71 Appendix B FISH REMAINS FROM THE WEST BERKELEY SHELLMOUND (CA-Ala-307), ALAMEDA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA W.I. Follett Curator Emeritus of Ichthyology California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco Introduction This is a report on a collection of fish remains recovered from the West Berkeley Shellmound (CA-Ala-307) by William J. Wallace and his associates of the University of California Archaeological Survey, under the general supervision of Robert F. Heizer, Director. The collection was obtained during 1950 from the two deepest trenches excavated in the last intact portions of the shellmound. The West Berkeley site was a habitation shellmound at what is now the junction of Second Street and Hearst Avenue in the city of Berkeley, Alameda County, California. The site is a few meters from the north bank of Strawberry Creek near its mouth at San Francisco Bay. The mound was excavated in 18 twelve-inch levels, the deepest level extending from 204 to 216 inches (see Table 1). Seven radio- carbon determinations based on charcoal recovered from the 96"-108" level downward to the 192"-204" level of the West Berkeley shellmound indicated a minimum age of 2200 + 400 years and a maximum age of 3860 + 450 years before the present (see Crane 1956:669). (To conform to a radiocarbon half-life of 5730 + 40 years--accepted as most probable at the Fifth Radiocarbon Dating Conference, Cambridge, England, 1962--these dates should be multiplied by a factor of 1.03 (see Ralph and Michael 1974:554) and would then stand as 2260 and 3970 years, respectively. ) When first observed by the white man, the western edge of the shellmound was probably only a few meters from the high-tide line of San Francisco Bay. According to a handwritten note, presumably added by N.C. Nelson to a map of the West Berkeley shellmound (Peterson 1904), the mound was "3-4 ft. above high tide except SW. close to creek. e.g. on S. of creek shell appears to go below tide level. N.C. N., 1910." However, a rise of sea level relative to land, amounting to 1.5 + 0.5 mm. per year in San Francisco Bay since about 6000 years before the present, which resulted in part from the melting of glacial ice, suggests that 3000 years ago sea level off West Berkeley may have been at least 3 m. lower than at present and that therefore the reach 72 of the highest tides may have been at a considerable distance--perhaps several hundred meters--from the shellmound (Brian F. Atwater 1975 personal communication). Perhaps the site was originally established at such a distance from the bay because an adjacent part of Strawberry Creek provided permanent water during periods of drought. Among nearby archaeological sites were the Ellis Landing shellmound (CA-CCo-295), about 7.2 km. (4.5 mi.) northward (see Nelson 1910); the Stege mounds at Richmond (including CA-CCo-300), about 5.6 km. (3.5 mi.) northward (see Loud 1924); and the Emeryville shellmound (CA-Ala-309), about 3.2 km. (2 mi.) southward (see Uhle 1907; Schenck 1926). The present report is a revision of the unpublished manuscript cited by Follett (1957:70; 1963a:309; 1964:35) as "Follett, W.I. 1954. Fishes. In 'The Archaeology of West Berkeley Shellmound.' MS. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco." The geographical setting, ecology, excavation, and archaeology of the West Berkeley site are described by Wallace and Lathrap (this volume). Osteological terminology follows that adopted by Tatarko (1936) and by Weitzman (1962). Acknowledgments I thank Robert F. Heizer, William J. Wallace, and A.B. Elsasser (University of California, Berkeley) for the opportunity to report on these fish remains and for information, assistance, and advice; and Lillian J. Dempster and Maurice C. Giles (California Academy of Sciences), respectively, for assistance with the manuscript and for enlargements of the photographs. For information and assistance, I wish to express my appreciation also to Brian F. Atwater, Richard W. Casteel, and Kenneth R. Lajoie (U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park), Leonard J.V. Compagno (Stanford University), Willis A. Evans (U.S. Forest Service, San Francisco), John E. Fitch (California Department of Fish and Game, Long Beach), Karen Nissen (Archaeological Research Facility, Berkeley), and Peter D. Schulz (California Department of Parks and Recreation, Sacramento). The late Frank Spenger, Sr., well-known restaurateur of Berkeley and, in his earlier years, an energetic and observant commercial fisherman, contributed information regarding fishes caught off West Berkeley before and shortly after the turn of the century. Fishes represented The collection comprises 338 fish remains (many incomplete or fragmentary). Of these, 186 are identified to species (some doubtfully), 73 124 only to genus, and 28 only to family. Eleven species, referable to 9 genera and 8 families, are represented: Thresher Sharks--Alopiidae Thresher shark, Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre) Smoothhound Sharks--Triakidae Leopard shark, Triakis semifasciata Girard Eagle Rays --Myliob atidae Bat ray, M1yiobatis californica Gill Sturgeons--Acipenseridae White sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus Richardson Green Sturgeon, Acipenser medirostris Ayres Salmons--Salmonidae King (chinook) salmon, Oncorhynchus tshodwytscha (Walbaum) Silver (coho) salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum) Silversides--Atherinidae Jacksmelt, Atherinopsis californiensis Girard Surfpe rches--Emb io to cidae Redtail surfperch, Amphistichus rhodoterus (Agassiz) Black perch, Embiotoca jacksoni Agassiz Toadf ishes--Batrachoididae Plainfin midshipman, Porichthys notatus Girard Thresher shark The thresher shark (see Bigelow and Schroeder 1948:Figs. 27-28) is considered an excellent food fish (Cannon 1964:176). Most of those seen in California waters are from 2.1 to 2.4 m. (7 to 8 ft.) in total length (Roedel and Ripley 1950:47), but one netted off Newport Beach, Orange Co., was about 5.5 m. (18 ft.) in total length and 272 kg. (600 lb.) in estimated weight (Joseph 1954). Material: 3 vertebral centra, 5.8 to 6.2 mm. in length and 16.2 to 16.6 mm. in diameter (one shown in P1. 