of yucca and the hunting of mountain sheep.
35
Snake Creek Canyon, also near Baker, was briefly surveyed by Shutler (1961).
Two rockshelter sites, Wh-42 and Wh-43, yielded North Creek Gray ceramics as well
as several other artifacts. Shutler (1961) classifies these sites as temporary campsites
probably used during spring, summer and fall for hunting and gathering purposes. No
temporal span has been assigned to the two shelters.
Rusco (1970) has a brief report on a petroglyph site in the Snake Range near
Baker. Four styles, Great Basin Curvilinear, Rectilinear, Representational and Pit
and Groove were present. She suggests a time range of 5000/3000 B. C. to A. D. 1500
for the site based on the styles present. Three other sites in White Pine County are
also noted.
Taylor (1954) has reported on the Garrison Site slightly to the east of Baker,
Nevada (Fig. 6). Classified as a "sedentary gardening community" growing maize and
squash, the site yielded Snake Valley Gray, Corrugated, Black-on-Gray, Sevier Gray
and Greal Salt Lake Gray and is located within the boundaries of the Parowan Fremont
subarea (cf. Madsen 1977: Fig. 1). Two house types are present. One is the adobe
Kanosh type with the second a large single roomed unit with jacal walls erected in a pit.
Subsistence appears to have relied on a combination of agriculture and hunting/gathering.
Faunal remains indicate a reliance on antelope and mountain sheep. Taylor (1954)
suggests a date of A. D. 1000 based on the ceramics but the recent compilation by Madsen
(1977) would appear to suggest a range of A.D. 400-1350 (?).
The Moapa Valley (Fig. 6) of southern Nevada has been a region of archaeological
emphasis since the original survey by Harrington (1929). This area contains evidence of
the Pueblo intrusion into southern Nevada around A. D. 500 with architecture and ceramics
present similar to those of the Southwest. The movement of Pueblo peoples into the area
may have been due in part to fluctuations in rainfall patterns in the Southwest (cf. Aschmann
1958; Kroeber 1939). While Harrington (1930) and others (cf. Osborne 1941; Colton 1945;
Schroeder 1953; Shutler 1956; Shutler and Shutler 1962) have conducted excavations and
reconnaissances in southern Nevada since the 1930s, Shutler's (1961) investigations and
analysis of Harrington's data on the Puebloid remains at "Lost City" or Pueblo Grande
de Nevada have resulted in the definition of a four phase "Virgin Branch" cultural
sequence.
I. Moapa Phase              ? - A.D. 500        (Basketmaker ID)
II. Muddy River Phase       A.D. 500 - A.D. 700  (Basketmaker HI)
mI. Lost City Phase          A.D. 700 - 1100
IV. Mesa House Phase         A.D. 1100 - 1150     (Pueblo II)
Each phase has been described in some detail (architecture, ceramics, artifacts, etc.)
by Shutler (1961: 67-69) and will not be summarized here.
Based on his work both at Lost City and in the surrounding region, Shutler has
postulated a time range of A. D. 500 to A. D. 1150 for the Pueblo intrusion into southern
36
Nevada suggests a range of A.D. 700-1100 for the Puebloid occupation in contradiction
to Shutler (1961). The Southern Paiute entrance into southern Nevada is believed by
Shutler (1961: 69) to have occurred between A.D. 700 and A. D. 1100 with occupation
continuing into Historic times. "Diagnostic" artifacts associated with the Southern Paiute
are brownware ceramics (primarily Southern Paiute Brownware - cf. Baldwin 1950) and
Desert Side Notched and triangular projectile points.
Stuart Rockshelter to the south in the Meadow Valley Wash area north of
Moapa (Fig. 6) has Pinto Series projectile points dated at ca. 2000 B. C. occurring in an
"early hunters and gatherers" occupation at the base of the cultural deposits (Shutler,
Shutler and Griffith 1960). Basketmaker D and III occupations are present from A. D. 300
to A.D. 700 (estimated ) (Shutler, et.al. 1960: 14). Pueblo occupation is present from
A. D. 700-1150 with a mixed Southern Paiute/Pueblo occupation occurring in the top 12
inches of the deposit. Shutler, et. al. (1960: 14-15) have classified the site as a hunting
gathering campsite.
The Nevada Test Site and Nuclear Rocket Development Station comprising
much of southern Nye County to the southwest of the study area (Fig. 6) has been the focus
of several archaeological investigations (Worman 1966, 1967, 1969; Townley 1968;
Tuohy 1965). Seventeen sites ranging open lithic scatters, rockshelters/small caves
and petroglyph sites along with fifteen isolated finds are described by Worman (1969) in
his monograph. Surface collections and materials recovered from several test excavations
include a wide range of cultural materials (scrapers, bifaces, drills, trade beads, etc.);
temporally diagnostic projectile points and ceramics (Southern Paiute Brownware, Lino
Gray, Logandale Gray, Boulder Gray, Moapa Black-on-Gray, North Creek Black-on-Gray,
and Corrugated, Tsegi Orange Ware); and chert and obsidian lithic debitage.
One large open site, the McKinnis Site on the east slope of Timber Mountain
(cf. Worman 1969; Townley 1968), yielded surface finds of a Clovis point fragment,
Pinto-Gypsum materials, Southern Paiute Brownware and Puebloan ceramics (North Creek
Corrugated, Moapa Black-on-Gray) along with a small assemblage of chipped stone
artifacts. Selected test excavations revealed no buried materials beneath the desert
pavement surface of the site. A significant find was the recovery of two crescents
(Great Basin Transverse Points) (Worman 1969: Plates 48-a, 50-k).
Tuohy's (1965) work at Pahute Mesa on the test site resulted in the excavation
of two small rockshelters which yielded respectively a human burial in association with
trade beads common after 1800 and a cache of wood arrows and digging sticks. Three open
campsites and two chipping stations represent the other sites. Shoshone and Puebloan
ceramics (Southern Paiute Brownware, North Creek Black-on-Gray and Washington
Corrugated) were recoveredat 3 sites. Diagnostic projectile point types appear to include
Desert Side Notched, Cottonwood Triangular, Silver Lake and Elko Series (?) (Tuohy
1965: Fig. 1). A small collection of chipped stone artifacts, ground stone artifacts, a
bone ornament, unmodified faunal remains and lithic debitage was also collected (Tuohy
1965: Table 1). Tuohy (1965) attributes the materials from the excavated sites to the
Southern Paiute.
37
1  213
Figure 6
1. Newark Cave.
2. Baker Area/Smith Creek Canyon (including the
sites of Smith Creek Cave, Amy's Shelter,
Kachina Cave).
3. Garrison Site.
4.  Caliente Area (including the sites of Conaway
Shelter, O'Malley Shelter and the Scott Site).
5. Etna Cave.
6. Stuart Rockshelter.
7. "Lost City" and Moapa River Area.
8. Nevada Test Site.
9. Long Valley.
38
At present the archaeology of the Nevada Test Site is poorly known. The
cultural manifestations reported to date indicate intermittent occupation andutilization
by Desert Archaic, Puebloan and Southern Paiute (Shoshonean) groups from ca. 9000/
8000 B. C. to the Historic. It is hoped that a systematic survey of the Nevada Test Site
will be undertaken and published in the near future.
Additional site surveys and excavations near the study area have been
carried out by Rudy in western Utah (Rudy 1953, 1954; Rudy and Sitrlund 1950); Ambler
(1966), Marwitt (1968, 1970) and Berry (1972) in the Parowan Fremont subarea; and
various archaeologists of the Bureau of Land Management as part of their cultural
resource management duties. Jennings's (1978) monograph provides a summary of
recent archaeological work and an overview of eastern Great Basin prehistory, especially
Utah archaeology.
The above archaeological summary will be utilized to provide a framework
for the archaeological interpretation of the data from the study area.
History
Historically this remote area was first opened to use by Anglo- Americans by
miners from the nearby Pahranagat Valley who formed the Freyberg and Worthington
Mining Districts in 1865 and 1869 in the Worthington Mountains bordering on Garden Valley
(Angel 1881: 485). Angel (1881: 485) repcrted that two Indians led the miners to the out-
cropping ore veins. Hulse (1971) has covered the mining history of the surrounding
districts but neglects the present study area.
Lieutenant George M. Wheeler, in his reconnaissance survey of southern and
southeastern Nevada (Wheeler 1875) passed through the area to the southwest of the study
area in the vicinity of Sand Springs Valley and Quinn Canyon in 1869, but after this date
there is very little mention of the region except for some scattered studies and references
in the geological literature (cf. Carpenter 1915; Spurr 1903).
Carpenter (1915) mentions a locality named Oneota as being present in the
vicinity of the Water Gap, central Golden Gate Range in 1915, but no traces of this "site"
are extant today. The lower portion of Cherry Creek in Garden Valley has the remnants
of a substantial concrete/rock dam present. This dam was apparently built as part of a
land promotion scheme devised by a con man about 1908. The term 'Garden Valley' was
a sales item in the land fraud which failed after a brief time. The dam later washed out
because of lack of an emergency spillway (Harlan Arnold, personal communication, 1977).
A former U. S. Post Office and settlement dating from the 1870s and now named
Adaven (Nevada spelled backwards) is now within the boundaries of the Humboldt National
Forest (Map 2). Information on this former hamlet is extermely limited (cf. Chatham
1956: 36; and Averett 1962), and the ranch now occupying its location serves as a cooper-
ative weather station for the Bureau of Commerce.
39
At present the study area is almost uninhabited with Garden Valley having
only one full time occupied ranch present and the Upper Cherry Creek region in the
Quinn Canyon Range having a small number of ranches used by several permanent ranchers
and a few transient 'weekenders' from Las Vegas. The nearest permanent villages are
Hiko and Ash Springs about 60 miles (96 kIn) distant to the southeast.
The land in the area is primarily public domain and is leased for the grazing
of some sheep and cattle by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to both resident and
non-resident livestock owners. No further development of the area is planned for the
future because of the lack of adequate surface water.
41
Chapter IV
Civa Shelter II
Civa Shelter II, located approximately 40 miles northwest of the village of
Hiko, was first noted by Dr. R. F. Heizer, Department of Anthropology, University of
California, Berkeley, and Mr. Michael Heizer, CIVA Corporation, Hiko, Nevada, in
the early spring of 1976 during an informal archaeological survey of the Garden Valley
area.
The site is a medium sized rockshelter/cave formed primarily by the
mechanical weathering of a Tertiary Age spheroidal weathering ignimbrite (Txchanz and
Pampayen 1970) in the west central portion of the Golden Gate Range, Lincoln County,
Nevada (T2N, R59E, Section 7). The shelter is on land administered by the Ely District
of the Bureau of Land Management and is designated as Ln-1590 in the files of the Nevada
State Museum. Facing to the west, the site is at an elevation of ca. 5800 feet (1768 m)
and overlooks Garden Valley with the Worthington Mountains to the southwest; the Quinn
Canyon Range to the west; and the southern portion of the Golden Gate Range to the east.
Civa Shelter II is roughly rectangular in outline, measuring 5.0 m across the
entrance and 5. 0-7. 0 m deep with the two inner chambers not surveyed due to the height
of the interior deposits and the chamber's use as a snake denning locale. The floor is
reasonably level at the entrance with the height of the deposit steadily rising towards the
openings to the two inner chambers. The height of the shelter roof ranges from a
minimum of 40 cm near the inner chamber mouths to a maximum of 1. 0 m at the main
entrance. When excavated to bedrock, the central portion of the shelter has a height of
ca. 1. 5-1. 75 m from floor to ceiling. A moderate sized apron is directly in front of the
entrance and a relatively gentle slope leads from the apron's edge downward to a wide
open area bounded by several ephemeral stream channels (Fig. 7-11).
At an elevation fo 5800 feet (1768 m), the site falls within the elevational
boundaries of the Upper Bajada Zone as discussed previously in the Natural Setting
section (cf. Chapter II). Artemisia tridentata (sage), Chrysothamnus nauscesous (rabbit-
brush), various grasses (Poa sp., Orysopsis hymenoides, Elymus sp. and Bromus spp.)
and Ephedra nevadensis (Mormon tea) all occur either at the site or in its immediate
vicinity.
Jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and cottontail (Sylvilagus sp.), along with
several lizard species, were the only faunal species noted at the site, although a packrat
(Neotonm cinerea) was present occasionally in the cave.
Excavation Strategy
The excavation was organized according to a north-south grid, oriented on
magnetic north and based on a datum stake set on the apron in front of the shelter mouth
42
m EXCAVATED UNIT
*--                   ~~~~~ROCK WALL            *
CAVE APRONM
.. - , f ~~~~~~~~~~~TO INNER
..~~~~~~~~~~~~~1W                                    CHI AMBER
A DATUM
DRIPLINE              ,
0               ~~~~~~5
METERS
t              ~~~Nix4
WALL                ~~~CIVA SHELTER
NV-LN-1590
PLAN VIEW
TO INNER CHAMBER
Figure 7: Plan View of Civa Shelter II.
Figure 8: Artist's View of Civa Shelter II Formation.
43
Figure 9: View of Civa Shelter II Opening and Apron.
Figure 10: View from Civa Shelter II of Garden Valley Area
and Open Area in Front of the Shelter.
44
Figure 11: View of Civa Shelter II Apron and Excavations,
1976.
Figure 15. View of hearth in unit N8E2. A date of 865+ 80
radiocarbon years was obtained from this hearth.
45
(Fig. 7). Actual excavation within the grid units was in 10 cm arbitrary levels because
of the unstratified nature and natural disturbance of the deposits. The excavated fill was
passed through on-quarter inch mesh and standard excavation records were kept. One
unit, N6W2, was totally screened using 1/8" mesh to check on differential recovery of
lithic debitage and faunal remains.
The units chosen for excavation were selected because of their position in
the central, easily accesible portions of the shelter -- that is, the most suitable areas
of aboriginal occupation and use of the site. All units were completely excavated to
bedrock. It is estimated that over 26 m3 of fill was removed and that 60% of the site was
excavated (irrespective of the unsurveyed inner chambers).
The Deposits - General
The site's deposits consisted of elemental accumulation (windblown dust,
rock fall), organic remains (ash and charcoal, cow, coyote and rodent feces, dry grass
and other vegetal material) mixed with varying quantities of faunal remains, lithic debitage
and artifacts. Evidence of small rodent nests and burrows was found throughout the
deposits. Several extensive hearth areas (mainly ash and some charcoal), the remains
of single and multiple fires, were encountered in several of the units (see Hearths for a
description). These were associated with many of the recovered artifacts. The deposits
were excavated from the surface down to a maximum depth of 80 cm (average) before
encountering the bedrock floor of the site. The deposits, while dry in the upper 20 cm,
were damp and became progressively wetter with increasing depth, probably due to water
seepage through natural fractures in the parent material of the shelter. No clear natural
stratigraphy was discernible in the deposits during excavation, but from the wall profiles
of the units, several stratigraphic layers were noted, based primarily on their color
and composition. The stratigraphy of the various units is discussed below.
Stratigraphic Unit Description (Fig. 12-14)
Soil samples from each stratigraphic layer from each unit were submitted to
the Soils Laboratory, Department of Soils and Plant Nutrition, University of California,
Berkeley, for standard soils tests. The technical data, courtesy of Mr. Jon Sandor,
Department of Soils and Plant Nutrition, are incorporated into the following descriptions.
Appendix I should be consulted for the complete soils data.
Stratum A: Light brownish clay loam (Munsell 10YR6/2 - dry, 10YR3/2 - moist) with
small angular fragments of decomposing roof fall present throughout the deposit. A
small percentage of burned and unburned mammal bones, root/wood fibers and charcoal
flecks/fragments along with some compacted ash are also present. The surface of this
stratum, the modern floor of the shelter, is covered with vegetal material, faunal
remains, angular rock fall from the roof and rodent feces in moderate quantities. The
boundary between Strata A/B/B-1/B-2 generally ranges from smooth to wavy/irregular
(mainly due to cultural and rodent disturbance).
46
Stratum B: Ashy clay loam/loam soil, light brownish grey to very dark grayish brown
in color (1OYR6/2, 19YR4. 5/2 - dry, 1OYR3/2, OYR2/2 - moist) with small amounts
of bone fragments, root fibers and charcoal flecks/fragments present along with angular
decomposing rock fragments from roof fall. A small amount of lithic debitage is also
present. This soil forms a smooth, abrupt boundary with the overlying and underlying
units. Numerous fire hearth areas were probably present in this stratum at one time
due to the ashy nature of the deposit but were not distinguishable during the excavations
due to mixing, disturbance, etc. of the deposit.
Stratum B-i: A gray (1OYR5/1 - dry, OYR4/2 - moist) hard consistence clay with
decomposed granular roof fall mixed with ash and charcoal flecks/fragments. Some
angular roof fall fragments and small bones are present. The soil consistence is
probably due to wetting of the sediment at some time, possibly due either to seepage or
drainage into the site. This layer, present only in N8EO near the entrance, forms a
smooth to wavy abrupt boundary between Strata A and B. The analysis notes that this
clay (cf. Appendix I) is very similar to the clay in N6EO (Fig. 12) and may be a store/
cache of clay used in pottery manufacture. Hence, this stratum may be culturally
introduced rather than natural to the site.
Stratum B-2: Ashy, light gray (1OYR6/1 - dry, 1OYR4/2 - moist) loam stained with
charcoal flecks/fragments containing a moderate amount of decomposing small angular
rock fragments. Small percentage of root fibers and burned and unburned faunal remains
present. Boundaries between overlying units are smooth and abrupt. This stratum is
interrupted with a charcoal band (hearth) in units N6EO, N8EO, N8E2, and N1OEO.
Stratum C: Light gray to gray (1OYR6/1 - dry, 1OYR3. 5/1 - moist) heavy loam with a
small amount of decomposing angular roof fall rock fragments. Bone fragments,
charcoal flecks, compacted ash and plant fibers comprise a minor percentage of the
sediment. A smooth to wavy abrtt boundary is present between the over and underlying
strata.
Strata D and D-1: These are gray (1OYR5/1 - dry, 1OYR2/1 - moist) sediments with
varying 'textures, I D is a fine silty ashy sediment, while the similar D-1 is a light loam
with a large quantity of small angular fragments of decomposing roof fall. A moderate
amount of compacted ash is present in each along with a small percentage of bone fragments
and charcoal flecks. Boundaries are smooth to wavy abrupt.
Stratum E: Light gray (10YR5. 5/1 - dry, 1OYR3/1 - moist) ashy clay loam stained with
charcoal. A small amount of small angular decomposing rock fragments from roof fall,
some burned and unburned faunal remains, charcoal flecks/fragments and root fibers are
present. A smooth to slightly wavy abrupt boundary is present with the overlying stratum
and a smooth abrupt boundary is present with the underlying stratum.
Stratum F: Light gray to gray (10YR5/1 - dry, IOYR3/1 - moist) ashy loam with a
moderate amount of small decomposing angular rock fragments derived from roof fall.
47
100
tigure 12a: Civa Shelter II - North Wall Profile,
N8EO .
.   .....A...
0
inn
CM
Figure 12b:
Civa Shelter II - East Wall Profile,
N6EO.
v                                                        MOW
IrFNTIUFTFR-q
To
q
0
100
CENTIMETERS
Figure 13a:
Civa Shelter II - East Wall Profile,
N8EO.
BACK OF SITE    ->
LIMIT OF EXCAVATION                .    .
..-'...                                                         100
CENTIMETERS
Figure 13b:
Civa Shelter II - North Wall Profile,
N8E2.
48
49
Flecks of charcoal are present along with root fibers and burned and unburned faunal
remains in small quantities. Boundaries vary from smooth abrupt to wavy abrupt.
Stratum G: A gray (IOYR5/1 - dry, 10YR3/1 - moist) sandy loam mixed with a moderate
amount of charcoal fragments and a small amount of burned and unburned faunal remains.
Small decomposing angular roof fall fragments make up a small percentage of this
sediment. The boundary is smooth and abrupt with Stratum B.
Stratum H: This is similar to Stratum F except for a large concentration of charcoal
flecks. It appears that this sediment was directly below a hearth and its slight color
difference with Stratum F may be due to a combination of combusted material and color
change due to heating/burning.
Stratum I: This is a fine gray (1OYR5/1 - dry) ashy sediment stained with charcoal and
containing numerous charcoal flecks. Chunks of compacted ash are present along with
numerous decomposing angular roch fragments from roof fall. Boundaries are abrupt
and smooth.
Stratum J: Gray (10YR5/1 - dry) ashy sediment discolored by burning. Numerous small
to medium size decomposing angular rock fragments from roof fall and compacted chunks
of ash comprise a major portion of this sediment. A small amount of charcoal flecks are
present along with a few root fibers and faunal remains. The boundaries are smooth and
abrupt.
Stratum L: This is a fine sediment similar to Stratum A with a moderate amount of
charcoal flecks/fragments present. Boundaries are smooth and abrupt.
Stratum M: This is a layer of decomposing shelter parent material (ignimbrite) probably
due to a roof fall at some time in the past. Boundaries are smooth and abrupt.
Stratum N: A gray (1OYR5/1 - dry, 10YR3/1 - moist) ashy loam mixed with a small
amount of decomposing angular rock fragments. Charcoal fragments/flecks, root fibers,
unburned faunal remains as well as a few chert pressure flakes are present in small
quantities. Boundaries are smooth and abrupt.
Firehearths
Several distinct firehearths and 'ashy' concentrations that continued inter-
mittently downwards to the base of the deposits were exposed during the excavation of
Civa Shelter II. While several discrete hearth areas were noted, the majority of the ash
and charcoal concentrations were indistinct (i. e. had no definite boundaries or significant
depth), probably due to slight mixing of the deposit by rodents and other natural/cultural
means. Firecracked rocks, while not common, were noted throughout the fill.
Two hearths were noted with firecracked rock borders or rings. One was
50
0                                           100
CM
Figure 14: Civa Shelter II - East Wall Profile, N1OEO.
present in N6E2, 60 cm below the surface with an inside diameter of 20 cm and another
covered units N8EO and N8E2, 20-40 cm below surface, with a diameter of 1. 5 m. Two
hearths were noted in N1OW2. A small concentration of ash, 22 cm in diameter, was
found at a depth of 39 cm and a major hearth, 90 cm by 76 cm was noted at a depth of
50-70 cm. Unit NLOEO likewise yielded two hearths. One of 40 cm diameter composed
of ash and firecracked rock at 10-20 cm and another of 60 cm diameter at 68-80 cm
below surface. Other units with reasonably distinct hearth areas were N8W2, 20-30 cm
below surface; 20-40 cm, ca. 40 cm in diameter and N6EO, 50-60 cm and 70-80 cm
below surface respectively.
Examination of some of the charcoal fragments with a binocular microscope
indicates that sagebrush (Artemisia sp.) was used as a major fuel source. Many of the
artifacts, pottery sherds, lithic debitage and faunal remains were found in the immediate
or close vicinity of either the discrete hearth areas, especially N8EO, N8E2 or among the
scattered concentrations of charcoal and ash.
During the course of the excavations, an experiment was performed by one of
the crew members in regards to hearth location. Utilizing a portable hearth set up in
different areas of the site, we noted that the smoke of any fire made outside of the dripline,
especially in the vicinity of units N6EO and N6W2, would be carried away by the prevailing
winds. Fires made inside of the dripline tended to fill the shelter with smoke (Melkonian,
personal communication, 1977). This experiment, while very inconclusive in view of the
number of hearths present within the interior of the shelter, would appear to argue for the
placement of the majority of any firehearths outside of the shelter proper. Charcoal
stained midden present on the cave apron appears to offer some support for this conclusion.
51
In summary, scattered ash and charcoal along with several discrete hearths
were noted during the excavation of Civa Shelter II, with the majority of the recovered
material concentrated in the immediate or close vicinity of the hearth areas.
Radiocarbon Dates
One charcoal sample was radiocarbon dated of the dozen or so collected from
the various firehearths. A sample from a hearth with a thick band of charcoal located in
unit N8E2, 39-48 cm below the surface (approximately midway in the deposit) (Figs. 7 and
15) yielded a date of 864 + 80 radiocarbon years: A.D. 1085 (I-9795). This date (A.D.
880-860 - A.D. 1030 corrected, Ralph, Michael and Han 1973) is in agreement (i.e. falls
within the known chronological ranges) with the recovered projectile point sequence and
ceramics recovered from the deposit.
Ceramics
A total of 350 sherds, one reconstructed vessel - a Snake Valley Black-on-
Gray bowl and 4 other ceramic artifacts - were recovered from the deposits of Civa II.
Of these, 4. 6% were Fremont ceramic types, 95. 1% are Shoshonean Tradition pottery
and 0.3% are Virgin Branch Anasazi. Rudy (1953), Colton (1952), Madsen (1970), Madsen
(1972, 1977), Aikens (1966), Anderson (1960), Tuohy (1956, 1963), Coale (1963) and
Baldwin (1950) should be consulted for detailed type descriptions and discussions of
Shoshonean, Fremont and Anasazi ceramics.
