STUDIES IN CALIFORNIA PALEOPATHOLOGY:
I. A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA PALEOPATHOLOGY
by
J. Michael Hoffman
and
Lynda Brunker
1
3
INTRODUCTION
The past decade has been a time of renewed interest in the study of the man-
ifestations of prehistoric disease, i. e. , paleopathology. This interest has seen not
only the development of new techniques and formulation of theoretical models but also
a continuing reappraisal of previously described and/or analyzed material. Because of
the role such studies may have in the teaching of prehistoric skeletal biology and the
adaptive responses of populations to environmental stresses, the compilation of previously
published work in the field seems desirable at this time. Several extensive bibliographies
on the general topic of paleopathology have been published in recent years (Armelagos
et. al,. 1971; Crain 1971) as well as a large collection of papers (Brothwell and
Sandison 1967). In addition, The Paleopathology Newsletter of the Paleopathology
Association attempts to keep its readers abreast of current work and publications from
around the world.
Many of the paleopathologic studies conducted on skeletal n-.terial today are
done by physical anthropologists. As a comparative discipline, anthropology has as one
of its goals the understanding of human variation through time. Thus, through the
medium of paleopathology, we can begin to trace the disease histories of native
Californians over long periods of time -- from the prehistoric past to modern times.
Unfortunately the pathways along which these changes can be viewed are very rough,
inconsistent in their quality and, even at times, nonexistent. This is particularly true
for the time period immediately following the first Spanish contacts with California
natives in the sixteenth century until well into the twentieth century. Despite the vast
amount of ethnographic information compiled by A. L. Kroeber and his students there
are virtually no data on diseases present or therapeutic practices. However, there are
some other, less formal, sources to whioh we can turn.
The first detailed description of California Indian life comes from a manuscript
Published in 1628, "The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake," reprinted in Heizer
(1974). We find therein the following description which is probably the first documenta-
tion of the health status of native Californians:
"After that time had a little qualified their madnes, they then began
to shew and make knowne vnto vs their griefes and diseases which
they carried about them, some of them having old aches, some
shruncke sinewes, some old soares and canckered vlcers, some
wounds more lately received, and the like, in -most lamentable
manner craving helpe and cure thereof from vs: making signes,
that if we did but blow vpon their griefes, or but touched the
diseased places, they would be whole" (Heizer 1974: 91-92).
An early southern California physician, P. C. Remondino, gives us some further
clues in a book in which he attempts to give his readers "some general ideas on
4
climatology in relation to health and disease" (R.emondino 1892: vii). The author gives
us first-hand information from two army doctors stationed in the southern California
deserts: Dr. William A. Winder, Fort Yuma, 1853, and army surgeon L. Y. Loring,
Forts Yuma and Mojave, in the early 1870's. From Winder's report R.emondino
notes the following:
"... Indians had one great enemy that took them off rapidly, that being.
pneumonia. There was some phthisis [a wasting away of the body,
usually associated with pulmonary tuberculosis], but evidently as a
result of pneumonia; rheumatism was not then [1853] as prevalent
as at present [1892]. He particularly observed that those periods
characterized by the greatest range of temperature were those in
which attacks of pneumonia were most numerous. At the Old Mission
of San Diego, then a military post, and. at other camps on the west
side of the mountains, he observed neither pneumonia nor phthisis"
(Remondino 1892: 15).
Loring's observations are summarized in the following:
"Although the troops never developed any disease that could be
ascribed to climate or locality, phthisis was prevalent with the
Indians at both posts, especially at Mojave. Rheumatism was also
quite common. Both diseases were greatly aggravated by a syphilitic
taint, their mode of living, diet, and going about naked. They
use but little animal food, but subsist mainly on the mesquite bean,
wild potatoes, and what little corn or grain they raise; so that,
being poorly nourished, they early become consumptive" (Remondino
1892: 15).
Fortunately, there are here mentioned several diseases which have the potential of
being identified in prehistoric osseus remains: phthisis (?TB), rheumatism (various
forms of arthritis or degenerative joint disease) and the enigmatic problem of syphilis.
Gifford's monograph, Californian Anthropometry (1926), is one of the few
sources to help us somewhat in reconstructing disease histories among native
Californians. Here, too, the observations are confined to casual observances about
injuries which do not help us a great deal. Gifford notes several instances of broken
bones, a "shoulder injury," a "hunchback, " some "crippled" hands and fingers, and
other miscellaneous trauma. Tantalizing as these observations are, they hardly merit
anything more than a mention. Wat is desired is population information, including
age and sex distributions, plus etiologic determinations when known or inferable. And
this we do not have.