2a), presumably from the same individual, a shark about 160 cm. (63 in.) in total length and perhaps 9 kg. (20 lb.) in weight. The center of each had been reamed out to a diameter of approximately 3.5 mm. They appear to be 3 of the 15 regarded by Wallace and Lathrap (this volume) as probably fish-vertebrae beads; the remaining 12 have not been available for 74 examination. There may have been more of these beads than were recovered: this exceedingly long-tailed shark has approximately 120 precaudal vertebrae of more or less uniform size, as well as 240 or more caudal vertebrae diminishing in size posteriorly to small granules (see Springer and Garrick 1964:84). I have found no record of this species from other archaeological sites. Leopard shark The leopard shark (see Schott 1964:Figs. 1-6) is considered an exceptionally fine food fish (Cannon 1964:180). It may attain a total length of about 200 cm. (6.5 ft.) and a weight of about 32 kg. (70 lb.) (Fitch 1972:105). It is abundant in San Francisco Bay (Herald and Ripley 1951:317). Material: 7 vertebral centra, the largest, 18.8 mm. long, representing a leopard shark perhaps about 175 cm. (5.75 ft.) in total length. (These centra are identified from radiographs.) For a photograph of a vertebral centrum of a leopard shark, see Follett 1957:Fig.la. Records from other archaeological sites: Arroyo Sequit, Los Angeles Co. (Follett 1963b:114); Century Ranch, Los Angeles Co. (Follett 1963a:300; 1968b:133); Chumash village site CA-Ven-87, Ventura Co. (Fitch 1975); Conejo Rock Shelter, Ventura Co. (Follett 1965b:82); Corona del Mar, Orange Co. (Fitch 1967:187); Diablo Cove, San Luis Obispo Co. (Fitch 1972:105, 120); Estero de Limantour, Marin Co. (Follett 1964:32); Irvine, Orange Co. (Follett 1966:190); Kodani site., Monterey Co. (Follett 1972:3); Shelter Hill, Marin Co. (Follett 1974:146); Shisholop, Ventura Co. (Fitch 1969:61; Greenwood and Browne 1969:47); Stege mounds, Contra Costa Co. (Loud 1924:359; Follett Appendix G this volume); Strawberry Point, Marin Co. (Follett 1957:68). Bat ray The bat ray (see Walford 1935:Fig. 56, as Aetobatus californicus) is edible, although its flesh emits an odor similar to that of iodoform, presumably acquired from the mud in which this ray forages for mollusks (Cf. Springer 1957:430-431, iodoform taste in certain shrimps). It may attain a width of 122 cm. (4 ft.) (Miller and Lea 1972:50) and a weight of 95 kg. (209 lb.) (Fitch 1972:109). Bat rays have been recorded from San Francisco Bay at all seasons of the year (Aplin 1967), but few, if any, are usually found there during the winter. 75 Material: 6 median dental-plate segments (one shown in P1. 2b), 29 vertebral centra (one is partly charred; Univ. Calif. Lowie Mus. Anthro. No. 1-124405), and 2 caudal spines (one shown in P1. 2c), representing bat rays to perhaps 45 kg. (100 lb.) in weight. On one of the caudal spines, the marginal teeth have been abraded (P1. 2c), as if the spine had been used as an implement, perhaps as a punch for perforating mammal skins preparatory to lacing them together. (A "stingray spine . . . with barbs ground off," from the Emeryville shellmound, was noted by Gifford 1940:170.) For a photograph of another aspect of a median dental-plate segment of a bat ray, see Follett (1957:Fig. lb). The complete dentition has been figured by Garman (1913:P1. 49, Figs. 4-6). For a detailed description of the caudal spine, or "sting,'t of the bat ray, see Halstead and Modglin (1950, as HoZorhinus caZifornicus). Records from other archaeological sites: Arroyo Sequit, Los Angeles Co. (Follett 1963b:115); Belvedere, Marin Co. (Nelson 1909: Map 1; see Follett 1964:34); Burton Mound, Santa Barbara Co. (Harrington 1928:135); Century Ranch, Los Angeles Co. (Follett 1968b:134); Conejo Rock Shelter, Ventura Co. (Follett 1965b:83); Diablo Cove, San Luis Obispo Co. (Fitch 1972:109, 120); Ellis Landing, Contra Costa Co. (Nelson 1910:378); Emeryville, Alameda Co. (Schenck 1926:179; Gifford 1940:170); Irvine, Orange Co. (Follett 1966:190); Little Harbor site, Santa Catalina Island (Meighan 1959:402; see Fitch 1969:63); McClure site, Marin Co. (Beardsley 1954a:iii, 23-24; bat ray material identified by W.I. Follett); San Miguel Island (Heye 1921:110); Shelter Hill, Marin Co. (Follett 1974:146); Shisholop, Ventura Co. (Fitch 1969:63; Greenwood and Browne 1969:47); Strawberry Point, Marin Co. (Follett 1957:69); White Gulch, Marin Co. (Follett 1968a:3). Sturgeons Young individuals of the white sturgeon (see P1. la) are among the finest of food fishes. In California, this species has been known to attain a total length of 3.8 m. (12.5 ft.) and a weight of 629 kg. (1,387 lb.) (not the same fish) (Fry 1973:34). It was formerly abundant in San Francisco Bay, and especially in San Pablo Bay (see Collins 1892:126, P1. 