I. ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS FROM SITE NV-WA-197, WESTERN NEVADA: ATLATL AND ANIMAL SKIN POUCHES Thomas R. Hester A large collection of perishable artifacts from an archaeological site in Western Nevada is currently under analysis by the author. These materials are from site NV-Wa-197 (Archaeological Research Facility, Berkeley), a small ver- tical shaft cave situated in a tufa stack at the southern end of Winnemucca Lake, north of Reno, Nevada (Fig. 1, Fig. 2). During 1960-1961, over 16 feet of the cave's deposits were removed by artifact-collectors from Reno. Because their digging was uncontrolled, the provenience of most specimens is unknown. However, among the excavated artifacts are several which are unique in the Great Basin area, and it is fortunate that one of the excavators recorded the vertical position of these artifacts on a rough profile which he drew of the site deposits. The extent of aboriginal utilization of this shaft cave is not clear. Apparently, it was first used as a place for burials and caches. Human bones were scattered throughout the lower deposits; when the writer visited the site in November, 1971, the mouth of the cave was littered with skeletal material discarded by the excavators. The excavators insist that few articulated burials were found during their digging. It may be that corpses were thrown down into the shaft and the remains were subsequently scattered. It also appears that large amounts of wood, including quite sizable branches and limbs of trees were thrown into the cave, possibly connected in some manner with corpse disposal. Near the top of the deposits there is evidence of occupation, indicating that the site was used for habitation once the vertical shaft had become nearly filled with debris. The collection from NV-Wa-197 remained in the hands of one of the excava- tors for a number of years. For a brief period during 1972, the collection was loaned to the University of California, Berkeley. It was documented as fully as time allowed, and then returned to the owner. Several months later, the entire collection was sold to a private museum. Although it is of little significance now, it should be noted that the site is located on Federally- owned lands, and was subject to t'fprotection' under the Federal Antiquities Act of 1906. Of course, site NV-Wa-197 is only one of many Nevada sites on government lands which have been destroyed by relic-hunters in the past several decades. Recorded in this paper are some of the significant cultural remains found at the site: (1) an atlatl or spear-thrower with an attached stone weight; (2) an animal skin pouch containing several hafted stone bifaces; (3) a second I 2 animal skin pouch containing numerous projectile points and other artifacts. Since it may be some time before the collection from NV-Wa-197 can be published in its entirety, it is felt that theIe artifacts, and the data obtained through their analysis, should be presented. Atlatl An atlatl or spearthrower was discovered by the excavators near the base of the cave deposits, approximately 16 feet below the surface. At this approxi- mate depth, lying just above the spearthrower, were several twined baskets. The group of baskets and the spearthrower appear to be two separate caches. A portion of one2of the baskets has been radiocarbon-dated at 7980+610 B.P. (6030 B.C.; I-6873). The radiocarbon determination suggests that the atlatl is at least 8000 years old, and given its stratigraphic position below the dated basketry, it is possibly even older. A photograph of the actual specimen is shown in Figure 3 and an artist's version of the restored artifact is found in Figure 4. The body or shaft of the specimen is fashioned from an unidentified hardwood. The upper surface is flattened and the lower surface, rounded. The atlatl was discovered broken into two pieces, the break occurring 23 cm. from the distal end. The two frag- ments could be matched, thus permitting a reconstruction of the length of the complete artifact, 58. 1 cm. Near the proximal (grip) end, width is 18 to 18.5 mm., and thickness, 14 mm. At the distal end, width averages 15 mm. and thick- ness, 12 mm. Overall weight of the specimen is 129.8 grams. At the proximal or grip end, the body of the atlatl is sub-rectangular in cross-section and its surface is marked by a series of 18 deeply-cut circular grooves. The distal portion of the atlatl is tapered. On the dorsal (upper) surface at the distal end, a hook or engaging spur is attached (see Fig. 3, c). The spur is carved of bone and is 62.5 mm. long and 9.0 mm. high. It was fitted into a shallow longitudinal groove on the dorsal surface and then lashed to the body with strips of sinew. There is a circular groove at the extreme distal end of the body, just below the mid-portion of the spur, and sinew has been wrapped around this groove and over the distal end of the spur (Fig. 4, b). A large boat-shaped stone is attached to the underside of the atlatl (Fig. 3, Fig. 4). The stone is gray in color, with a slight greenish tint. Robert N. Jack (personal communication) identifies the stone as '>slate-like"; positive mineralogical identification would have required a thin-section and this was impossible at the time the specimen was under analysis. The stone can best be described as boat-shaped, with a flat to slightly concave upper surface (flush with the underside of the atlatl body). At the proximal end of the stone, there is a deep, broad groove, while at the distal end, there are four grooves. These are used, of course, to bind the stone to the atlatl. 