Reconstructing disease histories is very problematic. Obviously when con-
sidering prehistoric material we are limited to those pathologic processes which leave
5
their impress on bone, except for the rare cases of mummified remains (either natural
or intentional mummification) or the indirect knowledge gained from coprolites or
artistic portrayals of disease. The reports annotated herein begin to give us a picture
of the range of infirmities to which the prehistoric Californian was exposed. For the
mrost part, these fall into three basic categories: trauma, infection, and degenerative
joint disease. Numerous kinds of injuries are reported from fractured bones to man-
caused occurrences such as imbedded projectile points. Infectious diseases are wide-
Spread in some sites, rare in others, except for the nearly omnipresent occurrence of
dental abscesses and periodontal disease secondary to severe attrition. The differential
distribution of infectious pathologies in time and space would be an important problem
to investigate. Degenerative joint disease, especially of the vertebral column, is another
widespread phenomenon. Here too, though, we note temporospatial differences which
beg for understanding. Besides these three main categories which account for the vast
majority of disease in ancient California which we can identify, there are examples of
tumorous processes, developmental anomalies, genetic disorders and others. The
wealth of imterial from California plus the uniqueness and diversity of the state, eco-
logically- and ethnographically-speaking, make it a virtual laboratory for testing many
hypotheses about man and his ability to adapt to disease, adaptations which are both
biological and cultural in nature.
The following bibliography is offered, then, as a beginning point for those
who seek information about ancient disease in California. It is not alleged to be completely
exhaustive, and we hope that others will contribute items for possible future inclusion
that we have failed to locate. Its focus is on those published writings that deal exclu-
Sively, primarily, or peripherally, with examples of paleopathology from California.
To list every mention of disease would entail the compilation of scores of archeological
reports noting the presence of "vertebral arthritis" and "dental disease." We felt this
was unnecessary, partly for the reason that judgments have often been made by those
not really capable of assigning such evaluations. We have, however, included some
very brief items, a few instances of non-human animal pathology, and some very early
historical material. Our reason for doing so was to include some of the more rare,
Unique, or unusual material.
There is, inevitably, some duplication of material. For example, Brabender's
doctoral dissertation (1965a) and the derived publication (1965b) are both cited. The
former includes all the specific details of individual specimens while the latter provides
a good, detailed summary. We have also included a rather unusual source (Grinnell
1907, from Forest and Stream magazine) which is derived in part from a professional
journal (Wilson 1901), to illustrate how such material is extracted, reworked and
expanded.
Some guiding comments are provided, but the ultimate judgment on the validity
Of the published opinions must rest with the interested scholar who will at times want to
see the actual specimens. Where we know the repository of the bones this has been in-
dicated.
6
The bibliographers' tasks are never completed, not only in their own minds
but also in those of the scholars who read the utilize their work. This is a beginning
effort, and we hope that persons who use this bibliography will send us additional
sources known to them and suggestions for improvement In order to increase its useful-
ness.
The following museum abbreviations are used in the annotations:
Los Angeles County Museum; LMA - Lowie Museum of Anthropology; SDM
Museum of Man; USNM - United States National Museum.
LACM -
- San Diego
Literature cited (not in annotated bibliography):
Armelagos, G. J. J.H. MielkeandJ. Winter
1971  Bibliography of Human Paleopathology. Research Reports No. 8,
Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
Brothwell, D. R.
1967
and A. T. Sandison, Eds.
Diseases in Antiquity. Springfield: C. C. Thomas.
Crain, J. B.
1971  Human Paleopathology: A Bibliographic List. Sacramento Anthro-
pological Society Paper 12.
Gifford, E. W.
1926
Californian Anthropometry. Univ. of Calif. Publ. in Amer. Arch.
and Ethnol. 22(2): 217-390.
Heizer, R. F.
1974 Appendix II. Extract from The World Encompassed by Sir Francis
Drake. 1628. In Elizabethan California. Ramona, Cal.: Ballena
Press.
Remondino, P.C.
1892  The Mediterranean Shores of America. Southern California: Its
Climatic, Physical, and Meteorological Conditions. Philadelphia:
F. A. Davis.
Abbreviations used in bibliography:
UCAS-AR (UCCA) University of California Archaeological Survey - Annual Report (UCCA)
UCAS-R University of California Archaeological Survey - Reports
UCPAAE University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology
7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abbot, K. H. and C. B. Courville
1939 Historical notes on the meningiomas. I. A study of hyperostoses in
prehistoric skulls. Bulletin of the Los Angeles Neurological Society
4: 101-113.
[Well illustrated and described, a "pre-Spanish" skull from San
Nicolas Island is presented. Diagnosed as a meningioma, it is a
good example of the problem in assessing cranial hyperostoses;
presently housed in SDM (no. 17661).]
Allen, H.
1896   Crania from the mounds of the St. John's River, Florida: a study
made in connection with crania from other parts of North America.
Journal of the Academy of Natural Science 10: 367-448.
[Included are some Santa Barbara Islands crania and a few other
specimens, all currently at the Museum of the Academy of Natural
Sciences. Although the study is of the classic descriptive nature,
large exostoses are reported on crania numbers 1820 and 1821 (in the
Academy).]
Angel, J. Lawrence
1966  Early skeletons from Tranquility, California. Smithsonian Contribu-
tions to Anthropology 2(1).
[Material from the central San Joaquin Valley is analyzed, C  dated
to 2550 + 60 years. Angel attempts to place the pathologies in an
ecological context (diet, activity); includes "atlatl elbow," early-age
onset of vertebral arthritis, and dental disease.]
Bard, Cephas L.
1930 Medicine and surgery among the first Californians. Touring Topics
22: 20-30.-
[Includes medical and health practices among California Indians.