6), whence it ascended the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. Young individuals of the green sturgeon (see P1. lb) are fine food fish. This species has been said by Hart (1973:82) to attain a total length of 213 cm. (7 ft.) and a weight of 136 kg. (300 lb.). A specimen was taken off West Berkeley in about 3.7 m. (12 ft.) of water (Calif. Acad. Sci. No. 25737). Green sturgeon were less numerous than white sturgeon in the Berkeley area even before the turn of the century (Frank Spenger, Sr., 1964, personal communication). The sturgeon remains do not appear sufficiently distinctive for 76 differentiating white sturgeon from green sturgeon. This uncertainty arises in part from the incomplete or fragmentary condition of many of the sturgeon remains, and in part from ontogenetic variation (the changes occurring with age and growth of the fish), as well as from the somewhat remarkable individual variation in a number of the skeletal elements of each of these species. Material: 6 ceratobranchials, 4 ceratohyals, 10 clavicles (one shown in P1. 3c), 11 cleithra, 5 dentaries, 11 frontals, 6 hyomandibulars, 1 maxillary, 4 palatines, 19 parasphenoid fragments, 7 parietals, 7 pectoral rays (one shown in P1. 4c), 3 posttemporals (one shown in Pls. 5a and Sb), 3 pterotics, 8 pterygoids, 14 scutes (one shown in P1. 4a, one in 4b), 8 subopercles, 5 supracleithra, 1 supraoccipital, 1 ventral opercle, first (P1. 3a), and 2 ventral opercles, second (one shown in P1. 3b), representing either white sturgeon or green sturgeon, the largest perhaps 214 cm. (84 in.) in total length and perhaps 85 kg. (187 lb.) in weight. Records from other archaeological sites: Blodgett site, Sacramento Co. (Schulz, in press); Brazil site CA-Sac-43, Sacramento Co. (Casteel 1975:284); Deterding site, Sacramento Co. (Schulz, Wagner, and Simons 1974); Miller Mound, Colusa Co. (Schulz and Essig 1973); Point St. George site, Del Norte Co. (Gould 1966:85; material identified February 1965 by W.I. Follett); Shelter Hill, Marin Co. (Follett 1974: 146); Stege mounds, Contra Costa Co. (Follett Appendix G, this volume); Stone Lake, Sacramento Co. (Schulz and Simons 1973:110); Strawberry Point, Marin Co. (Follett 1957:69). King (chinook) salmon The king (chinook, quinnat) salmon (see Hudson 1917:color P1. facing p. 97) is an excellent food fish. It is known to attain a weight of 38.6 kg. (85 lb.) in California waters, but the average weight at spawning time is about 9 kg. (20 lb.) (Fry 1973:75). Myriads of king salmon formerly passed through San Francisco Bay on their migration up the Sacramento or San Joaquin River, where the entire adult population died after spawning. The principal migration, known as the fall run, entered those rivers during August, September, and October; the spring run, during April, May, and June; but some king salmon probably occurred in San Francisco Bay at almost any time of the year (see Rutter 1903:121, 123). Material: 1 articular and 1 angular (P1. 5c), 1 cleithrum, 1 dentary, 1 haemal spine, and 50 vertebrae (the largest shown in P1. 5d), representing king salmon up to about 15 kg. (33 lb.) in weight (estimated mean value, computed from vertebrae as by Casteel 1972) and therefore about 106 cm. (42 in.) in length (see Snyder 1931:Table 3). All elements except the vertebrae are identified on the basis 77 of their sculpturing; the vertebrae, on the basis of the enlarged apertures adjoining the anterior and posterior rims. Records from other archaeological sites: Alamo Creek site CA-Sol-35, Solano Co. (Casteel 1972:85); Bamert Cave, Amador Co. (Follett 1973:55); Blodgett site, Sacramento Co. (Schulz in press); Brazil site CA-Sac-43, Sacramento Co. (Casteel 1975:284); Clark Flat site CA-Cal-276, Calaveras Co. (Casteel 1972:99); Deer Creek Cave, Elko Co., Nevada (Follett 1965a); Deterding site, Sacramento Co. (Schulz, Wagner, and Simons 1974); Kawumkan Springs midden, Klamath Co., Oregon (Cressman 1956:481; material identified July 1950 by Carl L. Hubbs); Miller mound, Colusa Co. (Schulz and Essig 1973); Oroville Dam site CA-But-84, Butte Co. (Erskian 1968; material identified March 1968 by W.I. Follett); Point St. George site, Del Norte Co. (Gould 1966:85; material identified February 1965 by W.I. Follett); Sheep Island site, Benton Co., Washington (Osborne, Bryan, and Crabtree 1961:293); Shelter Hill, Marin Co. (Follett 1974:146); Stone Lake site, Sacramento Co. (Schulz and Simons 1973:110). Silver (coho) salmon The silver (coho) salmon (see Fry 1973:Fig., p. 70) is an excellent food fish. It is known to attain a weight of 10 kg. (22 lb.) in California waters, but the average weight at spawning time is 3.2 to 5.4 kg. (7 to 12 lb.) and individuals over 6.8 kg. (15 lb.) are uncommon (Fry 1973:70). This salmon spawns in the smaller coastal streams from the northern part of Monterey Bay northward; in general, the period from October into February covers its time of migration and spawning in most California streams (Fry 1973:71-72). Material: 6 vertebrae, tentatively identified as those of silver salmon from about 2.9 to 5.4 kg. (6.4 to 12 lb.) in weight (estimated mean value, computed as by Casteel 1972). Records from other archaeological sites: Point St. George site, Del Norte Co. (Gould 1966:85; material identified February 1965 by W.I. Follett). Salmon (presumably king or silver) Material: 1 basipterygium (pelvic fin base), 11 fin rays, 2 hypurals, 6 neural (or haemal) spines, 1 rib, 7 vertebrae. Records from other archaeological sites: Alamo. Creek site CA-Sol-35, Solano Co. (Casteel 1972:85, Oncorhynchus sp.); Clark Flat site CA-Cal-276, Calaveras Co. (Casteel 1972:99, Oncorhynchus sp.). 