53
V. THE NINE LORDS OF THE NIGHT
David H. Kelley
The purpose of the present paper is to suggest the identity of the
Mayan series of Nine Lords of the Night on the basis of comparative evi-
dence from Mesoamerica and the Old World. The Old World comparisons are
introduced because of what I think is good evidence that much of the
Mesoamerican calendar system is of Old World derivation. They are not
intended primarily as further evidence of that thesis but are rather
introduced because of their potential help in understanding Maya data.
Although Eric Thompson recognized the general correspondence of
the Lords of the Night mentioned in Mexican sources with a series of glyphs
repeating at nine-day intervals on Maya monuments as long ago as 1929, there
have been few attempts to compare them in detail. At that time, Thompson
thought it possible to equate the two series specifically, but his later
discussion (Thompson, 1950:208-210) indicates that the uncertainty of iden-
tification of the Maya series made attempts at comparison with the Mexican
series unprofitable. Even with the limited data available, he thought that
some similar gods were not in the same sequential order. More recently,
Weitlaner (1958) reported the existence of a Zapotec calendar using a series
of nine days, named for gods, in the Loxicha region of southern Oaxaca. A
study by Weitlaner and DeCicco (1961) explained the nature of local varia-
tions in this calendar and discussed the attributes and hierarchical position
of these deities.* Caso (1965:946) suggested the identity of seven of these
gods with six of the Mexican series of Nine Lords, but not in sequential
order. Many of his equations are not very compelling, although all are
reasonable. Although I think a single series of gods ultimately lies
behind the Mexican, Zapotec and Mayan lists, the discrepancies are such as
to suggest a substantial time period of variation. Since all the gods are
important in the local cultures, some distortions of sequence or of attri-
butes may have been introduced by theologians trying to further the interests
* Thanks are due to Donald Brockington for access to a paper he has
written on the Loxicha calendar, giving some additional traits of the gods.
54
of their own deities, ideas or priesthood. Other differences are probably
due to the fact that equations between deities were made on the basis of
partial correspondences of characteristics. I would assume that the local
gods were mostly in existence as local gods long before they were ordered in
sequences of nine (or in other sequences such as those of seven, thirteen
and twenty). While deities may have taken on new attributes because of such
equations, there must often have remained a considerable difference. How-
ever, as a series, there should be some mechanical interlocking points which
would give equations for practical purposes.
I think that the Mexican and Zapotec series can be equated on the basis
of three clear sequential similarities. The Zapotec Dubdo means 'Corn' and
is the god of corn. His identity with Aztec Cinteotl, whose name means 'Corn-
God', seems unarguable. In the comparative lists of Table 1, the numbers of
the Zapotec list are given in accordance with their ordering by Weitlaner and
DeCicco. However, both the Zatec and Zapotec lists are fitted to the 260-day
calendar. Since 9 x 28 gives 261 rather than 260, the Zapotecs fitted the two
by assigning both Mdi and Ndozin to the first day; the Aztecs assigned both
Tepeyollotl and Tlaloc to the last day. The structural relationship may be
shown thus:
259th d     y      260th day          1st day             2nd day
Zapotec     8. Mse             9. Mbaz             1. Mdi             3. Ndo'yet
2. Ndozin
Aztec        7. Tlazolteotl    8. Tepeyollotl      1. Xiuhtecuhtli     2. Itztli
9. Tlaloc
The effect of this is that, although the numbers assigned in the table differ
by one day, Dubdo would have ruled the 4th, 13th, 22nd etc. days of the 260
day cycle and Cinteotl would have ruled the same days.
The second equation is of Zapotec Mdi with Aztec Tlaloc. There are
said to be four Tlalocs, who stand at the cardinal points and send rain; there
are likewise sometimes said to be four Mdi who live on the tops of mountains
at the cardinal points and send rain. Mdi means 'Lightning' and they are said
to be in iguana form. In this latter aspect, they correspond better to Itzamna
55
of the Mayas than to Tlaloc. Both Tlaloc and Mdi rule the 9th, 18th, 27th
etc. days of their respective 260-day cycles, but the extra Tlaloc/Mdi is
assigned by the Aztecs to the 260th day and by the Zapotecs to the first
day, as previously shown.
The third equation is of Zapotec Mbaz with Aztec Tepeyollotl. Mbaz
is usually said to be an earth god (or goddess, for the sex of these Zapotec
deities is strangely unstable), said by one informant to be the guardian of
the animals and the spirit of the ancestors (Weitlaner and DeCicco:700).