Editor's Own Page, p. 9, gives background of Dr. Bard. The long
article is a reprint of a rare booklet published in 1894, consisting of
the paper read by Dr. Bard uponhis retirement as president of the
So. Calif. Medical Society, entitled "A contribution to the history of
medicine in Southern California." Numerous medicinals are mentioned
as well as other therapies, including the treatment of rheumatism by
placing the patient on an ant hill until well-bitten].
8
Bennett, K.A.
1972
Lumbo-sacral malformations and spina bifida occulta in a group of
proto-historic Modoc Indians. American Journal of Physical Anthro-
pology 36: 435-439.
[Bennett presents material from the Nightfire Island site (CA-SK-4).
The high frequency of a complex malformation is tentatively explained
by inbreeding. The archaeology of the site is unpublished. ]
Brabender, I.
1965a
Die Palobiologische Rekonstruktion zweier Prahistorischer bevolker-
ungen aus Kalifornien. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Mainz,
Germany,
[A comparative study of the paleodemography and paleopathology of
two sites is presented: SJo-68 (Early Horizon) and Ala-328 (Middle
and Late Horizons). Changing cultural conditions (diet, warfare)
are felt to be reflected in the higher prevalence of pathologies in
SJo-68 and the lower life expectancy in Ala-328. This is a very de-
tailed work listing specific pathologies for individual burials as well
as the summary statistics. (See Ryan (1972) below). Material is
housed in LMA; dissertation on file in Archaeological Research
Facility, Berkeley. ]
1965b Beitrag zur palaobiologischen Rekonstruktion prahistorischer kaliforn-
ischer Populationen. Homo 16, Band 4: 200-230.
[This is a general summary of Brabender's (1965a) doctoral disser-
tation. I
Brennan, Edward
1971 Appendix B. The skeletal material from the new Don Pedro Reser-
voir. In: A Study of Prehistory in the Tuolumne River Valley,
California, Michael Moratto, ed. San Francisco State College
Anthropology Museum Papers No. 9: 161-166.
[ Presented is material from CA-Tuo-279 and CA- Xo-300, housed
in the Treganza Museum at San Francisco State, C  dated to post-
915 A. D. Burial 9 (CA-Tuo-300) has a spinal kyphosis and an im-
bedded chert projectile point in one of the vertebrae immediately
superior to the kyphotic section. ]
9
Brooks, Sheilagh T.
1968 Appendix V: Skeletal material from LAn-227. UCAS-AR (UCLA) 10:
144-153.
[A small sample (n=30-321 f skeletons from the Santa Monica
Mountains is analyzed. C  dating of cemetery is 420 + 100 years
B. P. Pathologies were limited to the teeth and vertebral column in
adults; no bone pathologies seen in children. ,
Brooks, Sheilagh T. and William D. Hohenthal
1963 Archaeological defective palate crania from California. American
Journal of Physical Anthropology 21: 25-32.
[Three examples of cleft palate associated with palatal exostoses are
described and illustrated: two from CA-Ala-328 (2339 + 150 years
B. P.) now in LMA, and one from CA-Sac-29 (Early to Middle Horizon)
housed at Sacramento State University. ]
Bryan, Bruce
1970 Archaeological Exploration on San Nicolas Island. Southwest Museum
Papers No. 22, 160 pp.
[Material from San Nicolas Island is reviewed (? dates); included are
numerous wounds inflicted by stone implements, a "hunchback" and
other pathologies. Material is presumably in the Southwest Museum. ]
Cook, Sherburne F.
1947   Survivorship in aboriginal populations. Human Biology 19: 83-89.
[ Cook contrasts the survivorship patterns in aboriginal American
Indians with early historic (1800-1928) native Americans. Included
in the former is a large sample from California, the latter, some
mission groups. Concluding with a discussion of factors leading to
differential survivorship, the paper is important in illustrating how
demographic information can be integrated with paleopathology. ]
1955  The epidemic of 1830-1833 in California and Oregon. UC-PAAE 43
(3): 303-326.
[Although this paper does not deal with prehistoric disease, it is an
excellent example of the use of an epidemiologic framework to establish
the determinants and distribution of disease. This approach can be
used to great advantage in studies of paleopathology. The paper also
dramatically portrays the effects of an infectious disease (malaria) on
a nonimmune population. ]
10
Courville, Cyril B.
1948   Cranial injuries among the Indians of North America. A preliminary
report. Bulletin of the Los Angeles Neurological Society 13 (4): 181-
219.
[This well-illustrated article describes numerous kinds of human-
inflicted cranial injuries from a diversity of weapons in prehistoric
California. Examples are primarily drawn from southern and central
California; material is from several museums.]
1952   Cranial injuries among the early Indians of California. Bulletin of the
Los Angeles Neurological Society 17(4): 137-162.
[This article expands the California material presented in Courville
(1948). It also includes a discussion of legends and folk tales involving
cranial injuries as well as "striking weapons" and methods of defense.]
1953   Cranial injuries in prehistoric animals. With special notes on a healed
wound of the skull in the dire wolf (Canis Aenocyon dirus Leidy) and a
mortal wound in the California black bear (Ursus americanus). Bulletin
of the Los Angeles Neurological Society 18(3): 117-126.