78 Jacksmelt The jacksmelt (see Walford 1931:Fig. 45) is good eating. It is known to attain a total length of 44.5 cm. (17.5 in.) (Miller and Lea 1972:82). It occurs throughout the year in San Francisco Bay (Aplin 1967). Material: 50 vertebrae (many nearly complete), presumably representing 1 individual, a fish about 35.5 cm. (14 in.) in total length. The count of 50 (the hypural is lacking) is strongly suggestive of Atherinopsis rather than of Atherinops (see Clothier 1950:49). In 10 specimens of Atherinops affinis from San Francisco Bay (Calif. Acad. Sci. No. 25367), the vertebrae, including the hypural, number 45 to 49. Records from other archaeological sites: Shelter Hill, Marin Co. (Follett 1974:146); Shisholop, Ventura Co. (Fitch 1969:64). Redtail surfperch The redtail surfperch (see Haw and Buckley 1972:Fig. 16, bottom) is a fair food fish. It is known to attain a total length of about 40.5 cm. (16 in.) (Miller and Lea 1972:160). It is abundant in San Francisco Bay during late winter. Material: 14 vertebrae, presumably representing 1 individual, a fish about 30.5 cm. (12 in.) in total length. Records from other archaeological sites: Point St. George site, Del Norte Co. (Gould 1966:85; material identified February 1965 by W.I. Follett); Shelter Hill, Marin Co. (Follett 1974:147); Strawberry Point, Marin Co. (Follett 1957:68). Black perch The black perch (see Tarp 1952:Fig. 24) is a fair food fish. It is abundant throughout the year in San Francisco Bay, especially near rocky areas. Material: 1 precaudal vertebra (doubtfully referred to this species), representing a fish about 28 cm. (11 in.) in total length. Records from other archaeological sites: Chumash village site CA-Ven-87, Ventura Co. (Fitch 1975); Estero de Limantour, Marin Co. (Follett 1964:33); Limantour Spit site CA-Mrn-16 (Henn 1970:203); Shelter Hill, Marin Co. (Follett 1974:147); Shisholop, Ventura Co. 79 (Fitch 1969:66); Strawberry Point, Marin Co. (Follett 1957:68). Surfperch (identified only to family) Material: 1 postcleithrum. Plainfin midshipman The plainfin midshipman (see Arora 1948:Pl. 1, Fig. 1) is not generally used as food, but Ricketts and Calvin (1968:273-274) and Cannon (1964:312) note its edibility. This fish, usually found in moderately deep water during most of the year, enters the intertidal zone to breed during late spring and early summer (Arora 1948:90). It is abundant in certain shallow rocky areas of San Francisco Bay during June. Material: 1 precaudal vertebra, representing a fish about 23 cm. (9 in.) in total length. Records from other archaeological sites: Diablo Cove, San Luis Obispo Co. (Fitch 1972:103, 120); Shisholop, Ventura Co. (Fitch 1969:68). Dis cuss ion Some of the material that appears referable to silver salmon may represent fish that were taken either in San Francisco Bay or in Strawberry Creek on their spawning migration from the sea. The occurrence of salmon in Strawberry Creek under primitive conditions is suggested by historic reports of salmon in nearby Temescal Creek, a similar stream (see Louderback 1940:788). Schenck (1926:156) noted that "within the memory of men living nearby, it [Temescal Creek] has had salmon runs. And Mr. P.E. Bowles informs me that in the early 1800 's it was a favorite resort for amateur fishermen." (Since the term "salmon" was formerly applied somewhat indiscriminately to the larger migratory salmonids of central California, these fish may have been either silver salmon or steelhead trout, Salmo gairdnerii Richardson.) Runs of silver salmon and steelhead trout in San Leandro Creek, another Alameda County tributary of San Francisco Bay, "in the early days" were reported by Fish and Game Warden George Smalley, who had spent about 30 years in the region of that creek (Willis A. Evans 1957, personal communication). The occurrence of silver salmon in San Anselmo Creek, a Marin County tributary of San Francisco Bay, was noted by Fry (1936:68). Presumably, 80 therefore, both silver salmon and steelhead trout occurred in Strawberry Creek as well as in Temescal Creek in aboriginal times. That so few silver salmon are represented in this collection may result from a shift from salmon to suddenly plentiful winter- visitant ducks as a source of food. As noted by Richard H. Brooks (Appendix D, this volume), most of the bird remains in this collection were those of migratory ducks and geese. Howard (1929:341) observed that at Emeryville shellmound, "the anserines represent nearly two- thirds of all the bird bones identified in the mound" and that "over two-thirds of the anserine bones are of ducks." Even within historic time, myriads of migratory ducks--canvasbacks, scaups, scoters-- visited San Francisco Bay from October to about April (see Grinnell and Miller 1944:81, 83-84, 89). The silver salmon, spawning from October into February (Fry 1973:72), could presumably have been caught in Strawberry Creek by the West Berkeley people had not the ducks provided a welcome change of fare. The same shift of interest to ducks might also explain the absence of any remains of steelhead trout in the West Berkeley material, since this trout may be expected in most California steelhead streams between December 3 and May 5 (Shapovalov and Taft 1954:117). Fishing methods There are significant indications that the West Berkeley people used watercraft: among the archaeological materials of this collection 2 grooved stones, weighing 1.2 kg. (2 lb. 9 oz.) and 2.8 kg. (6 lb. 3 oz.) are seemingly too large to have been sinkers and can probably be considered boat anchors (Wallace and Lathrap this volume). Numerous grooved or notched stones interpreted as sinkers suggest extensive use of nets--either gill nets or seines. Neither fishhooks nor spears appear