Elsewhere, he is said to be a serpent with seven heads or seven horns
(Weitlaner and DeCicco:702).  Aztec Tepeyollotl, 'Heart of the Mountain'
is said to be the lord of animals. He has jaguar characteristics and is
apparently associated with earth's interior (Thompson, 1950:74). Again the
gods rule the same days of the 260-day cycle.
This evidence, supported by the structural data, seems adequate to
make an alignment of the two series although, as will be shown later, there
is some evidence that Piltzintecuhtli of the Aztec list, now in third place,
may have been displaced (because of his cult importance?) from an original
ninth position. The further equation of Zapotec Kedo, God of Justice, with
Mictlantecuhtli, the Aztec god of the Dead is reasonable as Ndozin, 'Thir-
teen Spirit', is also called a god of justice and is associated with the
dead (Caso, 1965:946 equates Ndozin with Mictlantecuhtli). Another inter-
esting equation is of Chalchihuitlicue, 'Jace Skirt', an Aztec water goddess,
with Ndan, the head of the Zapotec hierarchy. Ndan sometimes appears as
male, sometimes as female and sometimes as bisexual.   In Santa Lucia, she
is goddess of the ocean (Weitlaner and DeCicco:704). The other deities of
the two sequences show few analogies and some marked disagreements.
Despite the fact that we have no colonial Maya list of the Nine Lords
and that the glyphs of these gods are largely undeciphered, I believe that
there are now enough points of similarity to justify an equation of the Maya
series with the Aztec and Zapotec series. This starts with the handicap
that the Maya series had no fixed correspondence with the 260-day cycle but,
instead, ran continuously; hence there is no possibility of strict correspon-
dence of structure. Perhaps the best single correspondence is of G7, whose
56
glyphs include 'seven' and 'black' with Mbaz/Tepeyollotl.    I have previously
argued (Kelley, 1965:97-104) that some of these glyphs refer to a black god
of war. The G7 glyphs, although containing 'seven' and 'black' are not iden-
tical with the glyphs referring to God L (believed to be the god of war).
Nonetheless, they suggest a connection. Thompson (1950:209-210) suggests a
connection with a feline deity, ruler of the month Pax, pointing out that the
god of the number seven is a deity with jaguar characteristics. The parallel
with Tepeyollotl is suggested by Thompson and I am in full agreement.
The fact that the Mdi are lightning and rain gods in iguana shape
immediately equates them with Itzamna of the Maya. Thompson (1939:152-162)
suggested that Itzamna was the name given to the celestial rain dragons,
probably fourfold, standing at the cardinal points, frequently represented
in Maya art, often as a two-headed animal (with the second head at the back),
having characteristics of crocodiles, iguanas and other beasts. The idea was
considerably strengthened by the discovery that 'itzam' is said to mean 'li-
zard' in the Vienna dictionary (Thompson, 1970:21). On the basis of the
depictions, Thompson regards the 'lizard' as being, specifically, 'iguana'.
Thompson (1970:21) also points out that the Kekchi regard Itzam as both male
and female, which is likewise true of the Zapotec Md.   The characteristics
constructed by Thompson for the Maya Itzamna from a variety of scattered
sources correspond so closely to those attested for the Zapotec Mdi that the
probability that the reconstruction is correct becomes much greater.    In some
of the depictions, the rear head of the two-headed dragon is a death's head
with a sun glyph on the forehead, preceded by three glyphs of unknown meaning.