[ Since paleopathology is not confined to humans, this item is included
for general interest. Expecially interesting is a case of a bear
meeting its death from an obsidian spear point penetrating its cranium;
found in the Santa Rosa Mountains. l
1962   Cranial injuries in the Gold Rush period of California. Report of a
skull showing fatal gunshot wound. Bulletin of the Los Angeles
Neurological Society 27(2): 91-94.
[This specimen is from the Gold Rush Museum, Amador City (Museum
No. 285) and is probably a (?white) miner. Trepanation must be con-
sidered here or in any case of a circumscribed cranial defect. Burial
in the basement of a saloon helps determine the etiology.]
Dahlberg, A.A.
1963 Analysis of the American Indian dentition. In: Dental Anthropology,
D.R. Brothwell, ed., ppo 149-178. New York: Praeger.
[This general survey includes several good photos of early California
Indians (provenience unstated) illustrating dental pathologies of various
kinds,]
11
D'Amico, A.
1958
The edge-to-edge bite: resolution of its development. In: The canine
teeth; normal function and relations of the natural teeth of man. The
California Indian. Journal of the Southern California State Dental
Association 26: 132-142.
[ Through an analysis of pre-white specimens of children and youth,
the author demonstrates that the antero-posterior progression of
dental attrition is what results in an edge-to-edge bite at maturity.
Nevada and California (Maidu) skulls from the LMA collection were
used and the number of each specimen is given. Comparisons are
made with some Australopithecine, Homo erectus, and Mount Carmel
skulls and similarities in the progression of attrition are noted. The
author then discusses that the change in Western Europe from edge-
to-edge overbite was not an evolutionary- one but due to elimination of
abrasive elements in the diet. ]
Drake, Robert J.
1948
Archeological investigation of the San Bruno shellmound, San Mateo
County, California. El Palacio 55(10): 317-323.
[Presented is material currently at LMA from San Bruno Site 1 (late
Transitional or early Late Horizon). In addition to several evidences
of healed injuries are what the author presents as two examples of
"head-taking"? (see also Rackerby (1967) below).]
Gifford, E. W. and W. Egbert Schenck
1926   Archaeology of the southern San Joaquin Valley, California. UCPAAE
23(1): 1-122.
[Included, from the Buena Vista Lake Region (Site 14, Item 1), is the
first of several discussions of the Buena Vista Lake skull, LMA -No.
12-1731. (See also Kroeber (1951) and Pope (1961) below). The
authors also hypothesize that possibly the confused burial of bodies at
Site 6 may have been due to the epidemic of 1833 (see Cook (1955)
above). ]
Grady,
Mark Allen
1969  An osteological analysis of selected burials from the Rooney extension
. ` I/ of 4-Sac-127, Sacramento, California. Unpublished M. A. thesis,
Department of Anthropology, Sacramento State College.
[ The Rooney extension of the Augustine site (CA-Sac-127) is tentatively
dated to the Middle Horizon and provided a skeletal sample of 152+
individuals. The thesis includes a general pathological survey in-
cluding inflammation, arthritis, trauma and neoplasms. No compara-
tive data are given. I
Grinnell, George
1907
Bird
Primitive bows and arrows. Forest and Stream LXIX (21): 808-
810, 848-851.
[Grinnell discusses California weaponry and illustrates cranial injuries
in early California Indians (provenience unknown); specimens from the
Army Medical Museum. This is essentially a rehash of Wilson's
(1901) article cited below, although Grinnell includes more material
on the nature of weapons -- a prime agent of pathologies often over-
looked (see also Pope (1962) below). I
Haney, Patricia J.
1974  Atlatl elbow in Central California prehistoric cultures. In: Readings
in Archaeological Method and Techniques, Robert Kautz, ed., pp.
31-34. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Publication
No. 4, University of California, Davis.
[ This study attempts to correlate changes in the arthritic patterns of
the elbow with changing subsistence and technology. Material is
drawn from three sites: CA-SJo-112 (Early Horizon), CA-Sol-257
(Middle Horizon) and CA-Sac-145 (Late Horizon). The very small
sample size detracts fromthe conclusions, nor are other possibilities
entertained for the changes seen since there is no conclusive archaeolog-
ical evidence of the atlatl. I
Hawkes, Phillip
1967
Newill
An Application of Methods for the Determination of Age, Sex, Stature
and Pathologies Applied to the Skeletal Material from 4-Sac-29 and
4-Yub-1. Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology,
Sacramento State College.
[This thesis provides a good, general survey of skeletal pathV1ogies
and is very well illustrated. Material dated from the Middle and Late
Horizons and includes numerous and varied pathologies. Of special
interest is the presentation of two possible cases of syphilis from
CA-Sac-29 from the post-contact period. I
Hester, T.R. and R. F. Heizer
1973  Arrow points or knives? Comments on the proposed function of
'Stockton Points'. American Antiquity 38(2): 220-221.
13
[ This paper concerns the interpretation of functional use (cutting
implements vs. projectile points) and used paleopathologic specimens
to settle the case. Several examples of points imbedded in the bones
of prehistoric California Indians are presented; LMA specimens from
Central California. ]
Hohenthal, W. D. and S. T. Brooks
1960  An archaeological scaphocephal from California. American Journal
of Physical Anthropology 18(1): 59-65.