to have been of importance. Tule balsas The watercraft of the West Berkeley people was presumably a tule balsa. At San Francisco, the explorer Vancouver (1798:4-5) observed 3 Indians in a "canoe of the country... length... about ten feet, the breadth three or four... constructed of rushes and dried grass of a long broad leaf, made up into rolls the length of the canoe, the thickest in the middle, and regularly tapering to a point at each end. These are so disposed, that on their ends being secured and lashed together the vessel is formed, which being broadest in the middle, and coming to a point at each extremity, goes with either end foremost. These rolls are laid and fastened so close to each other, that in calm weather and smooth water I believe them to be tolerably dry, but they appeared to be very ill calculated to contend with wind and waves. 81 The wind now blew strong with heavy squalls from the s.w. and in the middle of this spacious inlet the sea broke with much force; notwithstanding which,...they crossed the inlet [Golden Gate?] for the purpose of catching fish, without seeming to entertain the least apprehension for their safety. They conducted their canoe or vessel by long double-bladed paddles, like those used by the Esquimaux." Perhaps this observation by Vancouver had been overlooked by Hewes (1947:68), who reasoned, quite logically, that "the Costanoans had rather unseaworthy balsas, which would become unmanageable [in San Francisco Bay] in the often choppy waters exposed to the breezes coming through the Golden Gate." A boat known as "wah lee" to the Costanos, "the tribes of Indians upon the Bay of San Francisco," was "a sort of raft made of 'tule,' or rush; the only boats used by these Indians" (Schoolcraft 1853:496, 506). Other writers who concurred in regarding the tule balsa as the only aboriginal watercraft of the San Francisco Bay region are Howard (1929:379), Beardsley (1948:6), and Heizer and Massey (1953:291). Referring to the fishermen of the Stege mounds, Loud (1924: 363) concluded from their use of relatively heavy stone sinkers that they went well out into San Francisco Bay even where the current was strong. He wrote that those fishermen ventured out "with craft no more substantial than bundles of bulrushes." This may have referred to a simple type of tule balsa, perhaps similar to the craft figured by Choris (1822:Pl. 9; reproduced by Heizer and Massey 1953:Pl. 23; also as P1. 6, below). More elaborate aboriginal balsas (which may or may not have been in use during West Berkeley time) were observed by the Spaniard Jose de Caniizares during late August or early September 1775 near the western entrance to Carquinez Strait, about 38 km. (24 mi.), by water, from West Berkeley: "This camp has some rafts, or better let us say canoes, of tule so carefully wrought and woven that it aroused my admiration to examine their handiwork. In these, four men embark to go fishing, rowing with such agility that, as I observed, they moved faster than the [Spaniards'] launch" (cf. Cook 1957:136, 137). The same tule balsas mentioned by Cafiizares may have been observed on 3 April 1776 and described in more detail by Pedro Font (who, according to Cook 1957:134), had an excellent opportunity to observe aboriginal methods of navigation and fishing): "[The Indians] had many [launches] very well made of tule, with railings, and with poop and prow ending in an elevated point, and all the rails equipped with arched poles as if they served as a balustrade or as a back, and with some small oars they rowed with great facility and lightness of touch..." (Bolton 1933:384). 82 Stone sinkers At least 360 grooved or notched stones interpreted as net sinkers are recorded by Wallace and Lathrap (this volume) from the West Berkeley shellmound. (Some duplication may be involved among the 12 such stones recorded from West Berkeley by Peterson (1904; see below), the 3 by Beardsley (1954b:90), and the 360 by Wallace and Lathrap.) These stone sinkers were presumably attached to the lower edge of a net, which may have been either a gill net or a seine. There is a stratigraphic difference in the abundance of the stone sinkers. Only 5% were recovered between the surface and 120" (and none from above 96"), but 94% were recovered between 120" and 204". (Two stone sinkers were recovered from the 204"-216" level, where no fish remains were found.) Similarly, there is a difference in the abundance of the sturgeon remains: only 35% were recovered from the 10 levels between the surface and 120", whereas 65% were recovered from the 7 levels between 120" and 204" (Table 1). But this collection was recovered only from the 2 deepest trenches excavated in the relatively small part of the shellmound that remained in 1950. Had there been more extensive archaeological work before the mound was so nearly destroyed, stone sinkers and numerous sturgeon remains might have been recovered from higher levels. During 1904, 12 stone sinkers were recovered from near the northeast corner of the West Berkeley shellmound, which then covered an area of about 15x37 m. (50x120 ft.), at about the following depths: 36"-48" (2), 48"-66" (2), 66"-84" (1), 84"-108" (4), 108"-132" (3); the only fish material mentioned was "two very small bone needles... [which] crumbled on being handled and may have been fish bones" (see Peterson 1904). In the Ellis Landing shellmound, which was about 30 feet deep, 50 grooved sinkers were found in the upper 4 or 5 feet of the deposit, and 12 others below the waterline (Nelson 1910:387-401). (The fish remains from that site have not been available