Fremont Pottery
The 16 sherds identified as belonging to the Fremont ceramic tradition have
been typed as Snake Valley Gray Ware (14 sherds) and Snake Valley Black-on-Gray (1
sherd and 1 reconstructed bowl). These two wares are typical of the Summit and Paragonah
Phases (A.D. 900-1200) of the Parowan Fremont subarea (Marwitt 1970; Madsen 1977).
Steward (1936) originally defined this ware as a variety of Sevier Gray, but Rudy (1953)
has redefined it and renamed it a separate type of Utah Desert Gray Ware (cf. Anderson
1960). The reconstructed bowl (Fig. 18w) from unit N6EO, 60-70 cm, has an IA5 rim
(Colton 1952 nomenclature), averages 3.9 mm in wall thickness and is ca. 25 cm in
diameter. The low luster black design present on the interior surface is in the Sosi style
and consists of zigzag lines, solid triangles and straight line elements. Interior rim
banding is present. A fugitive red exterior wash is present on the outside. The other
recovered Snake Valley Gray rim sherd (Type IB3) suggests a jar neck diameter of ca.
15 cm. Wall thickness of the Snake Valley Ware ranges from 3.8 mm to 4.8 mm with a
mean of 4.3 mm. These few Fremont sherds, restricted to the lower and middle levels
of the site (20-80 cm), are important because they suggest trade or temporary occupation
from the Parowan Fremont subarea to the east (cf. Fowler, et. al. 1973).
Anasazi Pottery
The single sherd classified as North Creek Black-on-Gray is associated with
52
the Virgin Branch of the Kayenta Anasazi (Colton 1952). The sherd conforms to the
description of Spencer (1934) and Colton (1952) as well as with type sherds in the- collection
of the Lowie Museum of Anthropology. The decoration is restricted to carbon painting and
the design elements present on the painted sherd could not be determined. The sherd
appears to have slight edge grinding present, and it is probable that the specimen was
transported from another area, perhaps from the nearby Pahranagat Valley (cf. Brooks
1977) to the shelter for some reason or another.
Shoshonean Pottery
The 330 Shoshonean sherds are within the range of variability specified by the
published type descriptions (cf. Rudy 1953; Baldwin 1950) and are found throughout the
cultural deposits. The sherd collection exhibits considerable variation in wall thicknesses
(range 3.7 mm - 7.8 mm; mean = 5.3 mm) often within a single sherd, kind and amount
of temper, hardness, and paste composition. Inspection of the sherds indicates the
presence of both coiling and paddle-and-anvil construction. Fowler, et. al. (1973: 16) note
that a combination of paddle-and-anvil and coiling construction techniques are reported
ethnographically for the Southern Ute. Both means were apparently used in the pottery at
Civa II. All sherds are primarily a mottled light gray/tan color but range to dark brown
and dark gray, apparently indicating a rather poorly controlled firing in a reducing
atmosphere as well as subsequent re-firing during use as cooking vessels. Many of the
sherds have their interior portions coated with a carbonized organic material, probably
residue from food cooking operations. Wiping marks, striations and some evidence of
smoothing are present on a large number of the sherds.
The 14 rim sherds recovered indicate the presence of wide-mouthed jars with
recurved rims as well as vertical, wide-mouthed vessels ("Flowerpot" shape) with rim
diameters for both ranging from 11-25 cm in diameter. Rim form present are IA3 (4),
IB3 (8), and 11A2 (2).
No vessel decoration of any kind was noted on the sherds.
The distribution of Shoshonean Tradition has recently been discussed and
surveyed by Fowler (1968a) and reviewed by Tuohy (1973). Based on this work, the
ceramics present in the shelter are well within the expected distribution range of Shoshonean
Tradition ceramics. Fowler, et. al. (1973) on the basis of their work at O'Malley and
Conaway Shelters to the east, have indicated a temporal range of ca. A. D. 1000 to post
contact times for Shoshonean ceramics in this portion of Nevada.
Other Ceramic Artifacts
Pottery Scrapers
Three irregular sherds of Shoshone ware were recovered with either one or
two ground edges present. Diameters range from 3. 8 cm to 4. 2 cm, and while these
53
sherds may have had other aboriginal uses, they do conform to ethnographic descriptions
of pottery scrapers.
Scoops (Fig. 18v).
One large Shoshone pottery fragment, the curved side of a large jar, has been
ground completely around its circumference. Its shape can be described as elongate
triangular with a maximum length of 10. 7 cm and a width of 6. 2 cm. The specimen is
similar to the ceramic scoops illustrated in Marwitt (1970: Fig. 45).
Discussion
The presence and amount of Shoshonean Tradition pottery throughout the shelter's
deposit indicated that Shoshonean groups were frequent users of Civa IL. The small
percentage of Fremont ceramics from the lower and middle levels of the site indicates
apparent trade or temporary occupation by people of the Parowan Fremont subarea
(Map 8), a not too unlikely possibility as Brooks (1977) has noted a predominance of
Fremont ceramics at the Mariah Site in the Hiko area, while Fowler, et. al. (1973)
have evidence of Fremont occupation of the Meadow Valley Wash area to the southeast.
The single sherd of Anasazi pottery is probably the result of cultural transport of a sherd
from a surrounding site or area, with subsequent discardal in the shelter. Brooks (1977)
indicates the presence of Virgin Branch ceramics in the Hiko area to the southeast of
Civa II and York (1977) notes surface finds of a "Pueblo Black-on-White?? ware occurring
in the Sunnyside area to the north. The presence of both Shoshone and Fremont ceramics
in the lower and middle levels confirms the contemporaneity of these ceramic traditions
in the area, although the precentage of Fremont pottery is quite low. O'Malley Shelter,
the Conaway Shelter and tie Scott Site in Meadow Valley Wash all have Shoshone, Fremont
and Anasazi ceramics co-occurring (cf. Fowler, et. al. 1973), as does Pine Park Shelter
slightly to the east of this area (Rudy 1954).
The single radiocarbon date of A.D. 1085 obtained from a middle level hearth
appears to be in agreement with Fowler, et. al. (1973) contention of ca. A.D. 1000 for
Shoshonean ceramics in southeastern Nevada. The Snake Valley Gray and Black-on-Gray
wares have been well dated in the Parowan Fremont core area (cf. Madsen 1977) with a
temporal range of ca. A. D. 900-1200. Thus, it would appear that Civa Shelter II was first
occupied around ca. A.D. 800/900 (?) (or perhaps slightly earlier) due to the co-occurrence
of Fremont and Shoshone ceramics and tie radiocarbon date.
A unique aspect of Civa II is that pottery manufacture was apparently practiced
during some period of occupation. In addition to the several pottery scrapers, two small
(0. 5 - 1. 0 m maximum diameter) 'stockpiles' of clay (approximately 8-15 cm thick) were
encountered in units N6EO and N8EO at depths of 60-70 cm and 15-25 cm respectively.
One deposit was found mixed with moderate quantities of lithic debitage, primarily small
pressure flakes. Samples from each deposit were analyzed by Mr. Jon Sandor (Department
of Soils and Plant Nutrition). Both samples are montmorillonite clay with almost identical
54
percentages of sand (cf. Appendix I). Deposits of this clay almost certainly exist in the
near vicinity but could not have formed in situ at the site (Sandor, personal communication,
1977). The high percentages of sand (36% and 41%) almost certainly represent the
addition of material as clays high in montmorillonite generally have excessive shrinkage
and cannot be used alone for pottery. The addition of sand and other organic materials
as tempering agents would reduce the shrinkage and allow use of this clay for rather
'coarse' pottery similar to the Shoshonean Tradition ceramics already known for the area.
As well, the shelter could have been used as a protected area for the firing of on-site
manufactured pottery as the deposits are extremely ashy even though no ethnographic
data exists on this possibility for the Great Basin.
The implications of the possibility of local ceramic manufacture are important
when considering the duration of any occupation of the site. Pottery manufacture is a
complex and time consuming task requiring a relatively extensive stay at any location.
O'Malley Shelter to the southeast is the only other site in the region where local ceramics
manufacture (in this case of Fremont pottery) is hypothesized to have taken place (Fowler
et.al. 1973: 19).
In summary, Shoshonean Tradition ceramics dominate the assemblage from
Civa Shelter I. It is quite probable that the shelter was exclusively used by Shoshonean
groups after a brief period of early use by a Fremont group, or alternatively, Shoshone
groups exclusively occupied the site but had contact (e. g. trade) with Fremont groups to
the east.
Projectile Points
Civa Shelter II yielded 104 typable projectile points or projectile point fragments.
Type classification follows the standard typologies established and in use for the Great
Basin (cf. Hester and Heizer 1973a for a discussion).
Desert Side Notched (Table 3a, Fig. 17a-h, 19a-h)
Specimens: Complete (10)    Incomplete (6)
Material: Chert (10)   Obsidian (5)  Chalcedony (1)
Description: These are small to medium sized (59.4 mm maximum length) slender
triangular to elongate triangular projectile points with straight to slightly convex lateral
edges. The bases range from slightly convex to basally notched. Fine side notches,
perpendicular to the long axis of the point, range from 1. 0 - 4.3 mm in depth and basal
notched, ranging from 1.0 - 3. 5 mm in depth are present on 8 of the specimens. All
specimens are well made but two specimens appear unfinished. On one side, notches have
not been completed and the striking platform of the flake is still present on the distal end
of another specimen. The flaking is fine pressure and well done. Cross sections are
plano-convex (2) and biconvex (14). All points fall within the range of variation noted for
the DSN types (cf. Baumhoff and Byrne 1959; Lanning 1963; and Hester and Heizer 1973a).
55
Cottonwood Triangular (Table 3a, Fig. 17i-n, 18q-u, 20a-g)
Specimens:  Complete (10)    Incomplete (16)
Material:  Chert (13)  Incomplete (16)
Description: These points are triangular in outline with slightly convex to straight blade
edges. The bases range from straight to slightly concave with depths ranging from 1. 0 -
1.3 mm. The flaking is pressure and cross sections are plano-convex (5), biplano (1)
and biconvex (20). Several specimens may be possible preforms.
Rose Spring Corner Notched (Table 3b, c, Fig. 18p, q, 20i-m, 21a-i, 22a-d).
Specimens: Complete (17)  Incomplete (25)
Material: Chert (32)  Obsidian (7)  Chalcedony (3)
Description: These are small triangular points with slightly convex to straight blade edges.
The barb ends are somewhat rounded to pointed with slight to medium protrusion. The
notching is generally wide at an angle (ca. 450) to the long axis of the point and ranges
from 1. 0 - 6.3 mm in depth. Maximum width positions are at the barb ends, although on
more comvex sided specimens, it is somewhat above the barb ends. The stems are slightly
expanded with straight to slightly concave bases. Transverse cross sections are biconvex
and the pressure flaking is on the whole well done. Some mixed flaking is present on
several of the specimens.
Rose Spring Contracting Stem (Table 3c, Fig. 20h).
Specimens: Incomplete (1)
Material: Chert (1)
Description: This is a small basal fragment of a RSCS projectile point with two shallow
basal notches on each side of the contracting stem at the junction of the stem and main
body of the specimen. The maximum width position is at the barb ends. The flaking is
pressure and the cross section is biconvex.
Eastgate Expanding Stem (Table 3c, Fig. 21j).
Specimens: Complete (1)  Incomplete (3)
Material: Chert (3) Obsidian (1)
Description: These are small, somewhat elongate triangular projectile points with
straight to slightly convex sides. The barbed ends are squared with the notching generally
parallel into the basal portion of the lateral edge. The barb bases are the maximum width
position and none of the specimens have distinct, centralized basal notches. The stems
are slightly expanding to straight. The pressure flaking is well done. These specimens
intergrade into the Rose Spring Corner Notched type.
Elko Corner Notched (Table 3c, Fig. 19i-j).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chert (1)
56
Description: This is a medium sized triangular projectile point with straight to slightly
convex sides. The barbs are slightly rounded and moderately projecting. The notching
is at an angle to the lateral edge and is 3.2 mm deep. The proximal barb area is the
maximum width position. The stem is expanding and the transverse cross section is
biconvex. The flaking is pressure.
Elko Eared (Table 3c, Fig. 19k-p).
Specimens: Complete (4)    Incomplete (5)
Material: Chert (7)  Obsidian (1) Quartzite (1)
Description:  These are moderate to large triangular to elongate triangular projectile
points with straight to slightly convex lateral edges. Notching is wide and at an angle to
the lateral edges of the point. Maximum width position is at the barb ends. The stems
are generally expanded with the indented base giving an 'eared' or bibbed effect. The
barb ends are moderately to markedly projecting with variable ends. The flaking is
moderately to well done pressure (4) and percussion (3) with 2 specimens showing both
pressure and percussion present. Cross sections are biconvex (8) and plano-convex (1).
Humboldt Concave Base A (Table 3c, Fig. 21k).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chert (1)
Description: This projectile point is lanceolate in form with parallel to slightly convex
sides. The widest point is at the base. The flaking is moderately well done and the base
is slightly concave. The cross section is biconvex.
Discussion
The projectile points from Civa Shelter II represent a range in time from
6400 B. C. to post contact times. Six distinct series of projectile points are known:
Desert Side Notched, Cottonwood, Rose Spring/Eastgate, Elko Series and Humboldt Series.
The Desert Side Notched projectile points are common in late prehistoric times
in the Great Basin and persist until the historic. Layton (1970, 1977) notes a DSN specimen
in association with the remains of a domestic cow at Hanging Rock Shelter in northwestern
Nevada, drawing the inference of use by the ethnographic Northern Paiute. The chrono-
logical distribution of this series, based on Hester and Heizer's (1973a) assessment of the
known radiocarbon dates indicates that Desert Side Notched points appeared sometime
after A. D. 1100-1200 and persisted into the Historic era. The radiocarbon date of A. D.
1085 for Civa II would appear to offer additional evidence towards this chronological
sequence and perhaps indicate an earlier appearance in the region than that postulated by
Hester and Heizer. Brooks (1977) indicates a range of A.D. 500 to historic times for
southern Nevada but offers no supporting evidence for this conclusion. The DSN series is
commonly found in association with the Cottonwood and Rose Spring/Eastgate Series and
this is the case at this site.
57
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76
The lithic debitage argues for a pattern of little primary processing of raw
material with emphasis instead placed on the production of interior flakes and the thinning
and finishing of preforms, projectile points and bifaces. As well, maintenance activities
(e.g. resharpening of damaged/broken bifaces, projectile points, etc.) were also probably
carried out. Numerous small pressure flakes of chert and obsidian were noted in the
soil samples and could be seen falling through the 1/4"1 mesh used for all but one unit
(N6W2) during screening operations. One unit (N6W2) was totally screened using 1/8??
mesh screen, and the majority of flakes recovered were small pressure flakes.
Table 10
Lithic Debitage
Unit
N6EO
N6E2
N6W2 *
N8EO
N8E2
N8W2
NlOEO
N1OE2
NMOW2
N12W2
TOTAL
Debitage #
2726
1483
2671
1092
664
1509
886
118
1153
63
12,365
Weight
2718.1
1520.3
1080.3
1297.3
710.7
1728.6
1122.8
142.1
2381.3
249.3
12,950.8
[ * - 1/8" mesh used]
Ground Stone Artifacts
Manos
Eight complete or nearly complete specimens were found at Civa II. No
fragments were noted in spite of the large number of ground stone fragments present.
Several categories are recognizable, based on the amount/degree of modification noted on
the specimen.
I.  Shaped, Rectangular in Cross Section, Abraded on Two Sides
One complete specimen made on a well sorted sandstone, 9. 5 cm long, 6. 5
cm wide and 2.2 cm thick, was recovered. N1OW2, 60-70 cm.
77
II. Unshaped, Broad Ovals, Abraded One Side
This category has one complete and 4 fragmentary specimens. These all
appear to be cobbles that have been utilized with very little modification for manos.
Battering and abrasion are present on the ends and lateral edges of some of the pieces.
Unidentifiable staining and food residue are found on the grinding surface of one specimen.
The length of the complete specimen is 10. 0 cm, width 8. 0 cm and thickness 6.2 cm.
The four fragments vary in thickness from 3. 2 cm to 6. 0 cm. Materials are sandstone,
limestone, granite and basalt. N6EO, 0-10 cm; N6W2, 10-20, 20-30 cm; N8E0, 40-50
cm; N8W2, 0-10 cm; N8W2, 0-10 cm.
Iml. Unshaped, Triangular in Cross Section, Abrasion on One Side
Only one complete specimen of this type was recovered. Of granite, it is 9. 5
cm in length, 8. 5 cm wide and 4. 2 cm thick. The grinding surface is well smoothed by
abrasion. N6E2, 30-40 cm.
Metates (Table 11).
Fifteen complete or identifiable specimens and 34 fragments comprise this
class. Based on morphological features, this group of artifacts can be divided into two
categories - block/chunk and slab. The metate fragments are evenly divided between the
two categories.
I. Block/Chunk Metates
Five specimens, 4 complete and 1 fragmentary, were noted at Civa IT. The
specimens are crudely shaped and exhibit evidence of smoothing and grinding, the depressions
ranging from circular to ovate in form (0. 4 to 2. 0 cm deep), on one surface. Only one
specimen has evidence of grinding on both sides. This partial specimen is roughly rectan-
gular in outline with a large grinding surface area on one side and a smaller area on the
other. One depression is much deeper than the other (2.0 cm deep) and it is possible that
once one side was of no further use (i. e. effective surface grinding area decreased through
use), the metate was simply turned over and re-used on the remaining pristine surface.
The complete specimens range in length from 15. 0 to 28. 0 cm, width 15. 0 to 21. 0 cm and
thickness 9. 0 to 14. 0 cm. The materials are basalt (1), rhyolite (3) and limestone (1).
_I Slab
In contrast to the block/chunk metates, this group consists of reasonably
carefully shaped specimens. Ten fragmentary pieces comprise this category. The
specimens appear to have ranged from oval to rectangular in completed form and all have
slight to marked grinding depressions (0.1 to 1. 0 cm) in the central portions of the pieces.
No specimens show grinding or abrasion on more than one surface. Several fragments
indicate deliberate shaping by the presence of grinding and battering marks on the lateral
78
edges. Two specimens have traces of red pigment or food residue present on the
grinding surface. The ten fragments vary from 1.4 cm to 5.2 cm in thickness.
Materials are rhyolite (9) and limestone (1).
Metate Fragments (Table 11).
Thirty-four rhyolite, basalt, sandstone and limestone metate fragments
were recovered. All show evidence of grinding/smoothing on one or more of the plane
surfaces. Fragments in many cases have been shaped by percussion and/or abrasion
on the lateral edges. Both categories are evenly represented with thicknesses ranging
from 1.5 cm to 15.0 cm.
Table 11
category              #         Provenience
I                  5          Surface (2)
N6EO - 40-50 cm
N6E2 - 70-80 cm
N1OW2 - 40-50 cm
IE                 10         N6EO - 20-30 cm
50-60 cm
N6E2 - 20-30 cm
N6W2 - 20-30 cm
N8EO - 20-30 cm
N8E2 - 20-30 cm
N8W2 - 40-50 cm
N1OW2 - 20-30 cm (2)
30-40 cm
Hi                  34         N6EO - 30-40 cm
40-50 cm (2)
50-60 cm (3)
60-70 cm (2)
N6E2 - 30-40 cm (4)
N6W2 - Surface
0-10 cm
10-20 cm
20-30 cm (2)
N8E2 - 0-10 cm
N8W2 - 20-30 cm
30-40 cm
40-50 cm
50-60 cm (2)
60-70 cm
79
Table 11 (continued)
Category           #         Provenience
m               34         N1OW2 - 10-20 cm
20-30 cm
30-40 cm (2)
40-50 cm (2)
50-60 cm (3)
Pestles
Two pestle fragments, probably complementary pieces, were recovered in
N8W2 at depths of 25. 0 cm and 40. 0 cm respectively. One specimen is the butt portion
and the other the distal end. The medial section of the pestle was not recovered. The
cross sections are ovoid and the pieces have been shaped by pecking and abrasion on the
lateral edges. Battering is present on both the butt and distal ends. It is probable that
the two pieces were used in a pounding fashion after the tomplete pestle was broken.
They are 14. 5 cm and 8. 5 cm long, 11. 7 cm and 8. 0 cm at the widest points and 8. 3 cm
and 6. 5 cm in thickness. From inspection the material is limestone.
Battered Stones
This category is composed of fist-sized cobbles and angular rocks that show
little modification except for the presence of edge battering at one or more areas on
their circumference. Three categories are recognized, based on the gross morphology
of the specimens. These battered stones could have served for a variety of activities
which require crushing and battering. Some of the specimens were undoubtedly used as
hard hammer percussors. Distribution is throughout the deposit.
I. Spheroids
Six specimens of this type are present. These are small stones, roughly
spheroid in shape with battering/pounding marks present at one or more points on their
circumference. The five specimens range from 6. 5 cm to 10. 5 cm in length, 5. 0 to 8. 2 cm
in width and 3. 8 cm in thickness. The materials are rhyolite (2), chert (3) and limestone
(1).
II. Tabular Cross Section
These three specimens have an essentially tabular cross section and range
in form from sub-rectangular to ovate to elongate ovate. Battering/abrasion marks are
present at one or more parts along their circumference. The specimens range from 6. 5
cm to 9. 0 cm in length, 6. 5 cm to 8.0 cm in width and 2.3 cm to 2. 9 cm in thickness.
The materials are limestone (1), sandstone (1), and basalt (1).
80
m. Irregular/Angular Stones
These five specimens are small fist-sized irregular angular fragments of
rock with battering and/or abrasion present at one or more points on their circumference.
The specimens range from 7. 7 cm to 13.1 cm in length, 5. 6 cm to 6. 6 cm in width and
3.7 cm to 4.3 cm in thickness. The materials are siltstone (1), basalt (2), chert (1)
and limestone (1).
Ochre/Pigment Stones
Red (11) and yellow (2) ochre fragments (up to 3. 0 cm in diameter) were found
throughout the deposits of Civa II. Much of the ochre was uncollectable due to decom-
position and fragmentation. The ochre was probably used for facial and artifact decora-
tion/ornamentation. Ochre staining was observed on some of the recovered artifacts and
unmodified faunal remains. Proveniences are primarily from below 30 cm BS.
Miscellaneous Stone Specimens
Tabular Fragments (Fig. 211).
Eighteen thin tabular fragments, irregular in form, of rhyolite and fine
grained sandstone, with evidence of distinct, shallow, criss-cross striations/scratches
were recovered from several units. The majority appear to be fragments of several,
much larger, deliberately shaped artifacts that have traces of edge grinding/shaping
around the margins. The maximum length is 12. 0 cm and the maximum thickness is
2.3 cm. The function of these tabular specimens is problematical but it is probable that
they were used in a tool manufacturing process (e. g. projectile point or biface manufac-
ture) in which the lateral edges _of a specimen (a preform, 'blank', etc.) are dulled or
edge ground preparatory to direct pressure or percussion flaking (cf. Sheets 1973;
Crabtree 1970; Muto 1971b). Proveniences are scattered throughout the deposit.
Bone Artifacts
Bone Awls (Table 12, Fig. 26d, e).
A total of 8 complete (2) or fragmentary (6) bone awls were recovered from
the deposits of Civa Shelter IL. Two have been identified, based on Marwitt's (1970:
106-113) adaptation of Kidder's (1932: 211-213) and Ambler's (1966: 55-56) classifactory
procedures for bone awls.
Kidder's system of classification of mammal leg bone awls is based on the
amount of shaping required (particularly on the head of the bone) to produce an awl from
unmodified bone, while Ambler (1966: 55-56) classifies awls into 3 types based strictly
on tip taper - gradual, abrupt and recurved.
81
Unusual Awls (Fig. 26d).
The two complete specimens are made on a fragment of a medium mammal
pelvis and on a tibia of a jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) respectively. The pelvis frag-
ment (illium) bears only slight traces of modification (cutting - possibly butchering marks
and slight grinding) on the body. One end has been broken and shaped by grinding into a
short recurved tip. The tip has the distal end snapped off and is highly polished through
use. Its length is 83. 0mm. The other specimen is made on a tibia with the distal end
removed and one lateral edge shaped into a gradually tapering tip. No other modification
is present. Its length is 80. 0 mm.
Unclassified Fragments (Fig. 26e).
Of the six pieces in this category, 3 are tip ends and 3 are midsection fragments.
Two of the tip fragments are gradually tapering. These six fragments are believed to
represent six additional awls.
Discussion
These awls, while ranging in size and degree of finish, were probably multi-
purpose in use and probably employed in leather working or basketmaking. They appear
to be randomly distributed throughout the site, both horizontally and vertically, although
N12W2 has 3 specimens in the 10-30 cm level.
Flaking Tools (Table 12, Fig. 25k, 26a-c).
Four artifacts (3 bone and 1 antler) comprise this category. Three are long
bone fragments of large mammals and the other a split antler tine fragment. Two of the
flakers are long specimens, ground and polished on the shaft and lateral edges in the
vicinity of the working end. Both tips are reasonably blunt, although only one has any
scarring present. Lengths range from 98. 0 mm to 160. 0 mm. The third flaker is an
otherwise unmodified large mammal long bone fragment with scarring present on its tip.