[This pathologic cranium is from CA-Ala-328 (Late Middle Horizon),
presumably housed in LMA. ]
Johnson, Jerald Jay
1967  Excavations at the Old Bridge site (Site 5-237). In: The Archaeology
of the Camanche Reservoir Locality, California. Sacramento Anthro-
pological Society Paper 6: 185-282.
[Included are sixty- three burial descriptions, from Calaveras
County, from all three Horizons. Evidences of pathologies are noted
in several cases but the author includes no diagnostic interpretations:
e. g. , Burial No. 38, "eft tibia diseased. "]
1970  Archeological investigations at the Applegate Site (CA-Ama-56). In:
Papers on California and Great Basin Prehistory. Center for
Archeological Research at Davis, Publication No. 2. University of
California, Davis, pp. 65-144.
[ The author assigns an early Middle Horizon age to most of the material.
Pathological conditions are listed for sixteen of the twenty-nine burials;
although primarily of the dental and arthritic lipping variety, he notes
the spongy nature and enlargement of long bones in Nos. 6 and 7 and
lesions on long bones in Burial Nos. 7, 16, 18, and 21. 1
Kennedy, K. A R.
1959  The aboriginal population of the Great Basin. University of California
Archaeological Survey Report 45: 1-84.
[Kennedy proposed to determine the nature of the morphological dif-
ferences between the several regions of the Great Basin. He demon-
strates a difference between the western and eastern geographical
segments. Included in the western region are four crania from Rose
Springs in Inyo County, California (Site CA-Iny-372) housed in LMA.
He lists frequencies by sex of some dental and cranial pathologies for
the population as a whole. ]
14
1960  The dentition of Indian crania of the Early and Late Archeological
Horizons in Central California. University of California Archaeolog-
ical Survey Report 50: 41-50.
[ Cranial material from Early and Late Horizon sites, pooled from
several localities in the lower Sacramento Valley, are compared to
assess if morphological differences can be attributed to dietary
customs change (see also Leigh (1928) below). Only slight changes
were noted. ]
King, Thomas R.
1968   Part 2: The archeology of the Schwabacher site, 4-Mad-117. In:
A Survey of the Archeological Resources of the Buchanan Reservoir
Region, Madera County, California, San Francisco State College
Anthropology Museum Occasional Papers No. 4, pp. 1-135.
[ The result of salvage archeology, this material is currently at the
Treganza Museum. One cemetery was discovered under a structure
C14 dated to 1705 A. D. Individual burials are listed for which the
author includes a "Pathology" category if appropriate; for example,
"calcified lump on femur" plus a few instances of imbedded projectile
points. I
Klatsky, M. and J. S. Klatell
1943  Anthropological studies in dental caries. Journal of Dental Research
22(4): 267-274.
[The purpose of the inquiry was to determine whether primitive man
did suffer from caries or was he, in fact, immune or partly immune.
Study was of 4000 skulls from the American Museum of Natural
History from 46 geographical groups including thirty skulls from
California (provenience unlisted). The California specimens had a
low percentage (1. 6%) of carious teeth (see Prero (1970) below).
Results of the study showed that all primitive peoples are not immune
to caries, that resistance displayed is not due to immunity by an
antigen-antibody reaction, but is a result of proper alignment and the
need for more forceful and thorough mastication of more abrasive
diets (see D'Amico (1958) above). ]
Kroeber, A. L.
1951
At the bedrock of history: recent remarkable discovery of human
remains over three hundred years old in the San Joaquin Valley of
California. University of California Archaeological Survey Report
11: 5-10. Reprinted from Sunset Magazine, September, 1910 25(3):
255-260.
15
[ Kroeber discusses the Buena Vista Lake skull (see Gifford and
Schenck (1926) and Pope (1962) as the most interesting of the remains
from the San Joaquin Valley. A photograph is given of the skull in
which an arrow-head has pierced the right orbit, downward. He
speculates that the fatal wound was not received in battle but was on
an unsuspecting victim -- perhaps as an example of the custom of
dispatching unsuccessful medicine men.
Leigh, R. W.
1928  Dental pathology of aboriginal California. UCPAAE 23(10): 399-440.
[ Leigh based this study on 300 crania -- pre-Spanish and early post-
Spanish -- from LMA. A dozen of the fifty tribes of California are
represented. The author demonstrates a correlation between dental
pathologies and general food habits and mode of life (see Kennedy
(1960) above). ]
1929  Dental pathology of aboriginal California. Dental Cosmos 71: 756-
767, 878-889.
[A reprint of the above article. ]
Lillard, J. B. and William K. Purves
1936  The archaeology of the Deer Creek-Cosumnes area, Sacramento
County, California. Bulletin No. 1, Sacramento Junior College,
Department of Anthropology.
(Although generally of the skull measurement and physical type genre,
the authors discuss injuries and imbedded projectile points, i. e.
a burial in Site 1 had a skull in which a chert arrowhead had penetrated
the nose and protruded through the upper palate. Also, a test pit in
Site 1 uncovered a burial of a female with three recently born infants. ]
Littlewood, R. A.
1960 Appendix: Measurements and techniques. In: Analysis of skeletal
material from the Zuma Creek site (LAn-174). UCAS-AR (UCLA)
1959/1960, pp. 135-154.