for examination.) In the larger of the Stege mounds, which was 9 feet deep, 527 stone sinkers were recovered (depths not stated) (Loud 1924:357). Beardsley (1954b:91) noted 601 grooved and notched stone sinkers from this site. The fish remains mentioned by Loud (1924:359) are discussed by Follett (Appendix G this volume). In the Emeryville shellmound, which was 32 feet deep, only 4 net sinkers were found: a grooved stone at a depth of 5 feet and another in Stratum I, and 2 notched stones in the upper strata (Uhle 1907:10, 50-51, Figs. 20-22). Yet the fish remains, which I have examined, included abundant remains of sturgeons. As stated by Beardsley (1954a:39), "The absence [of grooved or notched stone sinkers] postulated for Late levels has little or no bearing on the question of use of seine nets or set nets, since unworked stones can be--and in ethnographic times are stated to be-- bound into nets as sinkers." 83 Gill nets The West Berkeley people may have caught sturgeon with a gill net. Indians whom Font observed at Carquinez Strait in 1776 appeared to be using a gill net. Of this observation, Bolton (1933:371-372) wrote: "[The aboriginal launches] had been anchored near the shore with some stones for anchors, and in the middle of the water some Indians were fishing in one...I saw that they were fishing with nets and that they anchored the launch with some very long slim poles... I measured one and found it to be eleven and a half varas long [presumably "varas" refers to the Spanish vara--about 2.8 ft.], and by subtracting a good piece which remained out of water and above the launch in which the Indian fishermen were seated, I estimated that the water would be some nine or ten varas deep....Among other fish which they caught the Indians who were fishing pulled out two very large ones, about two varas long, and their method of catching them was this: as soon as they felt from the pull made by the fish that it was in the net, which was tied to the two poles, they began gradually to raise one of the poles, and as soon as the fish and the net came into sight, without taking it from the water they gave the fish many blows on the head... Now that it was dead and had lost its strength they took it from the net and put it inside the launch...I was not able to determine whether or not they were those called tollos [possibly sollos, a Spanish word for sturgeon; see Lozano Rey 1947:7], although from their form they appeared to be those, for they had a very large head, little eyes, small mouth like a tube which they puffed out and sucked in, the body having no scales, thick skin, and some spots like little stars and other figures, caused by some little bones which they had between the skin and the flesh. The flesh was very white, savory, and without spines and the bones were soft and spongy like tendons." From this description, the fish can be identified confidently as a species of sturgeon. Font made no mention of the length or width of the net, nor of the size of its mesh, but his description of the manner in which it was used suggests that it was a gill net. The West Berkeley people may also have caught king salmon with a gill net. A favorable area for this fishery would have been in San Francisco Bay 2.4 km. (1.5 mi.) or more offshore, westward of the shellmound. During 1889, salmon were taken by drift gill nets, principally during April and May, in San Francisco Bay, in an area extending more than 4 miles off West Berkeley from about Point Richmond nearly to Yerba Buena Island (see Collins 1892:126, P1. 6). As recently as 1914, according to Frank Spenger, Sr. (1964, personal communication), "The salmon came into the Berkeley flats and off Ellis Landing. We would catch 2 or 3 on the average, up to 25 or 30 pounds. On high water there would be 5 or 6 feet of water on the flats. We driftnetted them in fall and spring off Berkeley dock in 12 feet at high water, 1 to 1?- miles out." The thresher shark also may have been taken by gill net. There 84 is a record of 2 that were taken in salmon gill nets off McNears Point, San Pablo Bay (Roedel and Ripley 1950:47). Seines Some of the numerous stone sinkers may have been used on a seine. With a proper seine, the West Berkeley people could have caught the sturgeons, bat rays, leopard sharks, surfperches, jacksmelt, and midshipman. But whether in aboriginal time the bay bottom near West Berkeley was sufficiently firm to permit men on foot to pull a seine is a question that cannot well be answered without core sampling. A former area of hard bottom in San Francisco Bay off Fleming Point, some 2.1 km. (1.3 mi.) northward from West Berkeley, is indicated by Alden (1855). Furthermore, the following quotation, containing a suggestion of hard bottom near the Emeryville shellmound, may have applied as well, under primitive conditions, to the vicinity of the West Berkeley shellmound and Strawberry Creek mouth: "Low tide left a quarter of a mile of beach exposed. This was true even at the [Temescal] creek mouth. Hence boats or rafts could have been beached or brought into the safe port of the creek only at high water. Beyond the low tide line it was another mile before a man was over his head at low tide. Within the memory of nearby residents this was a fine clean beach of white sand containing shellfish" (Schenck 1926:157). Such a hard- bottom area may have permitted seining on foot during West Berkeley times if that area extended a sufficient distance offshore to be covered by 1 or 2 meters of water when relative sea level was lower. However, in an extensive area of the Berkeley flats, the soft