The entire piece has been worn smooth through use. Its length is 40. 0 mm. The specimen
made on a split antler tine appears to be more 'awl-like' (Fig. 25k) with its sharper
point than the other flaking tools. However, its tip shows characteristic scarring and
chipping similar to that found on the other specimens. Slight grinding and polishing are
present on the lateral edges below the tip. Its length is 110. 0 mm.
Bone Beads (Table 12, Fig. 22h, 25c).
Three definite tubular bone beads were recovered and are similar to Marwitt's
(1970: 105) Type B category. The three are made on small/medium mammal long bone
midsections and can be distinguished by size. Two are reasonably large and the third
small. One specimen (Fig. 25c) has been extensively smoothed and polished, both on the
exterior and interior. No traces of any original cutting or grinding marks are present.
82
Its length is 39. 0 mm and diameter is 10. 5 mm. The other large specimen (Fig. 22h)
has slight traces of abrasion and polish as well as cutting marks present on both ends
and the main body. The interior has been 'hollowed' out leaving a large opening at one
end and 2 small side-by-side openings at the other. Its length is 13. 0 mm and diameter
9.0 mm.
The small bead has been ground and smoothed over the entire surface.
Cutting and grinding have been used to form a slight taper at each end. Its length is
7. 0 mm and diameter 3. 5 mm. All specimens are undecorated.
Incised Bone (Table 12, Fig. 25a, e).
Two specimens were recovered. One piece is made on a flat, medial, long
bone fragment of a medium sized mammal. The proximal end is broken off and the distal
portion shows evidence of cutting. The shallow, incised lines, perpendicular to the long
axis of the fragment, are present on both leading edges of the fragment and consist of
20 and 18 lines respectively. Its length is 29. 0 mm and width 8. 0 mm. The other
specimen is a fragment of a medium mammal long bone with 3 deeply incised lines girdling
the shaft (Fig. 25a). On the complete specimen these lines probably encircled the shaft.
It is possible that this is a fragment of a gaming piece.
Worked/Utilized Bone (Table 12, Fig. 26h).
This category consists of 8 long bone fragments and splinters along with two
worked, small long bone midsection fragments and the distal end of a Lepus californicus
phalanx. All pieces show evidence of cutting, smoothing, or polish indicative of deliberate
use on the shaft or lateral edges. The two small long bone tubular midsections and distal
fragment probably represent the waste products of bone bead manufacture. The majority
of these specimens are two fragmentary for any identification.
Bone Pendant (Fig. 25d).
One fragmentary specimen made on a section of medium mammal long bone is
present at Civa 11. The pendant is roughly elongate triangular in form and has the remnants
of a drill hole present at the narrow end. Traces of slight polish and grinding are present
on both sides, probably due to wear and manufacture. No surface decoration is present.
Its length is 49. 0 mm, width at the narrow end 8.5 mm; width at the widest end 12.2 mm
and thickness 2.8 mm. Provenience is N12W2, 20-30 cm.
Table 12
Bone Artifacts
Category                     Provenience
Awls                       N6EO - 27 cm
- 40-50 cm
83
Category                      Provenience
Awls                       N6E2 - 30-40 cm
N1OE2 - 60-70 cm
N1OW2 - 40-50 cm
N12W2 - 18 cm
- 20-30 cm (2)
Flakers                    N1OEO - 32 cm
-33 cm
N12W2 - 20-30 cm (2)
Beads                      N6W2 - 30-40 cm
N8E2 - 0-10 cm
N12W2 - 0-10 cm
Incised                    N8E2 - 50-60 cm
Bone                       N1OE2 - 70-80 cm
Worked/                    N6EO - 40-50 cm
Utilized Bone                   - 61 cm
N6W2 - 10-20 cm
N8W2 - 40-50 cm
N1OEO - 20-30 cm
-60-70 cm (2)
N1OW2 - 16 cm
- 60-70 cm
N12W2 - 20-30 cm
- 47 cm
Tubular Bones or Bone Beads (Fig. 25g, 26f-g).
Twenty-two specimens (11 complete, 11 fragmentary) comprise this
category. The specimens are hollow sections of small to medium mammals (mostly
Lepus sp.; possibly a few bird long bones) with both ends having various degrees of
cutting and smoothing present. The majority of the bones show a slight surface polish
possibly resulting from use wear or intentional polishing during manufacture. No
surface decoration is present on any of the specimens emept for 3 shallow incised lines
near one end on one specimen. The pieces range in length from 15. 0 mm to 66. 0 mm
and from 3. 0 mm to 6. 0 mm in diameter. The majority of the specimens cluster around
the midpoints of the ranges. The identification of these specimens as bone beads is
somewhat problematical but there is no doubt that they could have been easily strung
for a decorative purpose. The specimens are randomly distributed throughout the
deposit.
84
Gaming Counters (Fig. 25b, f).
Two Type A counters (cf. Marwitt 1970: 101, Fig. 69a-h) were recovered.
One specimen is unfinished and is made on a ground and shaped tabular piece of long
bone. This piece has two shallow uncompleted drill holes present, one on each side
of the specimen, although if drilled completely through, the holes would not line up with
each other. Its length is 22.1 mm,
Provenience is N10E0, 30-40 cm.
The other specimen is a center-drilled fragment of a somewhat more
crudely finished counter. This counter has been biconically drilled completely through
the bone. Its width is 12. 5 mm and thickness 4. 0 mm. Provenience is N10W2, 50-
60 cm.
Both specimens have no surface decoration present, although traces of a
red ochre (?) wash can be seen on both pieces.
Shell Artifacts
Shell Beads (Fig. 25h, i).
One complete clam shell (Tivela sp. (?)) disc bead with a center drilled
hole was recovered in unit N6E2, 40-50 cm. The bead corresponds to Type 53 illus-
trated in Bennyhoff and Heizer (1958) and is well made. It has a diameter of 7.1 mm.
One Olivella biplicata bead, similar to the type 3bl of Bennyhoff and
Heizer (1958) was found in N6EO, 40-50 cm. The specimen has a uniconically drilled
hole with a diameter of 2. 0 mm present, slightly offset from the center of the piece.
Smooth marks and grinding striations are present on the exterior surface of the shell.
Shell Bead/Pendant (Fig. 25j).
One Haliotus sp. half ovate shell bead fragment similar to Gifford's (1947)
AB5 category was recovered from unit N8EO during a small cave-in. Two biconically
drilled holes (1. 5 mm and 2. 5 mm in diameter) are present near one end along the
straight edge.
Discussion
The three specimens are probably trade items and represent either direct
or indirect contact with trade routes to the Southwest (cf. Bennyhoff and Heizer 1958;
Colton 1941; and Kean 1965).
Pe rishables
85
Knotted Vegetal Material
A totally carbonized piece of twisted vegetal material with a single overhand
knot was noted in N8E2, 40-50 cm in the vicinity of a hearth.
Leather
One decomposing fragment of leather was recovered in N8E0, 0-10 cm.
Basketry
One small rim fragment of a slightly charred coiled basket was recovered
from N8E2, 0-10 cm. The fragmentary nature of the specimen precludes any additional
study.
Discussion
The paucity of any perishable materials is undoubtedly due to the damp
nature of the deposit.
Historical Artifacts
One historical artifact, a brass .41 caliber revolver cartridge casing
probably used in a .41 long Double Action Colt was recovered from the surface of N8E2.
From the head stamp, it was manufactured by the Western Repeating Arms Company
in the 1880s (James, personal communication, 1976).
Human Skeletal Material
Two fragments of human skeletal material were noted. A burnt femoral
head of a juvenile (est. age 4-6 years) was recovered from N8EO, 10-20 cm (Hoffman,
personal communication, 1976). A human phalanx (Northey, personal communication,
1978) was recovered from N6EO, 50-60 cm. It is possible that the two specimens are
from a possible cremation burial although no burials were uncovered during our
excavations at the site.
Faunal Remains (cf. Appendix II).
The faunal remains indicate a heavy reliance on the hunting or snaring of
jackrabbit (Lepus californicus). Big horn sheep (Ovis canadensis) is present in the deposit
in small quantities but was probably not hunted in the surrounding area. Rather it is
possible that the remains indicate culturally transported meat from the higher elevation
hunting areas (e.g., Quinn Canyon Range - Slivovitz Shelter). Several rodent and a
small quantity of cottontail (Sylvilagus sp.) along with several tentatively identified bison
remains comprise the rest of the faunal assemblage. In general, the faunal remains
indicate a primary emphasis on the hunting of jackrabbit by a small group.
86
Summary/Interpretations
Civa Shelter II was an intermittently utilized, seasonal, temporary occupation
site probably used by both Shoshone and Southern Paiute groups (cf. Steward 1938;
Kelly 1934; Stewart 1966). The site can be assigned a relative dating using the
recovered projectile points at ca. A.D. 600/700 to historic times (A.D. 1850) and a
radiocarbon age determination on a charcoal sample from a hearth midway through the
deposit yielded a date of A. D. 1085 tends to support this chronological range.
The ceramic assemblage, dominated by Shoshone Tradition ware, offers
further evidence for the identity of the groups and the time range of shelter use. A
small amount (5%) of Fremont ceramics from the Parowan subarea was recovered
throughout the cultural deposit and appears to indicate either early or contemporaneous
use of the shelter with Shoshone groups by Fremont groups or trade/contact by Shoshone
peoples with the Fremont groups in the Meadow Valley Wash area to the southeast.
Perhaps both Fremont use and Shoshone trade occurred in the area as Brooks's excavations
at the Mariah Site (Brooks 1977) recovered only Puebloan ceramics. It is probable that
the site was utilized as a hunting,/gathering base camp because of its excellent view of the
valley, the protection it offered from the elements and its nearness to a seasonally
available source of water in the form of several ephemeral streams. This inference
of a base camp is further strengthened by a cache of pure montamorillonite clay intermixed
with lithic debitage found in one of the excavation units. As this clay could not have formed
in situ, its probably future use was undoubtedly for pottery manufacture. The presence
of several pottery scrapers in the deposit adds additional evidence for this inference.
The moderate quantity of artifacts and lithic debitage recovered along with the faunal
remains, argues for a lack of primary manufacturing or processing activities quite
possibly due to the briefness of occupation or their location/occurrence elsewhere away
from the main occupation area.
undoubtedly, the broad open area directly in front of the shelter was used for
many of these activities while the shelter proper was occupied during inclement weather.
Randon surface collections from this open area appear to indicate that primary processing
of lithic material (e.g., primary cortex flakes, exhausted cores, discarded raw
material chunks, etc.) was carried out in the surrounding area. As well, the surface
projectile point collections (e.g., Humboldt, Pinto, Elko Series as well as Rose Spring
Corner Notched and Desert Side Notched specimens) appear to indicate a greater time
depth (ca. 4000 B. C.) for the occupation or use of the surrounding open areas as
contrasted to the rather late occupation of the shelter proper.
The faunal remains indicate that jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) was the
favored game species with some bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) remains present. The
jackrabbits were hunted locally while the bighorn were probably procured in the surrounding
higher mountain ranges. The lithic debitage present in the shelter indicates that
secondary and tertiary manufacturing processes were carried out.
87
The metates and manos present, both on the surface outside of the shelter
and in the deposit, indicate the presence of seed gathering and related processing
activities. Contact and/or trade with groups to the south is indicated from t1e shell
beads and ornaments and the Anasazi North Creek Black-on-Gray pottery sherd
recovered.
In brief, Civa Shelter II and its artifact assemblage support the conclusion
of a temporary base camp of a fairly late date intermittently occupied by various
Fremont and Shoshone/Southern Paiute groups from ca. A. D. 600/700 to historic times.
NOTES
1.
2.
Charts are available in Busby (1978).
Charts are available in Busby (1978).
88
Figure 17
a-h. Desert Side Notched Projectile Points (2-59306; 2-59218; 2-59284; 2-59919;
2-59342; 2-59379; 2-59328; 2-59316); i-n. Cottonwood Series Projectile Points
(2-59396; 2059410; 2-59282; 2-69219; 2-59329).
Figure 18
a-e. Rose Spring Corner Notched (2-59878; 2-60320; 2-60314; 2-59799; 2-59788);
f-k. Rose Spring Corner Notched (2-59748; 2-59687; 2-59685; 2-60318; 2-60161;
2-60204);  . Rose Spring Corner Notched (2-60275; 2-60346; 2-59872; 2-59844;
2-59832); q-u. Cottonwood Series (2-60250; 2-60149; 2-59786; 2-59646; 2-59724);
v. Shoshone Ware Pottery Scoop (2-59797); w. Snake Valley Black-on-Gray
Reconstructed Bowl Fragment.
Figure 19
a-h. Desert Side Notched Projectile Points (2-59792; 2-59759; 2-59936; 2-60308;
2-59769; 2-60360; 2-59755; 2-59800); id. Elko Corner Notched Projectile Points
(2-59820; 2-59820 [Ventral and Dorsal Sides]); j-j. Elko Eared Projectile Points
(2-59803; 2-59920; 2-59907; 2-60248; 2-60216; 2-60116); q. Unifacial Side Scraper
(2-60369).
Figure 20
ag. Cottonwood Series Projectile Points (2-59233; 2-59401; 2-59228; 2-59250;
2-59318; 2-59227; 2-59343); h. Rose Spring Contracting Stem (2-59248); i-m.
Rose Spring Corner Notched Projectile Points (2-59344; 2-59339; 2-59249; 2-59266;
2-59287).
Figure 21
a-i. Rose Spring Corner Notched Projectile Points ( 2-59821; 2-59814; 2-59821;
2-60364; 2-60186; 2-60386; 2-60263; 2-59782); j. Eastgate Expanding Stem Projectile
Point (2-59942); k. Humboldt Basal Notch A Projectile Point (2-60140); 1. Tabular
Fragment (2-599241).
Figure 22
a-d. Rose Spring Series Projectile Points (2-59357; 2-59374; 2-59365; 2-59311);
e. Type 2 Drill/Perforator Fragment (2-59320); f. Type 5 Drill/Perforator (2-59320);
g. Naturally Backed Retouched Flake (2-59223); h. Type B Bone Bead (2-59279).
89
Figure 23
. Type I Biface (2-60375; uncatalogued); c-i. Type lb Biface (2-59647; 2-59678;
2-59740 [ventral]; 2-59740 [dorsal]; 2-59699; 2-60123); jl Type III Biface
(2-59901; 2-59753; 2-60310).
Figure 24
a. Type Ic Biface (2-60090); b. Type IDb Biface (2-59701); c. Type Mc Biface
(2-59955); d. Type Vc Biface (2-59702); e   Biface Fragments (2-59933 [distal];
2-50011 [distal]; 2-59645 [proximal]); h-i. Type 3 Drill (2-60172; 1-59809);
L Drill Bit Fragment (2-59364); k. Type 4 Drill (2-60387).
Figure 25
a. Incised Bone (2-60328); b. Type A Gaming Piece (2-60267); c. Bone Bead
(2-60085); d. Bone Pendant (2-60101); e. Incised Bone (2-59380); f. Type A Gaming
piece (2-59784); g. Tubular Bone/Bone Bead (2- 59779);-h. Clam Shell Disc Bead
(2-60341); i. Olivella biplicata Bead (2-60159); i Haliotus sp. Pendant (2-59275);
k. Antler Flaking Tool (2-59783).
Figure 26
a-c. Bone Flaking Tools (2-59775; 2-60093; 2-60094); d. Unusual Bone Awl, Lepus
californicus tibia (2-60097); e. Bone Awl Tip Fragment (2-60244); A. Tubular Bones
or Bone Beads (2-59816; 2-59802); h, Worked/Utilized Bone (2-60187).
b
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101
Chapter V
Coal Valley Dry Lake Sites
The Coal Valley Dry Lake sites are located In Coal Valley within the former
shoreline boundaries of the now dry Coal Valley Pleistocene lake (cf. Natural Setting
for a description of the area). Specifically all the sites are present in severely deflated
area along old shorelines and beach terraces in the central southern portions of the
basin (Fig. 2). The major locality, "Campsite, " Ln 1518 in the files of the Nevada
State Museum (T 1S, R 59E, Section 3) consists of a series of discrete lithic scatters
extending over ca. 1000 m2 and can be classified as 'temporary' open campsites. The
sites are small 'mounds' of surface cultural material situated on low rises of former
lake bottom sediments ('blowouts') that have not yet been eroded to the level of the
present hard-pan surface (Fig. 29). Surface scatters of lithic debitage, ground stone
artifact fragments, pottery sherds, and chipped and ground stone artifacts on and in the
immediate vincinity of these mound-like rises. While sheet wash, wind transport of
debitage,l deflation and other natual factors have conspired to disturb the integrity of
these discrete sites, it is readily apparent from the concentrations of surface material
that each site represented an independent locus of occupation in time within the locality.
Presumably these sites may have been utilized repeatedly through time, but deflation
and erosion have destroyed any stratigraphic contexts that may have once been present.
Compared to the ?Campsite locality, ? the Porcupine Site (T iS, R 59E,
Section 12) to the southeast (cf. Site Survey) is a light, moderately disturbed lithic scatter
concentrated along a series to low deflating dunes trending approximately north-south.
The artifact assemblage, while sparse, is significant in that a Great Basin Transverse
Point (crescent), a Rose Spring Corner Notched and an Elko Eared projectile point occur
along with lithic debitage and biface fragments. This confirms that the crescents recovered
from the Campsite locality are not isolated finds and do occur elsewhere, as should be
expected, on the dry lake.
The Sand Dunes East Site (T iS, R 59E, Section 2) to the northwest of
Porcupine is another light lithic scatter with drills, bifaces, cores and debitage present.
No temporally diagnostic artifacts were recovered although an isolated Elko Eared
point was collected in the immediate vicinity. Undoubtedly, the severe deflation, erosion
and associated natural processes will expose additional isolated artifacts and site
concentrations/localities in the lake basin over the next millenium.
At an elevation of 5000 feet (1524 m) the vegetation in the area corresponds
to that present in the Basin Floor/Playa Zone discussed previously. The sediments in
the basin are Quarternary alluvium primarily water deposited clays in the blowout areas
(former lake bottom) while fine to gravelly alluvium is prevalent elsewhere (cf.
Appendix I).
1 The high winds (30+ mph) present occasionally in the valley have been seen to cause
the transport of small (42. 5 cm) fragments of lithic debitage over several tens of feet at
a time.
102
Figure 27: View of discrete lithic scatter mound on
former lake bed of Coal Valley Dry Lake. Scale is
12.0 inches (30.5 cm).
Collection Strategy
The Coal Valley Dry Lake locality was subjected to what has commonly been
referred to as a 'grab sample' rather than a controlled systematic intensive sampling of
the cultural materials present on the surface. The surface collection was made by random
walkover transects with special attention focused on the discrete lithic scatters
concentrated on the small 'mounds' dotting the area (Fig. 27). The majority of the
artifacts came either from these scatters of lithic debitage and ground stone artifact
fragments or from their immediate vicinity. Artifact categories emphasized for
collection were projectile points (both diagnostic and fragmentary), bifaces, pottery
sherds, manos, metates, lithic debitage and miscellaneous ground and chipped stone
artifacts. While this method of sampling can be criticized (cf. Mueller 1975, 1974)
and quite rightly so, our research strategy was primarily directed towards establishing
a preliminary chronology and settlement pattern for an unknown region rather than in
delineating activity areas or patterning within or between sites. Both of our aims were
satisfied, although in retrospect, at the expense of more sophisticated studies (cf.
Downer 1977; Mueller 1974; among many others) that could have been carried out,
103
given adequate funding and time. However, as Downer (1977) has pointed out, analyses
using sophisticated statistical techniques require greater temporal control than may be
available for certain surface collections, and systematic, intensive surface collections
mav not be as useful as had been thought, since they may not provide more information
than a faster and less expensive grab sample. In the Coal Valley Dry Lake case, the
grab sample was appropriate to satisfy our immediate research goals.
Pottery (Fig. 36a).
A total of 215 sherds and other ceramic artifacts were recovered from the
surface localities of the dry lake bed during the reconnaissance survey. All sherds
are within the range of variability specified by the published type descriptions or from
the type collections on deposit at the Lowie Museum of Anthropology for the Shoshone
Ware category (cf. Rudy 1953; Tuohy 1956; 1963; Coale 1963; Baldwin 1950). Tuohy
(1963: 62) has noted that whole vessels of this category "generally exhibit a flower pot
shape, although bucket shapes and vessels with rounded bottoms occur . . . Potsherds
characteristically have a dull brown surface finish, obliterated coils and wiping marks.
Baldwin (1950) has described a variant ware (Southern laiute Ware) featuring pointed,
bottomed vessel forms and fingernail indentation. Rudy's (1953: 94) formal type des-
cription is presented below for Shoshone Ware.
Construction: Coiled and molded. Firing: Uncontrolled
atmosphere (?). Core color: Generally reddish brown,
ranging from dark gray through reddish brown to almost
black. Temper: Variable, when viewed with a hand lens
it appears as quartz sand ranging from fine to coarse, with
occasional fragments of a light-opaque angular material and
small amounts of mica. The thin section analysis shows
the temper to be "crushed granitic rock or subangular sand
that has been derived from granitic rock. " Texture of core:
Coarse, occasionally medium. Surface finish: Poorly
smoothed; scraped by a stick; striations common. Surface
usually undulating. Occasional sherds well smoothed but
not polished. Surface color: Reddish brown or buff,
occasionally gray grading into dark brown; some almost
black. Vessel walls: Strong to friable -- principally friable.
Shapes: No complete specimens were found during the
surveys, but sherds indicate 'flower pot' and jars with pointed
bases. Ethnographic reports also indicate bowls. Rims:
Straight and outcurved. Wall thickness: Average 7 mm;
range from 4 to 8. 5 mm. Decorative techniques: Occasionally
fingernail impressions vertically placed in horizontal bands just
below the rims; most sherds plain. Range: Western Utah,
southern Idaho and eastern Nevada.
104
The sherd collection from Coal Valley Dry Lake exhibits considerable
variation in wall thickness (Range 5. 0 mm - 9. 8 mm; Average 6. 9 mm) often within
a single sherd, kind and amount of temper, hardness and paste composition. Inspection
of the sherds indicates coiling is the main construction technique although some paddle-
and-anvil construction is also present. Fowler, et. al. (1973: 16) note that a combination
of paddle-and-anvil and coiling construction techniques are reported ethnographically
for the Southern Ute. Most sherds are a mottled light gray/tan color but range to dark
brown and dark gray apparently indicating a rather poorly controlled firing in a reducing
atmosphere. Wiping marks, striations and some evidence of smoothing are present on
a small number of the sherds.
The six rimsherds recovered indicate the presence of wide mouthed globular
jars with recurved rims as well as vertical, wide mouthed vessels with rim diameters
ranging from 18. 0 - 21. 0 cm. Rim forms present are IA3 (1), IB2 (3) and IB3 (2) (rim
typed follow Colton's (1952: 14) nomenclature). Vessel decoration was noted on three
sherds and is restricted to thumbnail impressions on the exterior surface of the vessels.
One pattern only is present and corresponds to that described by Fowler, et. al. (1973:
17) as Pattern 1.
"The most common design consists of horizontal rows of
closely-spaced vertical impressions with no intervening
space between the rows. The impressions face right or
left, but are consistant for a particular vessel. "I
The distribution of Shoshonean Tradition pottery has recently been discussed
and surveyed by Fowler (1968) and reviewed by Tuohy (1973). Based on this work, the
ceramics collected from the Coal Valley Dry Lake localities are well within the
expected distribution range of this type. Fowler, et. al. (1973) on the basis of their
work at O'Malley and Conway Shelters to the east have indicated a temporal range of
ca. A. D. 1000 to post contact times for Shoshonean ceramics in this portion of Nevada.
Other Ceramic Artifacts
Pendant
One edge ground sherd of sub-rectangular Shoshone ware with a biconically
drilled hole present in one corner was collected. No incision or other evidence of
decoration are present and the specimen is similar to pieces that have been described
as 'pendants. ' Its length is 78. 0 mm, width 49. 0 mm, thickness 5.5 mm and weight
34.5 g.
Projectile Points
Seventy-eight chipped stone artifacts were classified either as diagnostic
projectile points (36), projectile point fragments (32) or as projectile point preforms
105
(10) from the Campsite locality. Chert is the preferred raw material (55. 1%)l, with
obsidian (42.3%), basalt (1.3%) and chalcedony (1.3%) following. The typological des-
criptions follow those discussed in Hester and Heizer (1973a).
Great Basin Transverse Points (Table 13, Fig. 28a-c).
Specimens: Complete (3)
Material: Chert (3)
Description: Three Great Basin Transverse projectile points or crescents conforming to
Type I as described by Tadlock (1966) or the concavoconvex category of Mitchell, et. al.
(1977) were recovered from the former lake bottom of Coal Valley Dry Lake. All are
made on chert interior flakes and only one specimen can be described as finished or
'complete'. The remaining two still have their striking platforms present and the flaking
is still incomplete on the dorsal and ventral sides. I Nipples' are present on one specimen
and the depth of concavity on the two measureable specimens ranges from 2.0 - 4.0 mm.