[This is a comparative study of the Zuma Creek crania with other
published western cranial series, The author describes an extreme
degree of dental pathologies including attrition abscesses. ]
Loud, Llewelyn L.
1924 The Stege Mounds at Richmond, California. UCPAAE 17(6): 355-
372.
16
[The Stege Mound is one of the group of Berkeley-Richmond mounds
which include the Ellis Landing (see Nelson (1910) below), West
Berkeley and Emeryville (see Rackerby (1967) and Uhle (1907) below)
shell mounds. From mound no. 300 is a skeleton (LMA cat. no.
12-3445) exhibiting a diseased left femur resulting from a wound near
the left acetabulum where an obsidian point has broken off in the bone. ]
McHenry, Henry
1969  Transverse lines in long bones of prehistoric California Indians.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 29(1): 1-18.
[Material is from Early, Middle and Late Horizon sites from Central
California (sites unspecified); housed in LMA. ]
-no d.  Harris lines, enamel hypoplasia, and subsistence change in prehistoric
California. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers, in press.
[This paper confirms and extends McHenry's (1968) earlier studies
and adds enamel hypoplasia as another potential indicator of biologic
stress associated with subsistence change. Central California
skeletons were studied, housed in LMA and Museum of Anthropology,
University of California, Davis (sites unspecified). ]
Moodie, Roy L.
1929a Deafness among ancient California Indians. Bulletin of the Southern
California Academy of Science 28: 46-49.
[Auditory exostoses are examined as a cause of deafness; specimens
from San Nicolas Island, now housed in LACM. ]
1929b Studies in paleodontology, XN. Diseases of the teeth of an Indian
from a post-Spanish interment in the desert of southern California.
Pacific Dental Gazette 37: 81-86.
[This is a detailed exposition, well-illustrated, of an Indian skeleton
from Mason Valley, Laguna Mountains, now housed in SDM (no.
8766). The severe oral disease contains everything but caries. ]
1929c Studies in paleodontology, XIV. A curious example of dental abrasion
in an ancient California Indian. Pacific Dental Gazette 37: 87-94.
[In another well-illustrated article, a Moodie hallmark; a "pre-
Spanish" specimen from La Jolla Shores is shown with a severe oral
disease consequent to attrition; housed in SDM (no. 8873). 1
17
1929d Studies in paleodontology, XV. Dental attrition and its results among
certain ancient Indians from southern California. Pacific Dental
Gazette 37: 217-227.
[This article discusses further oral disease in specimens from La
Jolla Shores. ]
1929e Studies in paleodontology, XVI. The California sabre-tooth; the man-
dibular teeth and associated structures. Pacific Dental Gazette 37:
317-321.
[This brief article surveys the pathologies in specimens from LaBrea.
Sixty of the twelve hundred sabre-tooth tigers manifested pathologies,
including: gigantism (hyperpituitarism), pyorrhea, osteomyelitis,
apical abscesses, osteomata, trauma and impactions. Specimens
housed in LA CM. ]
1929f Studies in paleodontology, XXI. A further note concerning the associa-
tion of arthritis with diseased teeth. Pacific Dental Gazette 37: 681-
682.
[Illustrates and briefly discusses the association of infected teeth
with rheumatoid arthritis in a California Indian (provenience unknown).]
1929g Studies in paleodontology, XXV. The California sabre-tooth: facial
asymmetry following loss of sabre. Pacific Dental Gazette 37: 764-
766.
[Specimen in LACM illustrating facial changes following loss of
sabre teeth and subsequent socket resorbtion. I
1929h Studies in paleodontology, XVII. The California sabre-tooth: two
impactions and an abscess. Pacific Dental Gazette 37: 767-770.
[Specimens in LA CM. ,
Moratto, Michael J.
1969   The archeology of the Jones site, 4-Mad-159. In: The Archeology of
the Buchanan Reservoir Region, Madera County, California, T. F.
King, ed. San Francisco State College Anthropology Museum Occasional
Papers No. 5: 82-218.
[Appendix 1 lists complete burial records including "Discontinuous
Traits" (mainly Wormian bones) and "Pathology" (mainly dental and
arthritic) for each of 55 burials. Material housed in the Treganza
Museum. In the discussion, an instance is mentioned (for which no
number is given) of a skeleton having "semi-ankylosis in the spine."]
Nelson, Nels C.
1910   The Ellis Landing Shellmound. UCPAAE 7: 357-426.
[Material is housed in LMA and assigned an age of ca. 3500 years
B. P. Some pathologies listed are a tooth grown well up into the nasal
cavity, fused cervical vertebrae and a fracture at the elbow which
has mended in a flexed position (another specimen is described by
Pope (1923) below). ]
Newman, Russell
1949 Appendix IL. Preliminary report of the skeletal remains (of the Early
Central California Culture). In: The Archeology of Central
California. I: The Early Horizon, R. F. Heizer, ed. UCAS-R 12:
49-50.
[This is a brief, preliminary description of crania from four Early
Horizon sites: C-56 (CA-SJo-56), C-68 (CA-SJo-68), C-107 (CA-
Sac-107), C-142 (CA-SJo-142). The author lists per cent distribution
of auditory exostoses in each site (there is a high occurrence),
observes that there is pronounced vertebral lipping only in C-68, and
that alveolar abscesses and ante-mortem tooth loss are very common
throughout. ]
1957  A comparative analysis of prehistoric skeletal remains from Lower
Sacramento Valley. UCAS-R 39: 1-66.