3 Overall length of the stone is 18.9 cm. It ranges in height from 16 to 20 mm., and in thickness,from 10-14 mm. Although the stone could not be detached to allow measurement of weight, it is probably between 80-100 grams. Judging from the available literature, the construction and form of this spearthrower are unique not only in the Great Basin, but in all of North America. There have been several surveys of atlatl types and distribution (Kellar 1955, Driver and Massey 1957; Grant et al, 1968; Mitchell 1970; Hester 1971; Mildner 1974), and in none of these (or in separate publications describing individual specimens) are similar atlatls reported. There are several well-preserved atlatls from North American sites which have attached stones or weights. These include the so-called "McClure"f atlatl from southeast Oregon (Strong 1966), a specimen from Hogup Cave, Nevada (Dalley and Peterson 1970), an example from Baylor Rockshelter, Texas (Fenenga and Wheat 1940), and specimens from South- western sites (Kidder and Guernsey 1919; Guernsey and Kidder 1921; Guernsey 1931). In all of these published instances, the body or shaft of the atlatl is of a configuration different from that of the specimen from NV-Wa-197, and none of the attached stones is boat-shaped. Boat-shaped stones of the kind attached to the NV-Wa-197 atlatl have been found in other parts of Nevada and California (Heizer and Elsasser 1953; Mildner 1)74). Most of these fit within the "Type II" variety described by Butler and Osborne (1959) for the Northwest. In most cases, the age of these boat-shaped artifacts cannot be firmly fixed. However, it is interesting to note the remarkable similarities between the boatstone from NV-Wa-197 and those collected from the "auriferous Gravels" of El Dorado County, California (Holmes 1919). Additionally, boatstones similar to the "Type II" form are reported from the eastern United States (cf. Patterson 1937). The presence of the detachable bone engaging spur is also significant. Atlatl spurs or hooks have been found widely in North America and have received considerable attention in the literature (Webb 1950; Riddell and McGeein 1969; Hester 1971; Neuman 1967). However, few have ever been found in place on a preserved spearthrower. In fact, most of the extant atlatis from the western United States have integral hooks carved into one end. The present data suggest that the atlatl from NV-Wa-197 may be the earliest documented example in the New World. The antiquity of the use of the atlatl in North America is indicated by other kinds of evidence, such as atlatl dart frag- ments in early contexts (Heizer 1951, reports a radiocarbon date of 5088 B.C. for atlatl foreshafts found at Leonard Rockshelter, Nevada). In Europe, the earliest known spearthrowers occur in Magdalenian sites of the Upper Paleolithic (roughly, 10,000 to 15,000 years ago; Garrod 1955). None of these bear any resemblance to their later North American counterparts, and none have attached stone weights. However, Garrod (1955:22) used the term 4 "weighted thrower" in referring to Upper Paleolithic spearthrowers "in which the shaft is topped by a piece of sculpture" (the sculpture usually being 'an ornate engaging spur or hook). She considered the possibility that these heavy, elaborately carved hooks may have served to add weight in the casting of light spear shafts. The question of whether or not the "atlatl weightst" in North America were functionally-important adjuncts to spearthrowers has been the subject of considerable discussion and experiment (cf. Peets 1960; Cole 1972; Grant et al., 1968). Most recently, L. Spencer (1974) has tested the efficiency of boatstone weights, using a replica of the NV-Wa-197 spearthrower. Animal Skin Pouches At a depth of approximately 10 feet below the surface, two animal skin pouches were found together, apparently either cached away or placed with a burial. These specimens are described below as "Pouch It' and "'Pouch II". Pouch I (Fig. 5, a) This pouch is made of practically the entire skin of a small mammal, perhaps a yellow-bellied marmot although this identification should be considered tentative. The skin has been inverted; i e., the interior of the pouch is the exterior, fur-bearing part of the animal skin. The exterior of the pouch was scraped and softened, but the fur was left on the interior. The "flap" which covers the opening of the pouch is composed of the forepart of the animal skin (head, forelegs) and a strand of cordage is attached at about the area of the animal's nasal aperture. Length of the fully-opened pouch is 44 cm. and maximum width is 29 cm. Pouch I contained six hafted bifaces, two unhafted bifaces, and two wooden handles (Fig. 5). In addition there was a long piece of cordage, with feathers attached at one end. The hafted bifaces are described below, followed by a discussion of wear patterns and other evidence related to the possible function of these tools. To haft the chipped stone biface, a V-shaped notch was cut into the distal end of the handle. The biface base was inserted into the notch, and mastic and binding were applied (see Fig. 8). Measurements of the specimens are found in Table 1. #1 (Fig. 5, b). This specimen is an obsidian biface with a short contract- ing stem. There are broad flake scars on both sides of the biface and the la- teral edges have been retouched. Black mastic was daubed over the base of the biface and hafting was made secure by wrapping fine sinew around the bottom 5 of the V-shaped notch in the handle. The surface of the wooden handle is rather rough, and is crudely trimmed to a point at the proximal end. #2 (Fig. 5, c). The biface is subtriangular and is made of a variegated (red, yellow, orange, white) fine-grained chalcedony There are broad flake scars on both faces and minimal edge retouch. The biface is secured in notch with considerable mastic, and coarse sinew is wrapped around the base of the notch. The handle surfa e is very rough, marked by numerous oblique cuts; the proximal end is pointed. The specimen was x-rayed and the resulting radio- graph appears in Fig. 9, b. #3 (Fig. 5, d). The biface is of white translucent chert, quite glossy and possibly heat-treated. There are broad parallel flake scars on both faces, and the edges are retouched. The biface may be stemmed, but the base is hidden by very extensive binding (sinew) and this has been coated with mastic. However, judging from the bulge in these wrappings, the specimen may have a rectangular stem. The handle is smoothed and polished, and is pointed at the proximal end. Whereas the handles on the other specimens are circular to oval in cross-section, this one is trianguloid. #4 (Fig. 5, e). The specimen has a small biface of translucent variegated chert, with