Wing thickness varies for the right wing from 3. 0 - 8. 0 mm and for the left wing from
4.0 - 6.0 mm. Tip widths range from 9.8 - 10.1 mm (cf. Mitchell, et. al. 1976 for a
discussion of proper measurement techniques).
Humboldt Concave Base (Table 14, Fig. 28d-g).
Specimens: Complete (4)
Material: Chert (2); Obsidian (1); Basalt (1)
Description: These specimens are small to medium elongate triangular projectile
points with slight to moderately convex lateral edges. Basal concavities ranging from
0. 8 - 2. 2 mm in depth are present on all specimens. Maximum width position is at the
base. Flaking is percussion, moderately well done and cross sections are biconvex.
Pinto Square Shoulder (Table 14, Fig. 28h-i).
Specimens: Complete (1); Incomplete (1)
Material: Chert (2)
Description: These are medium sized triangular points with convex lateral edges. Notching
is asymmetrical and shallow with short, rounded barbs. Stems are parallel sides with
slight to deep concavities present on the bases. No basal notching is present. Maximum
width position is at the barb ends. Shallow random serration is present on the lateral
edges of one specimen in the basal region. Both specimens are made on interior flakes
and cortex is still present near the distal portion of one point. Flaking is moderately
well done percussion and cross sections are biconvex.
Elko-Eared (Table 14, Fig. 28j-m, 30a-b).
Specimens: Complete (4); Incomplete (2)
Material: Chert (2); Obsidian (4)
Description: These are moderate to large triangular to elongate triangular projectile
106
points with straight to slightly convex lateral edges. Notching is wide and shallow and
at a slight angle to the long axis of the point. Maximum width position is at the basal
ends. The stems are generally expanded with deeply indented bases giving an 'eared'
or bibbed effect. In cross section 5 points are biconvex and one is plano-convex.
Flaking is moderately to well done percussion with two specimens showing percussion
and pressure retouch and shallow serration along both lateral edges with a 'needle-like'
point.
Elko Side-Notched (Table 14, Fig. 30c).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Obsidian (1)
Descritpion: This is a medium sized triangular projectile point with slightly convex
lateral edges. The side notching is uniformly broad and rounded and nearly perpendicular
to the long axis of the point. The stem is parallel-sided and the base is convex. Flaking
is pressure and the cross section is biconvex. The lateral edges show a crude attempt
at serration. For comparable specimens see Heizer, Baumhoff and clewlow (1968).
Elko Split Stem (Table 14, Fig. 30d-f).
Specimens: Complete (2); Incomplete (1)
Material: Chert (1); Obsidian (2)
Description: These are medium to large sized triangular points ranging in shape from
elongate to squat with slightly convex lateral edges. The specimens are side-notched
with the tangs straight or very slightly 'drooping'. The stems are parallel sides or
slightly expanding and slight basal concavities are present on the bases. The flaking
is predominantely percussion with some pressure present on one specimen. The cross
sections are biconvex. These projectile points are similar to those illustrated in
Aikens (1970: Fig. 20r).
Eastgate Expanding Stem (Table 14, Fig. 29a-c).
Specimens: Complete (1); Incomplete (2)
Material: Chert (2); Obsidian (1)
Description: These are small (44. 0 mm maximum length) rather elongate triangular
projectile points with straight to slightly convex lateral edges. Lateral concavities
give the bases a flared appearance with the 3 specimens showing squared to slightly
rounded barb ends. Notching is generally parallel into the basal portion of the lateral
edges with the barb bases the maximum width position. One specimen has a very small
(1. 0 mm) but distinct centralized basal notch. The remaining specimens have a slight
basal concavity and a straight base respectively. The specimens are biconvex in cross
section and the flaking is mixed with pressure dominant and some precussion present.
107
Rose Spring Corner Notched (Table 14, Fig. 30g-o).
Specimens: Complete (6); Incomplete (3)
Material: Chert (6); Obsidian (3)
Description: These are small triangular points with straight to slightly convex blade
edges. The barb ends are pointed to somewhat rounded with slight to medium protrusion.
The notching is generally wide at an angle (ca. 450) to the long axis of the point and
ranges from 1. 2 to 4.1 mm in depth. Maximum width positions are at the barb ends,
although on more convex sided specimens, it is somewhat above the barb ends. The stems
are slightly expanded with straight to slightly concave bases. Transverse cross
sections are biconvex and the flaking is mainly pressure with some mixed flaking present.
Rose Spring Contracting Stem (Table 14, Fig. 30p).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Obsidian
Description: This is a small triangular, slightly convex sides point with a contracting
stem of 7. 00 mm in length. The shoulders are slightly rounded with the maximum width
position present just above the junction of the body and stem. The flaking is pressure
and the cross section is biconvex.
Desert Side Notched (Table 14, Fig. 29d-g, 31a-b).
Specimens: Complete (2); Incomplete (2)
Material: Chert (3); Obsidian (1)
Description: These are small to medium sized (49.0 mm maximum length) slender
triangular to elongate triangular projectile points with straight to slightly convex lateral
edges. The bases range from slightly convex to basally notched. Side notches, per-
pendicular to the long axis of the point, range from 0. 4 to 2. 9 mm in depth and a basal
notch of 2.1 mm depth is present on one specimen. Two specimens each have one of
their ears missing and all specimens are finely made. The flaking is pressure and the
cross sections are biconvex. As a comment, it appears that 2 types are present. A
fine side-notched 'eared' type (Fig. 29e) and a broad notched slightly convex base
(Fig. 29f) type are both present. Both of these fall within the range of variation noted
for the DSN type (cf. Baumhoff and Byrne 1959; Lanning 1963; and Hester and Heizer
1973a).
Projectile Point Fragments
Thirty-two non-diagnostic projectile point fragments were recovered during
the random surface collection in 1975. Chert and obsidian are co-dominant in raw
material percentages. Distal fragments make up 53% of this category (Chart 53%,
Obsidian 47%) with medial sections (9%) and specimens lacking the base (38%) following.
Many of the specimens, especially the smaller, more finely finished pieces are pressure
flaked, while the larger cruder fragments are probably soft hammer percussion. Since
108
the specimens are non-diagnostic no further analysis will be attempted. It should be
noted, however, that the fragments are probably portions of the projectile points previously
described with the smaller point series (e.g. DSN, RS) dominating.
Projectile Point Preforms (Table 13).
Ten specimens were classified into this category. The term preform is
used here (after Crabtree 1972: 83) to designate a stage in the manufacture of an artifact
after initial preparation has started but before the piece is completed. The preforms
described below are both specific and generalized type preforms. Specific type preforms
are morphologically close enough to the finished type of projectile point to be generally
identifiable while generalized preforms, on the other hand, cannot be specific since they
are not morphologically close enough to the finished artifact to be identified with the
'mental template' of the knapper (cf. Bard, Busby and Kobori n. d. , for a discussion of
generalized projectile point preforms). Five specific type preforms and five generalized
preforms are present in the collectionsfrom Coal Valley.
Elko Preforms (Tabl. 13, Fig. 31c-g).
Specimens: Complete (3); Incomplete (2)
Material: Chert (3); Obsidian (1); Quartzite (1)
Description: These are medium to large size triangular to elongate triangular (perhaps
narrow lanceolate in one form as reconstructed) preforms with straight to slightly
convex lateral edges. The notching is incomplete and shallow and at a slight angle to
the long axis of the point. The stems are slightly expanding with straight to slightly
convex bases. The flaking is well done percussion and all cross sections are biconvex.
Comments: These are well made on interior flakes and finely thinned specimens.
Except for minor flaws in the workmanship, especially in the notching, would be con-
sidered complete projectile points. Application of Thomas's (1970, 1976) method of
projectile point analysis consistently put these 'points' into the Elko Series, although
admittedly his 'taxonomic key' made no provision for a preform category. The work-
manship and raw material choice is similar to that exhibited in Biface Category II
(Narrow Lanceolate) and it is possible that this artifically constructedbiface category
is in reality a preform category. Our limited sample of 5 specimens however cannot
really confirm this. Two morphological categories are present within this group: a
medium size isosoceles triangular form and a narrow lanceolate form. The narrow
lanceolate shape (1 specimen) is similar to Biface Category IL. A larger, more
complete sample would be useful in a typological and technical analysis of this category.
Small Preforms (Table 13, Fig. 34a-e).
Five bifacially flaked, chipped stone artifacts, triangular in form and with
the projectile point size ranges were classified as 'generalized' preforms as the final
finishing of these pieces had not been completed.
Specimens: Complete (4); Incomplete (1)
109
Material: Chert (3); Obsidian (2)
Description: These are moderate size, triangular specimens with straight to slightly
convex lateral edges. Bases are slightly convex and crude attempts at side and basal
notching are present on several specimens. Flaking is primarily percussion with
some pressure retouch present. Cross sections are biconvex. From inspection it is
probable that the majority of these specimens would fit into the Eastgate-Rose Spring-
Cottonwood Desert Side Notched categories. It is also highly possible that several of
the specimens may be unfinished Cottonwood Triangular projectile points as the sizes
are within the range of other Cottonwood points known from the area.
Discussion
The projectile points recovered from the surface of Coal Valley Dry Lake
represent a range in time from ca. 9000 B. C. to post contact times. Seven distinct
series of projectile points are known: Desert Side Notched, Rose Spring/Eastgate,
Elko, Pinto, Humboldt Series, along with Great Basin Transverse Points.
The DSN, RA/EG, Elko and Humboldt Seri-es has been discussed previously
in association with Civa II as representing a time range of 6400 B. C. to post contact
times. They will not be discussed any further for the Coal Valley Dry Lake localities.
Their presence, as with the other projectile point series, on the now dry lake bed,
obviously indicates a continued intermittent use of these sites over time, quite probably
when precipitation and run off conditions allowed for standing water and/or other
favorable conditions.
The Pinto Series was originally defined by Amsden (Campbell and Campbell
1935: 43-44) based on his projectile point analysis of the Pinto Basin Site in the south-
western part of the Great Basin. Harrington (1957) has divided the series into five
varieties of subtypes based on his analysis of the Stahl Site. They are: (1) Shoulderless;
(2) Sloping Shoulder; (3) Square Shoulder; (4) Barbed Shoulder; and (5) One Shoulder.
Lanning in his report on the Rose Spring Site (1963: 250-251) refers to Pinto series
points as the 'Little Lake? series. Both Layton (1970) and O'Connell (1971) have
criticized the ?loose? definitions of this series and have proposed other types for their
research areas based upon attributes in the original Pinto Series. Thus O'Connell
(1971: 68) has defined the 'Bare Creek? series with 'sloping shoulder,' 'square shoulder, ?
and 'barbed' varieties for Surprise Valley in northeastern California, while Layton
(1970) has proposed the name "Silent Snake Bifurcate Base" (Pinto Barbed) type for
the High Rock area of northwestern Nevada.
Based on the radiocarbondates given in Hester and Heizer (1973), the Pinto
Series appears to have a chronological distribution of between ca. 3000 B. C. - 700 B. C.
Hester and Heizer further suggest an earlier beginning, based on material from Hidden
Cave (western Nevada) and from Weston Canyon Rockshelter in Idaho (1973: 4-5).
Judging from the discussion and few radiocarbon dates presented, it is obvious additional
dates are needed to clarify the temporal range of this series and its typological affinities.
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113
Great Basin Transverse Points or 'crescents' are one of the distinctive
traits of the Western Pluvial Lakes Tradition (Tadlock 1966; Browman and Munsell
1969; Hester 1973; Clewlow 1968). The Western Pluvial Lakes Tradition (WPLT)
was defined by Bedwell (1970: 231) to refer to "a general way of life directed towards
the ... exploitation of a lake environment. " Crescents and by implication the WPLT
are assumed to Anathermal in age (Clewlow 1968). Hester (1973) has assigned a
chronological range of ca. 9000 B. C. - 6000 B. C. for this lacustrine oriented tradition
(cf. Hester 1973: 62-69, for a discussion and site distribution of the WPLT).
Great Basin Transverse Points in the eastern Great Basin are known from
Long and Spring Valleys (Tadlock 1966) to the north of Coal Valley, the Escalante Valley
(Keller and Hunt 1967) to the east and from Danger Cave (Tadlock 1966: Jennings 1957)
to the northeast. Clewlow (1968) and Tadlock (1966) both suggest their use as transversely
mounted projectile points used in the hunting of waterfowl, although Butler (1970) and
Mitchell, et. al. (1977) suggest other alternatives. Experiments conducted at the
University of California, Berkeley, show that specimens, hafted as transverse points,
could have served as projectile tips (cf. Hester and Heizer 1973a).
Undoubtedly other dry lakes in the region will yield other specimens of this
distinctive projectile point once careful archaeological surveys have been conducted in
these now unknown areas. However we may have to wait for centuries, in some cases,
for deflation to bring these early sediment-covered materials into view.
In brief, the projectile point time markers from Coal Valley Dry Lake
indicate an occuption range of 9000 B. C. to post contact time for this locality.
Bifaces
As noted in the Civa 1: section, the specimens assigned to this category are
pieces that show evidence of extensive bifacial flaking with at least one lateral edge
capable of being utilized for a cutting action. These artifacts are probably multipurpose
in function and range in form from a crudely worked flake or blade to a carefully
flaked piece suitable for hafting.
Sixty-eight specimens (10 complete, 58 fragmentary) were recovered during
the random surface collection of the "Campsite Locality" and subjected to various
metrical measurements (Table 16). Chert is the predominant raw material (76. 5%), no
doubt due to its availability in the near vicinity, with obsidian (16.2%), basalt (2. 9%),
chalcedony (2. 9%) and quartzite (1. 5%) following. Cross sections range from plano-
convex (17. 7%) to biconvex (82. 3%). Morphologically the specimens range from various
ovate forms to lanceolate, triangular and limande in form. Percussion flaking is
dominant although a combination of percussion/pressure flaking is present on certain
of the specimens. The edges of many of the specimens show evidence of minor crushing,
nibbling and polish. No edge wear analysis was conducted on the collected specimens,
although such a study would definitely be of value in determining the function of these
114
?bifaces. I In addition to the edge damage present, over 95% of the fragmentary specimens
have snap fractures present, probably indicating breakage during use rather than in
manufacture as the majority of these pieces appear to have passed through the final
stages of finishing. Distal fragments comprise over 38% of the total assemblage tending
to support the hypothesis of breakage through use.
Edge angles range from 250 - 450 with a mean of 340 for 127 determinations.
The angles of this range are steep enough to hold an edge yet are low enough for a
reasonable sharp cutting edge (cf. Semenov 1964).
Type I - Ovate (Table 16, Fig. 31h-j).
Specimens: Complete (3)
Material: Chert (2); Basalt (1)
Description: These specimens are ovate in form with convex to slightly convex bases.
The lateral edges are convex and converge to form a blunt point at the distal end. Cross
sections are biconvex.
Measurements:     Length: 44. 0 - 52. 0 mm
Width: 33. 0 - 47. 0 mm
Thickness: 14.0 -18.0 mm
Edge Angle: 400 - 450 (chert); 360 - 370 (basalt)
Type Ia - Pointed Ovate (Table 16, Fig. 31k-I, 32a).
Specimens: Complete (3)
Material: Chert (2)
Description: These are similar to Type I except that the lateral edges converge to a
distinct point at the distal end.
Measurements:     Length: 44. OW-- 63. 0 mm
Width: 30. 0 - 41. 0 mm
Thickness: 12. 0 - 17. 0 mm
Edge Angle: 340 - 420
Type lb - Long Ovate (Table 16, Fig. 32b-d).
Specimens: Incomplete (3)
Material: Chert (1); Obsidian (1); Basalt (1)
Description: These basal fragments are elongate ovate in form and are similar to Type
I except for an overall greater size (width, thickness, length). The cross sections are
biconvex and it must be pointed out that this category is subject to further revision, due
to the nature of the sample available for analysis.
Measurements:     Length: 30.0 - 45.0 mm
Width: 38. 0 - 40. 0 mm
Thickness: 8. 0 - 15.0 mm
Edge Angle: 340 - 390
115
Type II - Narrow Lanceolate (Table lb, Fig. 33a-c, 34f-h).
Specimens: Incomplete (6)
Material: Chert (6)
Description: These bifaces are narrow lanceolate in form with the slightly convergent
lateral edges converging to a sharp point at the distal end. The cross sections are thin
and biconvex with the majority of the specimens being finely worked. This category is
subject to revision due to the small size of the collected sample and category determination
based on specimens lacking the basal portions.
Measurements:     Length: 90. 5 - 34.0 mm
Width: 20.0 -28.5mm
Thickness: 4.0 -6.0mm
Edge Angle: 270 - 360
Type III - Large Elongate Triangular (Table 16, Fig. 32e).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chert
Description: This specimen is elongate triangular in form with a convex base. The lateral
edges converge to a sharp point at the distal end. The cross section is biconvex and
the flaking is percussion.
Measurements:     Length: 86.0 mm
Width: 38. 5 mm
Thickness: 6.0 mm
Edge Angle: 300 - 340
Type ma - Small Elongate Triangular (Table 16, 34d).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chert
Description: This spec inen is elongate triangular in form and is similar to Type m
except for an overall reduction in size. The base is convex and the lateral edges converge
to a blunt point at the distal end. The cross section is biconvex.
Measurements:     Length: 40. 0 mm
Width: 25. 0 mm
Thickness: 6.0 mm
Edge Angle: 280 - 300
Type IV - Sub-Triangular (Table 16, Fig. 32f-i).
Specimens: Complete (3); Incomplete (1)
Material: Chert (1); Obsidian (3)
Description: These specimens are sub-triangular in form with slightly convex to convex
bases. The lateral edges converge to form blunt to sharp points at the distal end. The
cross sections are plano-convex.
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118
Measurements:     Length: 35.0 - 49.0 mm
Width: 24.0 - 28. 0 mm
Thickness: 5.0 - 9.0 mm
Edge Angle: 320 - 380
Type V - Small Elongate Limande (Table 16, Fig. 33e).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Quartzite
Description: This specimen is a small elongate limande in form and has a convex base.
The slightly convex lateral edges converge to form a blunt point at the distal end. The
cross section is biconvex.
Measurements:     Length: 69.0 mm
Width: 20. 0 mm
Thickness: 13.0 mm
Edge Angle: 390 - 400
Type VI - Undefined - Type I (Table 16, Fig. 33f).
Specimens: In complete (4)
Material: Chert (4)
Description: These basal fragments form a distinct type but cannot be clearly defined
because of the lack of complete specimens. The bases are flat to slightly convex with
parallel to very slightly convex lateral edges. The specimens are biconvex in cross
section and if reconstructed, would be moderately large.
Measurements:     Length: 27.0 - 52.0+ mm
Width: 25. 0 - 43. 0 mm
Thickness: 8.0 -10.0mm
Edge Angle: 359-- 420
Crude Bifaces
Specimens: Incomplete (2)
Material: Chert (2)
Description: These are crude basal fragments with straight to slightly convex lateral
edges and slightly convex bases. Both specimens are made by hard hammer percussion.
Width measurements range from 50. 0 - 53. 0 mm, with thickness measurements of
20.0 - 22.0 mm.
Discussion/Comment: The bifaces from the Campsite Locality are similar to those
from the excavated and surveyed sites.
Artifacts
The surface collection yielded a total of 24 chipped and ground stone artifacts.
Bifaces, ceramics and projectile prints are not included in the above total and have been
119
discussed. As presented previously, these artifacts have been categorized into a des-
criptive typology for ease of presentation and discussion.
Drills/Perforators
Two specimens were collected from Coal Valley Dry Lake and are assumed
to have been used in drilling and perforating activities. The two complete drills fall into
two distinct types discussed previously for Civa II.
ype23 (Fig. 36b).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chert
Description: Similar to Type 3 for Civa II.
Measurements:     Length: 50.0 mm
Width (base): 20. 0 mm
Thickness: 4.2 mm
Width (bit): 1. 5 - 8. 5 mm
Type 4 (Fig. 36e).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chert
Description:. This is a bifacially worked interior flake with a large sub-rectangular base
from which a short drill bit gradually tapers. The end of the bit shows evidence of
crushing and grinding as well as several flake scars undoubtedly caused by use. The
specimen's size and thickness appear to suggest a 'heavy-duty' tool.
Measurements:     Length: 54. 0 mm
Width (base): 37.1 mm
Thickness: 10.0 mm
Width (bit): 7. 2 - 13. 2 mm
Scrapers
Naturally Backed Single Convex Side Scraper (Fig. 35a).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chert
Description: This specimen is unifacially retouched with soft hammer percussion on the
dorsal surface of an interior, end struck flake. Retouch is located along one slightly
convex lateral edge with the other edge being naturally backed. The striking platform is
crushed on this tool.
Measurements:     Length: 64. 0 mm
Width: 25. 5 mm
Thickness: 10.1 mm
Edge Angle: 570
120
Steep Scraper (Fig. 35b).
Specimens: Complete (1)
Material: Chalcedony
Description: This is a split nodule of chalcedony with unifacial percussion retouch around
the circumference.
Measurements:     Length: 49.5 mm
Width: 45. 0 mm
Thickness: 15.0 - 22.0 mm
Edge Angle: 490 - 820
Weight: 53.1 grams
Composite Tools
Double Convex Side Scraper/Endscraper
Type I (Fig. 37c).
Specimens: Complete (2)
Material: Chert (2)
Description: These specimens are unifacially retouched with soft hammer percussion on
the dorsal surface of an interior, end struck flake. Retouch is located on the convex end
opposite the striking platform and on both lateral edges. The striking platform on one
specimen is crushed while the other is still intact.
Measurements:     Length: 50.0 mm
Width: 36. 0 - 38. 0 mm
Thickness: 10.0 - 15.0 mm
Edge Angle: 570 - 700
Weight: 21. 0 - 30. 5 grams
Type I (Fig. 37d).
Specimens: Complete (l)
Material: Basalt
Description: This specimen is unifacially retouched with soft hammer percussion on the
dorsal surface of an interior side struck flake. Retouch is located on the convex end
opposite the striking platform and on both lateral edges. The striking platform is still
intact.
Measurements:     Length: 34.8 mm
Width: 56.2 mm
Thickness: 12.0 mm
Edge Angle: 580 - 600
Weight: 29.6 grams
121
Miscellaneous Chipped Stone Artifacts
Handaxe
Specimens: 1
Material: Silicified rhyolite
Description: This specimen is a small handaxe, triangular in form, with a convex butt.
The lateral edges are straight and converge to a blunt point. Flaking is percussion and
the piece is crudely made.
Measurements:     Length: 94. 0 mm
Width: 69. 0 mm
Thickness: 24.5 mm
Edge Angle: 580 - 620
Chopper
Specimens: 1
Material: Chert
Description: This is a small chert core which has been bifacially worked on one leading
edge of the nodule. Slight edge damage is present on the working edge and it is probable
that the piece was utilized in a chopping/cutting action.
Ground Stone
Only a limited sample of ground stone was collected during the random surface
reconnaissance of the Campsite Locality on Coal Valley Dry Lake. Scattered, small
((5. 0 cm in length) ground stone fragments were a prime component of the discrete site
localities and were the chief indicator, along with lithic debitage, of cultural activity.
Basalt, rhyolite and ignimbrite were the main raw materials due to their easy availability
in the surrounding mountain ranges. Only a few fragments of a well sorted, consolidated
sand stone along with several fragments of granite were noted.
Metates
While numerous gound stone fragments attributed as belonging to this category
were noted, only one complete specimen and 3 fragmentary artifacts were collected. All
are within the morphological attributes of the Slab type metate discussed previously. The
specimens appear to have ranged from rectangular-ovate to elongate ovate in form and
all have slight to marked grinding depressions (0.1 - 1.2 cm depth) in the central portions
of the pieces. No specimens show grinding or abrasion on more than one surface. All
fragments indicate deliberate shaping by the presence of grinding and battering/pecking
marks on the lateral edges. The complete specimen is 36. 5 cm in length, 18. 0 cm wide
and 3. 5 cm thick. The other fragments range in thickness from 3. 5 cm to 4. 5 cm.
Materials are basalt (3) and granite (1).
122
Manos
Two manos were recovered in the Campsite locality vicinity. Numerous
fragments were noted but not collected during the surface survey. The two specimens
can be placed into previously described categories.
Ia: Shaped, Rectangular in Cross Section, Abraded On One Side (Fig. 36c).
One fragmentary specimen made on a flat tabular piece of basalt. Length
9. 0+ cm, 6. 5 cm in width and 3. 0 cm thick. The working surface has been ground
smooth by use. Pecking and grinding mark traces present on the lateral edges.
II: Unshaped, Broad Oval, Abraded On One Side
One complete specimen of basalt. Length 9.8 cm, width 7.9 cm, thickness
5.4 cm. One end exhibits severe battering and may have possibly been used as a
pestle/mano combination.
Atlatl Weight (Fig. 35c).