[ Compared are three skeletal series, grouped on the basis of the
chronological Horizons, from several sites in the Interior Valley
Zone (the sites are listed).  Pathologies include: arthritic changes,
auditory exostoses, cranial injuries and imbedded projectile points.
Material housed in LMA. ]
Oetteking, B.
1930
An extreme case of arthritis deformans from San Nicolas Island.
Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes 7:
52-56.
[ Well-illustrated, describes specimen now housed in the museum.
Site is not stated. ]
Olson, W. H. and
1962
F. A. Riddell
Salvage of the Rio Oso site. Ms. on File, State of California Resources
Agency, Department of Parks and Recreation, Division of Beaches and
Parks.
19
[Material currently at the State Indian Museum in Sacramento has
been assigned to Late Horizon, Phase I; site number is CA-Yub-14.
No pathologies are listed but under a discussion of "evidences of
conflict", the authors list imbedded projectile points and wounds. ]
Orr, Phil. C.
1943
Archeology of Mescalitan Island. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural
History, Occasional Papers, No. 5.
[Mescalitan Island is the Museum's locality number 46, sites I, II
and ImI; material is in the Museum and has been assigned to the
Canalino Culture. Site I is of particular interest for the number of
imbedded projectile points described. Burial AA has 17 points
imbedded in various parts of the body -- one of which has pierced an
orbit. ]
Peck, Stuart L.
1955
An archeological report on the excavation of a prehistoric site at
Zuma Creek, Los Angeles County, California. Archeological Survey
Association of Southern California, Paper No. 2.
[Site CA-LAn-174, a very small amount of material, of interest only
in that Burial 13-12 has a mandible so small that M2 and M3 were
"well within the condyle. "]
Pepper, O. H. P.
1936
and E. P. Pendergrass
Hereditary occurrence of enlarged parietal foramina. American
Journal of Roentgenology 35: 1-8.
[Article includes two photos of a skull from the Ponce Mound (CA-
SCl-1) now housed in USNM (no. 276981). ]
Pope, S. T.
1962   Bows and Arrows. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Originally published in 1923 as "A Study in Bows and Arrows, "
University of California Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethmnlogy, 13(9): 329-414.
[This small volume is the result of experiments using museum
specimens of bows and arrows to compare mechanical efficiencies and
penetration ability. Plates 16 and 20 illustrate examples of deep
penetration into human bones. The former is a representation of
the Buena Vista Lake skull (see Gifford and Schenck (1926) and
Kroeber (1951) above) with a good discussion of the path of the arrow
and the anatomy affected as well as descriptions of other anomalies
and injuries of the skull. Plate 20 (LMA no. 12-2340), from the Ellis
Landing mound (see Nelson (1910) above), is of a left femur with an
obsidian point imbedded in the greater trochanter. ]
Prero, Michael
1970
Dwayne
An osteological analysis of a prehistoric California Indian site:
Sac. 43. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology,
University of California, Davis.
[The material from site CA-Sac-43, the Brazil Mound, dating from
the Middle Horizon and housed in LMA, was used in a comparative
study of Middle Horizon material from Sacramento Valley. General
poor health was seen in Sac-43, with females showing more pathologies
than males. The high prevalence of dental caries found in Sac-43
(58%) is very unusual in California (see Klatsky and Klatell (1943).
Sac-43 manifested higher prevalence of pathologies, generally, than
the Cook or Augustine site material to which it was compared. ]
Rackerby, Frank
1967
The archeological salvage of two San Francisco Bay shellmounds. San
Francisco State College Anthropology Museum Occasional Papers
No. 3: 1-83.
[The material, form sites CA-Ala-12 and CA-Ala-13, is in LMA.
The burials are individually described with pathologies and injuries
noted where appropriate. Skull vunds and imbedded projectile
points are numerous and there is an instance which is interpreted as
"head-taking" (see Drake (1948) regarding the San Bruno shellmound):
L. e. Burial 19 (Ala-13) has had the skull removed and placed between
the knees. ]
Ragir, Sonia
1972
The Early Horizon in Central California. Contributions of the Univer-
sity of California Archaeological Research Facility (Berkeley), No. 15.
[ Pages 40-43 of this monograph summarize the paleopathological
findings of Brabender on SJo-68 (Early Horizon) written in a manuscript
in 1963. (See Brabender (1965a, 1965b.)]
Rogers, D. B.
1929
Prehistoric Man of the Santa Barbara Coast. Special Publication of
the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, No. 1.
[In the appendix of this book are references to several specimens that
had been "bludgeoned in life" and to imbedded arrowheads. In anecdotal
21
fashion, the author describes one skull in which the atlas had fused to
the cranium, "due to a broken neck in infancy, leaving a permanently
stiff neck. " "Thus handicapped, she fell once too often at age 25 and
suffered a fatal basal fracture. "
He tells of another skull with a congenital deformity: there was a
"small amount of brain quantity on the left side. Thus incapable of
normal mental functions: the personal belongings which were buried
with this "man give a fair reflection of his aberrant tastes." (Pro-
veniences are not stated. )]
Roney, James G.