parallel flake scars and minimal edge retouch. The material of manu- facture has a pinkish cast (with reds and whites dominant) and is vitreous, these traits suggesting that it is heat-treated chert. There is a substantial amount of residue on the lateral edges of the biface. The specimen is probably stemmed, but this portion of the biface is covered by heavy wrapping and a coating of mastic. The handle is smoothed and the proximal end is pointed. #5 (Fig. 5, f). The specimen has a long obsidian biface which is perhaps side notched or stemmed, but again the distal portion is obscured by wide strips of sinew overlaying a coat of mastic. The biface has mostly parallel flake scars, and exhibits extensive fine edge retouch. The handle is smooth on the upper half, but the lower part is rough and marked by cuts. #6 (Fig. 5, g). This artifact is not actually a "hafted biface". Instead, it is a long obsidian biface, the proximal half of which has inset edges and is wrapped with leather strips, 5-13 mm. wide. A leather strip also forms a loop (48 mm. long) atL the proximal end. The leather wrapping is heavily worn, no doubt through repeated handling and use of the specimen. The base of the biface is exposed and a short, bifurcated stem is present. The distal end or tfbladetf of the biface is exposed for 78.5 mm. above the wrapped '"handle"f area. The blade is characterized by both parallel and randomly-directed flake scars and there is very little secondary retouch along the lateral edges. The obsidian of which this artifact is made has a greenish tint. 6 Unhafted bifaces. In addition to the six artifacts just described, Pouch I also contained two unhafted bifaces. One (Fig. 5, j) is subtriangular in out- line, with convex edges and a convex base. The base has been thinned by the removal of three vertical flakes from one side, and two similar flakes from the other. The second biface (Fig. 8, e) has a short asymmetrical stem and rounded shoulders. The body has broad flake scars, with little secondary retouch of the lateral edges. Deposits of a reddish substance are present on both faces and in bands or strips along the lateral edges. Both of these unhafted bifaces are made of variegated fine-grained chert. Two wooden handles were also in the pouch, presumably the haft components for the two bifaces just described. One specimen (Fig. 5, h) is roughly dressed, with numerous oblique cut marks and longitudinal scars, and it is pointed at the proximal end. It has a V-shaped notch, with sinew tightly wrapped around the base of the notch. This might indicate that the strips of sinew were applied before the removal of the V-shaped wedge which created the notch. The sinew binding in this instance might have been designed to prevent splitting of the handle at the time the notch was formed. There are some remnants of a mastic on the edges of the notch. The second handle (Fig. 5, i) also has a rough surface marked by oblique cuts. The proximal tip was severed by two cuts made from opposite sides, with the tip then snapped off. The hafting notch is V- shaped, with sinew wrapped around the base of the notch; some splitting occurred below the binding. Both of these wooden handles have ovoid transverse cross sections. Cordage artifact. The final artifact in Pouch I is a cordage specimen (Fig. 5, k), 60 cm. long, which was made by grouping four strands of fine 2-ply cordage. At one end, two dangling loops are present, while at the other end, there is a large knot and a small loop. About one-half of the specimen was feathered with fine white-brown feathers. The quills of the feathers have been looped around the cord so that the feathers are held firmly in place (see Fig. 8, c). Evidence of the Function of the Hafted Bifaces Summarized here are data obtained on the function of the bifaces found in Pouch I. This information is derived from microscopig wear pattern studies and from the analysis of residues found on the specimens. #1. Microscopic examination revealed dulling and blunting of protrusions along the lateral edges, accompanied by nibbling or step-fracturing. On one edge, three heavy parallel striations were observed near the distal end and perpen- dicular to the edge. A similar cluster of striations, although of greater number, was observed just above the shoulder on the same edge; these, too, were oriented perpendicular to the edge. The opposite face of this specimen was coated with a light film, obscuring any possible microwear evidence. 7 #2. Very little use-wear was noted, and this consisted of very light dull- ing (accompanied by crushing) scattered along both lateral edges. However, microscopic examination did reveal a tiny fish scale adhering to the lower part of the biface, adjacent to the juncture with the handle. Yet a another fish scale was observed on the handle. The scales have been identified as those of Lahontan Cutthroat Trout (see Appendix). #3. This specimen, because of its glossy texture (heat-treated?), had an excellent reflective surface under the microscope. However, no striations were observed. Widely scattered areas of edge-dulling were noted, but crushing and minor step-fracturing were present along both lateral edges. Unidentified residues were seen in fissures on the edge of flake scars on both faces of the specimen. #4. Both lateral edges of the biface were heavily caked with reddish residue, obscuring any wear evidence. Careful scrutiny revealed an area (6 mm. long) of heavy dulling on one edge, near mid-blade. On the opposite lateral edge, another area of dulling, 7 mm. in length, was recorded near the base. #5. There was an abundance of use-wear on this specimen. One one face, numerous multidirectional striations were seen at the distal tip. Scattered striations, parallel or perpendicular to the side (the "christie striae" of Wylie 1973a), were also noted along one edge of this face. On the opposite face, there were a group of parallel striations, oriented obliquely to the edge, near the distal tip. On the opposite edge, there was an area (4 x 7 mm.) of very heavy wear, wherein the flake scar ridges had been heavily abraded. On the rest of this face, groups of perpendicular and parallel