This artifact is a long, thin tapering ground and polished piece of quartz-
muscovite-chlorite phyllite (schist) with a semi-elliptical cross section. One lateral
edge has been ground flat, presumably for mating with the atlatl body and the other
lateral edge tapers to a semi-curve. Both the proximal and distal ends have been
ground flat and a number of shallow scratches and striations (perhaps resulting from
manufacture or use) can be seen. This specimen is contained within the Type II
category of Butler and Osborne (1959) classification for the Northwest and a similar
piece is illustrated in Hester, 1Wdner and Spencer (1974: Fig. lib). From a review
of Hester, et. al. (1974), this appears to be the only atlatl weight known from
southeastern Nevada.
Measurements:     Length: 134.0 mm
Diameter (x axis): 15.9 mm (base)
10. 0 mm (tip)
Diameter (y axis): 12.9 mm (base)
10. 6 mm (tip)
Weight: 51.7 grams
Edge Damaged/Utilized Flakes
As previously discussed in the Civa II presentation, 'utilized' or 'edge
damaged' flakes are presented here for information only and will not be considered as
a formal artifact category in the sense of deliberate manufacture and use.
Specimens: 16
Material: Chert (15); Chalcedony (1)
123
Measurements: Twelve of the specimens are interior flake fragments or complete
flakes while four are primary cortex trim flakes.
Cores
Bifac ial
Specimens: 6
Material: Chert (5); Quartize (1)
Description: These cores are generally small to medium chunks (up to fist size),
nodules or split nodules, amorphous in shape, which have been bifacially flaked from
more than one striking platform in order to produce usable flakes of various sizes.
Measurements:     Length: 7.1 - 9.9 cm (Mean = 8.5 cm)
Width: 5.2 - 7.4 cm (Mean = 6.1 cm)
Thickness: 2. 8 - 5.3 cm (Mean = 4. 0 cm)
Utilized Cores
Specimens: 2
Material: Quartzite (1); Basalt (1)
Description: These are cores that have been utilized for some other purpose after being
discarded. One specimen is a tabular piece of basalt that has been bifacially worked
to remove several flakes of various sizes. Slight crushing and battering are present on
the edges. The other specimen is a large fine grain quartzite nodule with several flake
removals present. Severe crushing and battering are evident on the distal and proximal
ends of the core.
Measurements:     Length: 91.5 - 108.1 mm
Width: 63. 9 - 68. 0 mm
Thickness: 25. 9 - 41. 0 mm
Lithic Debitage
A total of 574 pieces of lithic debitage 2587. 0 grams were randomly collected
from the scattered site localities on the dry lake bed during the surface reconnaissance.
It is probable that this sample of debitage is biased due it is also generally representative
of the debitage present at the Coal Valley Dry Lake localities.
The debitage was not subjected to an intensive lithic analysis as it was not
collected from any controlled contexts. In terms of raw material, chert is predominant
comprising 72.3% of the total sample, with obsidian (27.2%) and basalt (0. 5%) following.
This is comparable to the data recorded at the two excavated rockshelter/cave sites
and other lithic scatters within the study area. The predominance of chert is probably
due to its availability in the nearby alluvial fans and mountain ranges.
From our inspection of the collected sample, it is readily apparent from
the numerous primary and secondary cortex trim flakes, interior trim and biface
124
thinning flakes (cf. Hester 1971; Shafer 1969; and Epstein 1969 for a discussion of
these terms) that the dry lake was the focus of primary, secondary and tertiary
manufacturing activities. Secondary cortex and interior trim flakes, along with biface
thinning flakes, are the most numerous, leading to the tentative conclusion that nodules
of the raw material were decortified elsewhere (probably at a nearby quarry site) and
the material transported to the temporary occupation sites for further processing. The
interior trim and biface thinning flakes suggest completion of various tools on site.
The surface reconnaissance also noted discrete workshop or 'activity' areas within the
various localities. That is, it was apparent that some portions of a 'site' had a higher
proportion of primary or secondary cortex trim flakes to interior or biface thinning
flakes than would be expected in the breakup of a core or cores during manufacture.
Conversely, some areas of a site had a high proportion of interior and biface
thinning flakes compared to primary or secondary cortex trim flakes. These observations
(although not confirmed by quantitative data) argue for 'specialized' manufacturing or
activity areas for primary and secondary decortification and the final finishing process
involved in tool manufacture or maintenance. As well, several sites were observed
where obsidian was the dominant raw material compared to chert.
A controlled surface collection sample and intensive/extensive lithic analysis
would have determined if these observations were correct as well as provide valuable
data on the technological processes present. Time and financial constraints precluded
any in-depth study at this surface scatter.
Radiocarbon Dates
Two round hearths exposed by deflation, 12?? in diameter and 4"1 deep and
filled with carbonized wood (probably sage or greasewood), were noted at one of the
'campsites' located along a dune edge north of the main concentration of sites. The
surface collection from the area in the immediate vicinity of the hearths yielded
several Slab metate fragments, a hammerstone (?), five projectile point or biface
fragments (1 distal, 2 lateral, 2 proximal) and lithic debitage of chert and obsidian.
One of the chert proximal projectile point fragments is a Rose Spring Corner Notched
type. A charcoal sample from one of the hearths yielded a date of 1475+ 80 radiocarbon
years: A.D. 475 (I-9796). This date is in agreement (A.D. 410 - A.D. 600 corrected,
Ralph, Michael and Han 1973) with the chronological range postulated for the associated
Rose Spring series projectile point (cf. Hester and Heizer 1973a).
Summary/Interpretations
The artifact assemblage recovered from the Coal Valley Dry Lake localities
indicates an intermittent, seasonal occupation/use from ca. 9000 B. C. to historic times
(A. D. 1850). The former lake appears to have been a main locus of occupation for the
study area based on the numerous discrete 'campsites', the quantity of cultural material,
and the time depth as indicated by the temporally diagnostic artifacts and ceramics present.
125
The initial occupation of the now dry lake bed was by peoples of the Western Pluvial
Lakes Tradition with the presence of Great Basin Transverse projectile points being
diagnostic of this tradition (Tadlock 1966; Browman and Munsell 1969; Hester 1973;
Clewlow 1968). The Western Pluvial Lakes Tradition (WPLT) was defined by Bedwell
(1970: 231) to refer to "ta general way of life directed towards the ... exploitation of a
lake environment" and Hester (1973) has assigned a chronological range of ca. 9000-
6000 B. C. for this lacustrine oriented tradition (cf. Hester 1973; 62-69 for a discussion
and review of the WPLT). The distribution of other sites yielding crescents has been
discussed previously.
Desert Archaic groups intermittently occupied the lake bed from ca. 6000
B. C. (?) to historic times and the area was probably shared by both Shoshone and
Southern Paiute groups, although Kelly (1934) has included it in Southern Paiute territory.
Undoubtedly the sites were probably utilized when favorable climatic conditions
(e.g., precipitation and temperature, cf. Synder and Langbein 1962; Weide 1976)
allowed for the formation of standing water due to runoff and evaporation conditions.
Resource exploitation was undoubtedly oriented towardsihe utilization of these 'transient'
lacustrine conditions coupled with the use of easily available raw stone material from
the alluvial sediments for manufacturing purposes. Hunting and gathering in the
surrounding desert areas was also probably conducted to supplement the lacustrine
resources available from the lake.
In brief, the Coal Valley Dry Lake sites and their artifact assemblages
support the conclusion of temporary campsites utilized from ca. 9000 B. C. to historic
times. It is probable that the sites were utilized only when favorable climatic conditions
allowed for the formation of standing water and associated lacustrine conditions. The
presence of two resource zones, lacustrine and the surrounding desert, undoubtedly
made these sites a favored seasonal occupation locus for aboriginal groups from the
nearby valleys.
126
Key To Figures
Figure 28
a, b, c. Great Basin Transverse Points (2-58556, 2-58618, 2-58619); d, e, f, g.
Humboldt Concave Base (2-58602, 2-58746, 2-58616, 2-58640); h, 1. Pinto Square
Shoulder (2-58715, 2-58603); j, k, I, m. Elko Eared (2-58612, 2-58565, 2-58566).
Figure 29
a-c. Eastgate Series Projectile Points (2-58634, 2-58617, 2-58608); d  Desert
Side Notched Projectile Points (2-58604, 2-58768, 2-58557, 2-58642).
Figure 30
a, b. Elko Eared (2-58564, 2-58569); c. Elko Side Notched (2-58738); d, e, f. Elko
Split Stem (2-58592, 2-58568, 2-58561); g-  Rose Spring Corner Notched (2-58647,
2-58721, 1-58720, 2-58712, 2-58633, 2-58650, 2-58563, 2-58594, 2-58600); P. Rose
Spring Contracting Stem (2-58666).
Figure 31
a, b. Desert Side Notched (2-58641, 2-58636); c, d, e, f. Elko Preform (2-58613,
2-58567, 2-58614, 2-58562); A. Elko Preform (?)- Type II - (2-58607); h, i, j.
Ovate Biface (2-58573, 2-58732, 2-58622); k, 1. Pointed Ovate Biface (2-58591, 2-58735).
Figure 32
a. Pointed Ovate Biface (2-58764); b, c, d. Long Ovate Biface (2-58759, 2-58745,
2-58551); e. Long Elongate Triangular Biface (2-58558); f-i. Sub-Triangular Biface
(2-58541, 2-58552, 2-58757, 2-58621).
Figure 33
a-c. Type II Biface: Narrow Lanceolate (2-58577, 2-58546, 2-58536); d. Type Mila
Biface: Small Elongate Triangular (2-58597); e. Type V Biface: Elongate Limande
(2-58506); f. Type VI Biface (2-58620).
Figure 34
a-e. Preforms (2-58555, 2-58639, 2-58632, 2058771, 2-58593); f-h. Type IT Biface:
Narrow Lanceolate (2-58549, 2-58609, 2-58584).
127
Figure 35
a. Naturally Backed Single Convex Side Scraper (2-58533); b. Steep Scraper (2-58722);
. Double Convex Side Scraper/Endscraper - Type I: Uncatalogued; Type II
(2-58673); e. Atlatl Weight - Uncatalogued.
Figure 36
a. Shoshone Vessel Fragment - Uncatalogued; b. Type 3 Drill/Perforator (2-58624);
c. Type 4 Drill/Perforator (2-58623); d. Mano, Type Ta (2-58707).
b                    w,
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128
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133
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134
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135
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137
Chapter VI
Slivovitz Shelter
Slivovitz Shelter, located approximately 5 miles southwest of Adaven, was
first noted in the summer of 1975 by a small field party from the University of California,
Berkeley, engaged in a petroglyph survey of the region.
The site is a medium sized rockshelter formed by the mechanical weathering
of the Tertiary Age Shingle Pass Tuff Formation (Kleinhampl and Ziony 1967) in the
northeastern portion of the Quinn Canyon ]Range, Nye County, Nevada (T 3N, R 56E,
Section 14). The shelter is within the boundaries of the Quinn Canyon District of the
Humboldt National Forest and is designated as Ny-1272 in the files of the Nevada State
Museum. Facing to the south, the site is at an elevation of ca. 7200 feet (2194 meters)
and overlooks Pine Creek, an ephemeral stream draining into Garden Valley (Fig. 37).
Slivovitz Shelter is irregular in plan measur4 ca. 30. 0 meters east-west
and 2. 0 - 6. 0 meters in depth. The floor is reasonably level inside the dripline with
a slight rise and undulating surface occurring outside. The height of the shelter roof
ranges from a mimimum of 50 - 60 cm near dripline overhang to approximately 1. 0
meter in the central portion where roof fall has created several voids in the roof.,
When excavated to bedrock, the shelter had a height of ca. 1. 5 - 2. 0 meters from floor
to ceiling allowing the excavation crew to stand comfortably in the shelter. A small
apron is present in front of the site and a moderate to sharp slope leads from the edge
downwards to the banks of Pine Creek.
At an elevation of 7200 feet, the site falls within the elevational boundaries
of the Lower Slope Zone (6000 - 10, 000 feet, 1829 - 3098 meters) as discussed previously
in the Natural Setting section. Artemisia tridentata (sage), Pinus monophylla (pinyon
pine), Juniperus osteosperma (juniper), Purshia tridentata (bitterbrush), Chrysothamnus
naucsesous (rabbitbrush), Populus sp. (aspen), and various grasses and shrubs all
occur either at the site or in its immediate vicinity.
Jackrabbit (Lepus californicus), cottontail (Sylvilagus sp.) and deer
(Odocoileus hemonious) were the only mammalian fauna species noted at the shelter
although traces of small rodents were seen.
Excavation Strategy
The decision to excavate at Slivovitz was made in the final week of the 1977
field season primarily to gather additional data for comparison with the lower elevation
Civa II site and the site survey material. Consequently, the initial excavations at
Slivovitz were conducted in the form of test pits to determine if the site warranted any
further study or excavation.
138
The excavation was organized according to a north-south grid oriented on
magnetic north and based on a datum stake set on the slope in front of the shelter mouth
(Fig. 38). Initially three test units (N3EO, N5E0, N5E2) were selected for excavation
in 20 cm arbitrary levels because of their position in the central, easily accessible
portion of the shelter. That is, based on our assessment of the most suitable areas for
aboriginal occupation and use of the site. An additional unit (N6W7) was chosen to
check the depth of the deposit at the western edge of the site. Twenty cm arbitrary
levels were chosen in light of the time and funds available for excavation and because
they would still provide reasonable horizontal and vertical control of the recovered
data for analysis. Based on the artifact yield and field analysis of the faunal materials
indicating a temporary hunting/gathering camp of some importance, the decision was
made to return to the shelter in early Fall to continue the careful excavation of the
central portion of the site. A small field party returned and excavated 4 additional units
in early October. Ten cm arbitrary levels were used in this instance to complete the
nearly total excavation of the central occupation area.
In both cases, arbitrary levels were used because of the unstratified nature
and natural disturbance of the deposits. The excavated fill was passed through on-
quarter inch mesh and standard excavation records were kept. All units were completely
excavated to bedrock and it is estimated that 40% of the surface area of the shelter was
excavated.
The Deposits - General
The deposits of Slivovitz Shelter, like those of Civa II, are the result of
elemental accumulation (wind-blown dust, rockfall), and organic remains mixed with
varying quantities of faunal remains, lithic debitage and artifacts.
Evidence of small rodent nests and burrows was found throughout the
deposit (cf. Fig. 39). An extensive hearth was noted in N3EO, N5EO and extended into
several surrounding units. Apparently this hearth area was utilized for several different
occupations of the shelter (see Firehearths for a description). This hearth area was
associated with many of the recovered artifacts.
The deposits were excavated from the surface down to a maximum depth of
120 cm before encountering the decomposing bedrock floor of the site. While dry for
the upper 20-40 cm, the deposits were damp and became progressively moister with
increasing depth, probably due to water seepage through natural fractures in the parent
material of the shelter.
No clear natural stratigraphy was discernible during excavation but from the
wall profiles of the units, several stratigraphic layers were recognized based primarily
on their color and composition. The stratigraphy of the various units is discussed below.
139
Figure 37: Artist's View of Slivovitz Shelter.
kR WALL
Excavations
*-.",              -N7WI9
*          . 0 0  00 0   "
A .     NW7     ROCK 000
A   ......    .   W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
N3W2
Apron
A
NOEO
I
Figure 38: Plan View of Slivovitz Shelter.
SLIVOVITZ SHELTER
PLAN VIEW
l                                            I
140
Stratigraphic Unit Description (Figs. 39-41).
Soil samples from each stratigraphic layer were submitted to the Soils
Laboratory, Department of Soils and Plant Nutrition, University of California,
Berkeley, for standard soils tests. The technical data, courtesy of Mr. Jon Sandor,
Department of Soils and Plant Nutrition, are incorporated into the below description.
Appendix I should be consulted for the complete soils data. Terminology used is from
the USDA Soil Survey Manual (1951).
Stratum A: This is a dark gray brown (1OYR4/2 - dry; 1OYR2/2 - moist) gravelly
loam with varying quantities of vegetal material, rodent feces and angular roof fall
material present. Pinyon nuts and hulls were present throughout this deposit. Unit
N5EO (east wall) incorporates 2 lenses of decomposing rat guano into the stratum. It
is likely these are the remains of several nests. One ashy hearth is present in the north
wall of N5EO. Rodent burrows and disturbance (cultural or natural) are found in both
profiles of N5EO. Boundaries are clear and smooth with the underlying strata except
in N5W2 where the boundary between A and C is gradual and smooth.
Stratum B: This is a silt loam, pale brown in color (1OYR6/3 - dry; 10YR3/3 - moist)
of possibly aeolian origin. It occurs in discontinuous patches in the excavated units
and is compacted to some degree. Small amounts of faunal remains, artifacts, and
lithic debitage are present. An apparently intrusive hearth is present in N5EO (north
wall) and a rodent hole is evident in the east wall.
Unit N5W2 is something of an anomaly. A thin B layer is present within
Stratum A and another B unit is present below Stratum C. No explanation can be offered
for this occurrence. Boundaries with the over and underlying units are abrupt to clear
and smooth.
Stratum C: This very gravelly loam is dark gray to black in color (1OYR4/1 - dry;
10YR2/1 - moist). It appears to be essentially burned soil mixed with charcoal and
ash. Boundaries are abrupt and smooth to wavy except in N5W2 (see Stratum B).
Stratum D: This is almost totally decomposed bedrock and roof fall mixed with a few
charcoal fragments and some lithic debitage. It is present only in N5W2 of the excavated
units. Boundaries are abrupt and smooth.
Comment: Cultural materials were found throughout the deposit.
Firehearths
The excavations at Slivovitz Shelter exposed several distinct firehearths and
'ashy' concentrations that continued intermittently downwards to the base of the site.
Several discrete hearths were noted but the majority of the ash and charcoal concen-
trations were indistinct (i. e., had no definite boundaries or significant depth) probably
141
0                                 100
CM
Figure 39: Slivovitz Shelter - North Wall Profile, N5EO.
CM
Slivovitz Shelter - East Wall Profile, N5EO.
0o
I
100
Figure 40:
142
0                                     100
CM
Figure 41: Slivovitz Shelter - North Wall Profile, N5W2.
due to slight mixing of the deposit by rodents and other natural/cultural means. Fire
cracked rocks were noted throughout the fill and one hearth in N5E0, 80-100 cm below
surface, with an inside diameter of 34-50 cm, had a ring of fire cracked rock encircling
it. Another hearth in N3E2/E1/2, 20-30 cm below surface, with an elliptical form
60 cm x 43 cm had a similar ring of rocks present. A major hearth, denoted primarily
by ash and charcoal fragments, way present in units N3EO and N5EO (Fig. 39). Its
maximum concentration, based on the amount of ash present, appears to be between
20-40 cm and 80-100 cm below surface. This was probably a multiple-use hearth (i. e.,
used again and again over time) situated in the central portion of the shelter. Scattered
ash and charcoal, quite probably from this hearth, was found in adjoining units at
approximately the same depth. Another hearth, 75-100 cm in diameter was noted for
the 0-20 cm level in N6W7.
Examination of some of the charcoal with a binocular microscope indicates
that sagebrush, juniper and pinyon, all available in the area, were used as fuel sources.
Many of the artifacts, pottery sherds, lithic debitage and faunal remains were found in
the immediate or close vicinity of these hearth areas, especially the major hearth in
N3EO and N5EO.
In summary, scattered ash and charcoal long with several discrete hearths
were noted during -the excavation of Slivovitz Shelter with the majority of the recovered
cultural materials coming from the hearth areas of N3EO and N5EO.
143
Ceramics
A total of 524 sherds and 8 ceramic artifacts were recovered from Slivovitz
Shelter. Of these, 92. 9% are Shoshonean Tradition pottery and 7.1% are Fremont
ceramic types. All are within the ranges of variability noted in the published descriptions
for these wares (see Civa I ceramics section).
Fremont Pottery
The 37 sherds belonging to the Fremont tradition have been typed as Snake
Valley Grey Ware (15), Snake Valley Black-on-Grey (13) and Snake Valley Corrugated
(9). Snake Valley Grey and Snake Valley Black-on-Grey are typical of the Summit and
Paragonah Phases (A.D. 900-1200) of the Parowan Fremont subarea (Marwitt 1970;
Madsen 1977). Snake Valley Corrugated Ware is also typical of this area but has been
placed within a more restricted time span (A. D. 1100-1200, Paragonah Phase, Madsen
1977).
A fugitive red wash is present on the exterior surfaces of the Gray and Black-
on-Grey wares. Wall thicknesses average: Snake Valley Grey (4.4 mm); Snake Valley
Black-on-Grey (4.7 mm); and Snake Valley Corrugated (5.9 mm). Four rim sherds
of Snake Valley Black-on-Grey ware were recovered. They suggest bowls (rim types
IA3 and IA4, 2 of each, using Colton 1952 nomenclature) of ca. 26-35 cm in diameter.
The low luster black designs on the interior surfaces of the Black-on-Grey sherds are
In the Sosi style and consist of lines, angles and spirals. The Fremont sherds are
distributed throughout the deposits.
Shoshonean Tradition Pottery
The 497 sherds of Shoshonean ceramics are within the ranges of variation
known for Shoshone ware. The sherds are present in all levels of the deposit, although
there are fewer at the lower levels. Wall thicknesses vary, ranging from 3.4 mm to
7.7 mm and averaging 5.7 mm. The sherds are primarily dark grey in color and crude
in construction. Wiping marks and evidence of both coiling and paddle-and-anvil con-
struction are present. A reconstructed portion of a 'flowerpot' vessel (IA4, 33-36 cm
diameter) was recovered (N3EO, 0-20, 20-40 cm). The 40 rim sherds from Slivovitz
are mostly (31) of the straight walled 'flowerpot' variety: IAl (2); IA2 (1); IA3 (11);
IA4 (9); IA5 (2); IA6 (4); IA7 (1); and IA11 (1). Diameters for these vessels range
from 7. 0 - 35. 0 cm. The remaining 9 rim sherds have been typed as: IB3 (4); diameters
range from 10. 0 - 30. 0 cm; IB4 (1); 15. 0 - 30. 0 cm diameter; IC7 (1); 8. 0 - 15. 0
cm diameter; and 3 sherds which are too fragmentary to effectively describe.
Ceramic Artifacts
Pendant (Fig. 43a).
One rim sherd from a Snake Valley Black-on-Grey bowl has been edgeground
144
around the circumference and a hole has been biconically drilled in the upper left corner
(4. 0 cm wide). The surface design is in the Sosi Style and features a spiral. The piece
is roughly rectangular (58. 4 mm x 50. 8 mm). The outer surface shows a grease stain,
probably from having been worn next to the body. Provenience is N5E2, 40-60 cm.
Formed Pottery Sherds (Fig. 43d).
One slightly curved Shoshone sherd has been worked into an ovate shape
(65.2 mm x 33.3 mm). It is similar to the description given by Marwitt (1970: 63-66)
for his category. The function of this specimen is unknown. Provenience is N5W2,
57 cm.
Miscellaneous Ground Sherds (Fig. 43b).
Four sherds have been assigned to this category. One Snake Valley Black-
on-Grey sherd, featuring a linear Sosi Style design, has been ground into a rectangular
shape. Three sides show edge grinding but the fourth side, which was probably also
ground, is broken. The piece measures 35.8 mm in width. Provenience is N3EO,
60-80 cm.
Three Shoshone sherds, each having one ground edge, are also present.
Due to their fragmentary nature, their shapes or functions cannot be determined. One
piece shows some surface smoothing and may have been used as a pottery -scraper
(N7W2, 67 cm). Proveniences of the other two specimens are N3E2, 30-40 cm and
N5W2, 50-60 cm.
Drilled Sherd
One Shoshone fragment has broken on a hole which had been biconically
drilled through the sherd. The hole had a diameter of 3.8 mm. This specimen is
probably a fragment from a mended vessel. Provenience is N3EO, 0-10 cm.
Ochre Grinder (Fig. 43c).
A large irregularly shaped sherd of Snake Valley Black-on-Grey ware has
ochre stains present on 3 of its edges. In addition, both surfaces of the sherd have
faint ochre fingerprints present. The specimen measures 70. 6 mm x 62. 5 mm at its
widest points. The sherd was probably utilized either to grind or apply ochre.
Provenience is N5E2, 20-30 cm.
Discussion
Shoshonean groups were frequent occupants of Slivovitz Shelter as evidenced
by the percentage of Shoshonean Tradition pottery present. Shoshonean ceramics in
southeastern Nevada have tentatively been assigned a time range of ca. A. D. 1000 to
145
postcontact times (Fowler, et. al. 1973). Trade ware or temporary use of the shelter
by people of the Parowan Fremont subarea is indicated by the small amount of Fremont
ceramics present. Chronologically the Fremont wares date from A.D. 900-1200 for
the Snake Valley Grey and Black-on-Grey and A. D. 1000-1200 for the Snake Valley
Corrugated type (Madsen 1977). D. Madsen and Lindsay (1977) suggest that Snake
Valley Corrugated may be dated earlier than A. D. 1100, but unfortunately Slivovitz
cannot provide any evidence to substantiate this. Both Fremont and Shoshone ceramics
were found in association throughout the deposit. This contemporaneity is also present
at Civa II and Avocado Shelter as well as at several of the open sites in the region. An
occupation date of A. D. 900 to postcontact times is suggested for Slivovitz. This Is in
agreement with the known time ranges for the recovered projectile points.