In the series of Lords of the Night, G9 has been identified by Thompson as
referring to the 'night sun', that is the sun in the underworld. The G9
glyph may be a simple sun glyph or may show the head of an old man with a
sun glyph on the forehead (Thompson, 1950:fig. 34, nos. 46-57).    Differing
glyphs are associated and the sun glyph itself may either appear plain or with
complete or partial cross-hatching to indicate darkness. The variation in
this point is hard to understand if Thompson is correct in thinking that it
was supposed to indicate the sun in the underworld. There are some indica-
tions that it may, instead, indicate eclipses of various sorts but the data
57
are by no means entirely clear and consistent. The Maya sun god is called
Kin-ich Ahau, 'Sun-eye Lord' and Landa (ed. Tozzer, 1941:153) says that
Kinich Ahau Itzamna was invoked by the priests in ceremonies of the month
Zip, because he was regarded as the first priest. I would argue that this
Kinich Ahau Itzamna is the rear head of the Rain Dragon and that his glyphs
correspond to G9. This is one off from the position of Mdi-Tlaloc, if one
accepts the previous equation of Mbaz-Tepeyollotl with G7. Because of this
and because of Asian parallels to be cited, I would argue that the preceding
G8 corresponded to Itzamna proper, the front head of the Rain Dragon. The
glyph of G8 is the same as the top part of the glyph of the month called in
Yucatec Cumku, and I believe it is to be read cum, 'pot'.   Thompson (1950:
117) points out that Cumku could mean cum god and may be parallel with Cumhau,
which he suggests is derived from Cum-ahau, or cum lord, said in the Motul
dictionary to mean '"Lucifer, chief of the devils" (i.e. of the pagan gods,
probably). Thompson points out that the "patron deity of Cumku is a dragon",
shown as a head which he thinks probably "represents the sky monster,
Itzamna". If Cum-god is Itzamna and if cum is the glyph of G8, it seems
reasonable, even on Maya grounds, that G8 stands for Itzamna.
Thompson (1939:160) also argued that God K was an anthropomorphic
form of Itzamna, a view which he still held in 1972 (P. 41, w). In 1934
(p. 227) he had accepted Seler's view that God K was Ah Bolon Tzacab and
that God D was the anthropomorphic form of Itzamna. His discussion (1970:
226-229) indicates that he thinks there is a very close association between
Ah Bolon Tzacab and Itzanmna, to the point of identity. The relationship does
not seem to me quite so close, although there are some similarities.    I think
that God K is separable from Itzamna and is identifiable with Ah Bolon Tzacab,
whom I believe to be identical with Gl of the Nine Lords of the Night. In
one case, the glyph for Gl appears as '9' (bolon) followed by the fish-in-
hand glyph.  DeGruyter (1946:34) points out that tzac is Yucatec for a small
fish and also cites Thompson's early view that Gl was Bolon Tzacab.   More
usually, the glyphs of G1 consist of '9' followed by a hand holding the head
of God C. The nature of the connection with God C is completely unclear,
but I do not think thtis kind of glyphic usage of a deity head necessarily
refers directly to that deity. God K often appears as the serpent-footed
58
god and I have argued (Kelley, 1965:108) that the calendar name of God K was
Hun Ahau, One Flower, a name found elsewhere in Mesoamerica for the sun god,
as well as for various agricultural deities. The usual translation for Bolon
Tzacab is 'nine generations' and the alignment suggested by the previous data
would equate him with Zapotec Ndo'yet, translated as 'Nine Spirit', or 'Nine
image'. Ndo'yet seems to be associated with death, although one informant
called him 'patron de la tierra, 'patron of the earth' (Weitlaner and DeCicco:
701). His characteristics seem to be poorly defined but the 'nine' in his
name does seem a reasonable tie to Ah Bolon Tzacab.
General evidence for the nature of the Nine Lords in Mesoamerica is to
be found in Cristobal del Castillo (cited by Caso, 1967:114-115); in an unclear
context, he speaks of prognostication from "las estrellas que alli hablan que
se llaman Planetas" ("the stars which speak there, which are called planets").
Then he goes on to speak apparently of the day lords and their companions, the
night lords. Speaking of the lord of the day, he says "alli a la media noche,
se ira a hacer su companero, la 2a. entidad; estrella Planeta" (freely trans-
lated, "there at midnight he goes to join the second star-planet"). Although
these statements have never been taken at face value, they clearly imply that
the Lords of the Night were a series of nine 'planets' who began their rule
at mid-night. As I interpret the passage, the lords of the day ruled for
twenty-four hours, accompanied by the lords of the night from midnight to
mid-day. Caso's interpretation is rather different, but these particular
problems are not too relevant here.
A principal reason for not taking such statements seriously may have
been that most Mesoamericanists are unfamiliar with any plausible series of
nine planets. However, in India, such a series is well-known. It consists
of the five planets which are visible with the naked eye, plus sun and moon,
both ranked with the planets in ancient times, plus two "invisible planets"
which represent a compromise between theological and scientific views of the
cause of eclipses.