striations were recorded along the lateral edges and near the base. #6. The wrapped obsidian biface had light crushing and step-fracturing along both lateral edges. One face had a group of numerous multidirectional striations near the juncture with the leather wrapping ("handle"). On the opposite face, near mid-edge, there is an area (6 x 9 mm.) in which the flake scar ridges are abraded. Both of the unhafted bifaces were also examined for wear pattern evidence: #1. Reddish residue was noted along both edges, and a particularly heavy deposit of the residue was on the lower half of the specimen. Microwear occurred in the form of an area (7 mm. in length) of heavy dulling on the lower part of one edge. #2. There was a substantial deposit of reddish residue on both faces of this specimen. In some areas, fibrous materials adhered to the residue. Mr. 8 Edward Blake, School of Criminology, University of California, Berkeley, took samples of the residue and fibers. Although his studies are incomplete, it is known that the reddish residue is not blood, and may in fact be some type of soil, perhaps clay. The only microwear evidence observed was an area of heavy dulling (5 mm. long) near the distal tip on one edge. Previous studies of the function of hafted and unhafted bifaces from Great Basin sites have been published by Hester (1970) and, more recently, by Wylie (1973a, 1973b). They have postulated cutting, sawing, and carving functions for subtriangular and lanceolate biraces from Humboldt and Lovelock Caves (Nevada), and Hogup Cave (Utah). In examining the hafted specimens from Pouch I at NV-Wa-197, I have noted wear pattern evidence in a variety of forms, including edge dulling, step- fracturing and crushing of the edges, and striations. The kinds of wear vary considerably from specimen to specimen, and none appear to be functionally- specific. However, the combined assortment of wear patterns does indicate the use of these hafted implements as "tknivestt--tools used primarily in cutting and sawing activities. This interpretation is supported by an examination of the edge angles (see Table 1), all of which are acute (ranging from 23 -40 ), and which are less than 300 on most specimens. Such edge angles are characteristic of cutting tools (cf. Wilmsen 1968:156). The presence of fish scales on specimen #2 (and on the hafted biface from Pouch II described later), certainly suggests that at least one function of these tools was fish-processing. If it is possible at some future date to further identify the residues and fibers mentioned earlier, we may obtain additional substantive information on the tasks for which these knives were utilized. Pouch II (Fig. 6, a-c) A second animal skin pouch was found adjacent to Pouch I. It is made from the partial skin of what may be marmot, and again the skin is inverted, with the fur-bearing portion forming the interior of the pouch. When opened to its fullest, the pouch is 40 cm. long, and 28 cm. in width across the bottom (see Fig. 6, c). An amazing array of artifacts was contained in Pouch II. These were: three thin, unhafted bifaces, a hafted biface, a flaking tool, a large decorated bone object, and 101 projectile points. Unhafted bifaces. All three specimens are lanceolate in outline, have been carefully thinned, and are made of chert (Fig. 6, f-h). Specimen #1 (Fig. 6, g) is made of a variegated fine grained chert, ranging in color from dusky red at the base to a dark yellowish-brown over the rest of the specimen. Broad parallel flake scars are on both faces. There is continuous edge trimming along one side and at the proximal end, and intermittent trimming on the other lateral edge. 9 Microscopic examination revealed light to moderate dulling of the lower edges. Length, 103 mm., maximum width, 30 mm., basal width, 26 mm., maximum thickness, 5 mm., and weight, 19.9 grams. Specimen #2 (Fig. 6, h) is made of a mottled chert, varying from olive brown to light olive brown, with cortex covering the tip. It, too, has parallel flake scars on both faces, with continuous trimming along the lateral edges. There is light to moderate dulling of the lateral edges, becoming especially pronounced as the edges converge to the distal tip. Length, 93 mm., maximum width, 29 mm., basal width, 26 mm., maximum thickness, 5 mm., weight, 16.8 grams. Specimen #3 (Fig. 6, f) is the largest, and is made of dark gray to grayish-brown chert. The primary flake scars on both faces are broad and flat, and there is trimming along both lateral edges. Wear evidence on this specimen consists of minor blunting or smoothing of protrusions on the lateral edges, accompanied by intermittent step-fractures. The basal edge is lightly dulled. Near the base, on one face, there is an area of scattered reddish residue. Length, 122 mm., maximum width, 38 mm., basal width, 24 mm., maximum thickness, 7 mm., and weight, 7 mm. An edge angle measurement of 25 was obtained for both lateral edges on all three unhafted bifaces. Hafted biface. This specimen (Fig. 6, d) is quite similar to the hafted bifaces from Pouch I. The biface is stemmed and is made of variegated chalce- dony (the colors gray, pink, brown and tan are represented). It is attached to a wooden handle by numerous strips of sinew and a heavy application of mastic. Since the basal portion of the biface was obscured by the binding, an x-ray was made of the specimen in an effort to obtain additional information on stem configuration (see Fig. 9, c, d). The handle is smoothed,- but not polished, and is oval in cross section.6 The proximal end is tapered and rounded and there is a hole (8 mm. in diameter) through the handle 15 mm. above the proximal end (see Fig. 6, d). A 2-ply, S- twist cord (made of Apocynum cannabium fibre) goes through the hole and is wrapped three times around the handle. There is steep marginal retouch along the lower one-third of one edge of the biface, possibly representing resharpening of a dulled area. Three fish scales were embedded in the hafting mastic at the base of the biface, one was noted on the biface base, and eight other scales were observed on the handle. W. I. Follett has identified these scales as Lahontan Cutthroat Trout (see Appendix). The hafted biface has an overall length of 209 mm. and a total weight of 27.3 grams. Dimensions of the biface are: length (of exposed portion), 87 mm., width, 30 mm., thickness, 4.5 mm. The handle is 122 mm. long, and has a maxi- mum thickness of 14 mm. The edge angle for both lateral edges of the biface is 250. 