Projectile Points
One hundred and twenty-eight chipped stone artifacts were classified as
typable projectile points or projectile point fragments. Type classification follows the
standard typologies established and in use for the Great Basin (cf. Hester and Heizer
1973a for a discussion).
Desert Side Notched (Table 17, Fig. 42a-i).
Specimens: Complete (11); Incomplete (10)
Material: Chert (12); Obsidian (9)
Description: These are generally small, slender triangular points with slightly convex
sides. Fine side notches range from 1. 0 - 2. 9 mm in depth and basal notches or con-
cavities, ranging from 0. 9 - 4.3 mm in depth, are present on five specimens. The
flaking is fine pressure and very well done in general. Cross sections are plano-convex
(6) and biconvex (14).
Cottonwood Triangular (Tables 17, 18, Fig. 42j-p).
Specimens: Complete (10); Incomplete (31)
Material: Chert (22); Obsidian (18); Rhyolite (1)
Description: These points are triangular to elongate triangular in outline with slightly
convex to straight blade edges. The bases are straight to slightly concave with depths
ranging from 1. 7 - 3. 4 mm. The flaking is pressure, moderately well done, and the
cross sections are plano-convex (10) and biconvex (30).
Rose Spring Corner Notched (Tables 18-21, Fig. 42s-bb, dd).
Specimens: Complete (15); Incomplete (33)
Material: Chert (38); Obsidian (10)
Description: These are generally small slender (occasionally elongate) triangular
points with slightly convex to straight blade edges. The barbs are pointed to somewhat
rounded with slight to medium protrusion. The notching is generally wide at ca. 450
146
to the long axis of the point and ranges from 0. 8 - 7.1 mm in depth. The stems have a
slight expansion with slightly concave bases. The flaking is pressure and well done on
the majority of the specimens. Cross sections are planoconvex (8) and biconvex (39)
and biplano (1).
Eastgate Series (Table 18, Fig. 42q-r).
Specimens: Complete (1); Incomplete (8)
Material: Chert (7); Obsidian (1)
Description: These are small, somewhat elongate triangular projectile points with
straight to slightly convex sides. The barb ends are squared with the notching (2. 0 -
4.3 mm in depth) generally parallel to the basal portion of the lateral edge. The barb
bases are the maximum width position and only one of the specimens has the distinct
centralized basal notch of the Split Stem variety. The stems are slightly expanding to
straight. The pressure flaking is well done. Cross sections are plano-convex (5) and
biconvex (4). As at Civa II, these specimens intergrade into the Rose Spring Corner
Notched type.
Elko Corner Notched (Table 20, Fig. 42ee).
Specimens: Incomplete (2)
Material: Chert (1); Obsidian (1)
Description: These are similar to the point recovered from Civa II in that they are
medium sized, triangular projectile points with straight to slightly convex sides. The
barbs are slightly rounded and moderately projecting. The notching appears to be at an
angle to the lateral edge and the proximal barb area is the maximum width position.
The stems are expanding and the cross sections biconvex.
Elko Eared (Table 20, Fig. 42ff).
Specimens: Incomplete (1)
Material: Chert
Description: This is a basal fragment of an Elko Eared point similar to the specimens
from Civa IL. The flaking is moderately well done and the cross section is biconvex.
Humboldt Concave Base A (Table 20, Fig. 44f).
Specimens: Incomplete (1)
Material: Obsidian
Description: This is a basal fragment of a HCB-A point. The widest point is at the base
and the basal concavity has a depth of 3.1 mm. The flaking is moderately well done and
the cross section biconvex.
Rose Spring Contracting Stem Preform (?) (Table 20, Fig. 44h).
Specimens: Incomplete (1)
147
Material: Obsidian
Description: This is a medium sized projectile point with a contracting stem. The
specimen has been both percussion and pressure flaked and is obviously unfinished. In
general outline, the piece resembles a RSCS projectile point and it is possible that this
point can be classified as a specific type preform. The cross section is biconvex and
the stem measures 5. 0 mm in length and 11. 9 mm in width. A large portion of the tip
and a lateral edge are missing.
Discussion/Comments
The projectile point sequence from Slivovitz Shelter represents a temporal
range from 6400 B. C. to postcontact times. Six distinct series of projectile points are
known: Desert Side Notched, Cottonwood, Rose Spring/Eastgate, Elko and Humboldt
Series. These have been discussed previously for both Civa Shelter II and the Coal
Valley Dry Lake localities.
The majority of the projectile points fall into the DSN, CT and RS/EG series,
leading to the conclusion that the shelter is a late occupation site, A. D. 600 to post-
contact times, with the presence of the earlier point types probably due either to reuse/
collection by later occupants or their possible continuance into later times (cf. Civa II
and Coal Valley Dry Lake discussion sections on the chronological ranges of the Elko
and Humboldt Series). This proposed late occupation is consistent with the known range
of dates for the Fremont and Shoshone ceramics found throughout the deposit.
Stratigraphically the majority of the points are found between 20-80 cm in
depth. This correlates with both the biface and projectile point fragment distributions
for the site. The concentration of points in several of the excavation units is similar to
the pattern present for both the biface and projectile point fragment categories. This
suggests perhaps that a specialized activity area may be present at the site (cf. Biface
and Projectile Point fragments for a discussion).
The large number of complete and fragmentary projectile points present,
compared to Civa II, suggests and argues for a temporary hunting/gathering camp
(with emphasis on the hunting of bighorn) of some duration intermittently occupied over
an unknown period of time.
Projectile Point Fragments
Ninety non-diagnostic projectile point fragments were recovered from the
site. Chert is the preferred raw material choice (74.4%) with obsidian (24.4%) and
rhyolite (1. 2%) following. Distal fragments comprise 57. 8% of this category (chert
73. 1%, obsidian 25. 0%, rhyolite 1. 9%) with medial sections (17. 8%), lateral fragments
(23. 3%) and proximal specimens (1. 1%) following.
The majority of the fragments are pressure flaked and biconvex or plano-
convex in cross section.
148
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C.   I   I I  csH  I  I H   I   I   I  I  I   I  CM  I  I   I   I  I  -d c  I  I1 C   M   I  I   I   I
O 000000H I 00 I Ooo0o0o00-\      I OOOOO0*H *Hoo I 00000
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a)
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o       0 L   C 0   )J   O  n  <0  0   0   H  CM CM   LrI\0 ON  H  H  cr-
< ~ ~ ~  0 C -  C.-VC D <D \  W  -Cd  BO ONONONO O N H  ztzrlf)J J
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D  C MC M           C   C   C  M   M C   M M CM ?   ?   k   ?   ?   ?   ?   S   ?   ?   ?   k   k
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C Mi C Mi C M  C MCM, C MCM, C M  C M  C M   C M   CM   CM   CM CM CM
Table 17
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D   CMCM MCM MCM MCM MCM MCM MCMC CMC CMC CMC CMC CMC
:; t; :4
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Table 18
149
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150
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C) d C'j  I 1 11 1 C\.j  I I I  IIB               I Irr
s: *H ' 00000000' I       0000stT )\00     00 , ioo -I-g0
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sz, I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I  I  I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I   I
Q)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/
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Table 19
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N  J CJ CJ C~J C\J CvJ N~ Ckl O C\J
t; t; t; Ei ; E; :2; t4~; ;2i ii
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152
Since the specimens are non-diagnostic (i. e., cannot be identified as to a
known type), no further analysis will be attempted. It should be noted, however, that
the fragments are probably portions of previously described projectile point series,
especially the small triangular points.
Discussion
Stratigraphically the majority of the fragments are distributed between
20-80 cm. This correlates with both the biface fragment and typable projectile point
distributions. Overall, the bifaces, projectile points and projectile point fragments are
concentrated in units N3EO, N5EO, N5E2, and N5W2 (Fig. 38).
Units N5EO and N5E2 both have a high proportion of projectile point distal
fragments present. This, coupled with the large amount of faunal remains present (see
Faunal Remains) in the units suggests perhaps a bone discardal or specialized activity
area during the butchering process. The number of complete projectile points, biface
fragments and projectile point fragments would appear to support this hypothesis, since,
if butchering of game animals (Ovis canadensis) was carried out at the site, the projectile
points (and fragments) used in hunting and the tools used in the butchering process (e. g.,
bifaces, choppers, etc. would be concentrated in one or more areas. This appears to
be the case at Slivovitz).
Bifaces (Table 22).
Five bifacially chipped stone specimens were recovered that could be
assigned to the biface typology discussed previously for the Garden/Coal Valley Region.
Type I - Ovate (Fig. 44a).
A single percussion flaked chert specimen with one damaged lateral edge
was recovered. Provenience is N6W7 - 0-20 cm.
Type Ma - Elongate Triangular (Fig. 44b-c).
Two chert specimens, all with their distal ends missing, are included in
this category. A combination of percussion and pressure flaking is found on all of the
specimens. These bifaces have been thinned and it is possible that they could be included
in a general preform category. Proveniences are N3E0, 60-80 cm and N5W2, 79 cm.
Type Va - Limande (Fig. 44d).
One small chert biface of this type was recovered. The distal portion has
been snapped off and the flaking type is percussion. Provenience is N7W2 - 9 cm.
153
Cd  -4 V-   00  r-  00  r-  UI  r
0~~~~~0
00
00
o C; t    t
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154
Discussion/Comments
The low number of complete specimens (5) recovered compared to the
large number of biface fragments (152) apparently indicates an extremely high breakage
rate, quite possibly during use or manufacture, although the concentration of fragments
with the faunal remains appears to suggest the former.
The typable bifaces are similar to those from Civa H, the Coal Valley Dry
Lake localities and from surface collections in the study area. These artifacts quite
probably represent cutting, scraping or sawing tools. The thinning and degree of
finish on several of the specimens (esp. Type ma) suggests an intermediate stage of
manufacture. These could possibly be 'preforms' that could have been furthermodified
into projectile points or other bifacial artifacts.
Biface Fragments
One hundred and fifty-two non-diagnostic biface fragments were recovered
from the deposits of Slivovitz Shelter. Chert is the dominant raw material choice
(99.3%) with obsidian use almost nonexistant (0. 7%). Distal fragments make up 25.7%
of this category with medial sections (19.1%), lateral fragments (28. 3%) and proximal
specimens (26. 9%) following.
The majority of the fragments are percussion flaked and biconvex or plano-
convex in cross section. Several specimens have a combination of pressure and
percussion flaking present. Since the specimens are non-diagnostic (i. e., cannot be
classified into the regional typology), no further attribute analysis will be attempted.
Discussion/Comments
Statigraphically the rhajority of the fragments are distributed between 20-
80 cm. This correlates with both the projectile point fragments and typable projectile
point distributions. As stated previously, the biface fratments, projectile points and
fragments are concentrated primarily in units N3EO, N5EO, N5E2, and N5W2 (Fig. 38).
Individual concentrations of biface fragments are present in N3E2 and N7W2. This
distribution in the vicinity of the units with a large amount of faunal remains present
suggests the use and breakage of bifaces in the butchering and/or processing of the
meat. While no edge grinding traces were noted on the proximal fragment lateral edges,
it is possible that some of these specimens may have been hafted. The majority of these
fragments were probably used for cutting and/or scraping, a contention that only edge
wear analysis could prove.
Chipped Stone Artifacts
Drills or Perforators
Six specimens can be included in this category of chipped stone tools. All
155
of the drills or drill fragments are made of chert. Based on Marwitt (1970: 79), four
of the specimens can be placed into two distinct types. The other specimen is unique
and has been assigned its own type.
Type 1 (Fig. 44i, j).
Drills of this type are produced by the reworking of Eastgate Series
projectile points (similar to the Parowan Basal-Notched points described by Marwitt).
Two specimens from Slivovitz fit into this category but both are fragmentary. Proven-
lence is N3E0, 20-40 cm.
Type 2 (Fig. 45i, k).
Two complete examples of this type were recovered. Both specimens
have long thin cylindrical bits and short wide bases. Drills of this type are not known
to have been made by the reworking of projectile points. Lengths range from 38. 0 mm
to 43. 3 mm; widest bit width, 11. 7 mm to 13. 3 mm; narrowest bit width 4. 9 to 8. 3 mm;
and base width from 24.0 to 27.9 mm. Provenience of the two specimens is N5W2,
41 cm and N7W2, 24 cm.
Type 6 - Retouched Flake Perforator (Fig. 45h).
This specimen is on an interior flake of which one lateral edge has been
bifacially retouched into a drill-like tip. The drill bit cone s off at a slight angle to the
long axis of the flake. Total length is 31. 9 mm with a bit length of 14. 9 mm, a maximum
bit width of 7. 8 mm, a minimum bit width of 2. 9 mm and a base width of 21.1 mm.
Provenience is N5E2, 20-40 cm.
Unclassifiable Drill/Perforator Fragments
One drill tip fragment (chert) was recovered from N5E0, 40-60 cm.
Scrapers
All Round Scraper (Fig. 44g).
A snapped chert interior flake fragment with a steep unifacial retouch
present on the circumference comprises this category. Provenience is N3E0, 40-60 cm.
Choppers (Fig. 43i-j).
Two complete specimens comprise this category and can be classified as
heavy duty implements. The two choppers are manufactured on medium-sized cobbles
and have been bifacially flaked over most of their surface to form a bifacial cutting edge
around the circumference. Their forms range from ovate to discoidal. Some cortex is
156
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157
present on one specimen. The working edges of both choppers show evidence of battering
and removals of step flakes. Length ranges from 7O.O - 85.5 mm, width from 58. 5 mm
to 61.0 mm and thickness from 29.0 mm to 40.8 mm. Materials are chalcedony and
chert. Proveniences are N7W2, 30-40 cm and N5W2, 47 cm.
Retouched Flakes
Fourteen unifacially retouched flakes, flake fragments and angular waste
(8 chert, 6 obsidian) were recovered from Slivovitz. Retouch, present on one or more
of the lateral edges, varies from light nibbling to heavy retouch.
The flake types are primarily interior flakes ranging from 2. 0 cm to 6. 0 cm
in length. The function of these flakes cannot be precisely determined, although it is
highly probable that they were multi-use in function if they were utilized at all. The
flakes were randomly distributed throughout the deposit.
Edge Damaged/Utilized Flakes
Four complete interior flakes (2 chert, 2 obsidian) fall into this category.
Very slight nibbling is present on one or more lateral edges of each flake (See Civa II
for a discussion of edge damage). Proveniences are N5E2 - 40-60 cm (2) 60-80 cm;
N5W2 - 60-70 cm.
Exhausted Cores
Two specimens comprise this category. These are the nuclei of cores, e. g.,
the amorphous chunks of raw material which are a residual byproduct of flaking cores.
Presumably these 'cores' were to small for further flake production and were discarded.
Both specimens are of chert and range in length from 21. 7 - 32. 5 mm, width 35. 5 -
37. 5 mm and thickness is 17. 0 mm. Proveniences are N3E0, 20-40 cm and N5E2,
60-80 cm.
Discussion/Comments
Considering the amount of lithic debitage present (cf. Lithic Debitage section)
at Slivovitz, the lack of any large number of cores is somewhat surprising. However,
the lithic analysis appears to indicate secondary and tertiary manufacturing (e. g., the
finishing of preforms and maintenance activities) and this could account for the lack of
cores, usually utilized in primary manufacturing (i. e., the production of flakes for
'blanks', etc.).
Raw Material
Large angular chunks of chert (3) and limestone (1) that could have possibly
been used as primary manufacturing raw material are included in this category. No
158
modification of this material has occurred except that these stones could only have been
transported to the shelter from elsewhere. Provenience is N5E2 - 40-60 cm; N5W2 -
50, 52, 77 cm.
Lithic Debitage (Table 23).
An analysis of the lithic debitage for Slivovitz Shelter was carried out for
reasons similar to those outlined for Civa If as well as to provide a comparison with
the other site. Chert is the dominant raw material, as it is at Civa II, of the 7640
pieces of recovered debitage. Chert makes up 87. 2% of the total number and 74. 5%
by weight. Overall, the amount of chert debitage ranges from 81. 1% to 92. 1% in
number by unit and from 55. 5% to 84.1% in weight by unit. Obsidian is a poor second
(number 8. 8%, weight 6. 9%) with basalt/other (number 4. 0%, weight 18. 6%) following.
Undoubtedly chert is the primary raw material choice due to its easy availability in the
area.
An examination of the whole and partial flakes indicates a very high percentage
of interior and biface thinning flakes with only a few primary and secondary cortex
flakes present (cf. Epstein 1969; Shafer 1969; and Hester 1971 for a definition of these
categories). This would appear to suggest that the primary stage of lthic manufacture
(e. g., decortification of the raw material, especially chert nodules) was carried out
at some location other than the shelter. Surface reconnaissance in the immediate
vicinity of the shelter failed to locate any primary processing area or quarry.
The lithic debitage argues for a pattern similar to that postulated for Civa
Shelter II. That is, little primary processing of raw material with emphasis instead
placed on the production of interior flakes and the thinning and finishing of preforms,
projectile points and bifaces. As well, maintenance acitivties (e. g., resharpening of
damaged/broken bifaces, projectile points, etc.) were also probably carried out. Small
pressure flakes of chert and obsidian were observed falling through the one-quarter
inch mesh screen used.
In brief, the debitage pattern for Slivovitz is similar to that noted for Civa
a heavy use of chert in conjunction with secondary and tertiary manufacturing
activities.
Table 23
Lithic Debitage
Unit                    Debitage #                Weight
N3EO                      1218                     1772.6
N3E2                       712                      803.4
N3W2                       341                      486.3
N5EO                       862                      837.3
159
Unit                    Debitage #                Weight
N5E2                      1902                    1655. 7
N5W2                      1471                    1384.8
N6W7                       441                     337. 8
N7W2                       693                     680.6
Total                     7640                    7958.0   grams
Ochre
Red and yellow ochre fragments were found throughout the deposit, hit much
of it was uncollectable due to partial decomposition. There were 5 pieces collected. In
addition, ochre staining was observed on some of the recovered artifacts and unmodified
faunal remains. The distribution was random throughout the deposit.
Ground Stone Artifacts
Metates (Table 24).
Twenty-four complete or identifiable specimens and nine fragments comprise
this class of artifacts. Of the identifiable specimens, 24 fall into the Block/Chunk and
Slab categories described previously for Civa IL.
I. Block/Chunk Metates
Ten specimens, 3 complete and 7 fragmentary, were noted at Slivovitz
Shelter. The specimens are crudely shaped and exhibit evidence of smoothing and grinding,
the depressions ranging from rectangular to ovate in form (( 0. 1 cm deep), on one
surface. The three complete specimens, all of granite, range in length from 31. 0 cm
to 35. 0 cm, width 18. 0 to 23. 0 cm and thickness 7. 5 cm to 12. 0 cm. The fragmentary
specimens range in thickness from 5. 5 cm to 12. 5 cm. Materials are granite (4),
rhyolite (3), basalt (2) and limestone (1).
II. Slab Metates
Fourteen fragmentary pieces comprise this category. The specimens appear
to have ranged fron oval to rectangular in completed form and all have slight (KO. 1 cm
deep) grinding depressions present. Two specimens show grinding or abrasion on more
than one surface. Several fragments indicate deliberate shaping by grinding and battering.
Two specimens have traces of an unknown residue present on the grinding surface. The
14 fragments vary from 2.0 cm to 4.1 cm in thickness. Materials are rhyolite (6),
sandstone (3), limestone (3), basalt (1) and granite (1).
160
Metate Fragments
Nine granite and rhyolite metate fragments were recovered. All show
evidence of grinding/smoothing on one or more plane surfaces. All of the fragments
appear to be from Block/Chunk metates. Thicknesses range from 0. 5 cm to 4. 5 cm.
Materials are granite (6) and rhyolite (3).
Manos (Table 24).
Three complete or nearly complete specimens were recovered. No fragments
were noted. Several categories are recognizable based on the amount/degree of
modification noted on the specimen. All have been previously described for Civa IL.
I. Shaped, Rectangular in Cross Section, Abraded on Two Sides (Fig. 43h).
One complete specimen made on a well sorted laminated sandstone, 13. 0 cm
long, 8. 5 cm wide and 4. 6 cm thick, along with one other fragment, was recovered.
This mano has been carefully shaped into an almost rectangular outline and has traces
of an unknown residue present on both grinding surfaces. The fragment, made on
vesicular basalt, is similar to the complete specimen. It is 4.1 cm thick and 7. 7 cm
wide.
Ha. Shaped, Broad Ovals, Abraded on Two Sides
This category is represented by only one fragmentary specimen. This mano,
made on a granite cobble, has been shaped by pecking around its circumference. Both
sides show clear evidence of grinding/smoothing with one surface being smoother than
the other. It is 5.1 cm thick and 8. 8 cm wide.
Battered Stone (Table 24).
This category has been previously described at Civa HI. The two specimens
from Slivovitz fall into Category H.
I. Tabular Cross Sections
These two specimens have essentially tabular cross sections and range in
form from sub-rectangular to elongate ovate. Slight to marked battering/abrasion
marks are present on either one end of a specimen or on one lateral edge. The pieces
range from 9. 9 cm to 12. 2 cm in length, 6. 5 to 7. 9 cm in width and 3. 3 cm to 5. 3 cm
in thickness. Materials are granite and sandstone.
Pestles (Fig. 43g).
Two pestle fragments, probably complementary pieces, were recovered from
161
adjoining units N5E2 and N3E0 at depths of 20-40 cm and 40-60 cm respectively. One
specimen is a distal fragment and the other a medial section. Both have been split
longitudinally. No other pestle fragments were recovered from the shelter. Although
the surfaces still show evidence of the pecking/abrasion shaping process, both have a
high degree of polish present, implying some use. The two fragments are 5. 0 cm and
5.8 cm at the widest points and 2.7 cm at the narrowest point.
Miscellaneous Ground Stone
Grinding/Pigment Slabs (Table 24).
Three specimens comprise this category. They are distinguished from the
mano/metate categories by their small completed size and/or the presence of red or
yellow pigment on the grinding surface. The specimens can be divided into 3 categories
based on their gross morphology.
I. Unshaped, Tabular Cross Section, Abrasion on One Surface
This specimen is made on a small tabular fragment of ignimbrite. Abrasion
is present on one side only and faint traces of a red pigment can be seen. The slab is
10. 0 cm in length, 6. 2 cm wide and 3. 5 cm thick.
II. Shaped, Ovate in Form, Abrasion on One Surface (Fig. 43f).
This specimen is pointed ovate in form and is made on a carefully shaped
section of an extremely vesicular basalt. No traces of pigment are present on the slight
grinding depression. The piece is 11. 2 cm in length, 9. 3 cm wide and 2. 8 cm thick.
m. Utilized Flake (Fig. 43e).
In this case, the ventral surface of an unmodified primary cortex flake has
been used for grinding red and yellow ochre. The flake is 10. 8 cm long, 7.1 cm wide
and 2. 1 cm thick. The material is basalt.
Table 24
Ground Stone Distribution
Category               #            Provenience
Block/Chunk Metate       10           N3EO - Surface (2)
N3W2 - 0-10
N5EO - 40-60
60-80
N5W2 - 20-30
30-40
Category
Slab
Fragments
Manos - I
Ila
Battered Stones - II
Pestles
Grinding Slabs
Type I
Type II
Type III
Provenience
N5W2 - 40-50
60-70
Surface
13
N3EO - 20-40
60-80
80-100 (2)
N5E0 - 20-40
N5E2 - Sur-20
20-40 (2)
N5W2 - 0-10
60-70 (2)
70-80
N7W2 - 50-60
9
2
1
N3EO - 40-60 (2)
80-100
N5EO - 20-40 (2)
40-60
N5E2 - 20-40
N5W2 - 50-60
N5E2 - 60-80
N5W2 - 70-80
N7W2 - 0-10
2
2
1
1
1
N3EO - 40-60
N5EO - 20-40
N3EO - 40-60
N5E2 - 20-40
N3W2 - 40-50
N5W2 - 70-80
N5W2 - 20-30
Bone Artifacts
Bone Awls
Eight complete or fragmentary bone awls were recovered from the deposits
of the shelter. Four of the specimens can be identified, using the descriptive types of
162
163
Marwitt (1970: 106-113) as adapted from Kidder (1932: 211-213) and Ambler (1966: 55-
56).
Type B: Head of Bone Unaltered Except by Original Splitting (Fig. 46a-b).
Two examples of this type were recovered. Both are made on the split
metapodials of a bighorn (Ovis canadensis). One specimen has a gradually tapering tip
and is complete except for the top point. The other has been cut off midway down the
shaft and such that only the proximal end remains. On this specimen the tip taper cannot
be determined. The length of the complete awl is 11. 9 cm. Proveniences are N5W2,
62 cm and 89 cm.