In Alberuni's India written in 1030 A.D., we have a critical compendium
of calendrical and religious data on India available to a well-educated Moslem
59
of that time. A list of the nine planets, with the deities which ruled them,
is taken from the Vishnu-dharma (Alberuni, Sachau edition, ii, 121). A com-
parison of this table with his account of the names of the planets (Alberuni,
i, 215)-goes far to explain discrepancies for he gives from six to nine names
for each of the seven 'regular' planets and, although many of these are deity
names, they are completely distinct from the list of deities who rule the
planets in the context of the sequence of Nine Lords. Some of the discre-
pancies are surprising.   Agni, 'fire', rules the Sun, although he is often
associated with Mars and Sun, himself, appears as a deity. Mercury is ruled
by Vishnu who is usually believed to have been a sun god. Jupiter is ruled
/
by Sukra, which actually appears in the list of planetary names, but as a
name of Venus. The multiplicity of deity-names in India and the way in which
names which started as simple attributes assumed personality or were applied
to a wide range of deities makes it difficult to make adequate comparisons
which are not misleading. Nonetheless, there are some striking similarities
with the Mesoamerican sequences.
The most obvious is of the seventh lord, Saturn, with G7 of the Mayas,
Mbaz of the Zapotecs and Tepeyollotl of the Aztecs. The lord of Saturn is
called Prajapati, which is translated as 'lord of creatures' (including
human beings as well as all other animals (Mayrhofer, 1963, ii:355). The
fact that both Tepeyollotl and Mbaz are specified as Lord of animals is an
impressive correspondence. Saturn, himself, is represented as a dark-
skinned man in black clothing (Pingree, 1964-5:267). Saturn is the seventh
planet in both the 7-day and 9-day weeks, the seventh in the enumeration
order as beneficent, neutral and maleficent, and the seventh in distance
from the earth (i.e. the ruler of the seventh concentric sphere, or heaven,
sometimes conceived as the seventh layer of heaven). The presence of 'seven'
and 'black' among the glyphs of G7 of the Lords of the Night and in associa-
tion with the glyphs of black gods constitutes an obvious and direct similar-
ity. The seven serpent heads of Mbaz may also be related. Alberuni (ii:120)
gives a list of two names of each of the 'Seven Snakes' associated, in
succession, with the planets, who rule the years in the same order as they
rule the days (with a 365-day year). Those listed for Saturn are Cakshab-
hadra and Sa/ha. Walker (1968,ii:389) lists Sakhapala as one of the snake
hadra and Sa6~kha. Walker (1968,ii:389) lists Sa~khapala as one of the snake
6o
gods, seven-hooded, yellowish guardian of the southwest. It is possible that
various seven-headed snakes have been differentiated from a single prototype
in India, or that they have been confused in Mesoamerica, for Vasuki, whose
body served for the churning of the Sea of Milk, was a seven-headed green
serpent king, associated with the north and sometimes identified with Sesha,
the giant serpent who supports the earth on his head.
Another striking parallel is the alignment of Gauri, the goddess who
rules the planet Venus, with Tlazolteotl. In India generally, Venus is iden-
tified as a male god, but here a goddess appears. According to Dowson (10th
ed., 1961:111,86), this name is an epithet of Devi, 'Goddess', who has a great
many other names and who appears in both a mild and a fierce aspect--in the
latter, "bloody sacrifices are offered to her" and "indecent orgies" used to
propitiate her. Tlazolteotl is a reasonably close parallel, identified in
Sahagun and other early Spanish writers as Venus, patroness of sexual license
and of prostitutes, likewise given a multiplicity of names, including
Teteoinan, 'Mother of gods' (Thompson, 1939:136-7).
The parallels associated with G8 and G9 are extremely complex and in-
volved but show remarkable similarities. The eighth and ninth 'planets' of
the Hindu series are Rahu, the Head,and Ketu, the Tail, said to be invisible
planets which cause eclipses, although the true cause of eclipses was well
known. At an earlier stage, Rahu seems simply to have been regarded as a
serpent which caused eclipses by eating the sun and moon. He is supposed to
have stolen some of the amrita which confers immortality and which was obtained
by the gods at the churning of the sea of milk. Because of the theft, Vishnu
cut off his head and tail separately, attacked sun and moon and caused eclip-
ses (Dowson, 1961:252-3).  It is at first sight surprising to find Ganapati
as lord of the Head for the name is an equivalent of Ganeesa, the elephant-
headed god. There is a curious parallel to the story of Rahu, for Ganesa's
head is also said to have been cut off, and replaced by that of an elephant.