bay bottom of recent decades would have rendered seining on foot imprac- ticable. A man attempting to pull a seine in that area would soon become exhausted, since at each step his foot would sink deep into the substrate. But in the shallow waters of the Berkeley flats, the fishermen may have hauled a seine from a pair of balsas, whether over hard or soft bottom. In shallow Lake Earl, Del Norte County, "long, narrow nets were employed, being hauled, usually by a pair of canoes, in such a manner as to encircle and impound the fish in a small area" (Kroeber and Barrett 1960:49). The River Patwin used a somewhat similar method: "What was perhaps a gill net was fastened at the ends to sticks and held vertically from two tule rafts. When a fish was felt, the poles were released and lifted, so that they came together" (Kroeber 1932: 277). The existence of the seine in pre-Columbian America was questioned by de Laguna (1934:170), who believed that "the evidence, though somehwat uncertain, tends to prove that only the small dip net was used in America in pre-Columbian times, and that the seine was introduced by the white men." But Loud and Harrington (1929:89) recorded from Lovelock Cave, Nevada, 4 fish nets 9.1-m. (30 ft.) or more in length, the largest more than 12.8 m. (42 ft.) long and more than 170.2 cm. (67 in.) wide. Furthermore, Rostlund (1952:83) commented that "the evidence tends to show that the Indians, or some of them, did 85 use seines or other long and large fish nets before the coming of the whites. Whether or not these nets should be labeled 'seines' and 'gill nets' is immaterial; what matters is that they could have been used only as seines or gill nets and could not have been employed as hand nets or dip nets in any form or fashion." Single-piece curved bone fishhook A single-piece curved bone fishhook such as that recovered from a depth of 16 feet (Wallace and Lathrap this volume) may not have been extensively used. It would seem too delicate to have landed the large leopard shark or any of the fair-sized sturgeon represented at the 16-foot level. It may have caught the midshipman, although that fish is infrequently taken by hook and line. (A midshipman can occasionally be picked up by hand within the intertidal zone during the extremely low tides of late spring.) This hook could have caught the surfperches and the smallest leopard sharks, bat rays, and sturgeons; perhaps attached to a relatively short line tied to a piece of dried wood used as a float, it could have caught at least the smaller salmon. But those species were represented only at depths remote from that at which the hook was found. The manufacture of such hooks may not have been long continued. On 1 April 1776, Font wrote, "...we made signs to them [some Indians west of Carquinez Strait] that they should go and get us some fish with two hooks which I gave them. They apparently understood us clearly, but they brought us nothing and showed very little appreciation for the hooks, because their method of fishing is with nets" (Bolton 1933:365). Double-pointed gorge hooks No double-pointed gorge hooks of bone or horn are noted by Wallace and Lathrap (this volume). But such hooks, perhaps resembling those found at the Emeryville shellmound (see Schenck 1926:227, P1. 43s-v), might have been buried in the part of the West Berkeley mound that was destroyed before the present collection was made. Such hooks, baited with mollusks or fish and tied to a stout handline, may have been used by the West Berkeley people to catch sturgeons, leopard sharks, and bat rays. Or, baited with a small fish and tied to about 2 m. (6 ft.) of line trailing from a float, double-pointed gorge hooks may have been used to catch salmon. A composite fishhook such as that described and figured by Schenck (1926:226, Fig. 4) may have caught the largest of the West Berkeley sturgeons. Fish spears No fish spears specifically identified as such are recorded 86 by Wallace and Lathrap (this volume). But spears similar to those recovered from the Emeryville shellmound (Bennyhoff 1950:296, 297, 329, Figs. ld, le, ls) might have been used by the West Berkeley people to take sturgeons. During the early 1880's, sturgeons were speared by white men from a rowboat at the mouth of Redwood Creek, San Mateo County (Littlejohn 1932). Conclusions The following conclusions may be drawn from the fish remains and stone sinkers included in the present collection of archaeological materials: Fishing was principally by nets--probably by both gill nets and seines--manipulated f rom tule balsas. The fishery of the West Berkeley shellmound people was based primarily on sturgeons (presumably both white sturgeon and green sturgeon) and secondarily on salmons (king salmon and, probably, some silver salmon). Third in importance was the bat ray. A thresher shark, a jacksmelt, a plainfin midshipman, and a few leopard sharks and surfperches (redtail surfperch and possibly blackperch) were also represented. All fishes represented in this collection could have been caught in San Francisco Bay within a distance of 6.4 km. (4 mi.) offshore from the West Berkeley shellmound--even at a time when sea level was considerably lower than at present. The paucity of remains of silver sdlmon and the absence of remains of steelhead trout, both of which presumably spawned in Strawberry Creek during aboriginal times, may have resulted from a change of fare on the part of the West Berkeley people, occasioned by the sudden abudance of winter-visitant ducks at the time when adult silver salmon and steelhead trout would have been present in Strawberry Creek. 