1959  Paleopathology of a California archeological site. Bulletin of the
History of Medicine 33: 97-109.
[This paper explicitly used an epidemiological approach, which in-
cludes skeletal material, cultural data and environmental factors to
reconstruct the determinants and distribution of disease. Emphasis
is on a population approach. Site CA-Son-299 is a Middle Horizon
site (ca. 500-200 B. C.); material housed in LMA. ]
1966  Paleoepidemiology; an example from California. In: Human Paleo-
pathology, Saul Jarcho, ed., pp. 99-120. New Haven: Yale U. Press.
[This is a brief, updated version of Roney's 1959 paper. ]
ROotenberg, Sheldon
1960  Cranial and post-cranial measurements and observations for San
Nicolas Island skeletal remains. University of California Archaeolog-
ical Survey, Annual Report (University of California, Los Angeles)
1959/1960, pp. 115-129.
[Material is in the UCLA Museum, from several San Nicolas Island
sites (the sites are listed) and is dated to Early Canalino period. The
author discusses the extreme amount of dental attrition and resultant
dental pathologies. There is a burial from SNI-18 with two cranial
osteomata and another from SNI-56 having a cylindrical growth of the
cranial base. ]
Ryan, Dennis John
1972  The Paleopathology of Ala-328: the Relationships among Disease,
Culture, and Envirronment in a California Indian Population. M.A.
Thesis, Department of Anthropology, San Francisco State University.
22
[Thorough, well-illustrated thesis of material from Middle and
Late Horizons, now housed in LMA and Treganza Museum. Does
not mention Brabender's (1965b) work on the same site.]
Schenck, W. Egbert
1926  The Emeryville Shellmound: Final Report. University of California
Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, 23(3): 147-282.
[Site Ala-309, housed in LMA; no. 12-3801 has a left tibia and fibula
fused at the ankle, no. 12,-3604 has an unusually large mandible due
to the teeth not having erupted properly, no. 12-3640 has a healed
depressed skull fracture, and "a body in the NW perimeter had a
pathological elbow. "I
Schenck, W.E. and E.J. Dawson
1929  Arclheology of the northern San Joaquin Valley. University of
California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology
25(4): 289-413.
[ Provenience is not stated for the skeletal material, but the authors
describe several badly healed bone injuries, fused vertebrae, im-
bedded projectile points, and an example of presumably porotic
hyperostosis.]
Schulz, Peter D.
1970  Oral morphology and disease in a prehistoric Central California
population -- 4-Mer-14. Ms. on file, Archeological Resources
Section, Department of Parks and Recreation, Sacram-iento.
Schulz, P. E. and H. M. McHenry
1975 Age distribution of enamel hypoplasia in prehistoric California Indians.
Journal of Dental Research, in press.
[Material from unspecified sites in the lower Sacramerito-San Joaquin
Valley, representing Early, Middle and Late Horizons, is presented;
housed in LMA and Museum of Anthropology, University of California,
Davis. (See McHenry (1968) and McHenry and Schultz (1975).]
Snure, Henry
1924 A roentgen-ray study of the LaBrea fossils (California). A-merican
Journal of Roetgenology 11 : 351-354.
[This is the first X-ray study of the LaBrea fossils (all nonhuman
material). The focus is on infections (?TB); material housed in
LACM. ]
23
Stewart, T. Dale
1941  Appendix A: Skeletal remains from the Buena Vista site, California.
In: Archeological Investigations at Buena Vista Lake, Kern County,
California, W. R. Wedel, ed. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin
130: 172-188.
[Stewart examined 75 specimens, in the USNM, from four Buena Vista
sites. No. 372297 has pathological changes he attributes to syphilis,
but the dating is uncertain and could be post-1542 (a photograph is
given). He diagnoses osteomyelitis in the femur of another specimen
--also illustrated -- and describes a third having separate neural
arch in the fifth lumbar vertebra. ]
1974  Nonunion of fractures in antiquity, with descriptions of five cases
from the New World involving the forearm. Bulletin of the New York
Academy of Medicine 50(8): 875-891.
[Article includes a specimen from near Palo Alto, a "Digger" Indian
now housed in the USNM (no. 225001).]
TJhle, Max
1907  The Emeryville Shellmound. University of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology 7(1): 1-107.
[ Presumably in LMA, one burial contains a cranium which shows a
"lupus-like mutilation of the nose" for which a drawing is given. ]
Warren, G L.
1971
Skeletal analysis of 4-SLo-406. San Luis Obispo County Archeological
Society, Occasional Papers, No. 4.
[The result of salvage archaeology, there are good descriptions of
each burial. Osteitis of undescribed types, a skeleton with twelve
large projectile points imbedded in it, and fused vertebrae are repre-
sentative of the pathologies outlined. Material dated to ca. 500 B. C. -
A, D 500. ]
Wilson, Thomas
1901
Arrow wounds. American Anthropologist 3(3): 513-531.
[ This general review of arrow wounds, prehistoric and historic,
includes an early California Indian with a penetrating wound of the left
orbit (p. 517). (See Grinnell (1907) and also Pope (1962). ]
24