Type C: Head of Bone Partly Worked Down (Fig. 46c).
One complete specimen with a gradually tapering tip was recovered. The
split bighorn metapodial used to fashion this awl exhibits rodent gnawing marks on the
proximal end. This end has been trimmed and ground- smooth. Overall the specimen has
been well ground and polished and the tip is extremely sharp. Its length is 10. 9 cm.
Provenience is N5E0, 60-80 cm.
Type D: Head of Bone Wholly Removed (Fig. 46d).
The one specimen of this type is much like the Type C except that the articular
surface has been entirely removed. The awl is made on the upper portion of a split
bighorn metapodial. The upper surface of the specimen is highly polished and the tip is
extremely sharp. The under surface of the awl has not been extensively worked. Length
of the specimen is 7.7 cm. Provenience is N7W2, 30 cm.
Unclassified Fragments (Fig. 46e).
The four fragments identified as belonging to the awl category include one
tip fragment with a gradually tapering tip, one midsection fragment and two miscellaneous
splinters or midsection pieces. The large midsection fragment is made on a split
metapodial of a bighorn. It has a highly polished surface and a distinctive series of short
parallel incised lines on the lateral edges. Proveniences are N5W2 - 40 cm, 30-40 cm,
50-60 cm; and N5E2 - 60-80 cm.
Miscellaneous Bone Artifacts
Ochre Stained Bones
Two long bone fragments of an unidentifiable large mammal stained with
ochre were recovered from N5E2, 60-80 cm. It is unknown if this represents either
accidental or purposeful staining.
164
Tubular Bones or Bone Beads (Fig. 45b-d).
Eight specimens (7 complete, 1 fragmentary) comprise this category. They
are hollow sections of small to medium mammals (mostly Lepus sp.) with both ends
having various degrees of cutting and smoothing present. The specimens in general show
a slight surface polish possibly resulting from use or intentional polishing. No surface
decoration is present on any of the specimens. The pieces range in length from 1. 3 cm
to 3.3 cm and from 0.4 cm to 1.3 cm in diameter. The identification of these specimens
as bone beads is somewhat problematical but there is no doubt that they could have been
strung for this purpose. Proveniences random throughout the deposit.
Bone Beads (Fig. 45f).
One complete specimen of a definite bone bead was recovered at Slivovitz.
The bead is similar to Marwitt's (1970: 105, Fig. 70s) Type B bead.
The bead is a slort tubular length of long bone with an oval cross section.
Both ends have been smoothed and the exterior surface polished either by wear or
deliberately during manufacture. The interior has likewise been polished. The length
of the specimen is 6. 5 mm and its diameter is 10. 0 mm. Provenience is N6W7, 0- 20 cm.
Bone Flaker (Fig. 45a).
This specimen, a thick long bone splinter from a large mammal, has a dull
rounded, recurved tip present on one end. Pitting, scarring and wear striations are
evident on the tip and no other apparent modification is present on the specimen. Its
use as a pressure flaking tool is suggested as similar specimens have been described
from sites in the Fremont subarea wit4 this ascribed function (cf. Marwitt 1970: 117).
Its provenience is N5W2, 50-60 cm.
W  Lrke ilized Bne
This category consists of 3 articular ends and 3 long bone midsection
fragments of small to medium size mammals that show either evidence of slight polishing
or cutting.
Three of the specimens are left proximal tibias (2) and a proximal phalange
of Lepus sp. All have been cut around the circumference of the shaft near the articular
end. It is probable that these represent the waste products of bone bead manufacture
with the medial portions of the shaft being utilized for long, tubular beads.
The three long bone midsection specimens have slight traces of polish present
on either the lateral edges or shaft. They are too fragmentary for any identification.
Proveniences are N5E2 - 40-60 cm (2), 60-80 cm; N5W2 - 60-70 cm (2); and N7W2 -
20-30 cm.
165
Gaming Counter (Fig. 45e).
One bone artifact can be assigned to this category based on the descriptions
given in Marwitt 1968 and 1970. The specimen is made on a flat tabular large bone
fragment. Its outline is roughly elongate triangular and both lateral edges have a series
of short incisions or serrations present. The butt still shows evidence of cutting while
the tip shows a slight ground bevel present. Both sides have slight traces of polish and
wear/grinding striations. One side has a crude punctate IS' design present. Traces of
a red ochre wash are present on both sides. The length is 25. 5 mm, width 12. 5 mm and
thickness 3.0 mm. Provenience is N6W7, 0-20 cm.
Shell Artifacts
Beads (Fig. 45g).
Two shell beads, one complete and one fragmentary, were recovered. One
specimen is a shaped fragment, probably the basal portion, of an abalone pendant (?)
and the other a Type la Olivella biplicata bead (Bennyhoff and Heizer 1958).
The presence of these two beads appears to indicate contact (either direct or
indirect) with the Southwest or tribes to the west. Shell items are known from several
Fremont sites to the east (cf. Marwitt 1970) and from ethnographic areas of the Shoshone
(Steward 1941). Similar items are known from Civa II.
Faunal Analysis (cf. Appendix III.
The faunal analysis demonstrates the exploitation of Ovis canadensis (bighorn
sheep) as the main source of hunted food. Various small species such as cottontail and
squirrel, among others, appear to have been secondary food sources. Bobcat (Lynx
rufus) was apparently hunted as well. Isolated beaver remains (Castor canandensis)
were also recovered, although they are not present in the study area today. Many of the
recovered faunal remains had been gnawed by rodents and laboratory analysis suggests
that Neotoma sp. and Citellus sp. were responsible. The faunal assemblage is character-
ized by either a solitary hunter or a small group. Despite the relatively few identified
species, the site's fauna is most clearly similar to the deer-sheep-cottontail faunal
complex. This particular complex may represent the hunted food remains of a small
socio-political group and the size of the shelter supports the conclusion that only 1 or 2
nuclear families were utilizing the site at any one time.
Summary/Interpretations
Slivovitz Shelter was a seasonally utilized, temporary occupation campsite
probably used by both Shoshone and Southern Paiute groups (cf. Steward 1938; Kelly
1934; Stewart 1966). The recovered projectile points and ceramics suggest a relative
date of A. D. 600/700 to historic times (A.D. 1850) with a probable emphasis from
166
A.D. 900 onwards. A similar assemblage of projectile points and ceramics is known
from Civa Shelter II to the east in Garden Valley.
Shoshone Tradition pottery dominates the ceramic assemblage offering
further evidence for the identity of the groups and time range of shelter use (post A. D.
1000; cf. Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973). A small amount (7%) of Fremont
ceramics from the Parowan subarea was recovered throughout the cultural deposit and
appears to indicate either early or contemporaneous use of the shelter with Shoshone
groups by Fremont groups or trade/contact by Shoshone peoples with the Fremont groups
in the Meadow Valley Wash area to the southeast. Similar conclusions have been
proposed by Civa Shelter II.
It is probable that the site was utilized as a hunting/gathering base camp
because of its clear view of the canyon, the protection it offered from the elements and
its near vicinity to a perennial stream and spring. This inference of a base camp is
strengthened by the many manos and metates present at the site; and the large amount
of faunal remains in association with numerous fragmentary and complete bifaces/
projectile points implying the butchering and processing of large hunted game.
The moderate quantity of artifacts and lithic debitage argues for a lack of
primary manufacture quite possibly due to the briefness of occupation (i. e., short
term seasonal use) on their location/occurrence elsewhere away from the site.
The faunal remains indicate bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) was the favored
game species. Various small mammal species such as cottontail (Sylvilagus sp.) and
squirrel (Citellus sp.) among others were secondary food sources. The geography of
the area (canyon and mountains) and the high number of distal projectile point fragments
and bifaces found in association with concentrated areas of faunal remains suggests the
possibility of a bighorn kill site or sites in the immediate vicinity of the shelter with the
animals being transported back for further processing. The faunal assemblage is
characterized by species which can be most efficiently hunted by either a. solitary hunter
or a small group. The size of the shelter's main occupation area suggests the conclusion
that only one to two nuclear families were using the site at any one time.
The lithic debitage present in the deposit indicates that secondary and tertiary
manufacturing processes were dominant but some primary processing of locally
available raw material was also carried out. The quantity of manos and metates present,
both on the surface and in the deposit, indicates the presence of plant gathering and
related processing activities. It is probable that pinyon nuts were the prime local plant
resource as the hillsides surrounding Slivovitz are covered with pinyon pine.
Seasonal occupation of the site is suggested as sometime in late September
to early October. The pinyon nuts are ready for harvest at this time (cf. Thomas 1971a)
and Geist (1971) notes that the bighorn would be migrating to the lower elevation winter
pastures as well. Contact and/or trade with groups to the south is indicated by the
167
presence of shell beads and ornaments, similar to the material recovered from Civa
Shelter II.
A brief survey of the surrounding ridges noted the presence of several light
lithic scatters and a small rockshelter with only surface material present.
In summary, Slivovitz Shelter and its artifact assemblage support the
conclusion of a temporary base camp, probably the focus of occupation in the canyon,
of a fairly late date intermittently occupied by various Fremont/Shoshone/Southern
Paiute groups from ca. A.D. 600/700 to historic times. Resource exploitation was
concerned with the seasonal gathering of pinyon nuts and the hunting of bighorn sheep in
contrast to Civa Shelter II's concern with seed gathering and the hunting of jackrabbit.
168
Key To Figures
Figure 42
a-i. Desert Side Notched Projectile Points (2-60963, 2-60732, 2-61343, 2-61414,
2-60690, 2-60592, 2-60674, 2-61193, 2-61436), jj2. Cottonwood Triangular
Projectile Points (2-60737, 2-60741, 2-61229, 2-60895, 2-61200, 2-60666, 2-60688);
q-r. Eastgate Series Projectile Points (2-60919, 2-61272); s-bb.  Rose Spring Corner
Notched Projectile Points (2-60664, 2-60683, 2-61240, 2-60949, 2-61409, 2-61324,
2-61273, 2-60785, 2-61231); cc. Rose Spring Contracting Stem (2-60939); dd. Rose
Spring Corner Notched Projectile Point (2-60882); ee-ff. Elko Series Projectile Points
(2-60951, 2-61421).
Figure 43
a-b. Snake Valley Black-on-Grey Ware Pendants (2-60936, 2-60778); c. Snake Valley
Black-on-Gray Ochre Grinder (2-61488); d. Shoshone Ware Formed Pottery Sherd
(2-61223); e. Grinding/Pigment Slab, Type m (2-61167); f. Grinding/Pigment Slab,
Type 1I (2-61268); g. Pestle Fragment (2-60913); h. Mano, Type I (2-60960); Ha.
Choppers (Z-61438, Z-631205),
Figure 44
a. Type I Biface, Ovate (2-60633); b-c. Type ma Biface, Small Elongate Triangular
(2-61266, 2-60777); d. Type Va Biface, Limande (2-61439); e. Type Vb Biface,
Asymetrical Limande (2-61408); f. Humboldt Concave Base Projectile Point (2-61311);
g. All Round Scraper (2-60759); h. Rose Spring Contracting Stem Preform (?) (2-61282);
i. Type I Drill/Perforater (2-59787).
Figure 45
a. Bone Flaking Tool (2-61226); b-d. Tubular Bones or Bone Beads (2-61243, 2-61416,
2-61433); e. Gaming Counter (2-60713); f. Type B Bone Bead (2-60715); g. Type Ia
Olivella biplicata Shell Bead (2-60916); h. Type 6 Drill/Perforator (2-60917); i. Type
2 Drill/Perforator (2-61419); L. Type 1 Drill/Perforator (2-60748); k. Type 2 Drill/
Perforator (2-61179).
Figure 46
a-b. Type B Bone Awls (2-61224, 2-61276); c. Type C Bone Awl (2-60675); d. Type
D Bone Awl (2-61434); e. Unclassified Bone Awl Fragment (2-61435).
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175
Chapter VII
Avocado Shelter
Avocado Shelter (26-Ny-1263), located in the Quinn Canyon Range of northern
Nye County, is a small cave/rockshelter formed by the mechanical weathering of an
unnamed Devonian limestone formation (Kleinhampl and Ziony 1967). The site, within
the boundaries of the Quinn Canyon District of the Humboldt National Forest, is located
in a small canyon at an elevation of 7000 feet (21a4 meters). It faces to the southeast and
overlooks a small ephemeral stream. Irregular in plan, Avocado measures 6.0 meters
across the entrance with the roof ranging from 1. 50 - 1. 75 meters in height (Fig. 47).
A moderately level apron in front of the entrance gently slopes towards the Cherry Creek
Summit road passing in front of the shelter.
Ecologically the site is within the Lower Slope Vegetation Zone and Upper
Sonoran Life Zone, both described previously in the Natural Setting chapter. Juniper
(Juniperus osteosperma), pinyon pine (Pinus monophylla), Artemisia tridentata (sage),
along with various grasses and shrubs, are present inthe vicinity of the shelter.
Excavation Strategy
When located by the UC Field Party, the shelter had been almost totally
vandalized by relic collectors. Salvage operations were carried out to see if any temporal
sequence could be determined; to provide comparative material for other sites in the
region; and to recover any artifactual materials overlooked by the relic collectors.
Two 'relatively undisturbed' 2 meter units were excavated by both shovel
and trowel in 20 cm arbitrary levels (Fig. 47). All fill was screened through one-
quarter inch mesh and all cultural materials were saved for future analysis. No strati-
graphy was present due to the extreme disturbance of the deposit which exceeded 100
cm in depth.
The Deposits
The deposit of Avocado Shelter, like those of Civa II and Slivovitz Shelter,
is the result of elemental accumulation (wind-blown dust, rockfall) and organic remains
(ash, charcoal, pinyon nuts and hulls, rodent feces, vegetal material) mixed with varying
quantities of faunal renains, lithic debitage and artifacts.
Evidence of small rodent nests and burrows was found throughout the deposit.
No distinct hearths were noted, although ash and charcoal were present in the deposit.
The deposit was excavated from the surface down to slightly over 100 cm
before excavation ceased. The deposit was dry with some dampness encountered in
the lower levels. Due to the vandalization of the site, the stratigraphic sequences (if any
existed) had been totally destroyed.
176
S'3EO     Si'O
ORIPLINE
/   ~ ~ ~ ~ .. . .............   .
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AVOCADO SHELTER
[        PLAN VIEW\I
Figure 47:  Plan View of Avocado Shelter.
Ceramics
A total of 24 sherds were recovered from the badly disturbed deposit of
Avocado Shelter. Of these, 58.3% are Shoshonean Tradition pottery (including Southern
Paiute brownware) and 41. 7% are Fremont ceramic types.
Fremont Pottery
The 10 sherds of the Fremont Tradition have been identified as Snake Valley
Grey Ware (5) and Snake Valley Black-on-Grey (5). All sherds are within the ranges of
variability known for these wares (cf. Madsen 1977). A fugitive red wash is present on
the exterior surfaces except for 2 of the Snake Valley Grey sherds. Wall thicknesses
range from 3.6 mm to 5.1 mm and average 4.2 mm. The design elements on the interior
surfaces of the 5 Snake Valley Black-on-Grey sherds are of the Sosi Style and consist of
zig zag and straight lines and a possible checkerboard pattern. No rim sherds were
recovered and the vessel forms all appear to be bowls.
177
Shoshonean Tradition Pottery
The 14 sherds of Shoshonean ceramics are within the range of variability
of published descriptions (see Civa II and Coal Valley descriptions). The range of wall
thickness is 3.7 mm to 6.0 mm and the mean is 4.9 mm. Two rim sherds were
recovered. Both represent wide mouthed jars with recurved rims (1B2, 1B3 - after
Colton 1952). The diameter of one is in the range of 13. 0 -20. 0 cm, while the other,
a larger piece would have been about 17. 0 cm in diameter.
Discussion/Comment
The presence of both Shoshone and Fremont ceramics indicates a contem-
pernaiety of use by both groups or the use of trade ware obtained from the Parowan
Fremont subarea to the east by a Shoshone group. This follwos the pattern established
for both Civa II and Slivovitz Shelter as well as for several of the open sites in the region.
Since this site was badly disturbed, no stratigraphic contexts were preserved. Based
on Fowler, et. al. (1973) data, we estimate a probable occupation/use of the shelter
from A.D. 1000 to contact times.              A
Projectile Points (Table 25, Fig. 48a-c).
Six chipped stone artifacts were classified as typable projectile points or
projectile point fragments. Type classification follows the standard typologies
established and in use for the Great Basin (cf. Hester and Heizer 1973a for a discussion).
The three identifiable specimens are Rose Spring Corner Notched (2) with the remaining
point very similar to the Elko Corner Notched type (Fig. 48c). All specimens are of
chert and have some damage present. Projectile point fragments are limited to one
distal fragment of chert and two proximal/lateral fragments of chert and obsidian.
These fragments probably represent portions of small projectile points similar to those
described above.
Discussion/Comment
The recovered projectile points are indicative of the late chronological
sequence already established for the Great Basin. Taken in conjunction with the
recovered ceramics, a time range of A.D. 1000 to A.D. 1850 is suggested for the shelter.
Bifaces (Table 26, Fig. 48d, e).
As described for the other sites, the specimens assigned to this category are
artifacts that show evidence of bifacial flaking with at least one lateral edge capable of
being utilized for a cutting action. Eight specimens (2 typable, 6 fragments - 2 medial/
3 lateral/1 proximal) were recovered and assigned to the typological categories previously
determined for the region. The two complete specimens have been assigned to Type I -
178
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Ovate and Type Ila - Elongate Lanceolate. In all cases the raw material is chert. Cross
sections range from plano-convex to biconvex. Percussion is the dominate mode of
manufacture. Edge angles range from 380 to 420.
Miscellaneous Chipped Stone Artifacts
Corner Notched Biface (Fig. 49a).
The proximal portion of a specimen similar to an extremely large Elko
Eared projectile point was recovered from S3E0 at a depth of 60-80 cm. The piece is
percussion flaked chert and snap fractures are present on 2 of the lateral edges. The
notching is deep (11. 2 mm) and at an angle to the long axis of the point. This specimen
would be included in Fowler, et. al. (1973: 34, Fig. 15q) Class 7 biface category which
is distinguished by having a provision for hafting. It is quite likely that this specimen
could have been hafted for use either as a projectile point or 'knife'. Its width is 44. 5
mm and thickness 7.1 mm.
Unclassifiable Drill/Perforator Fragment
One chert drill bit fragment was noted at Avocado.
Retouched Flakes (Fig. 48f, g).
Two chert complete unifacially retouched interior flakes were recovered.
Both have unifacial percussion retouch present at one or more points around their cir-
cumference. Lengths range from 30. 5 mm to 38. 0 mm, width from 20. 0 mm to 31. 0
mm and thicknesses from 4. 5 mm to 10. 0 mm.
Lithic Debitage
Because of the disturbed nature of the site, no analysis of the debitage was
carried out. A cursory examination of the material indicates a preferred emphasis on
the use of chert compared to obsidian. Interior and biface thinning flakes dominate the
debitage. This would seem to argue for a pattern of little primary processing of raw
material with emphasis placed on the production of interior flakes and the thinning
and finishing of preforms and bifaces. This pattern is similar to those present at the
other excavated sites. As well, considering the location of the site in an excellent
hunting/gathering area, maintenance activities (e. g., resharpening of damaged/broken
projectile points, bifaces, etc.) were also probably carried out.
Miscellaneous Ground Stone Artifacts
One tubular ground stone fragment, apparently a rim or end piece, was noted.
Tubular Fragment (Fig. 49b).
180
The specimen shows traces of smoothing on the exterior surface and striations/grinding
marks on the interior. It is possible that this may be a tubular stone bead fragment
or a pipe stem/bowl (?). The raw material appears to be a fine siltstone.
Bone Artifacts
Awls (Fig. 49c-e).
A total of 3 complete or identifiable bone awls were recovered from
Avocado Shelter. The three have been separated into 2 descriptive types based on
Marwitt (1970: 106-113) as adapted from Kidder (1932: 211-213) and Ambler (1966: 55-
56).
Type B - Head of Bone Unaltered Except by Original Splitting (Fig. 49c).
One specimen of this type with a recurved tip was recovered. It is made on
a split metapodial of a bighorn (Ovis canadensis) with the unaltered articular surface
(proximal end) serving as the butt. This awl has been extensively shaped by grinding
and sawing. High polish is present over the surface and at the working tip end. Its
length is 85. 0 mm, width ranges from 2. 0 - 21. 0 mm and thickness from 4. 0 - 9. 5 mm.
Type E - Splinter Awl (Fig. 49d, e).
Two specimens of this type made on sections of large mammal bone with
one end worked to a point were present. Both specimens have gradually tapering tips.
A light red ochre stain is present on one piece. Lengths range from 78. 0 - 125. 0 mm,
width from 2. 0 - 13. 0 mm and thickness from 2. 0 - 5. 5 mm.
Discussion
The three awls are roughly similar in size but range in degree of finish and
apparent durability. It is probable that these were used for a variety of purposes,
ranging from leather working to basket making. Similar types are present at the other
excavated sites.
Bone Beads
One fragmentary tubular bone bead made on a midsection of a large mammal
long bone was recovered. The specimen was broken in half and cursory grinding/
shaping marks are present on one end. Rodent gnaw marks are present on the leading
edges of the piece. Length is 43. 0 mm, width 19. 0 mm and thickness 4. 5 mm.
Faunal Analysis
The analysis of the faunal remains recovered from the badly disturbed
181
deposits of the site point to the refuse of a small socio-political group concerned with
the seasonal hunting of Ovis canadensis (bighorn) and other small mammals. Detailed
information is presented in Appendix mI.
Summary/Conclusions
Avocado Shelter can be classed as a seasonal temporary intermittent use
campsite whose aboriginal inhabitants were probably concerned with the gathering of
locally available plant foods, especially pinyon nuts, and the hunting of bighorn sheep
(Ovis canadensis). A mid-September to early October occupation is suggested as the
pinyons are ready for gathering (cf. Thomas 1971a) and the bighorn sheep are known
to migrate to lower elevations at this time (cf. Geist 1971).
Its sheltered location on the now Cherry Creek Summit road and quite
possibly former aboriginal trail between Railroad and Garden/Coal Valleys, coupled
with its proximity to the Pinyon Camp Lithic Scatter near the summit, appear to mark
it as a 'way station' for hunting/gathering in the vicinity or travel between the
aforementioned valleys. Chronologically, based on the 4iagnostic projectile points
and ceramics present, the site could have been occupied ca. A. D. 1000 to post contact
times (ca. A. D. 1850). Precise temporal controls could not be established due to the
severe disturbance of the shelter by vandals.
In brief, Avocado Shelter is a temporary seasonal campsite intermittently
occupied from A. D. 1000 to post contact times by either Shsohone/Fremont groups or
Shoshone groups in contact with the Parowan Fremont subarea to the east. The late
use of the site follows the pattern of late occupation noted for the region. It is
regrettable that the shelter's deposits were not intact as this smaller site would have
provided material for a valuable comparison with Slivovitz Shelter in the near vicinity
and Civa Shelter II in Garden Valley.
182
Key To Figures
Figure 48
a. Rose Spring Corner Notched (2-60465); b. Rose Spring Corner Notched (?) (2-60472);
c. Elko Corner Notched (?) (2-60448); d. Biface Type I (2-60438); e. Biface Type Ila
(2-60437); f, g. Retouched Flakes (2-60473, 2-60450).
Figure 49
a. Corner Notched Biface (2-60467); b. Tubular Ground Stone Fragment (2-60451);
c. Bone Awl, Type B (2-60459); d, e. Bone Awls, Type E (2-60434, 2-60468);
f. Bone Bead Fragment (2-60460).
a
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183
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184
I
185
Chapter vm
Site Survey - Garden and Coal Valleys
Introduction
An intuitive convenience site reconnaissance was undertaken within the
boundaries of the previously defined study area as an adjunct project to the main program
emphasis of site excavation. Time and the financial constraints placed on the research
eliminated a previously developed, stratified, random sample survey from the proposed
research design.
The site survey was visualized as contributing important data to the regional
research problems discussed previously. That is, as contributing to the development
of a chronology of human occupance in the area and in the understanding of mran-land
relationships (settlement patterns, procurement activities, cultural contacts) present
within the study area. In brief, the site survey was undertaken to gain additional infor-
mation on the chronological/cultural environmental relationships present within Garden
and Coal Valleys and to assess/interpret the data within the information framework
currently available for southeastern Nevada.
Methodology
Site survey areas were chosen on an intuitive basis. That is to say, suitable
areas were picked based on the past knowledge of site location in the area. Localities
in the vicinity of past and present water sources and courses, passes, rock overhangs,
former lake margins, valley edges, raw material sources, isolated rock bluffs, large
boulders and so. In brief, any likely area or natural feature that may have been utilized
by the aboriginal inhabitants of Garden and Coal Valleys was inspected for traces of past
cultural activity. In addition to 'natural features', large areas were subjected to a
systematic pedestrian ground survey.