He was regarded in the early mediaeval period as a god of wisdom and patron
of learning, whose name was inscribed at the beginning of all literary works
(Walker, 1968,i:376-378). The elephant connections take us to the gods of rain.
According to Alberuni (ii, 245), following the Matsya-Purana, "The earth is
placed on four elephants, standing in the four cardinal directions, which
raise the water by their trunks to make the seeds grow. They sprinkle water
in summer and snow in winter."   One of the names given to elephants was
maha-naga, 'great snake' (Mackenzie, n.d.:29) and rain was also believed to
be sent by the nagas, of whom there were supposed to be four at the cardinal
points (Mackenzie, n.d.:243). Mackenzie (n.d.:49) cites a Chinese Buddhist
text which distinguishes serpent-dragons, lizard-dragons, fish-dragons,
elephant-dragons and toad-dragons. Mackenzie's chapter 14 is dedicated to
parallels between Aztec Tlaloc, god of rain, and the nagas and dragons of
Asia. Among the Maya, the Itzamnas seem to represent 'lizard-dragons' and
the Chacs represent 'elephant-dragons'. The famous controversy between the
Mayanists and Elliot Smith about the elephantine representations of Meso-
america needs a thorough review, but here it suffices to point out that the
argument that the long-nosed god of Mesoamerica can't be an elephant because
he is the god of rain, ignores the fact that the gods of rain of India, four-
fold like the Chacs, were, in fact, elephants. The way in which these
various strands inter-relate strongly suggests that at some time the eclipse
demon was conceptualized as identical with the rain dragon, whether serpent
or elephant, a rather surprising conclusion which is not directly attested
either in Mesoamerica or India in sources known to me. Perhaps even more
puzzling is the striking similarity between Itzamna, credited with teaching
writing, and Ganesa, patron of learning and literature, for this is usually
regarded as a late development of ideas about Gane'sa in India.
It is quite unexpected to find Visvakarman, the carpenter and artisan
of the gods, as regent of the planet Ketu, the Tail, or descending node.
Dowson (1961:363-4) points out that the term Visvakarman was originally ap-
plied to any powerful god, but subsequently seems to have assumed an inde-
pendent existence, already attested by the time of the Mahabharata. Although
visva is literally 'all' and karman is 'maker',,Alberuni (i:178) points out
that the Hindus used a wide variety of allegorical terms for numbers and that
it is impossible to read their astronomical writings without a knowledge of
this. In this system, vi'sva is used for 'thirteen'. The correspondence with
'thirteen spirit' or 'thirteen image' of the Zapotecs is striking. There is
also the curious fact that Ndozin is specified as a god of justice and of
62
death, while Kedo, god of justice, is equated with Aztec Mictlantecuhtli, the
death god. It looks as if there may have been some confusion and change here.
The Zapotec Kedo could easily be a borrowing from Hindu Ketu. Given the
general context, I have wondered if the latter might not be a borrowing from
Greek Cetos, sea-monster, whale. It may be relevant that Maya itzam was a term
applied not only to lizards but also to whales (Thompson, 1972:21). It will
be noted that the proposed association of the G9 glyphs of the Maya series with
eclipses is strongly supported by the Asian context. The structural equation
of Aztec Xiuhtecuhtli with this day is, I think, brought about by a displace-
ment of Piltzintecuhtli, 'Lord noble prince' into third position. Piltzin-
tecuhtli is usually identified with Tonatiuh, the Sun god.
The parallel between Jupiter, Ndan and Chalchihuitlicue is a difficult
one to appraise. It is disconcerting to find that Sukra, the ruler of the
planet Jupiter is a name applied to "the planet Venus and its regent" (Dowson,
/
1961:307) although as the author of a code of laws, Sukra has some similarity
to Jupiter of the Romans. According to Bhattacharyya (2nd ed., 1958:368), the
Buddhists recognized Brhaspati, the usual name of Jupiter, in the sequence of
Nine Gods and depicted him seated on a frog. He was a priest and teacher of
the gods, and had "thunder for his voice" (Dowson, 1961:63-4). The traits
rather suggest Jupiter Pluvius, or Jupiter as rain god, and the parallel with
water holds for Ndan and Chalchihuitlicue. Moreover, the latter is actually
said to appear in frog form (Mackenzie, n.d.:252). Nonetheless, one would
rather have expected an equation with Tlaloc/Chac.