87 REFERENCES CITED Alden, Jame 1855 Aplin, J.A. 1967 Arora, Harb 1948 Beardsley, 1948 1954a 1954b Bennyhoff, 1950 Chart of Bay of San Francisco, Angel I. to Pt. Avisadero, California, by the Hydrographic Party Under the Command of Lieut. James Alden, U.S.N., Asst. Coast Survey. Register No. 464, U.S. Coast Survey, A.D. Bache, Superintendent. 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Schenck, W. 1926 Egbert The Emeryville Shellmound: Final Report. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 23(3):147-282. Schoolcraf t, Henry R. 1853 Information Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States: Collated and Prepared Under the Direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, per Act of Congress of March 3d, 1847. Part 2. Schott, Jack W. 1964 Chromatic Patterns of the Leopard Shark, Triakis semnifasciata Girard. California Fish and Game 50(3): 207-214. Schulz, Peter D. In press Fish Remains from the Blodgett Site (CA-Sac-267), Sacramento County, California. Sacramento Anthropological Society Papers. 94 Schulz, Peter D. and M.C. Essig 1973 Manuscript Notes on the Fish Fauna of the Miller Mound, CA-Col-l, Colusa County, California. MS. Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis. Schulz, Peter D. and Dwight D. 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Walford, 1931 1935 Wallace, 1975 Lionel A. Handbook of Common Commercial and Game Fishes of California. California Division of Fish and Game Fish Bulletin No. 28. The Sharks and Rays of California. California Division of Fish and Game Fish Bulletin No. 45. William J. and Donald W. Lathrap The West Berkeley Site: A Culturally Stratified Shellmound on San Francis co Bay. (This volume.) Weitzman, Stanley H. 1962 The Osteology of Brycon meeki, a Generalized Characid Fish, with an Osteological Definition of the Family. Stanford Ichthyological Bulletin 8(1). I I I I I 1 C,4 1 C o C)% " * 00 r- % n " I I I I I I I I I r-K I I I I I I I I I I I I Lt' I I I I I I C I (0CO4H0o0%t'< I I I I _IIH4 _-HrI _ b-I ., I ,t L I r- H r- Ln U) I Cy C, 'T r- I I I II I I IH HI II I I I I I H1 I I I I I Cf) I I 1 1 1 1I 1I I 1I I 1I 1 1I 1 H C, en -.. un -, P. 00 ca o r-N Cf * V) %, rl ?? I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I O 1 C- c) --t Lr) ?, 1_ 00 o% C) C-J cf) --t Lr) %. r,_ 0 0H0H 96 0) H- H. cn U1) 0) 4-J r Cl) rq U1) 10 .1-i 0o co ir I ) 44) U) n) 04 4-J 0) cn CI)d ut CdC I'll m X 5-4 0) U)5-4 0n s P zn A,U) 4i ~4-i 14 0 H CD) 0) H 0) 0) 0 .4 U) 0) 0. 4-1 m U) U) 'H .rq 4.J "-4 CY) L(r) X1 0 H (f) H a-- m X% CII -U) 4-i 0 H- .1: 0 U) -H U H as C) H 0 F4i -K ro co Cd .H .-H bO H o,1 4--i 0) U) 0) 0) -Hr 0) p. -K a) q C I 97 Explanation of Plates Except where otherwise indicated, catalog numbers are those of the University of California Lowie Museum of Anthropology, Berkeley. Plate la White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus), total length 50.4 cm. (19 7/8 in.), from Suisun Bay, Solano County, California; Calif. Acad. Sci. No. 26875. Plate lb Green sturgeon (Acipenser medirostris), total length 92.6 cm. (36 7/16 in.), weight 3.3 kg. (7 1/4 lb.) from Sacramento River 3 mi. above Collinsville, Solano County, California; Calif. Acad. Sci. No. 26913. Plate 2a Vertebral centrum, diameter 16.3 mm., length 5.8 mm., representing a thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) about 160 cm. (63 in.) in total length and perhaps 9 kg. (20 lb.) in weight; No. 1-123851. Plate 2b Dental-plate median segment (inner aspect), length 25.4 mm., representing a bat ray (MyZiobatis californica) perhaps 32 kg. (70 lb.) in weight; No. 1-124399. Plate 2c Caudal spines of bat rays (MyZiobatis californica). Upper (incomplete and with marginal teeth abraded): length 58.5 mm.; No. 1-124207. Lower: length 73 mm., from a bat ray 45 kg. (99 lb.) in weight, from Tomales Bay, Marin County, California; Calif. Acad. Sci. No. 26208. Plate 3a First ventral opercle (left), height 47 mmn., representing a sturgeon (Acipenser sp.) perhaps 160 cm. (63 in.) in total length; No. 1-124285. Plate 3b Second ventral opercle (right), length 40 mm., representing a sturgeon (Acipenser sp.) perhaps 152 cm. (60 in.) in total length; No. 1-124333. Plate 3c Clavicle (right), length 68 mm., representing a sturgeon (Acipenser sp.) perhaps 152 cm. (60 in.) in total length; No. 1-124222. Plate 4a Scute (dorsal), length 53 mm., representing a sturgeon (Acipenser sp.) perhaps 152 cm. (60 in.) in total length; No. 1-124408. Plate 4b Scute (preanal), length 16 mm., representing a sturgeon (Acipenser sp.) perhaps 84 cm. (33 in.) in total length; No. 1-124005. 98 Plate 4c Pectoral ray (first, right), length 47 mm., representing a sturgeon (Acipenser sp.) perhaps 120 cm. (47 in.) in total length; No. 1-124204. Plate 5a Posttemporal (left, outer aspect), length 70 mm., representing a sturgeon (Acipenser sp.) perhaps 152 cm. (60 in.) in total length; No. 1-124275. Plate 5b Posttemporal (left, inner aspect, of specimen shown in P1. 5a); No. 1-124275. Plate 5c Articular and angular (right), length 35 mm., representing a king salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) about 66 cm. (26 in.) in total length and perhaps 3.2 kg. (7 lb.) in weight; No. 1-124308. Plate 5d Vertebra (caudal), horizontal diameter 16.9 mm., repre- senting a king salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) about 106 cm. (42 in.) in length and about 15 kg. (33 lb.) in weight; No. 1-124271. Plate 6 Tule balsa observed during 1816 on San Francisco Bay, California. (From Choris 1822:Pl. 9). Plate 2 a b c Plate 3 a b c Plate 4 a -: Xb c b d '.0 4-i CO f