Generally, in this procedure, survey team members walked not more than
0. 5 miles (0. 8 km) in a cardinal direction between natural or cultural boundaries (e. g.,
jeep trails, BLM roads/trails, fence lines, section lines, etc.) with the team members
spaced approximately 100 meters apart. Upon reaching the end of each transect, the
team then swung around 1800 and returned in a parallel direction adjacent to the first
swath. Each team member was responsible for observing an area 50 meters wide on
both sides of the general walking path, with the area surveyed during one sweep being
200 meters wide. By use of these tactics a 0. 5 mile (0. 8 km) front (quarter section
unit) was covered in 3 or 4 swaths. This general procedure was modified when the
terrain or site distribution warranted it.
186
Archaeological Site Types
For the purposes of this research, an archaeological site was defined as the
locus of prehistoric activities which could be delineated specifically by the cultural
remains present and could be separated by distance and/or observable geomorphic
features from other loci of prehistoric activities. The cultural materials that constitute
a site are basically artifacts/lithic debitage and/or cultural features (e. g., fire rings,
roasting pits, etc.).
For our research and to facilitate discussion of prehistoric behavior within
the study area, 11 site types were designated at the onset. These were defined to
assist in understanding the variety of aboriginal activities seen in the archaeological
record and to provide a way of 'categorizing' and ordering the data available from the
survey. While not all sites can be precisely fitted into one or another of the categories,
this 'pigeonholing' of sites into types provides a reasonable means to begin dealing with
the diversity present in the archaeological record. The site typology is used for conven-
ience and does not necessarily imply the full range of aboriginal activities that may have
been present at any one site.
The site type(s) given each archaeological site is determined by both the
information provided on the record form and on the qualitative judgment of the field
archaeologist who recorded the site. This method is somewhat flexible in its approach,
as it allows both information and archaeological field experience to be used in making a
site type determination. In all cases, site type determinations were made either
personally or by a supervisor whose determination was later orally justified and approved.
The loci recorded as archaeological sites varied considerably in size and abundance of
artifacts. Even a very sparse scatter of flakes (5+ concentrated within a 5 m2 area) was
recorded as a site as by definition it was considered a site. Isolated single flakes and
artifacts were noted and collected f6r the area surveyed but were not considered as
'sites'. An exact location for these finds was not recorded.
Some very large areas recorded as single sites were actually made up of
many small concentrations of lithic debitage, each of which, had it occurred alone,
would have been labelled as a site. For ease of presentation and recording, these
concentrations were treated as one site, although undoubtedly each locality was probably
utilized at one discrete point in time.
Of the 11 original site types devised for the survey, only 3 were found and
utilized in the study region. These are defined below.
Camp - Temporary Occupation: These are sites that were occupied for a short length
of time (e.g., one day to one month (?) by a small group (e. g., from one individual to
several families)). These sites can be identified archaeologically by scattered artifacts,
tool manufacturing/maintenance debitage, firecracked rocks, ground stone fragments
and features (e.g., roasting pits, fire hearths, etc.). This type is somewhat of a
187
catch-all category as the title implies. It includes sites that reflect a wide range of
artifacts, waste material and/or cultural features that, in combination, do not allow the
site to be placed in another category. The inferred function of this site type is limited
camping where specific subsistence (gathering, hunting) and maintenance (repair, etc.)
activities were conducted.
Lithic Workshop: These sites are characterized exclusively by the presence of lithic
debitage, cores, and raw material chunks of rhyolite, obsidian, basalt and chert.
Occasionally finished or semi-finished materials (e.g., projectile points, preforms,
etc.) may be present, but the chief differentiation of these sites from temporary
occupation camps is the presence of raw material chunks, large amounts of lithic
debitage from manufacturing and few artifacts and/or cultural features. These may be
considered as lithic scatters in some site type/category schemes.
Rock Art Sites: Petroglyphs (pecked or incised figures or designs) and/or pictographs
(painted figures or designs) are present at sites of this type.
Procedure
Standard recording and mapping techniques were employed by the field
teams when a site was discovered. The site data was entered on the University of
California Site Survey form (cf. Hester, Heizer and Graham 1975: 22-30 for a description
and discussion), the site's location was plotted onthe appropriate Bureau of Land
Management (BLM) 30' map for the area and if necessary a sketch map of the site was
drawn. If feasible, the site was photographed and a small sample of lithic debitage and
any temporally diagnostic artifacts were collected for future analysis and study.
In addition to the main site form, a supplemental form was devised in order
to note other important/significant information concerning the sites. Categories on this
form included site situation, site type, geographic situation, ecology, soil type, debitage
raw materials, debitage density, debitage categories, chronology - based on temporally
significant artifacts (projectile points and ceramics), National Register of Historic Places
significance and BLM Significance ratings. 1
Debitage density was arbitrarily determined by the number of flakes per
10 m2 area. A ground estimate of 30 flakes per 10 m2 was classified as heavy; a ground
estimate of 15 flakes or less was classified as light; and a moderate scatter fell between
the two extremes. Debitage categories have been previously defined in the lithic debitage
analysis portions of the various site reports.
Although certain of the categories are admittedly subjective in use and are
based in part on personal intuitive interpretations of the field data base, the inclusion of
these categories (while somewhat biased) with the standard site form, data will aid future
archaeological research strategies in the region. Significance ratings, now commonly
required in archaeological reconnaissance surveys as an aid to planning/management
188
strategies, were made using previously defined BLM criteria (BLM Memorandum Nevada
State Office, n.d.).
Results
Seventy archaeological sites were recorded on the estimated 55,000 acres
surveyed by the field teams within the boundaries of the study area (Fig. 2). The data
derived from this archaeological reconnaissance has been condensed and is presented
in Tables 27a-b and Fig. 50. Forty (57%) fall into the category of open sites, 9 (13%)
are open sites with natural protection present and 21 (30%) are rockshelter or cave
situations (Table 29). Mountain/hillside slope locations are dominant (42. 5%) with
stream terraces (26.1%) following. Elevated land (9.6%), central valley/playa (6. 8%),
valley edges (6. 8%), canyons (6. 8%) and alluvial fans (1. 4%) are other favored locations
(Table 28). Several sites had several locational characteristics present (e.g., elevated
land + valley edge location).
189
Figure 50
Summary Site Survey Data Coding Key
Site numbers assigned to the sites are Nevada State Museum designations.
GBT - Great Basin Transverse Points
HUM - Humboldt Series
RS - Rose Spring Series
EG - Eastgate Series
CT - Cottonwood Triangular Series
DSN - Desert Side Notched Series
PPF - Projectile point fragments
BIF - Bifaces
PRF - Preform
SCP - Scrapers
UF - Utilized/Edge Damaged Flakes
DRL - Drill
MET - Metate
MAN - Mano
CHRT - Chert
OBS - Obsidian
BST - Basalt
PICTO/PETRO - Pictographs/Petroglyphs
SHO - Shoshone Tradition Ceramics
FRE - Fremont Tradition Ceramics
ELEV - Elevation - in feet a. s. 1.
VEG - Vegetation type
SIT/LOC - Situation/Location
TYPE - Type of site
EST. TEMPORAL RANGE - Estimate age in years - judgment based on temporally
sensitive projectile points present and ceramics.
190
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192
Table 28
-Type                                     #Code
Camp, temporary occupation                         30             2
Camp, temporary occupation/Lithic workshop         37            2,,7
Camp, temporary occupation/Rock art                 1           2,9
Lithic workshop                                     1              7
Rock art                                            1              9
Table 29
Site Location         #       Code
Canyon                5        1
Mountain/Hillside    31        2
Valley Edge           5        3
Central Valley/Playa  5        4
Elevated Land         7        5
Lake Terraces         -        6
Stream Terrace       19        7
Alluvial Fan          1        8
Note: Some sites have several locational characteristics present.
Table 30
Situation                              #    Code
Open                                  40      1
Open, natural protection               9      2
Rockshelter/Cave                      21      3
As regards elevation, 14 sites (20. 0%) fell at or below 5500 feet; 25 (35. 7%)
at or below 6000 feet; 14 (29. 0%) at or below 6500 feet; 6 (8. 6%) at or below 7000 feet;
8 (11.4%) at or below 7500 feet; and 3 (4.3%) are above 7600 feet. The majority of the
sites (39.0 - 55. 7%) are within the boundaries of the Basin Floor/Playa/Upper Bajada
vegetation zones (5000 - 6000 feet) with the remainder (31 - 44.3%) present in the Lower
Slope Zone (6000 - 10,000 feet). The most common surrounding vegetation type in the
vicinity of 37 sites (52. 8%) is desert shrub/sagebrush while a combination of pinyon/
juniper/desert shrub/sagebrush is present at 25 (35. 7%) of the sites. A pinyon/juniper
woodland is dominant at only 8 (11. 5%) sites (Table 30).
193
Table 31
Vegetation Type             #          Code
Pinyon/juniper woodland               8            1
Desert shrub/sagebrush               37            2
Pinyon/juniper - desert shrub/sagebrush  25      1/2
Grinding implements (manos/metates) are found at 17 (24.3%) of the
recorded sites. The projectile point series recovered from the random surface collections
spans the common series known from the Great Basin: Great Basin Transverse,
Humboldt, Pinto Elko, Rose Spring, Eastgate, Cottonwood, and Desert Side Notched
Series. The data presented in Tables 27 a/b indicates that the Elko/Rose Spring/
Cottonwood/Desert Side Notched series points are the most commonly noted points in the
study area.
Both Fremont and Shoshone Tradition ceramics, together and separately,
are known to occur at several sites. Twenty-two (31. 4%) of the sites have either
Shoshone or Fremont pottery present (Shoshone - 12 sites; Fremont - 2 sites) or co-
occurring (7 sites).
Three sites (4.3%) have either petroglyphs or pictographs present. Non-
diagnostic projectile point fragments are present at 29 (41.4%) sites, while bifaces or
biface fragments are found at 49 (70. 0%) of the sites. Other artifacts present are drills
(9 sites) and scrapers (6 sites).
Varying quantities of lithic debitage representing both manufacturing and
maintenance activities were noted at most sites (62 sites - 88. 5%). Chert and obsidian
are dominant with basalt present at only a few localities. By far, chert is the favored
raw material at most sites where chert and obsidian co-occur. This pattern of chert
dominance is found at the excavated sites and appears to be typical for the region as a
whole.
Chronologically, the sites fall within the range of 6000/9000 BP to post-
contact times as determined by the temporally sensitive projectile point specimens and
ceramics recovered.
Interpretations/Conclusions
Operating under the hypothesis that the natural resources available prehis-
torically in the study area were exploited through short term precurement and processing
activities, it is apparent that the majority of the sites located during the survey do not
represent intensive or long term occupation, but represent instead short periods of site
use on what was probably a seasonally limited basis. It is quite probable that the
majority of the sites present in the site universe represent base localities or temporary
194
campsites for the collection/processing of wild plants and for hunting on a seasonal
basis. The lithic industries are similar at all sites with 'locally' available raw
material used to derive flakes for either immediate use or for tool manufacture.
Utilization of the sites probably occurred from early Spring to late Fall,
based on the availability of both plant (esp. seeds and pinyon nuts) and animal (rabbit,
bighorn sheep) foods. On the basis of the present data, the site utilization conforms
closely to the model tested by Thomas (1971a,b, 1972a,b, 1973) from Steward's (1938)
ethnographic work of a broad spectrum economy which makes maximum use of a limited
territorial range of microenvironments.
The survey was not complete or intensive enough to indicate any valid
preferences in settlement pattern distribution. Repeated intermittent occu pation as
indicated by temporally diagnostic artifacts and the amount of cultural debris present
appears to have centered around Coal Valley Dry Lake, easily accessible and protected
rockshelters and stream terraces all in the near vicinity of a water source and in all
probability near exploitable subsistence resources.
Chronologically the study area appears to have been intermittently occupied
from ca. 9000 B. C. (Western Pluvial Lakes Tradition) to historic times (ca. A. D. 1850).
The excavations and survey results apparently indicate a "heavy use" of the area from
ca. A.D. 600, based on recovered temporally diagnostic artifacts and ceramics, but
it is probable that many earlier occupations may have been buried or destroyed by
alluvial fill, erosion or other natural processes. The early materials from the Coal
Valley Dry Lake bed are only now beginning to be exposed by wind deflation.
The elevation distribution of sites indicates a heavy utilization of the areas
between 5000 - 6600 feet (1524 - 2012 meters) elevation. This is undoubtedly biased,
as our survey activities were primarily concentrated in the basin floor areas rather
than in the forested higher elevations. In retrospect, it is unfortunate that we did not
concentrate on the 7000-8000 feet (2134 - 2438 meters) elevation band as our cursory
survey activities within this zone indicated intensive occupation. This zone is
characterized by pinyon-juniper vegetation and the presence of many streams and
associated riparian environments. Future research is currently being planned so as
to rectify this omission and to provide a fuller picture of site distribution in the area.
The distribution of ceramics within the study area is also of interest. Only
a few sites have Puebloan ceramic material present, while a moderate number have
Shoshone tradition wares present. In several cases both Puebban and Shoshone sherds
were contemporaneous. As postulated previously, it is possible that both Shoshone
and Fremont groups utilized the area or that Shoshone groups had contact and trade
with the Fremont groups in the Meadow Valley Wash drainage to the east. Brooks's
(1977) recovery of only Puebloan ceramics from the Mariah Site near Hiko lends
credence to the possible use of the area by Fremont groups.
195
Petroglyphs and pictographs are rare in the area in contrast to the
numerous reported instances from the White River Narrows and adjacent areas to the
east (cf. Heizer and Hester 1974).
In general, the results of the survey indicate initial occupation of the area
by peoples of the Western Pluvial Lakes Tradition, ca. 9000 B. C., centered around
Coal Valley Dry Lake with a later intermittent occupation by Desert Archaic groups.
The area was utilized by peoples from the Parowan Fremont subarea ca. A. D. 600/900
to ca. A.D. 1100-1200 (?) who were contemporaneous with Shoshonean groups present
at ca. A. D. 1000. The area was apparently shared by both Shoshone and Southern
Paiute groups until historic times. Primarily used as a hunting/gathering region, the
area was probably marginal to the Southern Paiute groups in the Pahranagat Valley and
the Shoshone groups in Railroad Valley to the east.
NOTES
1.        Complete site records are on file at the Nevada State Museum, Carson City,
and the Ely District Office of the Bureau of Land Management. All records are available
for inspection by qualified, professional archaeologists.
197
Chapter IX
Summary/Interpretations
The archaeological data presented in this report, coupled with previous
research in surrounding areas (esp. Fowler, Madsen and Hattori 1973; Brooks 1977),
allows the reconstruction of a general tentative outline of the prehistory of the study area.
Furthermore, sophisticated future research can now be planned to take advantage of the
data base and add further to the interpretation of the culture history of southeastern
Nevada.
Peoples of the Western Pluvial Lake Tradition (WPLT) apparently were the
initial occupants of the Garden/Coal Valley area, concentrating in and around the now
dry Coal Valley Lake. The intermittent, seasonal occupation of these temporary camp-
sites occurred from ca. 9000 B. C. to 6000 B. C. (cf. Hester 1973b for a discussion of
the WPLT) for this lacustrine oriented tradition. Exploitation of the lakeside ecozone
along with use of the surrounding desert upland areas undoubtedly made this site location
a favorable occupation locus for the aboriginal groups utilizing the area.
Following, or possibly concurrent in later times, with the Western Pluvial
Lakes Tradition is the occupation by carriers of a Desert Archaic culture from ca. 6000
B. C. to contact times. Both the desert upland areas and Coal Valley Dry Lake appear
to have been the focus of use by these groups. The former lake sites were probably
utilized when favorable climatic conditions (e.g. precipitation and temperature) allowed
for the formation of standing water due to runoff and evaporation conditions on the now
dry Coal Valley Lake. Environmental and ecological changes are not well understood in
this portion of the Great Basin, although minor changes in climate may have had major
effects on the vegetation and ecology of the study area. Upland occupation, consisting of
temporary, seasonal camps, was primarily along stream terraces with possibly some use
of the higher elevation pinyon/juniper areas. Fowler, et. al. (1973) indicate three periods
of abandonment - ca. 6500 - 4600 BP, ca. 3000/2000 BP? to ca. A.D. 1, and ca. A.D. 1
to A.D. 1000 - in the neighboring areas to the east and southeast based on their surface
reconnaissance and excavation of several stratified rockshelters. Madsen and Berry
(1975), in a reassessment of the prehistory of the northeastern Great Basin, suggest a
hiatus from 2500 to 1500 BP possibly as a "... result of the rapid post-Neoglacial decline
in effective moisture and concomitant reduction in upland resource availability" (1975:
401).
Since no stratified sites falling within these time ranges were excavated and
the surface survey material is inconclusive in terms of abandonment, no conclusions
can be drawn from the study area regarding any hiatuses that may have occurred in
Iunman occupance. Future research may shed further light on the postulated abandonments,
although it is unlikely to come from the Garden/Coal Valley area.
Based on the artifact yield, the early Desert Archaic culture appears to have
198
utilized the study area only marginally perhaps due in part to the changing climatic
conditions postulated by Madsen and Berry (1975). However, it is probable that many
earlier occupations may have been buried or destroyed by alluvial fill, erosion or
other natural processes. As a case in point, the early materials (Western Pluvial
Lakes Tradition) from the Coal Valley Dry Lake bed are only now beginning to be
exposed by wind deflation.
The excavation and survey results apparently indicate a "1heavy use" of the
area from ca. A. D. 600 based on the recovered temporally diagnostic artifacts and
ceramics. Civa Shelter I (Busby 1977), Civa Shelter II, Slivovitz and Avocado Shelters
all have large numbers of Rose Spring, Cottonwood and Desert Side Notched projectile
points present. Elko and Humboldt Series projectile points also co-occur throughout
the deposits in small numbers, although their presence can probably be attributed to
reuse by later aboriginal peoples. Fowler (personal communication 1978) indicates
that a study of Powell's ethnographic collections in the Smithsonian (cf. Fowler and
Fowler 1971) from southeastern Nevada shows a high incidence of reuse of older
projectile points on ethnographic specimens. Qualitative site survey results from
Garden and Coal Valleys also show a predominance of Rose Spring and Desert Side
Notched projectile points in the collections.
Civa Shelter II and Slivovitz Shelter were intermittently utilized, seasonal,
temporary occupation sites probably used by both Shoshone and Southern Paiute groups
as well as by Fremont peoples. Civa II can be assigned a relative dating using the
recovered projectile points andceramicsatA.D. 600/700 to historic times. Slivovitz
Shelter, using the ceramics and projectile points for relative dating, also falls within
this range, although perhaps a bit later in time, ca. A.D. 900 (?) to historic times.
Both sites were utilized as hunting/gathering base camps because of their excellent
views of the surrounding terrain and nearness b seasonally available sources of water.
Civa II was primarily utilized for seectgathering and the hunting of jackrabbits in the
Upper Bajada Zone, while Slivovitz Shelter represents a seasonal Fall camp with a focus
on pinyon nut/seed gathering and the hunting of bighorn sheep within the boundaries of
the Lower Slope Zone. The moderate quantity of artifacts and lithic debitage recovered
at both sites argues for a lack of primary manufacturing or processing activities, quite
possibly due to the briefness of occupation or their location/occurrence elsewhere away
from the main occupation site.  Pottery manufacture was also apparently carried out
during one occupation at Civa II. It should be noted that no deep stratified rockshelters
or caves were located during our field research, and it may be possible that these sites
(Civa II and others) were not available for occupation prior to A. D. 600.
The ceramic materials from both the excavated sites and surface reconnaissance
appear to indicate either early or contemporaneous use of the study area by both
Shoshone and Fremont groups or trade/contact by Shoshone peoples with the Fremont
in the Meadow Valley Wash area to the southeast and east. Perhaps both Fremont use
and Shoshone trade occurred in the area as Brooks's excavations at the Mariah Site
(Brooks 1977) recovered only Pu ebloan ceramics from the cultural deposits. The
199
Fremont pottery (Snake Valley Gray, Black-on-Gray and Corrugated) is indicative of
the Parowan subarea and dates from A. D. 900 to A. D. 1200. The Shoshonean Tradition
ceramics can be ascribed to both Southern Paiute and Shoshone groups, and Fowler,
et. al. (1973) has assigned a date of ca. A. D. 1000 for the introduction of this pottery
into the surrounding area. I am in agreement with this date, although it is possible
that a slightly earlier date (ca. A. D. 900) might be possible based on the excavations
at Civa Shelter II. The single Virgin Branch Anasazi sherd (North Creek Black-on-
Gray) recovered can possibly be linked to the Lost City Phase (A. D. 700-1100) or the
Mesa House Phase (A.D. 1100-1150) defined by Shutler (1961) for the Lost City area to
the south. It is probable that this specimen was transported from the nearby Pahranagat
Valley (cf. Brooks 1977 and Fowler, et. al. 1973) where specimens of this type are
known to occur. All ceramics fall within the known boundaries for both Puebloan
(cf. Harrington 1928; Madsen 1972, 1977) and Shoshone Tradition (cf. Fowler 1968a;
Tuohy 1973) pottery.
The presumed ancestors of the Numic speaking Southern Paiute and carriers
of the Shoshonean culture entered the study area from the southwest around A. D. 1000
(cf. Lamb 1958; Miller, Tanner and Folley 1969; Fowler, et.al. 1973; Madsen 1975).
The later occupation/use of the Garden and Coal Valley area apparently falls around
this date and on the basis of the artifact assemblage (esp. projectile points) from the
excavated sites and surface reconnaissance can be attributed to both Fremont and
Shoshone groups. These two distinct cultural traditions have been a matter of some
controversy (cf. Fowler, et. al. 1973: 73-85) for a discussion and overview) but this
will not be discussed here. For our purposes, drawing on previous research, what is
important is that they are distinct and represent either alternate or coeval occupation of
the study area. Fowler, et. al. (1973) have suggested that the Fremont peoples were
intermittent or seasonal occupants of the Meadow Valley Wash area. A probable
boundary marked by the Delamar and Highland Mountains (Fig. 5) has been suggested
by Fowler, et. al. (1973:135) as the southwestern limit of the Parowan Fremont range.
This is based in part on the apparent paucity of Fremont artifacts in the Pahranagat
Valley. However, Brooks's (1977) excavations at the Mariah Site in the Hiko area
recovered only Fremont or Virgin Branch Anasazi ceramics. The association of both
Fremont and Shoshone ceramics in the Garden and Coal Valley area, as stated previously,
may indicate either alternative or coeval occupation or trade by Shoshonean groups.
Based on the research conducted in the study area and on Brooks's (1977) work in the
Hiko area, it is suggested that the boundary proposed by Fowler, et. al. (1973) for the
Parowan Fremont should be moved westward to include the Pahranagat Valley.
The archaeological investigations within Garden and Coal Valleys indicate
that Shoshonean/proto-Numic groups were the principal inhabitants of the area. While
Fremont groups may have ranged into the area in their foraging quest, it is probable that
Shoshonean groups may have also travelled eastwards into the Meadow Valley area
to hunt and gather. Fowler, et. al. (1973: 73) suggest that pinyon nuts are more plentiful
in the Meadow Valley area than in the Pahranagat area, although the same can also be
said for the Quinn Canyon and Grant Ranges bordering Garden Valley on the west.
200
However, for whatever reason, it is probable that seasonal meetings and trade did occur
between the Shoshone and Fremont groups in the area.
The Shoshone/proto-Numic groups followed a seasonal round probably
similar to that described for the ethnographic record (cf. Steward 1938; Kelly 1964;
Euler 1966b; Ruppert 1976; Stewart 1942). Corn horticulture may have been practiced
in certain areas. A crude pottery was manufactured (Shoshonean Tradition) using a
combination of paddle and anvil and coiling techniques. These peoples remained in the
area to become the ethnographic Shoshone and Southern Paiute groups after the 'demise'
of the Fremont by ca. A.D. 1300.
In summary, the archaeological record for the study area indicates
intermittent occupation (probably seasonal) by four distinct cultural traditions - the
Western Pluvial Lakes Tradition, Desert Archaic, the Fremont and the Shoshone -
between ca. 9000 B. C. and historic times. As wells the research investigations appear
to offer some additional support for the postulated appearance of the Shoshone/proto-
Numic culture into the area around ca. A. D. 1000. The archaeological evidence
indicates a marginal use of the valleys from 6000 B. C. on with an incurease in use
intensity ca. A. D. 600 to historic times. From the cultural resour ces present and the
ethnographic data, it is apparent that these two valleys were probably marginally
utilized by both the prehistoric occupants and the ethnographically known Southern Paiute
and Shoshone groups.
201
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Abbreviations Used
American Anthropologist
American Antiquity
NAS-R     Nevada Archeological Survey Reporter
NSM-AP    Nevada State Museum Anthropological Papers
SWM       Southwest Museum
-M    Masterkey
-P     Papers
UC        University of California
-AR   Anthropological Records
-CARF Contributions, Archaeological Research Facility
-PAAE Publications, American Archaeology and Ethnology
UCAS      University of California Archaeological Survey
-R    Reports
UUAP      University of Utah Anthropological Papers
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1966
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19
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19
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160
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11
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