The shield glyph of G3 of the Maya series is a regular Mesoamerican
symbol of war (Kelley, 1965:99) and corresponds appropriately with Mars, who
is normally called Karttikeya, foster-child of Krtikka, the Pleiades, and who
was the Hindu war-god. His equation with the corn god may be due to dis-
placement, although there are several other possible explanations which would
require a lengthy digression. It may, however, be pointed out that Dubdo and
Beydo are both sons of Mbaz as Earth Goddess and probably represent the Twin
Gods one of whom is often a war god.
63
The equation of Gi, if correctly identified both as Ah Bolon Tzacab
and as God K, with Sun as first of the Hindu series is entirely reasonable,
for Ah Bolon Tzacab's sun god affinities have already been mentioned. I
have previously pointed out that there are strong parallels with the ser-
pent-footed representations of Jahweh of the Hellenistic period, when he
was equated with the sun god (Moran and Kelley, 1969:161-2). I did not at
that time know that a serpent-footed god also appears on the coins of Kapisa
(Tarn, 1966:333), in the heart of the area which I think is involved in the
contacts with the Mesoamerican area. I now think that Xiuhtecuhtli, year-
lord, and Lord of Fire, first of the Nine Lords of the Night of the Aztec
sequence is to be directly equated with Agni, 'fire', the god who ruled the
Sun in the Hindu sequence and that he was displaced from this alignment.
However, the second Lord of the Night is Itztli, and this shows that there
are some unresolved problems in this interpretation. Vaillant (1941'184)
follows Seler in listing Itztli as a surrogate of Tezcatlipoca, in the guise
of the sacrificial knife. He also says that Metztli, 'moon', is sometimes
identified with Tezcatlipoca. All of this would equate him nicely with Moon,
second of the Hindu series. However, Tezcatlipoca lost a foot and this foot
was sometimes replaced by a mirror (in accordance with his name, 'Smoking
Mirror') but sometimes with a serpent, which seems to equate him with Ah
Bolon Tzacab rather than the Moon. These difficulties underline the fact
that a simplistic equation of various series of names is very far from solv-
ing all problems of interpretation.
Despite the problems which remain, I feel that the Indian evidence
throws a Treat deal of light on the Mesoamerican sequences and strongly
indicates that the list of nine planets was borrowed from India. This
raises major problems of chronology and has important implications for the
history of science both in India and Mesoamerica. The attempt to recognize
the correct sequence of planets in distance from the earth was an important
astronomical study of the fourth to second centuries B.C. It may be pointed
out that with a geocentric hypothesis the order of Sun, Mercury and Venus is
particularly puzzling since any of them may pass in front of the others.
The order Moon, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars was a preferred order to the second
century B.C., when the improved but still incorrect order Moon, Mercury,
Venus, Sun became normal (Kuhn, 1959:54). From this order, the sequence of
days of the week is determined by dividing the day into 24 hours and arbi-
trarily assigning each successive hour to a different planet, in descending
order. By the 21st hour, the entire sequence has repeated three times and
the remaining three hours shift through the sequence by that much. Hence the
day-name order of Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn is
dependent on a particular incorrect planetary sequence, on counting in des-
cending order and on a use of a 24-hour day (Neugebauer, 1962:169-170). The
Hindu nine-day week which uses the same sequence is apparently an unintelligent
borrowing in which the two planets were simply added on without understanding
that this ruined the entire mathematical basis of the system. The 'planets'
Rahu and Ketu imply an interest in eclipses but leave uncertain how much was
known about them.
The conceptual basis of the varying schemes of layers of heavens and
underworlds warrants an extended study. Here it is worth pointing out that
Thompson (1950:89) associates the number 1 with the Moon, 4 with the Sun and
7 with the Jaguar god, whom I have equated with Saturn. This puts all of
these in their correct sequential positions and is enough to strongly suggest
that the layered heavens, like the Nine Lords of the Night, originated in
science, however they may have been affected by theology. The fact that Sun
is in fourth position, rather than second, strongly suggests that the scheme
post-dates the second century B.C. in its origin. This Asian material is now
beginning to put strong limits on the Maya correlation problem. Neither the
scientific nor the chronological implications have been dealt with adequately
in this paper but the usefulness of the Asian materials for Mayan studies
should now be apparent.
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