10 Flaking tool. An artifact interpreted as a pressure-flaking tool was found in Pouch II (Fig. 6, c). The specimen has two major components, a section of deer antler tine and a fragmentary (?) wooden shaft, bound together with 2-ply cordage which is wrapped 48 times around the two pieces. For a detailed view of one end of the specimen, see Fig. 8, d. Both ends of the antler component are heavily worn. In its construction, this artifact bears a striking resemblance to the distal (working) end of a Hupa (northwest California) pressure-flaking tool illustrated by Goddard (1903: P1. 12, 3). The identification of this specimen from Pouch II as a flaking tool is strengthened by comparing it with known flaking implements from other North American Indian groups (cf. Holmes 1919:Figs. 173, 181). Overall length of the artifact is 12.9 cm., maximum width is 16 mm., maxi- mum thickness, 20 mm., and it weighs 16.8 grams. Decorated bone object. A long, trianguloid section of mammal long bone (elk?), concavo-convex in cross section, has been smoothed and polished and is decorated with drilled pits (Fig. 6, e). On the convex face, there are 18 double rows of these tiny depressions, forming chevron-like designs. On the reverse (concave) side, there are eight such rows of punctations. Some very faint lines are also present on the convex surface, but these may be related to grinding and abrading of the surface during the manufacturing process. The artifact appears stained, and has a yellowish color. The maximum length of the specimen is 20.2 cm., maximum width is 32 mm., maximum thickness, 6 mm.. (minimum thickness, 2 mm.) and the weight is 25 grams. The function of this artifact is undetermined. It is quite similar to bone objects termed "sweat scrapers" reported from the central California area (cf. Ragir 1972:P1. 5, a; Gifford 1940:173-174, describes the use of spatulate bone strigils by California Indians of the Monterey area). Projectile points. There were 101 small, thin bifaces contained in Pouch II (Fig. 7). Of these, 67 are thought to be completed or finished arrow points, while 34 others are triangular arrow point blanks or preforms. These artifacts were very carefully documented by A. D. Albee, and some of the metrical data are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Of the 67 complete projectile points, 66 can be typed as Eastgate series points (Hester and Heizer 1973). Sixty-five are of the Eastgate Expanding Stem variety, and one can be classified as Eastgate Split-Stem (Fig. 7, p). Forty-one of the Eastgate series points are made of obsidian of various color phases (black, brown, black and brown, mottled, red-black, light gray, and so forth). The remaining 25 Eastgate points are fashioned of chert, especially varieties of highly translucent gray and brown materials. Three of the chert specimens exhibit a greasy, vitreous quality suggesting they were made from II thermally-alterd chert. Heat-treating of cherts is known ethnographically for some northern Nevada groups (Hester 1973). While the specimens are carefully made, bifacing is rarely complete, and portions of the original flake surface (usually the ventral side of the flake) are often exposed. On two specimens, the bulb of percussion can be observed at the distal tip; five others have the bulb (or proximal end of the flake) at the stem end. Two of the Eastgate specimens (Fig. 7, r, s) have narrow strips of sinew wrapped around their stems. This binding covers the entire stem. One finished projectile point from Pouch II is technologically distinct from the Eastgate series. It is smaller, more roughly flaked, and is made of of basalt. The point (Fig. 7, m) is similar to the Rose Spring series, a type contemporary with Eastgate (Hester and Heizer 1973).. Length of this specimen is 28 mm., width is 17 mm., thickness, 3 mm., and weight, 1.3 grams. The 34 preforms or blanks are generally triangular in outline, with markedly convex bases (Fig. 7, n'-h"). On many specimens, there is a slight flare or protrusion at one corner of the base (Fig. 7, n', r' are good examples). This same protrusion or recurved edge can be seen on some of the finished East- gate specimens (see Fig. 7, e, i'). All of these triangular artifacts are technologically identical to the finished Eastgate specimens from the pouch and it seems virtually certain that they are Eastgate preforms, lacking only the two basal notches for completion. In the preform series, 21 specimens are of obsidian and 13, of chert. Thus, in both the Eastgate series and the preform series, roughly 61% of the specimens are of obsidian and approximately 37% are made of chert. Dating the Two Pouches We have no radiocarbon dates from NV-Wa-197 that are directly applicable to the two animal skin pouches. However, the contents of Pouch II have provided us with another method of determining the approximate age of these two remark- able artifacts. The Eastgate series points found in Pouch II have been radio- carbon-dated at several Great Basin sites, with the dates clustering between A.D. 600 and A.D. 1100 (Hester and Heizer 1973:7-9). While Pouch I contains no temporally diagnostic artifacts, the similarity of its manufacture and the fact that it occurred with Pouch II indicates that it is contemporary. Summary Site NV-Wa-197, a shaft cave in the western Great Basin, was excavated by relic-collectors in 1960-1961. A large collection of perishable artifacts was taken from the site as a result of this uncontrolled digging, and intrasite 12 provenience was lost for most specimens. However, the vertical position of certain artifacts was recorded; among these were the atlatl and two animal skin pouches reported in this paper. The atlatl from the base af NV-Wa-197 has been indirectly dated at 8030 radiocarbon years, and it is apparently the oldest known spearthrower in North America. Additionally, the technique of its construction sets it apart from other documented atlatls. While there are other atlatls in the New World with stones or other objects attached to them, this is the first specimen to be found with a "boatstonel' still fixed to it. It has long been hypothesized that boat- shaped stones were spearthrower accoutrements, but only in this particular case do we have specific evidence of just how the boatstones were used. The contents of the two animal skin pouches provide particular insight into a variety of prehistoric activities. As mentioned earlier, these two artifacts date somewhere between A.D. 600-1100. The hafted bifaces in Pouch I had been used as knives, and at least one of them bore direct evidence of service in fishing-related tasks, most probably fish-cutting. The wear pattern data obtained through microscopic scrutiny of the tool edges indicates use of these bifaces as cutting tools or knives. The haft elements of several of the tools are worn and polished, suggesting repeated handling. It is puzzling that the proximal ends of the handles are tapered and pointed, as if designed to be inserted into some larger component. Although these hafted bifaces are too large and heavy to have been effectively used as dart foreshafts, it is conceivable that they might, at times, have been used as foreshafts for hand- held spears. I reiterate, however, that there is abundant evidence that their major function was that of a cutting tool. Hester (1970) illustrates very similarly-constructed hafted knives from Lovelock and Humboldt Caves in the Humboldt Sink area of western Nevada. These sites were utilized by prehistoric peoples following a lacustrine subsistence pattern (cf. Heizer and Napton 1970). A lacustrine orientation has also been recorded for Winnemucca Lake sites (Shutler 1968), and the fish scales on the knives from Pouches I and II certainly reflect the use of lake resources. The dating of the hafted knives from the Humboldt Sink sites is not clear, and it is tempting to correlate them, on the basis of morphological similarities, with the NV-Wa-197 examples, whose temporal placeniencL is fixed by their apparent association with Eastgate series projectile points. However, Grosscup (1960:30) places the Lovelock hafted knife (found at a depth of 103 inches) in the "Early Lovelock'" phase, roughly 2500 B. C. The Humboldt Cave examples, on the other hand, are probably roughly coeval with the specimens from NV-Wa-197. Perhaps we have a type of knife which is directly related to the lacustrine regime, and which was used over a relatively long period of time without significant changes in its construction. I would like to go even further into the realm of specu- lation and suggest that these were "fish knives", cutting and scaling implements used in fishing activities. Such stone knives are apparently quite effective 13 for fish-scaling; as an example, the Hupa and Yurok of the northwest California coast were using hafted stone knives for salmon-scaling as late as the first decade of the 20th century, long after metal knives had been introduced into their culture (Kroeber and Barrett 1960; Hester ms.). One must presume that the stone knives were still being used because they worked better than metal knives in salmon-processing tasks. Pouch II contained one knife which had been used in fish-scaling, and three unhafted bifaces which had seen limited service as knives. However, flint- knapping activities are best represented by the contents of this pouch. There is a pressure-flaking tool, 67 finished arrow points, and 34 arrow point preforms. It is possible that the "1sweatscraper" is actually an implement related in some way to the flint-knapper's work, if only to scrape away the perspiration induced by his activities. We can see in the projectile points (both finished and preforms) a prefer- ence for obsidian and for multicolored, highly translucent cherts. In addition, the flint-knapper may have thermally altered some of his chert materials before flaking them. Most importantly, we can see in the careful repetition of the projectile point forms in Pouch II that the arrow point maker was shaping the specimen according to preconceived, and presumably culturally significant, norms ("mental templates"). In essence, the Eastgate entity, originally constructed as a "convenient type'" can be demonstrated to have been a "real" or "discovered" type (cf. Hole and Heizer 1973:204). While the flint-knapper was careful to give each Eastgate point a certain shape or outline, it would seem that he was not particular about always repeating certain attributes, such as the squared barbs which are often cited as diagnostic of the Eastgate series. The variation in barb configuration can be seen by examining the illustrated specimens in Figure 7. Judging from the shapes of the preforms found in the pouch, the contour of the barbs would merely reflect the placement of the basal notches. It is also evident that not all of the Eastgate specimens in Pouch II were in pristine condition, having just been made prior to inclusion in the pouch. Instead, some had obviously seen prior use, especially those with binding still adhering to the stems. The owner of the pouch (and maker of the points?) had apparently reclaimed previously-used specimens, and included them in his pouch, along with unused specimens and blanks which could be made into finished points when needed. It is unfortunate that we do not know the circumstance surrounding the placement of the two pouches (or the atlatl, for that matter) in the shaft cave. Better excavation techniques would have helped with this problem and perhaps we could have determined whether they were caches, or possibly burial offer- ings placed in a grave. The pouches might have been the personal work-kits of an individual which he stored away in the cave, or which were interred with him at death. 14 Were work-kits like these pouches common among the peoples who pursued the lacustrine lifeway in western Nevada? We know that other caches and work- kits have been found in Great Basin cave sites, such as a basketmaker's kit from Lovelock Cave (Ambro 1970), but these reported examples are quite rare. Have the vagaries of preservation led us to regard such artifacts as 'tunique", when in ancient Nevada they may have been common equipment? Whether or not they were unusual in prehistoric times, these well preserved materials are certainly a rarity in the archaeological record. Their fortuitous survival adds new dimensions to the study of prehistoric culture in the Great Basin. Notes A number of people have helped in the preparation of this paper. Profess- or Robert F. Heizer aided in many ways; the Archaeological Research Facility, University of California, Berkeley (of which Prof. Heizer is Coordinator) provided funds for radiocarbon dates. Karen Nissen and Alan D. Albee (graduate students in the Department of Anthropology, Berkeley) devoted a good deal of their spare time to the documentation of the NV-Wa-197 collection, and Dr. Fred Stross (Berkeley) took color slides of many specimens. David Herod and Eugene Prince (Lowie Museum of Anthropology) facilitated black and white photography of the collection; Harvey Kohnitz (San Antonio) prepared the prints used in the illustrations for the present paper. W. I. Follett studied fish remains from the site and his analysis appears as an Appendix. Charles W. Chesterman (California Division of Mines and Geology) and Miss Nessly C. Rem (Forest Products Laboratory, Richmond Field Station, University of California) examined two of the hafted bifaces. James E. Gordon (California Academy of Science) x-rayed two of the hafted bifaces and the radiographs and photographs shown in Fig. 9 were prepared by Maurice C. Giles (California Academy of Science). Law- rence Dawson (Lowie Museum) has studied the basketry from the site, and Dr. James Bennyhoff (Lowie Museum) has analyzed the shell beads; their reports will be published at a later date. Jack Nicolarsen and G. H. Favell made the artifacts available for analysis. Since this particular radiocarbon sample had possibly been contaminated by associated tufaceous deposits (i.e., the cave walls), it was pretreated at the Isotopes laboratory to insure removal of carbonates prior to chronometric analysis. The atlatl from NV-Wa-197 has been previously mentioned and illustrated by Strong (1969), Grant, Baird and Pringle (1968) and Mitchell (1970). 4 Miss Nelly C. Rem of the Forest Products Laboratory, University of Cali- fornia, examined the handle of Specimen #2 after completion of the manuscript; she believes the handle is made of Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii). 15 Microscopic wear pattern studies were done by the author, using a bino- cular microscope (with magnification up to 75X) with an independent light source. Miss Rem (see note 4) suggests that the handle of this hafted biface may be made of cherry wood (Prunus sp.). BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbreviations used: A Ant UC -AR -ASR -CARF - PAAE American Antiquity University of California Anthropological Records Archaeological Survey Recorts Contributions, Archaeological Research Facility Publications in American Archaeology & Ethnology Ambro, R. 1970 A Basket Making Kit from Lovelock Cave, Nevada. UC-CARF 7:73-79. Butler, B. R. and D. Osborne 1959 Archaeological Evidence for the Use of Atlatl Weights in the Northwest. A Ant 25(2):215-224. Cole, G. S. 1972 Dalley, 1970 The Bannerstone as a Spear Weight. Michigan Archaeologist 18(1):1-8. G. F. and K. L. Peterson Additional Artifacts from Hogup Cave. Appendix X in: Hogup Cave (C.M. Aikens). University of Utah Anthropological Papers 93:283-286. Driver, H. 1957 and W. Massey Comparative Studies of North American Indians. American Philosophical Society 47(2). Transactions, Fenenga, F. and J. B. Wheat 1940 An Atlatl from Baylor Rockshelter, Culberson County, Texas. A Ant 5(3) :221- 223-. Garrod, D. 1955 Palaeolithic Spear-Throwers. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 21:21-35. 16 Gifford, E. W. 1940 California Bone Artifacts. UC-AR 3. Goddard, P. E. 1903 Life and Culture of the Hupa. UC-PAAE 1(1). Grant, C., 1968 J. W. Baird, and J. K. Pringle Rock Drawings of the Coso Range. Maturango Press, China Lake, California. Grosscup, G. L. 1960 The Culture History of Lovelock Cave, Nevada. UC-ASR 52. Guernsey, 1931 S. J. Explorations in Northeastern Arizona. Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Papers 8(2). Guernsey, S. J. and A. V. Kidder 1921 Basket-Maker Caves of Northeastern Arizona. Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Papers 8(2). Heizer, R. F. 1951 Preliminary Report on Leonard Rockshelter, Pershing County, Nevada. A Ant 17:89-98. Heizer, R. F. and A. B. Elsasser 1953 Some Archaeological Sites and Cultures of the Central Sierra Nevada. UC-ASR 21. Heizer, R. F. and L. K. Napton 1970 Archaeology and the Prehistoric Great Basin Lacustrine Subsistence Regime as Seen from Lovelock Cave, Nevada. UC-CARF 10. Hester, T. R. 1970 A Study of Wear Patterns on Hafted and Unhafted Bifaces from Two Nevada Caves. UC-CARF 7:44-54. 1971 Possible Atlatl Spurs from the Texas Coastal Plain. Southwest Museum Masterkey 45(1):13-19. 1972 Ethnographic Evidence for the Thermal Alteration of Siliceous Stone. Tebiwa 15(2):63-65. ms. Microwear Analyses of Ethnographic Hafted Stone Knives from the Northwestern Coast of California (with an appendix by W. I. Follett). Manuscript in preparation. 17 Hester, 1973 T. R. and R. F. Heizer Review and Discussion of Great Basin Projectile Points: Forms and Chronology. Archaeological Research Facility, University of California, Berkeley. Hole, F. and R. F. Heizer 1973 An Introduction to Prehistoric Archeology. 3rd Edition. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Holmes, W. H. 1919 Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities. Part I, Introductory, the Lithic Industries. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 60. Kellar, J. H. 1955 The Atlatl in North America. Prehistory Research Series, Indiana Historical Society 3(3). Kidder, A. V. and S. J. Guernsey 1919 Archeological Explorations in Northeastern Arizona. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 65. Kroeber, A., and S. Barrett 1960 Fishing Among the Indians of Northwestern California. UC-AR 21(1). Mildner, M. P. 1974 Descriptive and Distributional Notes on Atlatls and Atlatl Weights in the Great Basin. Ballena Press, Ramona, California: Publications in Archaeology, Ethnology and History, No. 2. Mitchell, J. L. 1970 The Atlatl in Ohio. Ohio Archaeologist 20(2):206-211, 216. Neuman, R. 1967 Patterson, 1937 Peets, 0. 1960 Ragir, S. 1972 Atlatl Weights from Certain Sites on the Northern and Central Great Plains. A Ant 32(l):36-53. J. T. Boat-Shaped Artifacts of the Gulf Southwest States. University of Texas Bulletin 3732. Experiments in the Use of Atlatl Weights. A Ant 26(l):108-110. The Early Horizon in Central California Prehistory. UC-CARF 15. 18 Riddell, F. and D. McGeein 1969 Atlatl Spurs from California. A Ant 34(4):474-478. Spencer, L. 1974 Strong, E. 1966 1969 Webb, W. S. 1950 Replicative Experiments in the Manufacture and Use of a Great Basin Atlati. Ballena Press, Ramona, California: Publications in Archaeology, Ethnology and History, No. 2. The McClure Atlatls. Oregon Archaeological Society Screenings 15(5):1-4. Stone Age in the Great Basin. Portland: Binford and Mort. The Carlson Annis Mound, Site 5, Butler County, Kentucky. University of Kentucky Reports in Anthropology 7(4). Wilmsen, E. N. 1968 Functional Analysis of Flaked Stone Artifacts. A Ant 33:156-161. Wylie, H. G. 1973a Microanalysis and Functional Typology of the Hogup Cave Chipped Stone Tools. Unpublished MA thesis, University of Utah. 1973b Some Functional Tool Types from Hogup Cave, Utah. Paper presented at the 1973 meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, San Francisco. Lr 4 r) 14rl- O C1 N CY)C4 C4 t l llrlu% ) 4n 0L() .OCLr 0) bO bo "0 "-4 a) :3 C1 C1-4 4-3 bo 0) .:3 (A to U) 0) U H CO 4' cn 'I cn N Po *rS El "0 0) 4-3 4-4 co 4-3 "0 'H4 ~\0 . -It t U) ut 0) 4-4 ,.0 H- 19 0 0)41J "0 'H 4-i 0) 's- ~4-3 0C )0 "0 Lr) (1 o Co (14 C14 " > 0 c ue4~ 4-4 0 4- 0) o'oaN U 4-3 0 z ( o O 0 0 "-4 CY) r- cle "-4 %.D 4-3 9-4 0) 4-3 01) I U 0) '--4 "0 O Cu 1- 0) CO .,, U) (A 0) U cn H 14- u 4 "0 4-3 bO 0-) U) 0) 4-3 la 0) la 'H 'H 0) U) U4 0) 0) 0) CO 0) 0) U) CO 0) co 0) la C4 a} 0 0 u)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~U 4-3 o~~~~~ ,, ~4- CIO 4-4 0 '4 U) 0) 'H CY-) "-4 1 -A 0 "-4 It cl) I -4 En U) 0) a E-4 -It "-4 I Lr) "-4 1 Lri' CY') 0 0 O P- CY) "-4 1 CY) "-4 1 "--4 -.tI Lri' I I' LI') "-4 1 cle '--4 1 0 -Nt "-4 '--4 CY) LI" O00 4-3 0) "-4 4-3 0) "0 0) 4-3 4-4 co CN CY) U) 0) u 44 "-I ,0 U) 0) "0 CO H- H 0) "-4 ,0 CO- cn C14 20 Table 2. Dimensions of Eastgate Series Points from Pouch II. Measurements are in millimeters, and weight is expressed in grams. An asterisk (*) indicates an incomplete measurement. Maximum measurements are shown for each specimen. Leng th Width 42 47 44 43 30 34 33 39 41 37 42 45 41 41 50 38 36 43 37 38* 40 39 35 36 40 39 36 36 35 36 50 32 32 50 44 52 50 37 37 24 23 20 23 22 23 23 29 27 22 24 24 25 27 25 20 21 26 27 26 22 19 24 27 21 21 25 19 25 24 23 24 22 22 25 24 23 25 28 Thickness 4 4 4 4 3.5 3.5 3 3 3.5 4 4 3.5 3.5 3.5 4.5 4 4.5 3.5 4 3.5 3 4.5 3.5 4 4.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 4 4 4 3.5 3 3.5 4.5 5 4 3.5 4 Stem Length 4.5 6 6 6 5 5 4* 5 6 5.5 4.5 6 5 5 5 4.5 6 4 6 6 3.5 5.5 5 5 5.5 6 5 6 5 5.5 5 5 5.5 7. 5.5 5 5.5 5 Stem Width 9 9.5 9.5 12 11 13 11 12 11 9 12 11.5 11 8.5 8 10.5 9 11 11 8 11.5 12 11 9 9 8 13 11 8 11 11.5 7.5 10 10.5 9 11 8.5 Weight 3.3 4.0 3.3 3.2 2.0 2.4 2.2 3.3 3.2 2.6 2.9 3.5 3.0 3.8 4.1 2.4 3.0 3.5 3.1 3.0 2.6 2.7 2.4 3.1 3.0 2.8 2.7 2.1 2.6 2.8 4.1 2.1 2.2 3.5 3.5 4.4 3.0 2.7 3.5 21 Table 2. Dimensions of Eastgate Series Points from Pouch II. Length 35 40 55 46 51 39 51 37 37 41 34 46 62 37 32 47 45 35 65 41 38 37 42 40 35 32 38 SD 6.89 Mean 40.83 Std .84 Error Width 20 19 30 22 22 20 22 24 19* 22 24 20 21 27 23 27 19 21 19 21 24 29 23 21 21 25 23 2.68 23.21 .33 Thickness 3.5 4 6 4 3.5 4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3 3.5 3.5 3 4 3.5 4.5 4 3.5 3.5 2.5 3 3.5 3.5 3 3.5 3 4 .54 3.71 .06 Stem Length 6 5 6.5 5 4.5 4.5 4.5 3.5 3.5 4.5 4.5 3.5 4.5 5 5 5 4 4.5 4 4 5 5.5 4.5 4 4 5 4.5 .76 4.99 .09 Stem Width 10 10 11 9 9 8 10 10 9 6.5 8.5 8.5 10 8 10 13 9 10 9 9 11 10.5 10 10 9 11 9 1.42 9.95 .17 Weight 1.9 2.4 8.5 3.2 3.9 2.6 3.8 3.0 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.7 3.5 2.2 2.1 3.9 2.7 2.2 4.3 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.9 2.7 2.0 1.9 2.9 .93 2.98 .11 22 Table 3. Dimensions of Eastgate Preforms from millimeters and weight is expressed in grams. incomplete measurement. Pouch II. Measurements are in An asterisk (*) indicates an Maximum Length 48 42 47 32 42 35* 47 37 39 48 43 44 38 35 38 35 35 35 43 44 42 45 52 44 43 47 34 42 34 34 38 42 38 35 5.08 40.50 .87 Maximum Width 23 28 24 25 20* 25 21 19 26 31 27 24 25 26 26 25 25 23 26 24 29 34 29 19* 27 27 27 31 26 27 22 22 24 22 3.29 25.26 .56 M-aximum Thickness 3.5 3.5 4 3.5 4.5 4 4.5 4 3.5 4 4 4 3.5 4 4 4 4 4 3.5 3.5 3.5 4 5 4 6 4 4 3.5 3.5 4 4 3 3.5 3.5 .52 3.91 .08 Weight 3.7 3.4 3.5 2.4 3.1 3.3 3.3 2.2 3.0 4.6 3.7 3.1 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.6 2. 9 3.3 3.6 6.4 5.6 2.6 6.9 4.1 2.3 3.7 2.8 3.0 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.2 1.09 3.30 .18 SD Mean S td Error 23 \I ! rU--- _ THE GREAT BASIN 0 so 1" MILES Figure 1. Location of Site NV-Wa-197, Western Nevada. v 24 If ~ ~ ~ ~ I 44 co 0 44~ co~ .4. C34 co co I'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 ~~~~, /7/' / FL~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 25 0- 0 .0 .0 (U -H4 CU co 4J 4-4 tC CU -4 CU co co V ( 00 CU -H a)^ -,4 o co o 0 - H 0 co C C4-4 C CU 0 0- ICU CO ,::0 .,, V C U V 0 ON-iC CU' CU -4 C U4i to 0 - ~4 4 CU V 0o E 0CU C 4 C , 10-4 0) - 0 4 4-(1VJ r- CU CU LH U -) 0 z I, -U) rr *4-i o CU S V VJ >14 C CU 0 CU -tO ?*4 V C f l C)U) -H 0r~~~~ 5 > ^ ?l 5~1 cm. Figure 7 35 Figure 8. Various Artifacts from NV-Wa-197 a, b, side views of hafted knives from Pouch I; note hafting details. c, detailed view of end of cordage artifact from Pouch I. d, detail view of pressure flaking tool from Pouch II. e, outline of unhafted biface from Pouch I; this specimen was coated with reddish residue (see Figure 4 for other specimens from Pouch I). CM.~ ~ ~~~~ It91 X A A ' C~~~~ a b < > 0~ ~ /e Icm.